THE GREAT

AMERICAN
CIVILIZATION
AZTECS, MAYAN AND INCA CIVILIZATION

BY-ROSHNI.S.A, XI H
 Aztec Empire
Timeline
1100 - The Aztecs leave their homeland of Aztlan in northern Mexico and begin their journey south.
Over the next 225 years the Aztecs will move many times until they finally settle down at the city of
Tenochtitlan.

1200 - The Aztecs arrive in the Valley of Mexico.

1250 - They settle in Chapultepec, but are forced to leave by the Culhuacan tribe.

1325 - The city of Tenochtitlan is founded. It will become the capital of the Aztec Empire. The location is
picked by the priests because it is where they see the foretold sign of an eagle holding a snake while
standing on a cactus.

1350 - The Aztecs begin to build causeways and canals around Tenochtitlan.

1375 - The first dominant ruler of the Aztecs, Acamapichtli, comes into power. They call their ruler the
Tlatoani which means "speaker".

1427 - Itzcoatl becomes the fourth ruler of the Aztecs. He will found the Aztec Empire.

1428 - The Aztec Empire is formed with a triple alliance between the Aztecs, the Texcocans, and the
Tacubans. The Aztecs defeat the Tepanecs.

1440 - Montezuma I becomes the fifth leader of the Aztecs. His rule will mark the height of the Aztec
Empire.

1440 to 1469 - Montezuma I rules and greatly expands the empire.

1452 - The city of Tenochtitlan is damaged by a great flood. The next few years are filled with famine
and starvation.

1487 - The Templo Mayor (Great Temple of Tenochtitlan) is finished. It is dedicated to the gods with
thousands of human sacrifices.

1502 - Montezuma II becomes ruler of the Aztec Empire. He is the ninth of the Aztec kings.

1517 - The Aztec priests mark the sighting of a comet in the night sky. They believe the comet was a sign
of impending doom.

1519 - Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes arrives in Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs treat him as an honored
guest, but Cortez takes Montezuma II prisoner. Cortez is driven from the city, but Montezuma II is killed.

1520 - Cuauhtémoc becomes the tenth emperor of the Aztecs.

1520 - Cortes forms an alliance with the Tlaxcala and begins to attack the Aztecs.

1521 - Cortes defeats the Aztecs and takes over the city of Tenochtitlan.

1522 - The Spanish begin to rebuild the city of Tenochtitlan. It will be called Mexico City and will be the
capital of New Spain.

Aztec Empire - Daily Life

Life for the typical person living in the Aztec Empire was hard work. As in many ancient societies the rich
were able to live luxurious lives, but the common people had to work very hard.

Family Life

The family structure was important to the Aztecs. The husband generally worked on a job outside of the
home as a farmer, warrior, or craftsman. The wife worked at home cooking food for the family and
weaving cloth for the family's clothes. Kids attended schools or worked to help out around the house.

What type of homes did they live in?

Wealthy people lived in homes made of stone or sun-dried brick. The king of the Aztecs lived in a large
palace with many rooms and gardens. All of the wealthy had a separate bathing room that was similar to
a sauna or steam room. Bathing was an important part of the Aztec daily life. Poor people lived in
smaller one or two room huts that had thatched roofs made from palm leaves. They had gardens near
their homes where they would grow vegetables and flowers. Inside the house, there were four main
areas. One area was where the family would sleep, generally on mats on the floor. Other areas included
a cooking area, an eating area, and a place for shrines to the gods.

What did the Aztecs wear for clothes? The Aztec men wore loincloths and long capes. The women
wore long skirts and blouses. Poor people generally wove their own cloth and made their own clothing.
It was the responsibility of the wife to make the clothes. There were rules in Aztec society regarding
clothing. These included detailed laws specifying what clothing decorations and color different classes of
people could wear. For example, only nobles could wear clothing decorated with feathers and only the
emperor could wear a turquoise colored cloak.

What did they eat?

The main staple of the Aztec diet was maize (similar to corn). They ground the maize into flour to make
tortillas. Other important staples were beans and squash. Besides these three main staples the Aztecs
ate a variety of foods including insects, fish, honey, dogs, and snakes. Perhaps the most valued food was
the cocoa bean used to make chocolate.

Did they go to school?

All Aztec children were required by law to attend school. This even included slaves and girls, which was
unique for this time in history. When they were young, children were taught by their parents, but when
they reached their teens they attended school. Boys and girls went to separate schools. Girls learned
about religion including ritual songs and dancing. They also learned how to cook and make clothing.
Boys usually learned how to farm or learned a craft such as pottery or feather-work. They also learned
about religion and how to fight as warriors. Aztec children were instructed early in life about manners
and correct behavior. It was important to the Aztecs that children did not complain, did not make fun of
the old or sick, and did not interrupt. Punishment for breaking the rules was severe.

Marriage

Most Aztec men got married around the age of 20. They typically did not choose their wives. Weddings
were arranged by matchmakers. Once the matchmaker chose two people to be married, the families
would both need to agree. Games The Aztecs enjoyed playing games. One of the most popular games
was a board game called Patolli. Just like with many board games today, players would move their
pieces around a board by rolling dice. Another popular game was Ullamalitzli. This was a ball game
played with a rubber ball on a court. Players had to pass the ball around using their hips, shoulders,
heads, and knees. Some historians believe the game was used in preparation for war.

Interesting Facts about Aztec Daily Life

# The elderly members of the family were well taken care of and respected in Aztec society.

# The punishment for breaking a law regarding clothing was often death.

# The word chocolate comes from the Aztec word "chocolatl".

# The name for the ball game Ullamalitzli comes from the Aztec word "ulli" which means "rubber".

# The sons of nobles went to a separate school where they learned advanced subjects such as law,
writing, and engineering. The students at these schools were actually treated rougher than at the
commoners' schools.

# Slaves were generally treated well and could buy their way out of slavery.

Aztec Empire Government and Empire

The Aztec Empire was made up of city-states. At the center of each city-state was a large city that ruled
the area. For the most part, the Aztec Emperor did not interfere with the ruling of the city-states. What
he required was that each city-state paid him a tribute. As long as the tribute was paid, the city-state
remained somewhat independent of Aztec rule.

The Emperor or Huey Tlatoani

The Aztec government was similar to a monarchy where an Emperor or King was the primary ruler. They
called their ruler the Huey Tlatoani. The Huey Tlatoani was the ultimate power in the land. They felt that
he was appointed by the gods and had the divine right to rule. He decided when to go to war and what
tribute the lands he ruled would pay the Aztecs. When an emperor died, the new emperor was chosen
by a group of high ranking nobles. Usually the new emperor was a relative of the previous emperor, but
it wasn't always his son. Sometimes they chose a brother who they felt would be a good leader.

Aztec Emperors

Here are a few of the more famous Aztec Emperors or Huey Tlatoani:

Acamapichtli - The first emperor of the Aztecs, he ruled for 19 years starting in 1375.

Itzcoatl - The fourth emperor of the Aztecs, he conquered the Tepanecs and founded the Triple Alliance.

Montezuma I - Under Montezuma I the Aztecs became the dominant power of the Triple Alliance and
the empire was expanded.

Montezuma II - The ninth emperor of the Aztecs, Montezuma II was the leader when Cortez and the
Spanish arrived. He had expanded the empire to its greatest size, but was killed by the Spanish.

Other Officials

The second in command of the Aztec government was the Cihuacoatl. The Cihuacoatl was in charge of
running the government on a day to day basis. He had thousands of officials and civil servants who
worked under him and kept the government and the empire running smoothly. There was also the
Council of Four. These were powerful men and generals of the army who were first in line to become
the next emperor. They gave advice to the emperor and it was important that he had their agreement in
major decisions. Other important officials in the government included the priests who oversaw the
religious aspects of the city, the judges who ran the court system, and the military leaders.

Law

The Aztecs had a fairly sophisticated code of law. There were numerous laws including laws against
stealing, murder, drunkenness, and property damage. A system of courts and judges determined guilt
and punishments. They had different levels of courts all the way up to a supreme court. Citizens could
appeal rulings to a higher court if they did not agree with the judge. One interesting part of the law was
the "one time forgiveness law". Under this law, a citizen could confess a crime to a priest and they
would be forgiven. This only worked if they confessed the crime prior to being caught. It also could only
be used once.

Tenochtitlan The center of the Aztec government was the capital city of Tenochtitlan. This was where
the emperor as well as the majority of the nobles lived. At its peak under Montezuma II, Tenochtitlan is
thought to have had a population of 200,000 people.

Interesting Facts about Aztec Government

 # Huey Tlatoani meant "Great Speaker". The leader of other lesser cities was called the Tlatoani of that
city.

# Cihuacoatl meant "Female Snake" even though the office was always held by a man.

# The priests were also responsible for running the schools.

# When a new emperor came into power he had to spend four days fasting, meditating, and worshiping
the gods.

# The punishments for breaking a law were severe with death being a common punishment. Other
punishments included having your head shaved or being sold into slavery.

Aztec Empire Religion, Gods, and Mythology

The Aztecs worshiped many gods. When they took over a new tribe or culture they often adopted the
new tribe's gods into the Aztec religion.

The Sun

One of the most important aspects of Aztec religion was the sun. The Aztecs called themselves the
"People of the Sun". They felt that in order for the sun to rise each day the Aztecs needed to perform
rituals and sacrifices to give the sun strength.

Main Gods

Despite worshiping many gods, there were certain gods that the Aztecs considered more important and
powerful than the others. The most important god to the Aztecs was Huitzilopochtli. Here are some of
the most important gods to the Aztecs.

*Huitzilopochtli - The most fearsome and powerful of the Aztec gods, Huitzilopochtli was the god of war,
the sun, and sacrifice. He was also the patron god of the Aztec capital city of Tenochtitlan. The Great
Temple in the center of the city was built in honor of Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc. His name is thought to
mean "left-handed hummingbird". He was often drawn with feathers and holding a scepter made from a
snake.

*Tlaloc - Tlaloc was the god of rain and water. While Tlaloc helped the Aztecs much of the time by
sending rain and causing plants to grow, he also could get angry and send thunder storms and hail.
Tlaloc was worshiped at the Great Temple in the city of Tenochtitlan and also at the top of a tall
mountain named Mount Tlaloc. He was often drawn with fangs and big goggle-like eyes.

*Quetzalcoatl - Quetzalcoatl was the god of life and wind. His name means "feathered serpent" and he
was usually drawn as a serpent which could fly, very much like a dragon. When Cortez first arrived at the
Aztecs, many thought that he was the god Quetzalcoatl in human flesh.
 *Tezcatlipoca - Tezcatlipoca was a powerful god associated with many things including magic, the night,
and the earth. He was a rival god to Quetzalcoatl. According to Aztec mythology, he was the first god to
create the sun and the earth, but was struck down by Quetzalcoatl and turned into a jaguar. There was a
large temple built to him in the city of Tenochtitlan just south of the Great Temple. His name meant
"smoking mirror".

*Chicomecoatl - Chicomecoatl was the Aztec goddess of agriculture, nourishment, and corn. She was
often drawn as a young girl carrying flowers or a woman using the sun as a shield. Her name meant
"seven snakes".

Priests

The Priests were responsible for making sure that the gods were offered the correct offerings and
sacrifices. They had to perform all sorts of ceremonies in the temples to make sure that the gods were
not angry with the Aztecs. Priests had to undergo extensive training. They were well-respected and
powerful in the Aztec society.

Human Sacrifice

The Aztecs believed that the sun needed the blood of human sacrifice in order to rise each day. They
performed thousands of human sacrifices. Some historians think that more than 20,000 people were
killed when the Great Temple was first dedicated in 1487.

The Afterlife

The Aztecs believed in a number of levels of heaven and the underworld. Depending on how you died
would determine where you went. Those who died in battle would go to the top level of heaven. Those
who drowned would go to the underworld.

Interesting Facts about the Aztec Religion, Gods, and Mythology

# Sometimes people were selected to impersonate the gods. They would dress like the gods and then
act out stories from the Aztec mythology.

# The Aztec calendar played an important role in their religion. They held a number of religious
ceremonies and festivals throughout the year

# The largest of the Aztec festivals was the Xiuhmolpilli, which meant "new fire". It was held once every
52 years in order to prevent the world coming to an end.

# The Aztecs often went to war in order to take captives that they could use in their sacrifices.

# The Aztecs believed they were living under the fifth, or final, sun. They feared the day when the fifth
sun would die and the world would come to an end.

Aztec Empire Writing and Technology

When the Spanish arrived in Mexico, the Aztecs had not yet developed iron or bronze metals. Their tools
were made from bone, stone, and obsidian. They also did not use beasts of burden or the wheel.
However, despite their lack of these basic technologies, the Aztecs had a fairly developed society. They
also had some writing and technology of their own.

Aztec Language

The Aztecs spoke the language Nahuatl. It is still used to today in some parts of Mexico. Some English
words come from Nahuatl including coyote, avocado, chili, and chocolate.

Aztec Writing

The Aztecs wrote using symbols called glyphs or pictographs. They didn't have an alphabet, but used
pictures to represent events, items, or sounds. Only the priests knew how to read and write. They would
write on long sheets made of animal skins or plant fibers. An Aztec book is called a codex. Most of the
codices were burned or destroyed, but a few survived and archeologists have been able to learn a lot
about Aztec life from them.

Aztec Calendar

One of the most famous aspects of Aztec technology was their use of calendars. The Aztecs used two
calendars. One calendar was used for tracking religious ceremonies and festivals. This calendar was
called the tonalpohualli which means "day count". It was sacred to the Aztecs and was very important as
it divided time equally among the various gods and kept the universe in balance. The calendar had 260
days. Each day was represented by a combination of 21 day signs and thirteen day signs. The other
calendar was used to track time. This calendar was called the Xiuhpohualli or "solar year". It had 365
days divided up into 18 months of 20 days each. There were 5 days left over that were considered
unlucky days. Every 52 years the two calendars would start on the same day. The Aztecs were afraid that
the world would end on this day. They performed the New Fire Ceremony on this day.

Agriculture

The Aztecs used agriculture to grow food such as maize, beans, and squash. One innovative technique
they used in swampy areas was called the chinampa. A chinampa was an artificial island that the Aztecs
built up in the lake. They built many chinampas and used these manmade islands to plant crops. The
chinampas worked well for crops because the soil was fertile and the crops had plenty of water to grow.

Aqueducts

A major part of Aztec culture was bathing at least once per day. They needed fresh water in the city to
do this. At the capital city of Tenochtitlan the Aztecs built two large aqueducts that carried fresh water
from springs located over two and a half miles away.

Medicine
The Aztecs believed that illness could come from natural causes as well as supernatural causes (the
gods). They used a wide variety of herbs to cure sickness. One of the main cures doctors suggested was
steam baths. They thought that by sweating, the poisons making the person sick would leave their body.

Interesting Facts about Aztec Writing and Technology

# Aztec codices were made from one long sheet of paper that was folded like an accordion. Many of the
codices were over 10 meters long.

# The chinampa farms were often called floating gardens as they appeared to float on top of the lake.
They were built in rectangles and the farmers would travel between the fields in canoes.

# The Aztecs used canoes for transport and carrying goods around the waterways of the Valley of
Mexico.

# Aztec doctors would use splints to help support broken bones while they healed.

# The Aztecs introduced the world to two of our favorite foods: popcorn and chocolate!

# One of the innovations the Aztecs had before much of the rest of the world was mandatory education
for all. Everyone, boys and girls, rich and poor, were required by law to attend school.

Aztec Empire Society

The Aztec Family

The basic unit of Aztec society was the family. The family was very important to the Aztecs and marriage
was considered sacred. Men could marry more than one wife, but there was usually a primary wife who
was in charge of the household. Marriages were arranged by matchmakers.

Calpulli Families belonged to a larger group called the calpulli. Families and individuals did not own land
in Aztec society, the calpulli did. A calpulli was like a clan or small tribe. Many of the families in a calpulli
were related to each other. Calpullis had a chief, a local school, and often had a trade in which they
specialized.

City-state

Above the calpulli was the city-state, also called the Altepetl. The city-state included a large city and its
surrounding areas. The largest city-state and capital of the Aztec Empire was Tenochtitlan. Other city-
states in the Aztec Empire had to pay tribute to the emperor who lived in Tenochtitlan.

Social Classes

There were different social classes within Aztec society. At the very top of society was the king along
with his family. The king was called the Huey Tlatcani and he was very powerful.
* Tecuhtli - Just below the emperor, who ruled the capital Tenochtitlan, were the rulers of the other
city-states. They were very wealthy and lived in large palaces within their cities. They had complete
power over their cities as long as they paid tribute to the emperor.

*Pipiltin - Below the Tecuhtli were the pipiltin or the noble class. Only the noble class could wear certain
types of clothes and jewelry such as feathers and gold. The pipiltin held the high ranking positions in the
priesthood, the army, and the government. They formed the city council which helped to rule the city-
states. The king was always chosen from the pipiltin.

*Pochteca - There was a special class of Aztec merchants called pochteca. They were treated like the
nobility in society because their jobs were considered very important to the Aztec Empire. The pochteca
traveled long distances in order to bring back luxury goods that were treasured by the nobility.

*Macehualtin - The common people in Aztec society were called the macehualtin. This included the
farmers, warriors, and craftsmen. Later on in the history of the Aztecs, craftsmen and warriors began to
have a higher position in society than the farmers.

*Slaves - At the bottom of Aztec society were the slaves. In Aztec society, the children of slaves were not
slaves. Aztec people became slaves by selling themselves into slavery to pay for debts or as punishment
for crimes. The slaves had certain rights. They were not to be mistreated by their owners, they could buy
their freedom, and they could not be sold by their masters unless they agreed.

Interesting Facts about Aztec Society

# In the Nahuatl language calpulli meant "big house".

# The Aztec nobility, or pipiltin, claimed that they were direct descendents from the legendary Toltec
people.

# The merchants had their own patron god named Yacetecuhtli who they believed watched over them
and kept them safe on their journeys.

# Two common ways to move up in the ranks of society were through the priesthood or through the
military.

# Slaves who escaped their masters and made it to the royal palace would be set free.

# Slaves could have possessions including other slaves.

#The traveling merchants were often employed by the Aztec government as spies.

# Although the merchants were allowed to be rich, they were not allowed to dress as the nobility. They
had to dress as the commoners.

Aztec Empire Tenochtitlan

Tenochtitlan was the capital city and center of the Aztec Empire. It was founded in 1325 and served as
the capital until the Aztecs were conquered by Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes in 1520.

Where was it located?

Tenochtitlan was located on a swampy island in Lake Texcoco in what is today south central Mexico.
The Aztecs were able to settle there because no one else wanted the land. At first, it wasn't a great place
to start a city, but soon the Aztecs built up islands where they could grow crops. The water also worked
as a natural defense against attacks from other cities.

Causeways and Canals

Early on in the history of the city the Aztecs built causeways and canals for transportation to and from
the city. A causeway is a raised road that allowed the people to easily travel over the swampy and wet
areas. There were three major causeways that led from the island city to the mainland. There were also
bridges built into the causeways that allowed small boats and canoes to travel under them. These
bridges could be removed when the city was being attacked. The Aztecs also built many canals
throughout the city. The canals acted like water roads that allowed people to easily travel around the
large city in boats. The city was well planned and laid out in a grid that made traveling around the city
easy.

City Center

At the center of the city there was a large area where many of the public activities took place. The
temples to the Aztec gods were built here as well as a court where they played a ballgame called Ullama.
The largest temple was a pyramid called the Templo Mayor. It was the tallest building in the city in order
to be closest to the gods. Other buildings in the city center included the priests' quarters, schools, plus a
rack of human skulls called the Tzompantli.

Marketplace

There were markets throughout the city where people would trade goods and food. There was one main
marketplace where up to 40,000 people would visit during feast days to buy goods and food for
celebrations.

Why did the Aztecs settle on a swampy island?

When the Aztecs were driven from their valley home by the Culhuacan they needed a new place to stay.
The priests said they had a sign from the gods. The Aztecs should settle where they saw an eagle holding
a snake while standing on a cactus. They saw this sign on a marshy island in the lake and began to build
a new town on the spot.

How big was it?

Tenochtitlan was a large city that covered around 5 square miles. Some historians estimate that nearly
200,000 people lived in the city during its peak.
Is it still there today?

Most of the Tenochtitlan's buildings were destroyed by the Spanish and Hernan Cortes. The current
capital of Mexico, Mexico City, is located at the same location. Archeologists have uncovered the ruins
of Tenochtitlan near the center of Mexico City.

Interesting Facts about Tenochtitlan

# There were two aqueducts over 2.5 miles long leading into the city that provided fresh water to the
people living there.

# Large crowds of as many as 8,000 people would sometimes gather in the central area.

# The city was divided into four zones and twenty districts.

# The Aztec Emperors built their palaces near the temple district. They were large stone structures with
as many as 50 rooms as well as their own gardens and ponds.

# The Aztecs built a 10 mile long dike that sealed off a portion of the lake. It helped keep the water fresh
and protected the city from flooding.

Aztec Empire Spanish Conquest

Between 1519 and 1521 the Spanish, under the leadership of conquistador Hernan Cortés, conquered
the Aztec Empire.

Bad Omens

During the reign of King Montezuma II, the Aztecs had seen several bad omens. According to Aztec
religion, these omens meant that something bad was going to happen. There were eight bad omens that
were recorded later by a Spanish missionary.

*Fire in the sky

*The temple of Huitzilopochtli burned down

*A lightning bolt struck one of their temples

*They saw fire across the waters

*A lake appeared to be boiling

*They heard the sound of a weeping woman at night

*A strange animal was caught by some fishermen

*A two headed man was seen

Arrival of Hernan Cortés in Mesoamerica

 Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortés and his men landed on the Mexican coast on April of 1519.
Montezuma II sent Cortés gifts of gold and chocolate to welcome the Spanish. Although Montezuma II
did not trust Cortés, he also was worried that Cortés was the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl. Aztec mythology
said that Quetzalcoatl would come to Earth as a man and Cortés had arrived on Quetzalcoatl's birthday.
Cortés arrived with around 500 men, 16 horses, and some cannon. He founded a small settlement that
would eventually become the city of Veracruz. He also began to get to know the natives. He brought
along an American Indian woman named Dona Marina who worked as his interpreter. Cortez created
alliances with some of the local tribes including the Totonac and the Tlaxcalans.

Cortés Travels to Tenochtitlan

Cortés began to march inland towards the city of Tenochtitlan, the capital city of the Aztec Empire. He
conquered some cities along the way and made alliances with others. The Tlaxcalans became his closest
allies. They hated the Aztecs because they had raided their cities for people to sacrifice to their gods.
Montezuma II tried to keep Cortés from getting all the way to Tenochtitlan, but Cortés continued his
march. He destroyed the Aztec religious city of Cholula along the way.

Cortés Arrives at Tenochtitlan

When Cortés finally arrived in Tenochtitlan he was welcomed with gifts and invited inside. Montezuma
was still concerned that Cortés might be a god. Eventually tensions mounted between the two sides and
a fight broke out. Cortés and his men took King Montezuma captive.

Montezuma II is Killed

At some point during his captivity, Montezuma II was killed. Historians still aren't sure how he was killed
or why, but after he died the Spanish soldiers tried to flee from Tenochtitlan. They were attacked by the
Aztecs as they fled and nearly two-thirds of the soldiers were killed.

Cortés Conquers the Aztecs

Cortés managed to escape with some of his men from Tenochtitlan. He gathered a large force of natives
including the Tlaxcalans to fight the Aztecs. He returned to Tenochtitlan and laid siege to the city. After
three months of fighting, he finally took control of the city and completed his conquest of the Aztec
Empire.

Interesting Facts about the Spanish Conquest of the Aztecs

# Cortés became worried that some of his crew would steal his ships and desert him so he sunk his fleet
before marching to Tenochtitlan.

# After Montezuma II was killed the Aztecs elected Cuauhtemoc as their new king. Cortés eventually had
him executed.
# The Aztecs were severely weakened by diseases that the Spanish brought such as smallpox, influenza,
and malaria. Over time, around 80 percent of the people living in the Valley of Mexico died from these
diseases.

#Cortés founded Mexico City on the ruins of Tenochtitlan. Today it is the capital of Mexico and one of
the largest cities in the world.

#The night that Cortés and his men escaped from Tenochtitlan is often referred to as "La Noche Triste"
or "The Sad Night".

Aztec Empire Art

Art was an important part of Aztec life. They used some forms of art such as music, poetry, and
sculpture to honor and praise their gods. Other forms of art, such as jewelry and feather-work, were
worn by the Aztec nobility to set them apart from the commoners.

Metaphors The Aztecs often used metaphors throughout their art. For example, the hummingbird
represented the sun god, the eagle represented the warrior, and flowers represented the beauty of life.
Metaphors like these were used in their drawings, sculpture, and poetry.

Poetry

The highest form of art in the Aztec culture was poetry. The Aztecs wrote lots of poems. Many of their
poems were about the gods and mythology, but others were about everyday life. They called poetry
"flower and song". The poetry and stories of the Aztecs were passed down verbally from generation to
generation. They didn't begin to write down their poetry until after the Spanish arrived. The largest
collections of Aztec poems were put together in the 1500s. These books include the Romances de los
señores de la Nueva España and the Cantares Mexicanos.

Here is an Aztec poem about fishing:

help me

White Spirit

soon here

you will embrace

the red Chichimec

am I calling just one?

indeed all of them I call

the child fish

the man fish

the woman fish—

dwellers of meanders

Here is a poem that is a prayer to the sun:

come help me Nanahuatzin

I'll go first I'll be on the road first—

then you'll go

then you'll follow the road

I'll be the first to cross

all the desert lands

all the canyon lands

I'll pass swiftly over

the Earth's smooth face—

she won't hinder me

no matter what truly lies

on her smooth face

up in the sky

I shall go

I shall walk

Music

The Aztecs also enjoyed music. They played various instruments such as flutes, shells, whistles, and
drums. They played their music for the gods and used it to make requests such as asking the gods for
rain or for the harvest to be good.

Sculpture

The Aztec carved a lot of sculpture from stone of all types. They carved small items as well as huge
statues of their gods that were placed in public areas and the temples. A lot of their sculpture had
similar features. Male statues were usually shown sitting with their knees up and their arms crossed.
Female statues were generally shown kneeling with their hands on their knees. The facial features were
often similar with the main differences being symbols that were unique to each god.
Pottery

The Aztecs took pride in creating a variety of beautiful pottery. Other nations from around the lands
often traded for the prized Aztec pottery. They made everything from small simple bowls to tall jars that
were heavily decorated and painted. The pottery makers of the Aztecs were very sophisticated, mass
producing pottery in large shops using a potter's wheel.

Feather-work

Perhaps the most prized art during the time of the Aztecs was feather-work. Using this art form, artisans
wove brightly colored feathers together to make beautiful cloaks and headdresses. Only the nobility and
wealthy were allowed to wear feather-work items.

Jewelry

The Aztecs also made a variety of jewelry. Jewelers used different materials including gold, silver,
copper, jade, and obsidian. Jewelry made from precious stones and metals was generally reserved for
the nobility.

Interesting Facts about Aztec Art

# Every 52 years the Aztecs destroyed all of their household items in a religious ceremony. This included
their pottery. Archaeologists are able to track changes in Aztec pottery over time because of this.

# The Aztec women were responsible for weaving cloth for clothing and blankets. They often used
detailed and artistic designs in their work.

# Feather-workers were called amanteca. They were some of the most respected artisans in all of the
Aztec Empire.

# One of the most famous Aztec sculptures is the calendar stone. It is twelve feet in diameter and
weighs around 24 tons.

# There were poetry contests at many of the Aztec festivals.

Biography: Hernan Cortes

Occupation: Conquistador and Explorer

Born: 1485 in Medellin, Castile, Spain

Died: December 2, 1547 in Castilleja de la Cuesta, Castile, Spain

Best known for: Conquering the Aztec Empire

Biography:
Where did Hernan Cortes grow up?

Hernan Cortes was born in Medellín, Spain in 1485. He came from a fairly famous family and his father
was a captain in the Spanish army. His parents wanted him to become a lawyer and sent him to school
to study law when he was fourteen. Cortes wasn't interested in becoming a lawyer and returned home
when he was sixteen. Cortes heard of Christopher Columbus' discoveries in the new world. He wanted
to travel and see new lands. He also wanted to make his fortune and fame.

Going to the New World :

Cortes sailed for the New World in 1504. He first arrived on the island of Hispaniola at the city of Santo
Domingo. He got a job as a notary and over the next five years made a name for himself on the island.

Conquest of Cuba In 1511:

Cortes joined Diego Velazquez on an expedition to Cuba. When Velazquez conquered Cuba, he became
governor. Velazquez liked Cortes and helped Cortes to rise in the government. Soon Cortes became a
powerful and wealthy figure on the island of Cuba.

Conquest of Mexico In 1518:

Cortes was put in charge of an expedition to the mainland of Mexico. This was something that he had
wanted to do for many years. At the last minute, Governor Velazquez became worried that Cortes would
become too powerful and he ordered Cortes not to sail. Cortes disobeyed the order and set sail anyway.

Arriving in Mexico:

Cortes and his men landed at the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico in April of 1519. He had 11 ships, around
500 men, some horses, and some cannon. He soon met a native woman named Dona Marina. Dona
Marina spoke the Nahuatl language of the Aztecs and could help to interpret for Cortes. Cortes heard of
the gold and treasures of the Aztecs. He wanted to conquer them and take their treasure for Spain. He
requested a meeting with the Aztec Emperor, Montezuma II, but was repeatedly turned down. He then
decided to march to the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan.

March to Tenochtitlan:

Gathering his small force of 500 men, Cortes began to march to Tenochtitlan, the heart of the Aztec
Empire. Along the way he met with other cities and peoples. He found out that a number of other tribes
didn't like their Aztec rulers. He made alliances with them, including the powerful Tlaxcala people.

Massacre at Cholula:

Cortes next arrived at the city of Cholula. It was the second largest city of Mexico and a religious center
of the Aztec Empire. When Cortes found out that the people at Cholula planned to kill him in his sleep,
he killed around 3,000 nobles, priests, and warriors. He also burned down a portion of the city.

Meeting Montezuma II :
When Cortes arrived at Tenochtitlan on November 8, 1519 he was welcomed by the Aztec Emperor
Montezuma II. Although Montezuma did not trust Cortes, he thought that Cortes might be the god
Quetzalcoatl in human form. Montezuma gave Cortes and his men gifts of gold. He thought that these
gifts would keep Cortes from taking over the city, but they just made Cortes want more.

Montezuma II is Killed:

Cortes took Montezuma captive within his own city. However, Governor Velasquez from Cuba sent
another expedition under conquistador Panfilo de Narvaez to take command from Cortes. Cortes left
Tenochtitlan to fight Narvaez. After taking care of Narvaez, Cortes returned to Tenochtitlan. He found
out that his men had killed King Montezuma. He decided to flee the city. On the night of June 30, 1520
Cortes and his men escaped from the city. Many of them died. The night is called La Noche Triste, or
"The Sad Night".

Conquering the Aztecs:

Cortes soon returned to Tenochtitlan with a large army of his allies, the Tlaxcala. He laid siege to the
city and eventually conquered the city and with it the Aztec Empire.

Governor of Mexico:

After conquering the Aztecs, Cortes renamed the city of Tenochtitlan to Mexico City. The city became
the Spanish capital of the territory which was called New Spain. Cortes was named governor of the land
by King Charles I of Spain.

Later Life:

Later in life Cortes fell out of favor with the King of Spain. He was forced to return to Spain to defend
himself. In 1541, he participated in an unsuccessful expedition to Algiers where he nearly drowned when
his ship was sunk. He died on December 2, 1547 in Spain.

Interesting Facts about Hernan Cortes:

* Although most people call him Hernan today, he went by Hernando or Fernando during his lifetime.

*He was the second cousin once removed to conquistador Francisco Pizarro who conquered the Inca
Empire in Peru.

*Cortes married the sister-in-law of governor Velasquez while living in Cuba. He also had a child with his
interpreter Dona Marina.

*While in Mexico he went on an expedition to the north and discovered Baja California.

*The Gulf of California was originally named the Sea of Cortes.

 Maya Civilization
Timeline

The timeline of the Maya Civilization is often divided up into three major periods: the Pre-classic Period,
the Classic Period, and the Post-classic Period.

Pre-classic Period (2000 BC to 250 AD)

The Pre-classic Period covers from the start of the Maya civilization to 250 AD when the Maya
civilization began its golden age. A lot of development took place during this period. The major cities
during this period were El Mirador and Kaminaljuyu.

2000 BC - Farming villages begin to form across the Maya region.

1500 BC - The Olmec civilization develops, the Maya will take on much of their culture.

1000 BC - The Maya begin to form larger settlements at places like Copan and Chalchuapa.

700 BC - Mayan writing first starts to develop. 600 BC - Large buildings are built in the city of El Mirador.
600 BC - The Maya begin to farm. This enables their society to support larger populations and the cities
begin to grow in size.

600 BC - The settlement at Tikal is formed. This will be one of the major cities in the Maya civilization. It
will reach its peak in power during the Classic period.

400 BC - The first Mayan calendars are carved into stone.

300 BC - The Maya adopt the idea of a monarchy for their government. They are now ruled by kings.
100 BC - The city-state of Teotihuacan is established in the Valley of Mexico. It influences the Maya
culture for many years.

100 BC - The first pyramids are built.

Classic Period (250 AD to 900 AD)

The Classic Period is considered the golden age of the Maya city-states. Most of the artistic and cultural
achievements of the Maya civilization took place during this period.

400 AD - The city-state of Teotihuacan becomes the dominant city and rules over the Maya highlands.
560 AD - The city-state of Tikal is defeated by an alliance of other city-states.

600 AD - The powerful city-state of Teotihuacan declines and is no longer a cultural center.

600 AD - The city-state of Caracol becomes a major force in the land.

900 AD - The southern lowland cities collapse and Teotihuacan is abandoned. The reason for the
collapse of the Maya Classic period is still a mystery to archeologists. This signals the end of the Classic
period.

Post-classic Period (900 AD to 1500 AD)

Although the southern city-states collapsed, the Mayan cities in the northern part of the Yucatan
Peninsula continued to thrive for the next several hundred years during the Post-classic period.

925 AD - The city-state of Chichen Itza becomes the most powerful city-state in the region. It will rule
for the next two hundred years.

1250 AD - After declining for years, Chichen Itza is abandoned.

1283 AD - The city-state of Mayapan becomes the capital city of the Maya civilization. The League of
Mayapan is formed to rule the region.

1441 AD - The people rebel against the rule of Mayapan. The city is abandoned by the late 1400s.

1517 AD - The Post-classic period comes to an end with the arrival of the Spanish and conquistador
Hernández de Córdoba.

Colonial Period (1500 AD)

1519 AD - Hernan Cortes arrives and explores the Yucatan Peninsula.

1541 AD - Many of the Maya city-states are conquered by the Spanish.

1542 AD - The Spanish found the city of Merida.

1695 AD - The ruins of Tikal are discovered by a Spanish priest who is lost in the jungle.

Maya Civilization Daily Life

Life as a Maya Noble

The Maya king and his nobles lived an easy life. They had their every need provided for by the
commoners. They were even carried from place to place in litters by slaves.

Life as a Maya Commoner

Life as a Maya commoner was full of hard work. The typical peasant worked as a farmer. At the start of
the day, the wife would get up early and start a fire for cooking. Then the husband would leave to go
work at the fields. After a hard day working at the fields, the farmer would come home and bathe.
Bathing was an important part of the day for all the Maya people. The men spent evenings working on
crafts such as tools, while the women wove cloth to make clothing.

What were their clothes like?

The clothing worn by the Maya depended on the region they lived in and their social status. The wealthy
wore colorful clothing made from animal skins. They also wore feather headdresses and fancy jewelry.
Commoners wore simpler clothing. The men often wore loincloths while the women wore long skirts.
Both men and women would use a blanket called a manta to wrap around their shoulders when it was
cold. Clothing for a Maya woman by Daderot Men and women both wore their hair long. Once they
were married, both men and women often got tattoos.

What did the Maya eat?

The most important food that the Maya ate was maize, which is a vegetable like corn. They made all
types of food from maize including tortillas, porridge, and even drinks. Other staple crops included
beans, squash, and chilies. For meat the Maya ate fish, deer, ducks, and turkey. The Maya introduced
the world to a number of new foods. Probably the most interesting was chocolate from the cacao tree.
The Maya considered chocolate to be a gift from the gods and used cacao seeds as money. Other new
foods included tomatoes, sweet potatoes, black beans, and papaya.

What were their homes like?

The nobles and kings lived inside the city in large palaces made from stone. The commoners lived in
huts outside the city near their farms. The huts were usually made from mud, but were sometimes
made from stone. They were single room homes with thatched roofs. In many areas the Maya built their
huts on top of platforms made from dirt or stone in order to protect them from floods.

Entertainment

Although much of the Maya life was spent doing hard work, they did enjoy entertainment as well. A lot
of their entertainment was centered around religious ceremonies. They played music, danced, and
played games such as the Maya ball game.

Interesting Facts about Maya Daily Life

# The Maya considered crossed eyes, flat foreheads, and big noses to be beautiful features. In some
areas they would use makeup to try and make their noses appear large.

# The Maya loved to wear large hats and headdresses. The more important the person, the taller the hat
they wore.

# The farmers of the Maya did not have metal tools or beasts of burden to help them farm. They used
simple stone tools and did the work by hand.

# Sometimes the ball games that the Maya played were part of a religious ceremony. The losers were
sacrificed to the gods.

# The Maya had hundreds of different dances. Many of these dances are still practiced today. Some
examples of the dances include the Snake dance, the Monkey dance, and the Dance of the Stag.
Maya Civilization Government

City-states

The Maya civilization consisted of a large number of city-states. Each city-state had its own independent
government. A city-state was made up of a major city and the surrounding areas which sometimes
included some smaller settlements and cities. Archeologists believe there were hundreds of Maya cities
at the peak of the Mayan civilization.

King and Nobles

Each city-state was ruled by a king. The Maya believed that their king was given the right to rule by the
gods. They believed that the king worked as an intermediary between the people and the gods. The
leaders of the Maya were called the "halach uinic" or "ahaw", meaning "lord" or "ruler". There were also
powerful councils of leaders who ran the government. They were chosen from the class of nobles.
Lesser lords were called the "batab" and military leaders were called the "nacom".

Priests

Because religion was an important part of the Maya life, the priests were powerful figures in the
government as well. In some ways the king was considered a priest, too. The kings of the Maya often
came to the priests for advice on what to do in a crisis and to get predictions of the future. As a result,
the priests had great influence on how the king ruled.

Laws

The Maya had strict laws. Crimes such as murder, arson, and acts against the gods were often punished
with death. The punishment was much reduced, however, if it was determined that the crime was an
accident. If you broke a law you appeared in court where the local leaders or nobles served as judge. In
some cases the king would serve as judge. At the trial the judge would review evidence and listen to
witnesses. If the person was found guilty, the punishment was carried out immediately. The Maya did
not have prisons. Punishment for crimes included death, slavery, and fines. Sometimes they would
shave the person's head as this was considered a sign of shame. If the victim of the crime wanted to
pardon or forgive the accused, then the punishment may be reduced.

Interesting Facts about Maya Government and Kings

# The position of king was usually inherited by the oldest son. If there wasn't a son then the oldest
brother became king. However, there were also many cases of women rulers.

# Commoners had to pay taxes in order to support the king and the nobles. Men also had to serve as
warriors when the king commanded.

# The Maya nobles were also subject to the law. If a noble was found guilty of a crime, they were often
punished even more severely than a commoner.
# Sometimes when the king appeared in public, his servants would hold a cloth over his face so the
commoners could not see him. Commoners were also not supposed to talk to him directly.

# Commoners were forbidden from wearing the clothing or symbols of the nobles.

# The city-state government of the Maya was similar in many ways to the government of the Ancient
Greeks.

Maya Civilization Religion and Mythology

The lives of the ancient Maya centered around their religion and gods of nature. Religion touched many
aspects of their everyday lives.

Maya Gods

The Maya believed in a large number of nature gods. Some gods were considered more important and
powerful than others. Itzamna - The most important Maya god was Itzamna. Itzamna was the god of fire
who created the Earth. He was ruler of heaven as well as day and night. The Maya believed that he gave
them the calendar and writing. It is thought that his name means "lizard house".

Kukulkan - Kukulkan was a powerful snake god whose name means "feathered serpent". He was the
primary god of the Itza people in the latter part of the Maya civilization. He is often drawn to look like a
dragon. Bolon Tzacab - Also known by the name Huracan (similar to our word for hurricane), Bolon
Tzacab was the god of storms, wind, and fire. Maya mythology said that he caused a great flood to come
when the Maya angered the gods. His name means "one leg". Chaac - Chaac was the god of rain and
lightning. He had a lighting axe that he used to strike the clouds and produce rain and storms.

Divine Kings

The kings of the Maya served as intermediaries between the people and the gods. In some ways the
kings were thought to be gods themselves.

Priests

The priests were responsible for performing rituals to keep the people in the favor of the gods. They
were very powerful. In the Book of the Jaguar Priest, the duties of the priests are described in detail.
Some of the duties included:

*To impersonate the gods

*To predict the future

*To work miracles

*To build tables of eclipses

*To avert famine, drought, plagues, and earthquakes

*To insure adequate rainfall

Afterlife

The Maya believed in a scary afterlife where most people had to travel through a dark underworld
where mean gods would torment them. The only people who started out the afterlife in heaven were
women who died in childbirth and people who had been sacrificed to the gods.

Maya Calendar

A big part of the Maya religion included the stars and the Maya calendar. Some days were considered
lucky days, while other days were considered unlucky. They set their religious ceremonies and festivals
according to the position of the stars and the days of their calendar.

Pyramids

The Maya built large pyramids as monuments to their gods. At the top of the pyramid was a flat area
where a temple was built. The priests would get to the top of the pyramids using staircases built into the
sides. They would perform rituals and sacrifices at the temple on the top.

How do we know about the Maya religion?

The main way archeologists know about the Maya religion is through Mayan texts which describe the
religious ceremonies and beliefs of the Maya. These books are called codices. The primary surviving
books are the Madrid Codex, the Paris Codex, and Dresden Codex as well as a writing called the Popol
Vuh.

Interesting Facts about Maya Religion and Mythology

# They believed that the world was created in 3114 BC. This was the zero date in their calendar.

# Some aspects of the Maya religion are still practiced today.

# Maya mythology tells the story of how man was created from maize.

# One popular tale told how the gods opened Maize Mountain where the first seeds to plant maize
were found.

# Two popular figures in Maya mythology were the Hero Twins, Hunahpu and Xbalanque. They fought
demons as well as the lords of the underworld.

# The Maya predicted that the world would come to an end on December 21, 2012.

Maya Civilization Writing, Numbers, and Calendar

 Of all the ancient American civilizations, the Maya developed one of the most advanced systems of
writing and numbers. They also used a complex system of calendars to track both time and religious
ceremonies.

Writing

The Maya used an advanced form of writing called hieroglyphics. Their writing looks similar to the
ancient Egyptians, but is actually quite different. In Mayan hieroglyphics, they used symbols (also called
glyphs) to represent words, sounds, or objects. By putting several glyphs together the Maya wrote
sentences and told stories. Only the wealthy Maya became priests and learned to read and write. They
wrote on long sheets of paper made from bark or leather. These sheets were folded up like an accordion
to make books. A Maya book is called a codex (or codices for more than one).

Numbers

The Maya used a number system with the base number of 20 (we use a base-10 number system). They
wrote numbers using a system of bars and dots. A bar represented the number 5. Every 5 numbers they
added another bar. The number zero was written with a symbol that looked like a shell. See below for an
example of how the Maya wrote the numbers 0 to 19.

Calendar

The Maya had two kinds of calendars, a religious calendar called the Tzolk'in and a solar calendar called
the Haab'. Every 52 years the two calendars would start on the same day. They would celebrate the New
Fire Festival on this day (El Fuego Nuevo). All the fires throughout their households would be put out
and they would throw away all their clay utensils. It was a time of renewal and new beginnings. The
solar calendar, or Haab', had 18 months of 20 days each. There were five extra "unlucky" days in the
19th month to get to total of 365 days in a year. They numbered the days in the month from 0 to 19.
Here is a list of the 19 Maya months in the Haab' calendar:

Pop, Wo ,Sip ,Sotz', Sek, Xul ,Yaxk'in', Mol, Ch'en ,Yax ,Sak', Keh ,Mak, K'ank'in ,Muwan, Pax ,K'ayab
Kumk'u, Wayeb (month with only 5 unlucky days)

The religious calendar, or Tzolk'in, was a 260-day calendar. This calendar has two cycles, a 20 day cycle
and a 13 day cycle. Each day has a name and a number. The name comes from the 20 day cycle and the
number from the 13 day cycle. Here is a list of the 20-day cycle names:

Imix, Ik ,Ak'b'al ,K'an ,Chikchan, Kimi, Manik ,Lamat ,Muluk ,Ok ,Chuwen, Eb, B'en, Ix ,Men, K'ib ,Kab'an,
Etz'nab, Kawak, Ajaw

Beginning and End of the World

The Maya also had a third calendar they used for historical purposes. It was called the Long Count
Calendar. The Long Count calendar started on August 11, 3114 BC. This was the day on which the Maya
believed the world was created. Some people think that the Maya also predicted the end of the world to
be on December 21, 2012.

Interesting Facts about Maya Writing, Numbers, and Calendar

# Unfortunately, when the Spanish found the Maya codices (books), they thought they were evil and
burned them. Only a few survived.

# The Maya wrote using black ink made from coal and quills made from turkey feathers.

# Each Maya month had a glyph that represented the month. Some of the glyphs also represented
animals. For example, the glyph for the month of Sotz also meant bat, Xul meant dog, Muwan meant
owl, and K'ayab meant turtle.

# The word "Kin" was used to represent a day. It also meant "sun".

# The base-20 number system is called the vigesimal system. The Maya wrote large numbers in powers
of 20.

Maya Civilization Pyramids and Architecture

The Maya civilization is famous for its architecture. Many city-states built large palaces, pyramids, and
other public buildings that are still standing today. The buildings were covered with carvings and statues
to honor their gods as well as to commemorate their kings.

Pyramids

The Maya are perhaps most known for their many majestic pyramids. They built two kinds of pyramids.
Both types of pyramids were similar in many ways. They each had the familiar pyramid shape. They each
had steep steps up the side that would allow someone to climb to the top. They each were built for
religious purposes and for the gods. However, they had their differences as well. The first type of
pyramid had a temple on the top and was meant to be climbed by the priests to make sacrifices to the
gods. The stairs going up the sides of these pyramids were steep, but not too steep for the priests to
climb. The most important religious ceremonies were held at the top of these pyramids. The second
type of pyramid was a sacred pyramid built to a god. These pyramids were not to be climbed or touched
by humans. There were still steps going up the sides of these pyramids, but they were often too steep to
climb without a lot of effort. These pyramids were sometimes built with secret doors, tunnels, and traps.

Famous Pyramids

El Castillo - This pyramid was built as a temple to the god Kukulcan in the city of Chichen Itza. The total
height of the pyramid is just under 100 feet. Each side of El Castillo has 91 steps. When you add up the
steps on all four sides and then add in the top platform as a step, you get 365 steps, one for each day of
the year.
Temple IV at Tikal - Temple IV at Tikal is part of a number of very tall pyramids in the city of Tikal. It is
230 feet tall and was built to mark the reign of King Yik'in Chan K'awiil.

La Danta - This pyramid is thought to be one of the largest pyramids in the world by total volume. It is
250 feet tall and has a volume of 2.8 million cubic meters.

Nohoch Mul - A temple pyramid in the city of Coba, Nohoch Mul is one of the tallest pyramids on the
Yucatan Peninsula at 138 feet high.

Palaces for the Kings

Each Maya city-state would have a large palace inside the city for their king and the royal family. These
palaces were sometimes large monuments to powerful kings. One of the most famous palaces is the
palace at Palenque built by King Pakal. It was a large complex of many buildings and courtyards including
a tall tower that looked over the city. It was covered with colorful hieroglyphics and carvings of the king
and his family.

Ball Courts

The Maya also built giant ball courts where they would play their game with a rubber ball. Some major
cities had multiple courts. Sometimes ball courts were attached to temples. The courts had two long
stone walls, sometimes built with sloped sides.

Interesting Facts about Maya Pyramids and Architecture

# Maya pyramids had a flat top.

# The pyramids of the Aztecs were very similar to those of the Maya. The main difference was that the
Aztec would sometimes build more than one temple on the top of a pyramid.

# Many times new pyramids were built on top of old pyramids. Archeologists have found several more
pyramids inside and under existing pyramids.

# Some pyramids served as burial chambers for kings similar to the ancient Egyptians.

# Many Maya buildings and temples were aligned with celestial events such as the path of the sun.

Maya Civilization Sites and Cities

The Maya people built many cities throughout the history of their civilization. The cities acted as city-
states where each single large city ruled over the surrounding areas. Maya cities were not planned out
in detail like the cities of the Aztecs. They tended to grow out from the center over time. The center
complexes, however, do appear to be planned with buildings often built in alignment to the sun. Each
city was home to the local king who lived in a palace within the city. It was also home to large pyramids
that served as temples to their gods. Typically cities were located near trade routes and good farmland.

El Mirador
 El Mirador was one of the first large city-states of the Maya civilization. It is thought that, at its peak,
over 100,000 people lived in the city. The central center of the city covered ten square miles and had
over a thousand buildings. Archeologists have found three large temple pyramids: El Tigre (180 feet tall),
Los Monos (157 feet tall), and La Danta (250 feet tall). The La Danta temple is considered one of the
largest pyramids in the world by total volume. El Mirador thrived from 6th century BC up to the 1st
century AD. It was at its peak around the 3rd century BC. Archeologists think that the city was
abandoned around 150 AD and then people moved back in several hundred years later around 700 AD.

Kaminaljuyu

Kaminaljuyu was a major city-state located in the Southern Mayan Area in the Guatemala highlands.
The city was occupied for around 2000 years from 1200 BC to 900 AD. The city was a major trade
location for products such as cacao, fruits, pottery, and obsidian.

Tikal

Tikal became one of the most powerful city-states in the history of the Maya civilization during the
Classic period of Maya history. The city was large and had thousands of structures including six large
pyramids. The tallest pyramid is called Temple IV at over 230 feet high. The city likely had between
60,000 and 70,000 inhabitants during its peak years.

Teotihuacan

Teotihuacan wasn't necessarily a Maya city-state, but was a major city-state located in the Valley of
Mexico during the time of the Maya civilization. It was so powerful that it influenced Maya culture,
trade, and politics during the Classic period.

Caracol

Caracol began as a client state to the powerful city-state of Tikal. It was located in what is now the Cayo
District of the country of Belize. At around the year 600 AD, Caracol broke away from Tikal and became a
powerful city-state of its own. The city at its peak was much larger than the capital city of Belize is today.
It covered around 200 square kilometers and may have had a population as large as 180,000.

Chichen Itza

Chichen Itza was the dominant Maya city-state during the end of the Classic period and the Post-classic
period. It is the home of many famous structures including:

El Castillo - A pyramid and temple built to the Maya god Kukulkan. It is around 98 feet tall.

Great Ball Court - The largest of several ball courts in Chichen Itza, the Great Ball Court is 551 feet long
by 230 feet wide. The walls on each side of the court are 26 feet tall. Temples of the Jaguar are built into
the side of the court.
Temple of the Warriors - This temple is a large pyramid with four platforms and an impressive temple on
the top. Two sides of the temple are covered with around 200 columns which were covered with a roof
system during the time of the Maya.

Interesting Facts about Maya Sites and Cities

# Many of these cities can be visited today. Some of them, such as Chichen Itza and Tikal, are considered
UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

# Around 1.2 million people visit the Chichen Itza site each year.

# Archeologists have found at least thirteen different ball courts built in the city of Chichen Itza.

# Other important Maya city-states include Coba, Uxmal, Mayapan, Tulum, Palenque, and Kabah.

# Palenque was once known as the "Red City" because its buildings were all painted red.

# Much is known about the kings of Tikal including some of their interesting names such as Jaguar Paw,
Curl Head, Shield Skull, and Double Bird. The city was also ruled by women several times.

Maya Civilization Art

The Maya civilization existed for over 1500 years. During that time the Maya created many works of art.
The art of the Maya was heavily influenced by their religion as well as other cultures such as the Olmecs
and the Toltecs. The subject for much of their artwork was the Maya kings who wanted to make sure
they were remembered throughout history.

Sculpture

The Maya are perhaps most famous for their work in stone. They built many monumental structures
including tall pyramids and palaces. They also made a lot of sculptures out of stone. One popular type of
Maya sculpture was the stela. A stela was a large tall stone slab covered with carvings and writing. The
stela was popular during the Classic Maya period when most major cities had stela built in honor of their
kings. Stela were often located near altars A Maya Stela Some stelae were very large. The largest Maya
stela discovered to date is the Stela E from the city of Quirigua. It weighs 65 tons and is around 34 feet
tall.

Carving

The Maya also created detailed carvings in other materials such as wood and jade. Although only a few
wood carvings have survived, archeologists believe that wood carvings were very popular pieces of art
for the Maya.

Painting

The Maya painted murals on the walls of their buildings including their houses, temples, and public
buildings. The subjects of the murals varied widely including scenes from daily life, mythology, battles,
and religious ceremonies. Unfortunately, due to the high humidity of the region, few of the murals have
survived.

Ceramics

Maya ceramics are an important art form. The Maya created their pottery without the use of a potter's
wheel. They decorated their pottery with elaborate designs and scenes. Archeologists are able to learn a
lot about different periods and cities of the Maya through the scenes painted or carved into their
pottery.

Writing

Maya art can also be viewed in their books or codices. These books are made from long folded sheets of
leather or bark paper. The writing uses a number of symbols and pictures and the books can be
considered delicate works of art.

Weaving and Feather-working

Although none of the materials from the Maya age have survived to this time, archeologists can tell
through the paintings, writings, and carvings the type of clothes that the Maya created. Clothing for the
nobles was truly an art form. The nobles wore decorated clothing and huge headdresses made from
feathers. Some of the most respected craftsmen were those that wove the detailed feathered clothing
for the nobility.

Interesting Facts about Maya Art

# Unlike many ancient civilizations, Maya artists sometimes signed their work.

# Other arts included the performing arts of dance and music. The Maya had a variety of musical
instruments including wind instruments, drums, and rattles. Some of the more complex instruments
were reserved for the elite.

#The Maya used stucco plaster to create large masks and portraits of both the gods and the kings.

# The kings would often commission a work of art to commemorate events in their lives.

# The city of Palenque is often considered the artistic capital of the Maya civilization. It wasn't a big or
powerful city, but some of the finest Maya art has been found within this city.

Maya Civilization The Hero Twins Myth

The Hero Twins are two of the most famous characters from Maya mythology. Their story is told in one
of the few surviving Maya texts called the Popol Vuh.

Here is an outline of the story of the Maya Hero Twins:

The Story

Father and Uncle

The story of the Hero Twins begins with two twin boys. Their names are One Hunahpu and Seven
Hunahpu. These two boys loved to play the Maya ball game. They were very talented, but they were
also very noisy when they played. The gods of the underworld, the Lords of Death, became agitated with
the boys and summoned them to the underworld. The Maya underworld was called Xibalba.
Advertisement | Report Ad When the boys visited the underworld the Lords of Death put them through
a number of tests. First they had to make it over rivers of spikes and blood. Then they were to greet the
gods by name. However, the gods they greeted were only wooden carvings. By not recognizing the gods
they had failed a test. Then the gods asked them to sit down. When they sat down they were burned by
a fiery bench. They had failed another test. Because they failed the tests, the gods put them to death.

The Hero Twins are Born

Despite being dead, according to the myth, One Hunahpu had a child with one of the Maya goddesses.
This goddess had twins who were to become known as the Hero Twins. Their names were Hunahpu and
Xbalanque. Just like their father and uncle, the Hero Twins were great ballplayers. They were also loud
and annoyed the gods of the underworld. Soon the Lords of Death summoned them to come play a
game of ball in the underworld.

Visit to the Underworld

The Hero Twins went to the underworld to meet the Lords of Death. However, the Hero Twins had
learned from their father's mistakes. They didn't fall for any of the gods' tricks. Each time the gods put
them to the test, they passed the test. When the gods tried to trick them with wooden gods, they used a
mosquito to bite the gods. This way they knew which god was real and which was wood by the way they
reacted. They also refused to sit on the fiery bench.

Playing a Game of Ball

After passing the tests, the boys were to play a game of ball against the gods. Again, the gods tried to
trick the boys by using a ball with sharp blades on it. The boys were having none of this, however. They
saw the blades and told the gods they weren't going to play ball if the gods wouldn't play fair. The gods
agreed to play fair. However, the boys knew that the gods intended to kill them if they won. So they let
the gods win. After each game, the gods continued to test the boys with rooms of blades, ice, and fire.

The Hero Twins are Killed

The boys finally beat the Lords of Death at the game of ball. The lords were furious. They told the boys
to jump into an oven, the boys agreed. The boys were killed and the gods threw their ashes into the
river. This was all part of the Hero Twins secret plan. When their ashes became part of the river the boys
came back to life as catfish. Then later they were fully restored as the Hero Twins.
They Win in the End

The Hero Twins now had many powers of the gods. They could kill things and then make them come
back from the dead. The Lords of Death were impressed with the boys' powers. They asked the boys to
perform the trick on them. With their best trick of all, they killed the Lords of Death and then didn't
bring them back to life. The Hero Twins had won!

Interesting Facts about the Maya Hero Twins

# Characters very similar to the Hero Twins are found in the mythology of several other Native American
cultures.

# The Hero Twins were made rulers of the Earth by the gods of the sky. One twin was turned into the
Moon and the other into the Sun.

# The Hero Twins brought their father back to life and turned him into the Maize god.

# It was said that the rulers of the Maya were the descendents of the Hero Twins. This gave them the
right to rule.

# Many Maya vases are painted and carved with scenes from the stories of the Hero Twins.

Inca Empire
Timeline
When the Spanish arrived on the west coast of South America in the 1500s, a large portion of the region
was ruled by the powerful and sophisticated Inca Empire. The Empire had ruled much of the region since
the early 1400s. The center of the Inca Empire was the city of Cusco.

Pre-Inca Empire

2500 BC - Around this time people in the region began farming. They grew potatoes, corn, cotton, and
other crops. They also started forming villages.

900 BC - The Chavin civilization begins to form in the northern Andes highlands.

850 BC - The Chavin build the city and temple of Chavin de Huantar. It is located around 160 miles north
of where Lima, Peru is today.

700 BC - The Paracas civilization begins to form.

200 BC - The Chavin civilization collapses.

100 AD - The Nazca civilization begins to flourish. The Nazca are known for their complex textiles and
ceramics. They are also famous for the Nazca Lines drawn in the desert floor. These lines form the
shapes of large animals when viewed from the air.
200 AD - The Paracas civilization collapses.

600 AD - The Huari civilization begins to form in the area.

800 AD - The Nazca and Moche civilizations come to an end.

1000 AD - Many more cultures begin to form in the area during this time including the Chimu.

1200 AD - The Chimu build their capital city Chan Chan.

Inca Empire

1200 AD - The Inca tribe, led by Manco Capac, founded the city of Cuzco in the Cuzco Valley region.

1200 AD to 1400 AD - The Inca live in and around the city-state of Cuzco. During this period of time they
do not try to expand their area of control.

1438 AD - Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui becomes the leader of the Inca. He begins to conquer nearby tribes
and expand the control of the Inca Empire. He reorganizes the government into the Tawantinsuyu and
builds the city of Machu Picchu.

1471 AD - Tupac Inca Yupanqui, Pachacuti's son, becomes emperor. He will greatly expand the Inca
Empire.

1476 AD - Emperor Tupac defeats the Chuma Empire and their lands become part of the Inca Empire.
1493 AD - Huayna Capac, Tupac's son, becomes emperor. The Inca Empire will reach its peak under the
reign of Huayna Capac.

Decline and Fall of the Inca Empire

1525 AD - Emperor Huayna Capac dies from a plague. This was likely smallpox brought by the Spanish
conquistadors. A large portion of the Inca population will die from smallpox and other diseases over the
next several years.

1525 AD - The sons of Emperor Huayna, Atahualpa and Huascar, fight over the crown. The Inca Empire
fights a civil war for the next five years.

1532 AD - Atahualpa defeats Huascar and becomes the emperor. At the same time, Spanish
conquistador Francisco Pizarro arrives in Peru. Pizarro captures Atahualpa and holds him for ransom.
1533 AD - The Spanish execute Atahualpa and install Manco Inca as Emperor.

1535 AD - Francisco Pizarro founds the city of Lima, Peru and names it the capital of the region.

1537 AD - Manco Inca flees to Vilcabamba and forms an Inca government separate from the Spanish.
1541 AD - Francisco Pizarro is killed.

1572 AD - The Spanish execute the last of the Inca emperors, Tupac Amaru, signaling the end of the Inca
Empire.
Inca Empire Daily Life

The Ayllu

One of the most important aspects of the Inca daily life was the ayllu. The ayllu was a group of families
that worked a portion of land together. They shared most of their belongings with each other just like a
larger family. Everyone in the Inca Empire was a member of an ayllu. Once a person was born into an
ayllu, they remained part of that ayllu their entire life.

Daily Life of a Peasant

The daily life of a peasant in the Inca Empire was full of hard work. The only time peasants were allowed
not to work was during religious festivals. Other than that, they were expected to be working when they
were not sleeping. Most of the peasant men worked as farmers. They didn't own their own farms, but
worked land owned by the government. They also had to pay taxes to the government. The women
worked hard at the home during the day. They cooked, made clothes, and took care of the children.
Most girls were married by the time they were twelve years old.

Daily Life of a Noble

The Inca nobles lived a much easier lifestyle. They still had to work, but had important jobs in the
government. They could own land and didn't have to pay taxes.

What type of clothes did they wear?

The men wore long sleeveless shirts or tunics. The women wore long dresses. Both men and women
would wear capes or ponchos to keep them warm during the winter. The peasants and the nobles wore
similar fashions. Of course the clothing of the rich was made from finer cloth and was more decorated.
Hairstyles were an important part of Inca fashion. The type of hairstyle you wore told people your social
status as well as what group, or ayllu, you were from.

In what kind of houses did they live?

Most of the people lived in adobe brick homes with thatched roofs. The homes were mostly single story
with one room. There was typically very little furniture in the homes, just some baskets for storing
things, thin mats to sleep on, and a stove.

What did they eat?

What people ate depended a lot on where they lived. Corn, squash, and beans were the main staples of
their diet, but they ate other things as well including tomatoes, peppers, fish, and ducks. In general, the
people ate well and were taken care of. If someone couldn't work or was too old to work on the fields,
the government took care of them and made sure they had enough food.

Did the kids go to school?

 Only the wealthy children went to school. Peasant children began to work when they were still young
and only learned the craft or skill that would be their job for the rest of their lives. Children were not
watched over like they are in most societies today. They were left alone throughout the day. Parents
didn't hug or coddle their children. The mother would feed and clean the child, and then leave it to
itself.

Interesting Facts about the Daily Life of an Inca Commoner

# Many men carried a small bag around with them, almost like a purse. In this bag they kept coca leaves
for chewing as well as good luck charms.

# Starting at the age of 14, men of the nobility wore large gold earplugs. They would put in bigger and
bigger plugs over time.

# Many people had to pay their taxes through labor. They worked for the government as soldiers,
builders, or farmers in order to pay their taxes.

# The government had inspectors that would keep an eye on the commoners. They even checked to see
if the people were keeping their house clean and tidy.

# Most commoners were not allowed to travel within the empire. Only the rich and government officials
were allowed to travel.

Inca Empire Government

When the Spanish arrived in Peru in the 1500s the Inca Empire was huge. It stretched for over 2000
miles from the north to the south and had a population of an estimated 10 million people. The Inca
needed a sophisticated and organized government to maintain an empire this large.

Monarchy

The Inca government was called the Tawantinsuyu. It was a monarchy ruled by a single leader called the
Sapa Inca. Sapa Inca - The emperor or king of the Inca Empire was called the Sapa Inca, which means
"sole ruler". He was the most powerful person in the land and everyone else reported to the Sapa Inca.
His principal wife, the queen, was called the coya.

Inca Government Organization

Below the Sapa Inca were several officers who helped to rule the empire. High ranking officials were
often relatives of the emperor and were always part of the Inca class.

Viceroy - Below the Sapa Inca was the viceroy, or Inkap Rantin. He was a close relative of the Sapa Inca
and worked as his closest advisor.

High Priest - The high priest, called the "Willaq Umu", was also a very powerful man. He was probably
second in power to the Sapa Inca due to the importance of religion in the Inca Empire.
Governors of a Quarter - The Inca Empire was divided up into four quarters. Each of these quarters was
ruled by a governor called an Apu.

Council of the Realm - The Sapa Inca also kept a council of men who advised him on major matters.
These men were powerful nobles.

Inspectors - In order to maintain control and to make sure people were paying their taxes and following
the ways of the Inca, the Sapa Inca had inspectors that watched over the people. The inspectors were
called "tokoyrikoq".

Military Generals - There were also military generals. The head general was usually a close relative of the
Sapa Inca. These leaders were called "Apukuna".

Other Officials - There were many other government officials and leaders throughout the Inca Empire
such as priests, military officers, judges, and tax collectors.

Dividing up the Empire

The Empire was divided up into quarters called "suyu". The four suyu were Chinchay Suyu, Anti Suyu,
Qulla Suyu, and Kunti Suyu. At the center of the four quarters was the capital city of Cuzco. Each suyu
was then further divided into provinces called "wamani". A lot of times each wamani was made up of a
tribe that had been conquered by the Inca. There were also smaller divisions within each wamani. The
smallest, and maybe the most important, division of government was the ayllu. The ayllu was made up
of a number of families and often acted like a large family. The ayllu was responsible for paying taxes.
Also, land was assigned by the government to each ayllu based on the number of people in the group.

Inca Taxes

In order to run the government, the Inca needed food and resources which they acquired through
taxes. Each ayllu was responsible for paying taxes to the government. The Inca had tax inspectors that
watched over the people to make sure that they paid all their taxes. There were two main taxes that the
people had to pay. The first tax was a portion of the ayllu's crops. The crops were divided up three ways
with the first third going to the government, the second third to the priests, and the final third was for
the people. The second type of tax was called the mit'a. The mit'a was a labor tax that each man
between the ages of 16 and 60 had to pay by working for the government for a portion of the year. They
worked various jobs such as laborers on government buildings and roads, mining for gold, or even as
warriors in the army.

Laws and Punishment

The laws were made by the Sapa Inca and passed down to the people through the tax collectors.
Murder, stealing, cheating on taxes, and cursing the gods was all against the law. However, there wasn't
a lot of crime in the Inca Empire, mostly because the punishments were very harsh. For example, people
were often executed for cursing the gods. If they were caught stealing, they would have their hands cut
off.
Interesting Facts about the Government of the Inca Empire

# Every ayllu had its own tax collector.

# Although the Inca had a road system between the cities, commoners were not allowed to travel on the
roads. The roads were guarded by the army and trespassers were usually killed.

# The name for the inspectors "tokoyrikoq" is translated as "he who sees all".

# Most conquered tribes were allowed to remain in their homelands. However, if they were considered
rebellious, they would be moved to other areas of the empire.

# The Inca roads were an important part of the Inca government as they were used for communication.

Inca Empire Mythology and Religion

The religion of the Inca was closely tied into the everyday life of the Inca as well as with their
government. They believed that their ruler, the Inca Sapa, was part god himself. The Inca believed that
their gods occupied three different realms: 1) the sky or Hanan Pacha, 2) the inner earth or Uku Pacha,
and 3) the outer earth or Cay pacha.

Inca Gods and Goddesses

Inti - Inti was the most important of the gods to the Inca. He was the god of the sun. The emperor, or
Inca Sapa, was said to be a descendent of Inti. Inti was married to the Goddess of the Moon, Mama
Quilla.

Mama Quilla - Mama Quilla was the goddess of the Moon. She was also the goddess of marriage and the
defender of women. Mama Quilla was married to Inti the god of the Sun. The Inca believed that lunar
eclipses occurred when Mama Quilla was being attacked by an animal.

Pachamama - Pachamama was the goddess of Earth or "Mother Earth". She was responsible for farming
and the harvest.

Viracocha - Viracocha was the first god who created the Earth, the sky, the other gods, and humans.
Supay - Supay was the god of death and ruler of the Inca underworld called the Uca Pacha.

Inca Temples

The Inca built many beautiful temples to their gods. The most important temple was the Coricancha
built in the heart of the city of Cuzco to the sun god, Inti. The walls and floors were covered with sheets
of gold. There were also gold statues and a huge gold disc that represented Inti. Coricancha means
"Golden Temple".

The Inca Afterlife

 The Inca believed strongly in an afterlife. They took great care in embalming and mummifying the
bodies of the dead before burial. They brought gifts to the dead that they thought the dead could use in
the afterlife. The Inca felt so strongly in the afterlife that when an emperor died, their body was
mummified and left in their palace. They even kept some servants to watch over the dead emperor. For
certain festivals, such as the Festival of the Dead, the dead emperors were paraded through the streets.

Inca Heavens

The Inca believed that the heavens were divided into four quarters. If a person lived a good life they
lived in the part of heaven with the sun where there was plenty of food and drink. If they lived a bad life
they had to live in the underworld where it was cold and they only had rocks to eat.

What were Huacas?

Huacas were sacred places or objects to the Inca. A huaca could be manmade or natural such as a rock,
a statue, a cave, waterfall, mountain, or even a dead body. The Inca prayed and offered sacrifices to
their huacas believing that they were inhabited by spirits that could help them. The most sacred huacas
in the Inca Empire were the mummies of the dead emperors.

Interesting Facts about the Mythology and Religion of the Inca Empire

# They allowed the tribes they conquered to worship their own gods as long as the tribes agreed to
worship the Inca gods as supreme.

# The Inca held religious festivals every month. Sometimes human sacrifice would be included as part of
the ceremony.

# The Inca worshiped mountains and considered them sacred. This was because they believed the
mountains were the source of water.

# The Spanish tore down the temple of Coricancha and built the Church of Santo Domingo at the same
location.

# Priests were very important and powerful in Inca society. The High Priest lived in Cuzco and was often
the brother of the emperor.

Inca Empire Science and Technology

The Inca Empire was a complex society with an estimated population of 10 million people. They had
large stone cities, beautiful temples, an advanced government, a detailed tax system, and an intricate
road system. The Inca, however, didn't have a lot of basic technologies we often consider important to
advanced societies. They didn't use the wheel for transport, they didn't have a writing system for
records, and they didn't even have iron for making tools. How did they create such an advanced Empire?
Below are some of the important scientific innovations and technologies used by the Inca Empire.

Roads and Communication

The Incas built a large system of roads that went throughout their empire. The roads were usually paved
with stone. Stone steps were often built into steep areas in the mountains. They also built bridges where
the roads needed to cross rivers. The main purpose for the roads was for communication, moving army
troops, and to transport goods. Commoners were not allowed to travel on the roads. Communication
was accomplished by runners on the roads. Fast young men called "chaskis" would run from one relay
station to the next. At each station they would pass the message on to the next runner. Messages were
either passed verbally or by using a quipu . Messages traveled quickly this way at the rate of around 250
miles per day.

Quipus

A quipu was a series of strings with knots. The number of knots, the size of the knots, and the distance
between knots conveyed meaning to the Inca, sort of like writing. Only specially trained officials knew
how to use quipus.

Stone Buildings

The Inca were able to create sturdy stone buildings. Without the use of iron tools they were able to
shape large stones and have them fit together without the use of mortar. By fitting the stones closely as
well as other architectural techniques, the Inca were able to create large stone buildings that survived
for hundreds of years despite the many earthquakes that occur in Peru.

Farming

The Inca were expert farmers. They used irrigation and water storage techniques to grow crops in all
sorts of terrain from the deserts to the high mountains. Despite not having beasts of burden or iron
tools, the Inca farmers were very efficient.

Calendar and Astronomy

The Inca used their calendar to mark religious festivals as well as the seasons so they could plant their
crops at the correct time of the year. They studied the sun and the stars to calculate their calendar. The
Inca calendar was made up of 12 months. Each month had three weeks of ten days each. When the
calendar and the sun got off track, the Inca would add a day or two to bring them back into alignment.

Government and Taxes

The Inca had a complex system of government and taxes. Numerous officials kept watch over the people
and made sure that the taxes were paid. The people were required to work hard, but their basic needs
were provided.

Interesting Facts about Inca Science and Technology

# The messengers who ran on the roads were punished harshly if the message was not accurately
delivered. This rarely happened.
# The Inca built a variety of bridges including suspension bridges and pontoon bridges.

# One of the main forms of medicine used by the Inca was the coca leaf.

# The Inca developed aqueducts to bring fresh water into town.

# The basic unit of distance used by the Inca was one pace or a "thatki".

Inca Empire Society

The Inca society was based around strict social classes. Few people had the opportunity to improve their
social status. Once a person was born into a social class, that was where they would remain for the rest
of their life.

Noble Classes (Inca)

The Inca Empire was ruled by the ancestors of the original Inca people. These were the people who
originally established the city of Cuzco.

Sapa Inca - The emperor or king was called the Sapa Inca. He was at the top of the Inca social class and
was considered a god in many ways.

Villac Umu - The high priest was just behind the Sapa Inca in social status. The gods were very important
to the Inca and the high priest spoke directly to their most powerful god, the Sun god Inti.

Royal Family - The direct relatives of Sapa Inca were next in line. They received high positions in the
government. The primary wife of the emperor was the queen called the coya.

Inca - The noble class, or Inca class, was made up of the people directly descended from the people who
first established the city of Cuzco. They were called the Inca. They lived lives of luxury and held the best
positions in the Inca government.

Inca-by-privilege - As the empire grew, the emperor needed more people he could trust in high
positions in the government. There weren't enough of the original Inca to rule. So a new class was
created called Inca-by-privilege. These people were considered nobles, but not as high in class as the
true Inca.

Public Administrators

Below the Inca or noble class was the class of public administrators. These people ran the government
at the low level.

Curacas - The Curacas were the leaders from the tribes that were conquered. They were often left as
leaders of their tribes. They still had to report to the Inca, but if they remained loyal, they often kept
their position.
Tax collectors - Each group of families, or ayllu, had a tax collector who kept watch over them. He made
sure that they paid all of their taxes. There was also a strict hierarchy of tax collectors. The higher levels
kept an eye on the people below them.

Record keepers - In order to track who had paid their taxes and where the supplies were stored, there
were many record keepers in the government.

Commoners

Artisans - Artisans were commoners, but were also considered a higher social class than the farmers.
They worked on crafts such as pottery or gold jewelry for the nobles.

Farmers - At the bottom of the social class were the farmers. The farmers were also the largest and the
most important class within the Inca Empire. Farmers worked long hard days and sent two-thirds of
their crops to the government and the priests. The Inca Empire relied on the production of the farmers
for its wealth and success.

The Ayllu

The basic unit of Inca society was the ayllu. The ayllu was made up of a number of families that worked
together almost like one large family. Everyone in the empire was part of an ayllu.

Interesting Facts about the Society of the Inca Empire

*Craftspeople were paid by the government with food that the government received from the tax on
farmers. Craftspeople also did not have to pay the labor tax called the mit'a.

*Architects and engineers were part of the public administration class. They were considered higher in
class than artisans or craftsmen.

*Certain clothing and jewelry was reserved for the noble and Inca classes.

*Nobles and high level leaders, such as curacas, did not have to pay taxes.

*Nobles were allowed to have many wives, but commoners could only have one wife.

*Women married as young as twelve and were generally married by the age of 16. Men were married
by the age of 20.

Inca Empire Cuzco City

Cuzco was the capital and birthplace of the Inca Empire. The emperor, or Sapa Inca, lived in a palace in
Cuzco. His top leaders and closest advisors also lived there.

Where is Cuzco located?

Cuzco is located in the Andes Mountains of what is today southern Peru. It sits high in the mountains at
an elevation of 11,100 feet (3,399 meters) above sea level.
When was Cuzco founded?

Cuzco was founded by Manco Capac around 1200 AD. He established the Kingdom of Cuzco as a city-
state that ruled the surrounding lands.

Center of the Inca Empire

In 1438 Pachacuti became the Sapa Inca of the Inca people. He greatly expanded the lands that Cuzco
controlled. Soon Cuzco was the center of the vast Inca Empire.

Who lived in the city of Cuzco?

The city of Cuzco was a place for nobles to live during the Inca Empire. Commoners did not live in the
city. The only exceptions were the servants of the nobles as well as artisans and builders who were
working on buildings or other items for the nobles. Many of the high ranking nobles were required to
live in Cuzco. Even the governors of the four major regions of the empire were required to have a home
in Cuzco and to live one fourth of the year in the city. The most important person that lived in Cuzco was
the emperor, or Sapa Inca. He lived in a huge palace with his family and queen, the coya.

The Buildings of Cuzco

Emperor's Palace - Perhaps the most important building in Cuzco was the emperor's palace. There were
actually a number of palaces in Cuzco because each new emperor built his own palace. The palace of the
previous emperor was occupied by his mummy. The Inca believed that the spirit of the old emperor
inhabited the mummy and they often went to consult the mummies of previous emperors.

Coricancha - The most important temple in Cuzco was the temple of the Sun god Inti. It was called the
Coricancha which means "Golden Temple". During the time of the Inca Empire the walls and floors of
the temple were covered in sheets of gold.

Sacsayhuaman - Located on a steep hill on the outskirts of the city was the fortress of Sacsayhuaman.
This fortress was guarded with a series of huge stone walls. There are individual stones in the walls so
big they are estimated to weigh nearly 200 tons!

Interesting Facts about the Inca city of Cuzco

# A common greeting used in the city was "Ama Sua, Ama Quella, Ama Lulla" which meant "Don't lie,
don't steal, don't be lazy". This was also the cornerstone of the Inca law.

# The Killke people lived in the area before the Inca and may have built some of the structures that the
Inca used.

# The city of Cuzco is still a large city today with a population of around 350,000.

# Many of the stones in the walls of Sacsayhuaman fit so closely together that you cannot even slide a
piece of paper between them.
# The city of Cuzco is often spelled with an "s" as in Cusco.

# The Constitution of Peru officially designates the modern city of Cuzco as the Historical Capital of Peru.

# Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro said of Cuzco "it is so beautiful and has such fine buildings that
it would be remarkable even in Spain".

Inca Empire Machu Picchu

Machu Picchu was a city of the Inca Empire. It is sometimes called the "lost city" because the Spanish
never discovered the city when they conquered the Inca in the 1500s. Today the city is a UNESCO World
Heritage Site and was voted one of the New Seven Wonders of the World.

Where is Machu Picchu?

One of the most fascinating things about Machu Picchu is its location. It sits 8,000 feet above sea level
atop a mountain in the Andes Mountain range in southern Peru. Three sides of the city are surrounded
by cliffs that drop over 1,400 feet to the Urubamba River. At the fourth side of the city is a high
mountain.

When was Machu Picchu built?

Archeologists believe that the city was first built at the peak of the Inca Empire around the year 1450.
Construction likely continued on the site until the empire was conquered by the Spanish in the mid
1500s.

Why was it built?

Machu Picchu was built as the royal estate for the ninth Inca King, Pachacuti. Archeologists aren't sure
why he built it, however. There are a number of theories as to why he had it built. One theory is that it
was a vacation retreat for the king. It is in a warmer spot than the capital city of Cuzco. It also is in a
beautiful location and would have been a nice getaway for the king. Another theory is that it was built as
a sacred religious site. Perhaps it was a combination of both theories.

How was Machu Picchu built?

Most of the buildings are built with stones that are fitted together tightly without the use of mortar. This
style of construction helped the buildings to stay intact during earthquakes. The Inca didn't use the
wheel or have heavy beasts of burden, so most of the hard work was done by people. It would have
taken hundreds of laborers using grass ropes and levers to move the large stones around the site.

Who lived here?

Machu Picchu was not a large city. Probably only around 1,000 people lived there. It was likely a city for
the Inca nobility and priests as well as their servants.

When was Machu Picchu rediscovered?

The city was rediscovered in July 1911 by explorer Hiram Bingham. He was led there by a local boy
named Pablito Alvarez. Hiram wrote a book about the city called The Lost City of the Incas.

About the City

The city of Machu Picchu was divided into three sections:

Sacred District - The Sacred District was home to many of the important temples including the Temple of
the Sun and the Intihuatana.

Popular District - This was where the commoners lived who served the nobles and priests. It has small
houses and places for storing supplies.

District of Priests and Nobility - This area had nicer homes where the priests and the nobility lived.

The Intihuatana

One of the sacred structures found in Machu Picchu was the Intihuatana. This was a stone structure that
the Inca believed helped to hold the sun in place and keep it on its correct path. These stones were once
found throughout the Inca Empire, but most were destroyed by the Spanish.

Interesting Facts about the Inca city of Machu Picchu

# It is located around 50 miles from Cuzco, the capital city of the Inca Empire.

# Although we often think of Machu Picchu being high in the Andes Mountains, it is actually located
about 3,300 feet below the city of Cuzco.

# Today it is the most visited tourist destination in Peru.

# Machu Picchu means "Old Peak" or "Old Mountain" in the Quechua language of the Inca.

# There are around 140 buildings in the city as well as over 100 flights of stone steps.

# The Inca built a stone road from Cuzco to Machu Picchu. Many people still hike this trail today as part
of their trip to see Machu Picchu.

Inca Empire Tribes of Early Peru

Before the Inca Empire took control of Peru and the west coast of South America, there were other
tribes and civilizations that formed throughout the history of the region.

Norte Chico Civilization (3000 BC to 1800 BC)

The first civilization to form in the Americas was the Norte Chico civilization of northern Peru. It was one
of only six civilizations to form separately in the ancient world. Archeologists think that around 30 major
cities were part of the government formed by the Norte Chico including the capital city of Caral. The
Norte Chico did not have ceramics, but built large monumental structures.
Chavin (900 BC to 200 BC)

The Chavin civilization reached its height around 500 BC. The Chavin lived in the Mosna Valley in the
west central part of Peru. They are named after their most well-known site the Chavin de Huantar which
was located high up in the Andes Mountains. The Chavin carved the images of their gods into huge
blocks of stone.

Paracas (700 BC to 200 AD)

The Paracas civilization developed along the coast of Peru. They were skilled farmers who used
advanced irrigation techniques to water their crops. The Paracas are known for their tombs and well-
preserved mummies as well as their complex textiles.

Nazca (100 AD to 800 AD)

The Nazca civilization was located along the southern coast of Peru. Their culture was heavily influenced
by the Paracas civilization. The Nazca built underground aqueducts and were known for producing
beautiful artwork and ceramics. Today the Nazca are most famous for their "Nazca lines". The Nazca
made huge figures by carving long lines right into the ground of the dry plateau between the towns of
Nazca and Palpa. You can still see these figures today when flying over the land in an airplane. Some of
the figures are over 600 feet long! The figures include monkeys, spiders, trees, fish, and llamas.

Moche (100 AD to 800 AD)

The Moche developed along the northern coast of Peru at the same time the Nazca were flourishing in
the south. The center of the Moche civilization was Moche city. Moche city is known for two large
structures, the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon. The Pyramid of the Sun was a huge
structure made from over 130 million adobe bricks. The Moche people were also famous for their
artistic pottery that was often made in the shape of animals and people.

Tiahuanaco (300 AD to 1000 AD)

At the center of the Tiahuanaco civilization was a large city with an estimated population of 50,000
people. It was located high in the Andes Mountains at 12,000 feet above sea level. This city had a large
temple complex with huge statues and a famous stone arch called the Gateway of the Sun.

Huari (800 AD to 900 AD)

The Huari civilization developed to the north of the Tiahuanaco people and had much in common with
them. The city of Huari was the center of the empire which had a central government as well as taxes.
They also developed terraced farming in the mountains and had a well built road system. The Huari
reached their peak around 800 AD, but something happened and they collapsed around 100 years later.
No one is quite sure why the Huari disappeared.

Chimu (900 AD to 1476 AD)

The Chimu Empire was the last well developed civilization prior to the rise of the Inca. They built their
capital city Chan Chan around 1200 AD and expanded their empire to include much of Peru. They were
conquered by the Inca in 1476 AD.

Interesting Facts about the Tribes of Early Peru

# The Norte Chico civilization was discovered in the late 1990s by archeologist Ruth Shady Solis.

# Sometimes the Huari is spelled "Wari".

# The capital city of the Chimu, Chan Chan, covered an area of around 10 square miles.

# When archeologists uncovered the Huari city of Pikillacta they found over 700 stone buildings. Some
of the buildings were three stories tall.

# Most of the Moche pyramids were emptied by grave robbers, however archeologists found one intact.
They found a mummy of a man who has since been nicknamed the Lord of Sipan.

Biography

Francisco Pizarro

Occupation: Conquistador and Explorer

Born: Around 1474 in Trujillo, Spain

Died: June 26, 1541 in Lima, Peru

Best known for: Conquering the Inca Empire

Biography:

Where did Francisco Pizarro grow up?

Francisco Pizarro grew up in Trujillo, Spain. His father, Gonzalo Pizarro, was a colonel in the Spanish
army and his mother, Francisca, was a poor woman living in Trujillo. Francisco grew up with little
education and never learned how to read or write. Growing up was tough for Francisco. He was raised
by his grandparents because his parents never got married. He worked as a pig herder for many years.

Leaving for the New World

Francisco was an ambitious man, however, and wanted to improve his lot in life. He heard stories of the
riches of the New World and wanted to travel there and find his own fortune. He set sail for the New
World and lived on the island of Hispaniola for several years as a colonist.

Joining an Expedition
Pizarro eventually became friends with explorer Vasco Nunez de Balboa. In 1513, he joined Balboa on
his expeditions. He was even a member of Balboa's famous expedition that crossed the Isthmus of
Panama to reach the Pacific Ocean. When Balboa was replaced as the local governor by Pedrarias Davila,
Pizarro became friends with Davila. When Davila and Balboa became enemies, Pizarro turned on Balboa
and arrested him. Balboa was executed and Pizarro was rewarded for his loyalty to the governor.

Expeditions to South America

Pizarro had heard rumors of a land in South America that was full of gold and other treasures. He
wanted to explore the land. He made two initial expeditions into the land. The first expedition took
place in 1524 and was a total failure. Several of his men died and Pizarro had to turn back without
discovering anything of value. The second trip in 1526 went better as Pizarro reached the Tumbez
people on the borders of the Inca Empire. He now knew for sure that the gold he had heard tales of was
more than just rumors. However, he eventually had to turn back before reaching the Inca.

The Fight to Return to Peru

Pizarro now wanted to mount a third expedition. However, the local governor of Panama had lost
confidence in Pizarro and refused to let him go. Very determined to mount another expedition, Pizarro
travelled back to Spain to get the support of the king. Pizarro eventually received the support of the
Spanish government for a third expedition. He was also named the governor of the territory.

Conquering the Inca

In 1532 Pizarro landed on the coast of South America. He established the first Spanish settlement in
Peru called San Miguel de Piura. Meanwhile the Inca had just fought a civil war between two brothers,
Atahualpa and Huascar. Their father the emperor had died and both wanted his throne. Atahualpa won
the war, but the country was weakened from the internal battles. Many Inca were also sick from
diseases brought by the Spanish such as smallpox.

Killing the Inca Emperor

Pizarro and his men set out to meet with Atahualpa. Atahualpa felt he had nothing to worry about.
Pizarro only had a few hundred men while he had tens of thousands. However, Pizarro set a trap for
Atahualpa and took him prisoner. He held him ransom for a room full of gold and silver. The Inca
delivered the gold and silver, but Pizarro executed Atahualpa anyway.

Conquering Cuzco

Pizarro then marched to Cuzco and took over the city in 1533. He looted the city of its treasure. In 1535
he established the city of Lima as the new capital of Peru. He would rule as governor for the next ten
years.

Dispute and Death

 In 1538 Pizarro had a dispute with his long time expedition partner and fellow conquistador Diego
Almagro. He had Almagro killed. However, on June 26, 1541 some of Almagro's supporters led by his son
stormed Pizarro's home in Lima and assassinated him.

Interesting Facts about Francisco Pizarro

# He was the second cousin once removed of Hernan Cortez, the conquistador who conquered the
Aztecs in Mexico.

# No one is quite sure exactly when Pizarro was born. It was likely between 1471 and 1476.

# The famous explorer Hernando de Soto was part of Pizarro's group that conquered the Inca.

# Francisco was accompanied by his brothers Gonzalo, Hernando, and Juan throughout his campaign to
conquer the Inca.

# When Pizarro captured the Inca Emperor his small force of less than 200 men managed to kill over
2,000 Inca and take 5,000 more as prisoners. He had the advantage of guns, cannons, horses, and iron
weapons.