Chemical Bonding

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 Ions
Ions form when atoms lose or gain electrons.
Atoms with few valence electrons tend to lose
them to form cations.
Atoms with many valence electrons tend to gain
electrons to form anions

Na Mg N O F Ne

Na+ Mg2+ N3- O2- F-

Cations Anions
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 Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonds result from the attractions
between positive and negative ions.
Ionic bonding involves 3 aspects:
1. loss of an electron(s) by one element (metal)
2. gain of electron(s) by a second element
(nonmetal)
3. attraction between positive and negative

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 Ionic Bonding Example: Na and Cl
In ionic bonding one atom has a stronger
attraction for electrons than the other, and
“steals” an electron from a second atom

1) e– 2)

Na Cl
3)

Na + Cl–
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 Stable Octet Rule
 Atoms tend to either gain or lose
electrons in their highest energy level to
form ions
 Atoms prefer having 8 electrons in their
highest energy level
Examples
Na atom 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 One electron extra
Cl atom 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 One electron short of a stable octet

Na+ Ion 1s2 2s2 2p6 Stable octet

Cl- Ion 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 Stable octet

Positive ions attract negative ions forming ionic

bonds.
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 Ionic Bonding
Ionic substances are made of repeating arrays of
positive and negative ions.

An ionic crystal lattice

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 Ionic Bonding
The array is repeated over and over to form the
crystal lattice.

Model of a
Sodium
chloride
crystal
Each Na+ ion is surrounded by 6 other Cl- ions. Each Cl-
ion is surroundedby 6 other Na+ ions

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 Ionic Bonding
 The shape and form of the crystal
lattice depend on several factors:
• The size of the ions
• The charges of the ions
• The relative numbers of
positive and negative ions

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 Strength of ionic Bonds
 The strength of an ionic bond is determined
by the charges of the ions and the distance
between them.
 The larger the charges and the smaller the
ions the stronger the bonds will be
 Bond strength then is proportional to
Q1 x Q 2
r2
Where Q1 and Q2 represent ion charges
and r is the sum of the ionic radii.
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 Characteristics of ionic bonds
1. Crystalline at room
temperatures
2. Higher melting points
and boiling points
than covalent
compounds
3. Conduct electrical
current in molten or
solution state but not
in the solid state
4. Polar bonds
5. More soluble in polar
solvents such as
water

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Covalent Bonds

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 Covalent Bonding
 Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons
 Covalent bonds are most likely to form between two
nonmetals

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 Covalent Bonding
 A covalent bond exists where groups of atoms (or
molecules) share 1 or more pairs of electrons.

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 Coordinate Covalent Bonds
 Coordinate covalent bonds occur when one
atom donates both of the electrons that are
shared between two atoms
 Coordinate covalent
bonds are also called
Dative Bonds

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Bond length and Bond strength
 Themore pairs of e shared, stronger the
bond and shorter the bond length.

0.124 nm

0.143 nm
 Electronegativities and Bond Type

The type of bond or degree of polarity can usually be

calculated by finding the difference in electronegativity of the
two atoms that form the bond.
 The Rule of 1.7
 Used to determine if a bond is ionic or covalent
 Ionic and covalent are not separate things but
differences in degree
 Atoms that have electronegativity differences greater
than 1.7 usually form ionic bonds. i.e NaCl
 Atoms that have electronegativity differences less
than 1.7 form polar covalent bonds. i.e H2O
 The smaller the electronegativity difference the less
polar the bond will be.
 If the difference is zero the bond is totally covalent.
i.e. Cl2.

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 Polarity
 Molecular Polarity depends on the relative
electronegativities of the atoms in the molecule.

 When there is a single bond between 2 atoms of the

same element, then electron pair will be shared on
average equally between the 2 atoms. Bond will be
non polar.

 If the bond is between different atoms, there will be

different attractive forces on the electron pair. This
results in a polar bond, with two small charges. δ+
and δ-

 Polarity also depends on the shape of the molecule.

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Electrostatic potential
Dipoles in symmetric molecules

Dipoles cancel to give nonpolar molecules

Dipoles in non-symmetric
molecules

Dipoles don’t cancel to give polar molecules

 Polarity
 Molecules that contain polar covalent bonds
may or may not be polar molecules.
 The polarity of a molecule is determined by
measuring the dipole moment.
 This depends on two factors:
1. The shape of the molecule
2. Difference in electronegativity b/w the atoms in the
molecule.

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Chemical Bonding and VSEPR

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Valence Shell Electron Pair
Repulsion
 Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
(VSEPR) theory can be used to predict the
geometric shapes of molecules.
 VSEPR revolves around the principle that
electrons repel each other.
 One can predict the shape of a molecule
by finding a pattern where electron pairs
are as far from each other as possible.

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 Basic Idea
2 pairs of electrons

3 pairs of electrons

4 pairs of electrons

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 Bonding Electrons and Lone
Pairs
 Electrons shared between
atoms to form covalent
bonds are called bonding
electrons.
 Electrons not be shared with
other atoms are called non-
bonding electrons or they
are often referred to as lone
pairs.

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 VSEPR: Predicting the shape

 For VSEPR, multiple bonds count as just

one
 Non-bonding pairs exert greater repulsion
than bonding pairs

Electron domain=region of shared pair of

electrons around central atom
Electron domain=lone pairs + atoms
attached
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 Two electron domains

Only 2 pairs of
electrons around
central atoms (or
multiple bonds)

Examples:
Cl-Be-Cl
H-C ≡ C-H
H-C ≡ N
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 Three electron domains

Triangular planar
molecules have
three regions of
electron density.

All are occupied by

other atoms

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 Three electron domains

Angular or bent
molecules have
at least 3 regions
of electron
density, but only
two are occupied

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3 electron domains
 Four electron domains

Tetrahedral
molecules have
four regions of
electron density.
All are occupied
by other atoms

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4 electron domains
Molecular geometry with 2,3 and 4 electron
domains
 Violations of the Octet Rule
Violations of the octet rule usually
occur with B and elements of higher
periods. Some common examples
include: Be, B, P, S, I and Xe.

Be: 4
B: 6
P: 8 OR 10
S: 8, 10, OR 12
I: 8, 10, OR 12
Xe: 8, 10, OR 12
SF44
BF33
 Five electron domains
A few molecules
have expanded
valence shells
around the central
atom. Hence there
are five pairs of
valence electrons.

The structure is
called trigonal
bipyramid.

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Molecules 5 electron domains
 Six electron domains
A few molecules
have valence shells
around the central
atom that are
expanded to as
many as six pairs or
twelve electrons.

These shapes are

known as
octahedrons
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Molecules with 6 electron domains
 Molecular
geometry with
5 and 6
electron
domains
43
 Formal charge (FC)
 useful tool to compare possible Lewis structures.
 You calculate FC for each atom in molecule
 The criteria to choose the most stable structure
is :
 Structure with lowest difference in formal charge
 Structure with negative values for FC on the most
electronegative atom

 Ex: SO2
 Sulfur Dioxide
 Let’stake a look at SO2, sulfur dioxide.
Knowing that sulfur can sometimes
expand its octet, we can draw the Lewis
Dot structure two ways:

Way 1

Way 2 Which one is correct?

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 Formal Charge
 Formal charge treats each covalent bond as an equal electron
distribution with each atom “owning” 1 of the electrons in the bond.
 Each atom also “owns” every electron that is in a lone pair around it
 To calculate FC we count how many electrons each atom “owns”
and compare that to the original number of valence electrons it
started with;
 We calculate FC of an atom as original valence e minus the ones it
owns when bonded
 it is generally more favorable if those numbers are the same

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Looking Back at SO2

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 SO2
 We can conclude that structure (ii) where all atoms have a
formal charge of zero is the most stable structure for SO2.

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Which of the 2 structures is preferred?

A B
 Types of bonds
 Atomic orbitals overlap to form 2 types of covalent bonds:
sigma (σ) and pi (π)
 When one atomic orbital overlaps with another atomic
overlap they form a new molecular orbital
 When 2 atomic orbitals overlap along bond axis, we have
sigma bond, “end to end”
 When 2 p orbitals overlap sideways, they form pi bond, giving
a molecular orbital whose lectron density is concentrated in 2
regions, with a plane of zerio electron density along its axis.
 Hybridization
Combination of orbitals within atoms to form a new orbital
of intermediate energy
Orientation of hybrid orbitals
Bonding in Methane
Bonding in
Ethene
Bonding in Ethene
Bonding in ethyne
Formation of triple bond
 Bonds
Single bond 1 sigma
Double bond 1 sigma + 1 pi
Triple bond 1 sigma + 2 pi
Relationship between hybridization and
shape

Number Electron Domain Molecular Hybridization

of geometry geometry
Electron
Domains
2 Linear Linear Sp
3 Trigonal planar Trigonal planar Sp2
Bent 118°
4 Tetrahedral Tetrahedral Sp3
Pyramidal
Bent 105°
 Questions
 State type of hybridization in each C atom
a. H2CCCH2
b. H3CCHCHCH3
c. HCl2CCH2CHCH2
 State type of hybridization in each N atom
a. H2NNH2
b. NO3-
c. HCN
 Identify and state number of σ and π bonds in:
a. H2CCHCl
b. H3CCH2CHCH2
c. H3CCCCH3
 Questions
 Identifyand state number of σ and π bonds in
H2CC(CH3)CHCH2
 State type of hybridization of each N atom in N2, N2H2,
N2H4
 Referring to CH3CHCH2
 Identify σ and π bonds
 Discuss length and strength of C to C bonds
 Types of hybridization in C atoms
Benzene
 Bonding in benzene
Delocalization of electrons
Properties of structures with delocalized
electrons
 Intermediate bond lengths and stregnths
 Greater stability: this is because
delocalizarion spreads electrons as far as
possible and minimizes repulsion b/w them.
This makes molecule much less chemically
reactive
 Electrical conductivity like in metals and
graphite
Some examples of other resonance
structures
 Intermolecular Forces
 Van der Waals:
 London Forces (AKA dispersion forces, temporary dipoles)
Because of random orbiting of electrons around nucleus,
temporary diploe could be generated, resulting in instantaneous
attractions between positive charge δ+ of one molecule and δ-
of the other.
These forces are affected by number of electrons, so it is linked to
molecular mass, as greater mass of atoms means greater
number of electrons.

 Dipole-dipole forces
They exist between molecules with permanent dipole moment.

 Hydrogen bonding (H-bonding refers to attraction between lone

pair on F, O or N and hydrogen that is covalently bonded to F, O or N. Is
there any H that is bonded to F, O or N in CH3F?)
Giant Structures
 Covalent Network Solids
 Network solids have repeating
network of Covalent bonds that
extends throughout the solid
forming the equivalent of one
enormous molecule.
 Such solids are hard and rigid
and have high melting points.
 Diamond is the most well-
known example of a network
solid. It consists of repeating
tetrahedrally bonded carbon Network structure
atoms.
for diamond

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 Allotropes
 Carbon actually
has several
different molecular
structures. C60
 These very
different chemical
structures of the
Graphite
same element are
known as
allotropes.
 Oxygen, sulfur,
and phosphorous Buckminster
all have multiple Diamond
Fullerene
molecular
structures. 78
Carbon allotropes
 SiO2 structure
(also known as silica)

This is based on a diamond structure with each of the silicon atoms

being bridged to its other four neighbours via an oxygen atom.
This means that silicon dioxide is a giant covalent structure. The
strong bonds in three dimensions make it a hard, high melting point
solid.
Metallic Bonding

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 Metallic Bonding
A metallic bond occurs
in metals. A metal Characteristics of a
consists of positive ions Metallic Bond.
surrounded by a “sea” 1. Good conductors
of mobile electrons. of heat and
electricity
2. Great strength
3. Malleable and
Ductile
4. Luster
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Metallic Bonding

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 Metallic Bonding
 All the atoms in metallic bonds are alike. They all
have diffuse electron densities. They are similar to
the cations in ionic bonds.

 metallic atoms give up their valence electrons, but

instead of giving the electrons to some other
specific atom, they are redistributed to all, and are
shared by all.

 The model is called "electron gas".

 Eg. Na metal. 1s22s22p63s1. Each Na atom gives up
its 3s1 electrons. We end up with an array of positive
ions in a sea of negatively charged space.
 The electron gas behaves like the glue.
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