Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189 – 215

www.elsevier.com/locate/sedgeo

Research paper

Development patterns and controlling factors of Tertiary carbonate

buildups: Insights from high-resolution 3D seismic and well data
in the Malampaya gas field (Offshore Palawan, Philippines)
F. FournierT, J. Borgomano, L.F. Montaggioni
Centre de Sédimentologie-Paléontologie, FRE-CNRS 2761 bDynamique des récifs et des plates-formes carbonatéesQ,
Case 67, Université de Provence, 3, Place Victor Hugo, F-13331 Marseille cedex 03, France

Abstract

The comprehensive subsurface database of the Malampaya buildup (Late Eocene to Early Miocene, offshore NW Palawan)
provides a rare insight into the development of South-East Asian Cenozoic carbonate systems and their controlling factors. The
newly acquired high-resolution three-dimensional seismic survey, combined with facies and well-log analysis, allowed a better
understanding of the internal architecture of a carbonate platform whose development was largely controlled by tectonic
deformation. The Malampaya carbonate system was initiated in the Late Eocene, as an attached shelf influenced by significant
clastic input. The Late Eocene–Early Oligocene shelf was subject to syn-depositional extensional tectonics (eastward tilting and
block faulting) that favoured the development of small size buildups on structural highs. After a stage of eastward reef
progradation, an aggrading carbonate shelf, frequently affected by subaerial exposure, developed from the earliest Late
Oligocene to the Early Miocene. During this period, recurrent reactivation of highs along the western and northeastern buildup
margins determined the asymmetric morphology and internal architecture of the carbonate system. The final demise of the
carbonate buildup occurred in the late Early Miocene. It resulted from an increase in subsidence rate and/or a sharp increase in
nutrient input. Additional parameters like eustacy, oceanographic conditions and the type of carbonate producers played a
subordinate role in the buildup development and ultimate demise.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Carbonates; Depositional processes; Tectonics; Seismic data; Tertiary; South-East Asia

1. Introduction

During the Cenozoic, extensive shallow marine

carbonate production took place in South-East Asia
T Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 491106178; fax: +33
491108523. within various passive and active tectonic settings
E-mail address: Francois.Fournier@newsup.univ-mrs.fr (Wilson, 2002). In the Southern margin of the South
(F. Fournier). China Sea, many carbonate build-ups developed on
0037-0738/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2005.01.009
190 F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215

topographic highs inherited from block-tilting during data and detailed petrographic studies of rock samples
the Eocene to Early Oligocene rifting phase (Fulth- extracted from 10 wells.
orpe and Schlanger, 1989, Wiliams, 1997, Sales et al., The objective of this paper is threefold: 1) to
1997). develop a 3D facies model of the Malampaya
Various examples of carbonate development and carbonate buildup, 2) to reconstruct its development
depositional facies models have been described in the history and to characterize its stratigraphic architec-
Indo-Pacific region: e.g. the Miocene Luconia build- ture, 3) to define and assess the respective role of the
ups (Epting, 1980), the Middle Oligocene Berai main controlling factors on the development of the
Limestone (Saller et al., 1992), the Miocene Natuna system. Special attention was given to the impact of
buildup (Rudolph and Lehmann, 1989; Dunn et al., local tectonic deformation and differential subsidence
1996). However, the role of tectonics on the develop- on the stratigraphic architecture of the carbonate
ment patterns and stratigraphic architecture of these buildup.
systems is only documented in a few cases: the
Eocene to Middle Miocene Tonasa carbonate platform
of South Sulawesi (Wilson, 1999, 2000; Wilson et al., 2. Location and geological setting of the
2000), and the Late Eocene to Miocene Gunungh Malampaya carbonate buildup
Putih carbonate complex (Cucci and Clark, 1993).
For the Malampaya gas field, Grötsch and Mer- The Malampaya oil and gas accumulation is
cadier (1999) provided a 3D model of the carbonate located in the deep water Block SC 38 (850 to 1200
buildup evolution. However, the relatively low verti- m) offshore Palawan (Philippines). This Late Eocene
cal resolution (80 m in the carbonates) of the seismic to Early Miocene carbonate buildup is situated at a
records did not allow a detailed description of the depth of 3000 m below present sea level (Fig. 1) and
buildup internal architecture. This work is based on consists of a 5 km long and 1–2 km wide, NE–SW
the integration of higher resolution (25 m) 3D seismic oriented body. In the North Palawan Block, a number

Fig. 1. (a) Depth (in metres subsea) of the top Nido Limestone and location of wells, in the Malampaya gas field (after Grötsch and Mercadier,
1999) within Block SC 38, offshore Palawan, Philippines. (b) Seismic line showing the main morphologic features of the Malampaya buildup
(see panel a for location). (c) Simplified stratigraphic column.
 F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215 191

of hydrocarbon accumulations (Longman, 1985; of the block and extensive clastic supply from the
Wiliams, 1997; Sales et al., 1997) are positioned in uplifted Palawan island (Fulthorpe and Schlanger,
the Late Eocene to Early Miocene Nido Limestone. 1989). The carbonate buildups of Block SC 38 were
The regional distribution of the Nido Limestone is sealed by Early to Middle Miocene basinal Pagasa
mainly controlled by the NE–SW trending extensional clastics.
basement faults related to the Eocene–Early Oligo- The first model of long-term evolution of the
cene rifting phase of the South China Sea (Fulthorpe Malampaya buildup was proposed by Grötsch and
and Schlanger, 1989; Wiliams, 1997; Sales et al., Mercadier (1999) using three-dimensional seismic
1997). The break-up event related to this rifting phase data and relatively sparse core and side-wall samples
was dated on the basis of the mid-Oligocene magnetic from 4 wells (MA-1 to MA-4). These authors
anomaly 11 (Briais et al., 1993). The spreading in the distinguished three main phases of platform evolution:
South-China Sea led to a southward drift of the 1) development of an initial carbonate platform on the
Calamian–North Palawan–North Borneo micro-con- crest of a tilted block (syn-rift phase, Late Eocene), 2)
tinent throughout the Late Oligocene and Early progradational phase (Early Oligocene), 3) Aggrada-
Miocene. During the late Early Miocene, this micro- tional phase and subsequent backstepping (Late
continent collided with the accretion wedge of the Oligocene–Early Miocene). The buildup finally
Paleogene subduction zone of North Cagayan drowned during the Late Early Miocene.
(Schlüter et al., 1996), promoting the obduction of The short-term depositional evolution was inves-
the collision belt on the North Palawan block and tigated by Fournier et al. (2004) utilizing core data
ceasing seafloor spreading (Briais et al., 1993). from wells MA-5 and MA-7. These authors showed
Carbonate development in the area stopped in that the vertical and lateral facies distribution was
response to downwarping of the north-western part strongly controlled by high-frequency, relative sea-

Fig. 2. Chronostratigraphic frameworks of the Nido Limestone, in the Malampaya buildup: (a) after Grötsch and Mercadier (1999), (b) after
Fournier et al. (2004), (c) this study.
192 F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215

level changes. Meteoric dissolution and cementation 4. Results

during exposure events associated with these high
frequency variations in relative sea-level are a major 4.1. Reconstruction of depositional and diagenetic
feature of the reservoir property evolution in Malam- environments
paya. The chronostratigraphic frameworks proposed
by Grötsch and Mercadier (1999) and Fournier et al. 4.1.1. Depositional facies and paleoenvironments
(2004) are compared in Fig. 2. The analysis of the sediment bioclastic composi-
tion, foraminiferal, and red algal assemblages com-
bined with recognition of the sedimentological
3. Data and methods features observed on cores and thin-sections allowed
the identification of 26 depositional facies (Tables 1
The dataset used in this study consists of a three- and 2). They cover the Late Eocene to the Early
dimensional seismic survey acquired by Shell Phil- Miocene and range from distal slope to inner-shelf
ippines (SPEX) in 2002, and well data from 10 wells settings. In addition, the integration of seismic data
(MA-1 to MA-10). Core sections are available in allowed to identify various buildup morphologies
wells MA-2, MA-3, MA-4, MA-5, MA-7, and MA- during the development of the Malampaya carbonate
9. The seismic interpretation used prestack time system. Depositional facies distributions and buildup
migrated data (PSTM), with a zero-phase signal. The morphologies are summarized in Fig. 4.
seismic polarity is defined as follows: negative
amplitude means a downward increase in acoustic 4.1.1.1. Inner-shelf facies. Late Eocene and Early
impedance (positive reflection coefficient). The work Oligocene inner-shelf facies are dominated by
utilizes the depositional facies and diagenetic fea- benthic foraminifers and calcareous algae (mainly
tures identified by Fournier et al. (2004) from MA-5 encrusting coralline algae and Halimeda); corals
and MA-7, those obtained from new thin-section become common in the upper part of the Early
analyses on MA-6, MA-8, MA-9, and MA-10 and Oligocene. The following facies were identified (see
the re-examination of the rock material studied by Table 1 for description and paleoenvironmental
Grötsch and Mercadier (1999) from MA-1, MA-2, interpretations): 1) bryozoan–foraminiferal–algal
and MA-3. Carbon and oxygen isotope analyses on packstone E1 facies, rich in quartz particles, 2)
whole-rock samples were used to support diagenetic rhodolithic floatstone/rudstone R1a facies, 3) mud-
interpretations. rich, foraminiferal–Halimeda floatstone R1b1 facies,
The analysis and interpretation of the available 4) mud-poor, Halimeda–floatstone facies R1b2, 5)
datasets was done through six successive steps: 1) coral–foraminiferal–coralline algal grainstone/float-
identification of depositional and diagenetic environ- stone R3a facies, 6) coralline algal–foraminiferal
ments and age determinations based on biostratigra- packstone R3b facies, 7) echinoderm–coralline algal
phy, from core, cuttings, and side-wall samples packstone R3c facies.
analyses; 2) definition of the main stratigraphic units In the Late Oligocene–Early Miocene from the
based on the well analysis of the vertical succession of Malampaya buildup interior, C1a, C1b, C2, C3, M1,
depositional and diagenetic environments; 3) estab- M2a, M2b, and M3 facies were defined previously by
lishment of well correlations based on depositional Fournier et al. (2004). Two additional facies were
and diagenetic sequences, and biostratigraphic con- defined on the basis of MA-8 rock material: 1)
straints; 4) 3D interpretation of the main structural foraminiferal–coralline algal–grainstone M3g1 facies,
features using the new seismic survey; 5) 3D 2) coralline algal–green algal–foraminiferal packstone
interpretation of the 12 main seismic horizons M3h facies.
identified, and of their stratigraphic significance; and High-energy shelf margin facies were recognized
6) construction of a platform development model and in the Early Miocene and are characterized by the lack
identification of the main controls on this develop- of matrix mud and the abundance of thick-walled
ment. A well correlation panel between MA-1, MA-5, benthic foraminifers. Hence they are defined as
and MA-2 is shown in Fig. 3. foraminiferal–coralline algal–grainstone M3g2 facies.
 F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215
Fig. 3. Synthetic chart showing biostratigraphic ages, well-logs data, facies and depositional environments, and d13C profiles from wells MA-1, MA-2, and MA-5; the main
sedimentary units are reported.

193
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Table 1
A summary of the main recognized facies from the Malampaya inner shelf: sedimentologic features, skeletal components, and paleoenvironmental reconstructions
Sedimentary facies Location Dominant components Foraminiferal assemblage Large Scleractinian Paleoenvironmental
remains interpretation
Late Eocene Quartz-rich bryozoan– MA-1, MA-2, –bryozoans –small discocyclina rare shallow-open shelf
foraminiferal–Algal packstone MA-3, MA-5 –benthic foraminifers –lense-shaped Nummulities
facies (E1) –Halimeda –milliods
–coralline algae –Pellatispira
Rhodolithic floatstone/ MA-2 –coralline algae (rhodolithes) –dominant miliolids absent inner shelf slope
rudstone (R1a) –Halimeda –alveolinids
–benthic foraminifers –Nummulites

F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215

–echinoderms –encrusting foraminifers
Early Oligocene Mud-rich Foraminiferal MA-2 –benthic foraminifers –dominant miliolids rare shallow inner shelf
Halimeda floatstone (R1b1) –Halimeda –soritids (Peneroplinae)
–coralline algae –amphisteginids
–corals –small lense-shaped Nummulites
–bryozoans –occasional heterosteginids
Mud-poor Halimeda floatstone MA-2 –Halimeda –soritids (Peneroplis) rare inner shelf sand shoal
(R1b2) –benthic foraminifers –miliolids
–coralline algae –amphisteginids
–corals –small lense-shaped Nummulites
–bryozoans –heterosteginids
Coral–foraminiferal–coralline MA-2, MA-5 –corals –miliolids frequent to abundant sand-shoal in
algal grainstone/Floatstone –benthic foraminifers –alveolinids back-reef setting
facies (R3a) –coralline algae –thick-tested amphisteginids
–rotaliids
coralline algal–Foraminiferal MA-1, MA-2, MA-5 –coralline algae –dominant miliolids rare shallow inner shelf
Packstone facies (R3b) –benthic foraminifers –alveolinids
–echinoderms –amphisteginids
–coral fragments –arenaceous foraminifers
Echinoderms–coralline MA-1, MA-2, MA-5 –echinoderms –dominant miliolids absent relatively deep and
algal–Packstone facies (R3c) –encrusting coralline algae –alveolinids protected inner shelf
–benthic foraminifers –lense-shaped Nummulites
–rare corals and bryozoans –arenaceous foraminifers
Late Oligocene coralline algal wackestone/ MA-2, MA-5 –encrusting coralline algae –arenaceous foraminifers absent deep inner shelf
packstone facies (C1a) (thick-layered and foliose –miliolids
growth forms) –amphistegenids
–alveolinids (rare)
coralline algal–echinoderm MA-1, MA-2, –encrusting coralline algae –amphisteginids rare deep protected
wackestone/packstone (C1b) MA-5, MA-10 –echinoderms (mainly echinoids) –rotaliids inner shelf
–arenaceous foraminifera
–miliolids and alveolinids
–planktonics (rare)
Coral–coralline MA-2, MA-5, MA-10 –small coral debris –alveolinids (Borealis pygmaeus) rare inner shelf shoal
algal–foraminiferal –encrusting and geniculate –Sphaerogypsina
grainstone facies (C2) coralline algae –rotaliids
–benthic foraminifers –amphisteginids
 –miliolids (Austrotrillina)
–Heterostegina borneesis
–broken soritids and arenaceous
foraminifera
Coral–corallines MA-1, MA-2, –large coral debris –rotaliids frequent to abundant shallow protected
algal–foraminiferal MA-5, MA-10 –encrusting and geniculate –Heterostegina borneensis inner shelf with
packstone/floatstone coralline algae –amphisteginids seagrass
facies (C3) –benthic foraminifers –miliolids meadows and
–alveolinids patch-reefs
–soritids
–lepidocyclinids
Early Miocene Echinoderm coralline algal MA-1, MA-5, –echinoderms (orphiuroids and –small benthic rare deep open shelf
wackestone/packstone MA-7, MA-8 echinoids) (Bolivina, discorbids)
facies (M1) –coralline algae –planktonics

F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215

–Miogypsinoides
–lepidocyclinids, amphisteginids
and heterosteginids (occasional)
coralline algal–foraminiferal– MA-1, MA-5, –coralline algae –arenaceous foraminifera occasional deep protected
echinoderm packstone MA-7, MA-8 –benthic foraminifers –miliolids inner shelf
facies (M2a) –echinoderms (echinoids mainly) –small benthic
(Bolvina, discorbids)
–planktonics (rare)
–lepidocyclinids (rare)
Echinoderms-coralline MA-5 –echinoderms (ophiuroids and –arenaceous formainifera frequent to abundant moderately deep and
algal-foraminiferal echinoids) –miliolids open shelf
packstone facies (M2b) –coralline algae –planktonics
–benthic foraminifers –lepidocyclinids
Coral-coralline algal- MA-1, MA-2, –large coral debris –soritids frequent to abundant shallow protected
foraminiferal packstone/ MA-5, MA-6, –encrusting and geniculate –miliolids inner shelf with
floatstone facies (M3) MA-7, MA-8 coralline algae –arenaceous foraminifera seagrass meadows
–benthic foraminifers –amphisteginids and patch-reefs
–miogypsinids
–lepidocyclinids
Foraminiferal–coralline MA-1, MA-8 –benthic foraminifers –soritids absent inner shelf sand shoal
algal–grainstone facies –encrusting and geniculate –miliolids
(M3g1) coralline algae –alveolinids
–occasional echinoderms and –miogypsinids
Halimeda plates. –encrusting foraminifers
coralline algal–Green MA-8 a–coralline algae –dominant miliolids absent shallow-water
Algal–Foraminiferal –Halimeda –common soritids and protected inner-shelf
packstone facies (M3h) –benthic foraminifers lepidocyclinids
–occasional echinoderms and –occasional amphisteginids and
mollusks miogypsinids
Planktonic Foraminiferal MA-8 –planktonic foraminifers –dominant planktonic foraminifers absent drowned platform
wackestone/packstone (M0) –fragments of benthic foraminifers –heterosteginids
–coralline algae –occasional miogypsinids and
–echinoderms encrusting foraminifers

195
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Table 2
A summary of the main recognized facies from the Malampaya shelf margin, slope and flank environments: sedimentologic features, skeletal components, and paleoenvironmental reconstructions
Sedimentary facies Location Dominal components Foraminiferal assemblage Large Scleractinian Paleoenvironmental
(N5 mm) interpretation
Early Oligocene Coral–Algal floatstone (R1c) MA-2, MA-5 –corals –Heterostegina common reef slope
–coralline algae –Cycloclypeus
–benthic foraminifers –flat Nummulites
–Halimeda –Amphistegina
–bryozoans –occasional milliods and
arenaceous foraminifers
Coral–Foraminiferal–coralline MA-2, MA-5 –corals –milliods abundant near reef zone
algal floatstone/rudstone (R2) –benthic foraminifers –Amphistegina

F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215

–coralline algae –alveolinids
–echinoderms –soritids
–rare Halimeda and bryozoans –arenaceous foraminifers
Late Oligocene coralline algal–Foraminiferal MA-1, MA-2, MA-10 –coralline algae (algal balls) –Heterosteginids absent slope
packstone (C4a) –benthic foraminifers –Spiroclypeus
–echinoderms –rotaliids
–occasional bryozoans and corals –lepidocyclinids
coralline algal–Foraminiferal MA-2 –coralline algae (algal balls) –Heterosteginids rare proximal reef slope
grainstone (C4b) –benthic foraminifers –Lepidocyclinids
–corals –rotaliids
–thick-tested Amphistegina
-miliolids
-occasional Spiroclypeus
Lepidocyclinid–Rhodolithic MA-2 –large benthic foraminifers –large lepidocyclinids absent flank
rudstone (C5a) –coralline algae (rhodolithes) –Operculina
–Halimeda –Heterostegina
–bryozoans –Cycloclypeus
–echinoderms –Spiroclypeus
–rare milliods an amphisteginids
Halimeda rudstone (C5b) MA-2 –Halimeda –large lepidocyclinids absent flank
–coralline algae –Operculina
–large benthic foraminifers –Heterostegina
–bryozoans –Cycloclypeus
–rare miliolids and amphisteginids
Early Miocene Coral–Foraminiferal–floatsone/ MA-9 –corals (mainly Alveopora) –lepidocyclinids abundant reef flat
rudstone (M4) –benthic foraminifers –Miogypsinoides
–coralline algae –Amphistegina
–Halimeda –miliolids
–occasional bryozoans, –soritids
echinoderms and dasyclads
Foraminiferal–coralline MA-8 –occasional echinoderms –miogypsinids absent shelf margin sand shoal
algal–grainstone facies (M3g2) –miliolids
–soritids
–arenaceous foraminifers
 F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215 197

Fig. 4. Distribution of the depositional facies in function of the overall buildup morphology.

4.1.1.2. Perireefal facies. Floatstone/rudstone facies gocene), 3) Halimeda rudstone C5b facies (Late
containing large coral fragments and associated Oligocene).
benthic foraminiferal assemblages were encountered
in the uppermost part of the Early Oligocene interval 4.1.1.4. Deep carbonate shelf facies. Approximately
(in MA-5) and in the Early Miocene south-eastern 1 m below the top of the Nido carbonates (near the
shelf margin (in MA-9): 1) coral–foraminiferal–coral- base of the Pagasa clastics), a packstone dominated by
line algal floatstone/rudstone R2b facies (Early planktonic foraminifers, fragments of large flattened
Oligocene), 2) coral–foraminiferal floatstone/rudstone benthic foraminifers, and coralline algae was encoun-
M4 facies (Early Miocene). tered in the MA-8 well. This facies (M0), overlying
subaerially exposed shallow inner-shelf facies, is
4.1.1.3. Slope facies. The most proximal reef slope interpreted as deposited in open-marine and deep
environments are characterized by abundant benthic carbonate shelf, during a phase of major deepening
foraminifers and red algal fragments, and common (bdrowning sequenceQ, sensu Erlich et al., 1990,
coral fragments: 1) coral–algal floatstone R1c facies 1991).
(Early Oligocene), 2) coralline algal–foraminiferal
grainstone C4b facies (Late Oligocene). 4.1.2. Diagenesis
Deeper slope facies are dominated by very large
and flattened benthic hyaline foraminifers and 4.1.2.1. Diagenesis in the Malampaya inner-shelf
calcareous algae: 1) coralline algal–foraminiferal area. Two intervals with distinct diagenetic evolu-
packstone (Late Oligocene) C4a facies, 2) lepido- tion were recognised in the Malampaya inner-shelf. In
cyclinid–rhodolithic rudstone C5a facies (Late Oli- the Late Eocene–Early Oligocene interval, except in
198 F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215

its uppermost part, dissolution of bioclasts remained such as early growth of marine thin isopacheous
limited. Early marine isopacheous fringes and mete- calcite cements and leaching of skeletal grains. Burial
oric to early burial drusy cements are present. Low calcite or dolomite cements are lacking, contrasting
porosity and permeability within grainstone layers with the south-western flank.
result from early marine and meteoric and/or early
burial cementation occluding most of the primary 4.2. Results from the seismic interpretation
intergranular pores, and from weak leaching. Arago-
nitic bioclasts (corals and Halimeda) are commonly 4.2.1. Seismic expression of the Malampaya buildup
replaced by non-ferroan mosaic calcite spar. The buildup is characterized seismically by medium
Diagenesis in the interval between the uppermost to high-amplitude reflections with typical spacings of
Early Oligocene and the late Early Miocene is 20–30 ms (Fig. 1). Reflections through the overlying
controlled by the circulation of meteoric waters that clastics are of lower amplitude with spacings of 15–25
frequently has occurred during subaerial exposures of ms. There is a sharp transition between clastics and
the shelf (Fournier et al., 2004). Leaching of skeletal carbonates. This boundary is interpreted as the external
grains, vuggy porosity, paleosoil development, and envelope of the Malampaya buildup. In the eastern
calcite drusy cementation are the most common flank, reflections show abrupt changes in amplitude
meteoric features in this stratigraphic interval. and dip at its vicinity. In the western flank, particularly
to the north, the boundary is underlined by a high-
4.1.2.2. Diagenesis in the south-western flank. amplitude reflector. Seismic reflections in the Pagasa
Diagenesis affecting the south-western buildup flank clastics onlap this boundary. In the western flank,
can be inferred from Late Oligocene MA-3 cores (Fig. seismic reflectors have high average dip values: 188 for
5). The very high intergranular primary porosity of internal reflectors and 348 for the flank envelope.
these mud-poor and coarse-grained sediments has The structural interpretation of the 3D seismic data
been almost completely occluded through successive showed that the most salient structural feature is a
diagenetic phases (Fig. 5, c and d): SW–NE-oriented fault, which forms a crest at the
western margin of the carbonate system. This fault
(A) Earlier marine precipitation of isopacheous represents the boundary between the continuous high-
fibrous calcite cements alternating with geopetal amplitude carbonate shelf reflectors and discontinu-
sediment infills. Geopetal infills are composed of ous, steeply dipping, medium-amplitude ones. In the
laminated micrite (microbial origin?), structure- lower part of the carbonate buildup (Late Eocene–
less to micro-peloidal micrite, and faecal pellets. Early Oligocene), seismic lines clearly indicate a
(B) Later cementation phases: 1) coarse-grained normal fault (Fig. 6, d: transect EF; Fig. 7, b: transect
drusy to mosaic calcite cements; 2) dolomite IJK; Fig. 8, b: transect NO). However, seismic data do
cements; 3) coarse mosaic calcite cement not provide clear indication on the sense of displace-
occluding fractures. ment during the Late Oligocene–Early Miocene. This
fault was sealed by the Pagasa shales. Minor normal
The very coarse-grained texture of cements 1) and faults affect the Late Eocene and Early Oligocene
3) points towards a burial diagenetic environment deposits in the North-Eastern termination of the
rather than a meteoric environment. Moreover the lack carbonate system forming a short and narrow horst
of leaching and the highly positive values of carbon structure. The Northern area was interpreted as
isotope ratios (from +1.08x PDB to +2.12x PDB in affected by a SW–NE-oriented fold structure (Fig.
the cored interval) suggest that this interval has 9a and d).
probably never been subject to meteoric diagenesis.
4.2.2. Definition and description of unconformity-
4.1.2.3. Diagenesis in the Eastern flank. Carbonates bounded units
from the eastern flank are penetrated by well MA-2, Unconformity-bounded units were defined, based
within the upper part of the Late Oligocene interval. on the envelopes identified from seismic reflections,
This interval was subject to weak diagenetic alteration combined to the vertical and lateral variations in
 F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215 199

Fig. 5. (a) Seismic profile (transect AB: see location on Fig. 7, a), in the southernmost area of the Malampaya buildup showing a thick carbonate
succession in the western flank and a relatively narrow backstepping and aggrading shelf (location of wells MA-3 and MA-9 is indicated); b)
interpretation of the transect AB; (c) lepidocyclinid-coralline algal C5a facies (Late Oligocene, MA-3): large lepidocyclinids (Lep.) and
Halimeda plates (Hal.) are visible; the intergranular space locally is geopetally infilled with micrite (gi) and the residual porosity is occluded
completely by drusy calcite cements (dc); (d) Halimeda-rich C5b facies (Late Oligocene, MA-3): Halimeda plates (Hal.) are dominant and the
intergranular space is occluded completely by an early marine fringe of isopacheous fibrous calcite (ic) and by later meteoric drusy calcite
cements (dc); (e) close-up of core from MA-9 showing coral rudstone M4 facies (Early Miocene) with pieces of branching arborescent
Alveopora (Alv.). Colour legend for seismic sections: negative amplitudes=red, positive amplitudes=black.

depositional and diagenetic environments (Fig. 3). The top by horizon R1 (maximum unit thickness: 100 m).
stratigraphic framework defined in this study is Pre-Nido clastic deposits are characterized by a chaotic
summarized in Fig. 2. and generally low-amplitude seismic facies. The top of
the pre-Nido clastics (or base Nido limestone) repre-
4.2.2.1. Unit SR1 (Priabonian–Rupelian). Unit SR1 sents the upper envelope of this seismic facies. The
is bounded at base by the top of pre-Nido clastics and at cores extracted from well MA-4 in the uppermost part
200 F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215

of the pre-Nido clastics document continental fluvial probably represents redeposited carbonates of Late
deposits of Paleocene to Eocene age. Eocene to Early Oligocene age.
On the seismic profiles, this unit shows diverse
onlap terminations of high amplitude reflectors over 4.2.2.2. Unit SC1.1 (Rupelian–earliest Chattian).
the pre-Nido clastics (Fig. 6, c: transect CD). Unit SC1.1 is bounded at base by R1 reflector and at
Carbonates sampled in this interval in MA-1, MA-2, top by C1.1 (maximum unit thickness: 80 m).
and MA-5 were interpreted as very shallow-water Reflector R1 is a continuous negative high-amplitude
inner-shelf deposits. Following this, these termina- reflector (Fig. 6, c, d and e). It results from the
tions can be interpreted as coastal onlaps. Mapping of contrast in acoustic impedance between low porosity
these terminations reveals a rugged exposed top- shallow inner-shelf grainstones affected by meteoric
ography at the central part of the studied area that has to burial cementation and porous inner-shelf wacke-
been progressively buried by carbonate deposits (Fig. stone/packstone (along the western edge) to deeper
6, a and c). The morphological characteristics of the outer-shelf wackestone/packstone (along the eastern
seismic reflectors and the nature of depositional facies margin).
recognised in this interval validate the interpretation In the northern area, a phase of eastward tectonic
of a relatively flat and shallow, aggrading land- tilting of the SR1 platform prior to the deposition of
attached shelf, developing over the pre-Nido top- the SC1.1 unit is evidenced by the following
ography. The lowermost SR1 unit is relatively rich in observations: 1) the eastward deepening at the base
quartz sand grains (up to 50% of the total rock of the unit (Fig. 3) as suggested by the lateral facies
volume). The upward decreasing content in quartz change between MA-1 (shallow inner-shelf R3b
grains in the Late Eocene–Early Oligocene is believed facies) and MA-2 (reef slope R1c facies), 2) the onlap
to be related directly to the decreasing extension of the terminations of C1.1 or intra-SC1.1 reflectors over R1
exposed pre-Nido clastic deposits. (Fig. 5, b: transect AB; Fig. 6, e: transect GH).
In the northeastern part of the Malampaya In MA-1, this unit is exclusively composed of
carbonate system, a reduced horst, sealed by the protected inner-shelf deposits (Fig. 3). In MA-5, a
C1.1 reflector (Fig. 6, d: transect EF), was inter- prograding pattern is clearly expressed by the
preted from seismic data. The age of the host vertical facies succession showing slope deposits
formation cannot accurately be determined: downlap overlain by coral floatstone–rudstone from perireefal
terminations of westward dipping unit SC1.1 reflec- zones, in turn, overtopped by protected inner-shelf
tors onto reflector R1 indicate that the horst may deposits. The same succession with a slightly thinner
have formed coeval with or prior to the deposition of inner-shelfal interval, is present in MA-2. In the
SC1.1, but it could have been active at the time of northern part of the Malampaya buildup, in the
the SR1 unit deposition. The westward-thinning or vicinity of wells MA-1, MA-2, and MA-5, the
possibly lack of Early Oligocene deposits at the top development of the SC1.1 unit is interpreted to
of the SR1 unit in MA-1 and the eastward thickening result from the eastward progradation of a reefal
of this unit could be related to synsedimentary platform, from an initial topographic high located
eastward tilting of the Malampaya platform and/or along the western edge.
to a post-SR1 and pre-SC1.1 tilting and erosion of High-frequency subaerial exposures are suspected
the uplifted crest. In the southwestern area, a thick to have occurred in the uppermost part of this interval
interval (up to 200 m) of southwestward dipping, (Fig. 3). This is based on the recurrence of calcrete
high-amplitude and discontinuous reflectors onlaps features (MA-5) and negative carbon isotope peaks
the steep flank of the tilted block (Fig. 5); it (MA-2 and MA-5). The C1.1 reflector marks the top

Fig. 6. (a) Paleogeographic maps of the SR1 unit (Late Eocene to Early Oligocene); (b) paleogeographic maps of the SC1.1 unit (Early
Oligocene to earliest Late Oligocene); (c) seismic profile (transect CD) and interpretation showing onlaps of unit SR1 over the Pre-Nido clastics;
(d) seismic profile (transect EF) and interpretation in the northernmost buildup area, showing onlap of C1.1 over R1 and downlap/toplap
terminations of an intra-SC1.1 reflector; (e) seismic profile (transect GH) and interpretation showing onlaps of the SC1.1 reflectors over R1.
Colour legend for seismic sections: negative amplitudes=red, positive amplitudes=black.
F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215 201
202 F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215

Fig. 7. (a) Paleogeographic map of the SC1.2 unit (Late Oligocene); (b) seismic profile (transect IJK) and interpretation showing onlap
termination of an intra SC1.1 reflector over R1, C1.2 over C1.1 and downlaps of C2.3 onto C2.2; (c) facies and sequence interpretation of the
Oligocene cored interval from MA-5 well, showing progradational and aggradational pattern of units SC1.1 and SC1.2, respectively; (d) seismic
profile (transect LM) and interpretation showing the truncation of units SR1 and SC1.2, below the base of unit SC1.2 (in MA-4, the Late
Oligocene inner-shelf deposits directly overlie the Pre-Nido clastics). Colour legend for seismic sections: negative amplitudes=red, positive
amplitudes=black.

of this interval, which is characterized by high- In the northeastern area, seismic reflections indi-
frequency cyclic alternation of tightly cemented and cate the presence of a very small-sized horst–graben
vuggy layers (see erratic well-log porosity response in system. The westward dipping clinoforms with down-
Fig. 3). lap and toplap terminations respectively against the
 F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215 203

Fig. 8. (a) Paleogeographic map of units SC2.1, SC2.2 and SC2.3 (Late Oligocene-earliest Miocene?); (b) seismic profile (transect NO) and
interpretation displaying various downlap terminations (intra-C1.1 reflector onto R1, C2.1 onto C1.2 and C2.3 onto C2.2); (c) seismic profile
(transect PQ) and interpretation showing toplap termination of reflector C1.2 against C2.1. Colour legend for seismic sections: negative
amplitudes=red, positive amplitudes=black.

R1 and C1.1 reflectors (Fig. 6, d: transect EF) are addition, in the northeastern part of the buildup,
interpreted to represent the infill of the graben by reflector C1.2 is parallel to the underlying reflectors;
prograding slope deposits. There are no well data this clearly signs flat-topped shelves. The local toplap
available in this part of the buildup that could confirm termination of reflector C1.2 (Fig. 8, c), therefore, is
this interpretation. interpreted as a truncation that has resulted from a
local deformation of the carbonate platform rather
4.2.2.3. Unit SC1.2 (Chattian). The base and the top than a reef-like topography.
of the unit SC1.2 relate to the C1.1 and C1.2 horizons, In MA-5, i.e. the best documented well, Fournier et
respectively (maximum unit thickness: 50 m). Hori- al. (2004) showed a cyclic alternation of shallow inner-
zon C1.2 separates the top of cyclically exposed, shelf facies (C1a, C1b, C2, and C3), interrupted by
shallow inner-shelf deposits with numerous cemented subaerial exposure surfaces. The authors interpreted
layers (meteoric diagenesis) from overlying unex- this interval as an aggrading flat rimmed-shelf with
posed deep-water deposits. The relatively constant frequent exposure surfaces. The absence of significant
facies association below C1.2, in all of the wells that lateral facies changes below and above reflector C1.1
reached this interval (MA-1, MA-2, MA-3, MA-4, and the onlap termination of reflector C1.2 over C1.1
MA-5, MA-10), gives evidence of deposition on a (Fig. 7, b: transect IJK) suggests that SC1.1 shallow
relatively flat inner shelf at depths less than 20 m. In shelf deposits have been deformed tectonically prior to
204 F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215

Fig. 9. (a) Paleogeographic map of units SM1.1, SM1.2 and SM2, SM3 and SM4 (Early Miocene); (b) seismic profile (transect RS) and
interpretation showing a progressive backstep of a relatively narrow shelf; (c) neutron and density well-logs, facies and paleoenvironments of
side-wall samples from well MA-8 (units SM3 and SM4); (d) seismic profile (transect TU) and interpretation showing the onlap of unit SM3
over reflector M2. Colour legend for seismic sections: negative amplitudes=red, positive amplitudes=black.
 F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215 205

and/or during the deposition of SC1.2. The resulting to a relatively flat, aggrading shelf, deposited in a
topographic highs are mainly located along the west- period of relative tectonic quiescence (maximum unit
ern edge (Fig. 7, a). In MA-4 well, Late Oligocene thickness: 60 m). The very erratic porosity and sonic
SC1.2 carbonate deposits directly overlies the pre- log responses through the whole interval may have
Nido clastics. The seismic lines show toplap termi- resulted from repeated exposure events. The seismic
nations of R1 and C1.1 below C1.2 (Fig. 7, d: transect profiles and well data from MA-2 provide support for
LM). These terminations could reflect an eastward a moderate retrogradation of the eastern shelf margin
tilting and truncation of SR1 and SC1.1 units below over C2.1 horizon (Fig. 8).
the Late Oligocene SC1.2 deposits, or could be related
to SR1 and SC1.1 progradations. 4.2.2.6. Unit SC2.3 (undifferentiated
Chattian–Aquitanian). Unit SC2.3 is topped by the
4.2.2.4. Unit SC2.1 (Chattian). Unit SC1.2 is C2.3 horizon that displays a downlap termination onto
bounded at the base by the C1.2 unconformity and at C2.2 (Fig. 7, b: transect IJK; Fig. 8, b: transect NO).
the top by C2.1 (maximum unit thickness: 60 m). C2.1 This unit consists of a narrow carbonate body (less
reflector exhibits a flat, highly negative amplitude than 500 m wide) that developed along the western
segment passing into a low amplitude, westward edge (maximum unit thickness: 40 m). In well MA-1,
dipping segment that downlaps reflector C1.2 (Fig. 8, the basal deposits of SC2.3 relate to relatively deep
b: transect NO). This reflector is steeply dipping and open slope or outer-shelf environments (facies
eastward and shows a decrease in amplitude. The C4a). They are overlain by shallower and more
depositional and diagenetic patterns observed in MA-2 protected inner-shelf deposits (facies M2a). The
indicate that the high amplitude, flat segment repre- chaotic porosity and sonic log records, the presence
sents a shallow shelf that has undergone subaerial of meteoric cements, microkarsts and the negative
exposure; the lower amplitude and dipping segments carbon isotope values indicate that this unit has
could represent the slopes of the small-sized buildup undergone several exposure events during deposition.
which are restricted to the northeastern part of the This unit has resulted probably from southeastward
carbonate system. This interpretation is supported by progradation of a narrow carbonate buildup that
the occurrence of depositional facies, above C1.2, initially developed on the top of the uplifted western
expressing calm inner-shelf environments in MA-5 edge.
(facies M1) and deeper, open environment in MA-1
(facies C4a). 4.2.2.7. Units SM1.1 to SM3
In wells MA-1 and MA-2, this interval exhibits a (Aquitanian–Burdigalian). Similarly to C2.2 and
shallowing-upward trend, from deep open marine C2.3, reflectors M1.1 to M3 materialize tops of
slope (C4a) to perireefal and/or inner-shelf facies intervals with erratic sonic and porosity log responses
(C4b, C1b, C2). The new seismic data showed a that correspond to alternations of metre-thick, highly
small-size flat-topped carbonate buildup in the north- porous, and firmly cemented layers. The recurrence of
western part of the Malampaya carbonate system (Fig. caliche crusts, alveolar septal structures in these
8). This unit results probably from aggradation and intervals strongly suggest that they have been subject
progradation of a carbonate shelf, initially located to frequent subaerial exposure (Fournier et al., 2004).
along a SW–NE direction, toward the SE and NW. The These intervals are overlain by beds with small
local truncation of reflector C1.2 just below the high- variations in porosity and sonic that are typical for
amplitude and flat segment of reflector C2.1 (Fig. 8, c: deeper inner-shelf deposits affected by moderate
transect PQ) strongly suggests that the carbonate dissolution and low cementation. Such a vertical
platform has developed on the highest area of a succession is consistent with the effects of cumulative
tectonically deformed foundation. At the top of the diagenesis associated with parasequence stacking
unit, the initial structure seems to be sealed completely. patterns in a third-order sequence (Tucker, 1993).
The seismic reflectors that present a clear contrast
4.2.2.5. Unit SC2.2 (Chattian). Unit SC2.2, between erratic intervals, composed of alternating
bounded at base by C2.1 and topped by C2.2, relates porous and tightly cemented beds and intervals with
206 F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215

moderate to high porosity, could therefore be regarded seismic terminations over the M2 reflector. In the case
as third-order sequence boundaries (Fig. 10). of a downlap termination, slope or open shelf
Units SM1.1 to SM2 have aggraded with a minor environment deposits should be expected in MA-5,
retrograding component of the eastern margin. Unit instead of shallow inner-shelf deposits. In the northern
SM1.1 onlaps the flanks of the SC2.3 buildup (Fig. 8, margin of the buildup, beyond the northern termi-
b: transect NO). The development of an aggrading nation of the SW–NE fold, the buildup is restricted to
protected inner-shelf that onlaps the 40- to 50-m-thick a 700-m-wide belt located along the western edge
SC2.3 buildup implies an important relative sea-level (Fig. 9, b: transect RS).
fall that would have occurred after deposition of the
SC2.3 unit. The subsequent relative sea-level rise has 4.2.2.8. Unit SM4 (Upper Burdigalian). The top of
catalysed the aggradation of the carbonate shelf the uppermost carbonate unit is characterized by a
afterwards. high-amplitude negative reflection representing the
After deposition of the SM2 unit, tectonic folding transition between tightly cemented shallow inner-
of the carbonate buildup along a SW–NE axis in the shelf carbonates and overlying planktonic foraminifer-
northeastern part of the Malampaya carbonate system bearing clastics. This reflector locally shows downlap
that occurred prior to and/or during the deposition of terminations onto reflector M3 with decrease in
the SM3 unit, is evidenced by seismic records and amplitude in the dipping segment of the horizon.
well data as follows: 1) onlaps of unit SM3 over Unit SM4 is characterized by a westward back-
reflector M2 (Fig. 9, d: transect TU), 2) eastward stepping of the eastward margin. In the southern part
thinning of unit SM3 and 3) geometric correspond- of the Malampaya buildup, a narrow reef tract,
ence between the area of development of the fold and characterized by a decreasing upward width has
that of the SM3 shallow-water carbonate deposits developed on the eastward tilted SM1.2 platform
(Fig. 9, a). Unit SM3 displays the same stacking (Fig. 7, d; Fig. 5, a and b).
pattern, typical of inner shelf deposits, in all of the In MA-1, the presence of meteoric cement and
wells reaching this interval (MA-1, -5, -7, -8). This highly negative values of carbon isotope ratios
provides support for the onlapping nature of the ( 8.1x PDB at 2956.60 m, i.e. 1 m below the top

Fig. 10. Relationship between high- and lower-frequency cyclicity, depositional and diagenetic facies, well-log and seismic responses. The unit
tops are characterized by an increase in frequency of subaerial exposure, resulting in an erratic porosity and sonic well-log response. A high-
energy seismic reflection takes place at the interface between erratic- and high-porosity homogeneous intervals.
 F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215 207

carbonates) indicates that subaerial exposure of the were measured, also suggesting minor terrigenous
buildup occurred prior to the final drowning. The supply (Fig. 9, a). At 3772.50 m depth (at 0.50 m
analysis of the uppermost part of the Nido Limestone above the top carbonates), a poorly sorted sandstone
and of the lowermost Pagasa clastics from MA-8 (Fig. was present (Fig. 9, b). It contains common carbonate
11) provides new insights into the timing and forcing lithoclasts, most of which are reworked from the
of the final drowning event. The side-wall sample underlying M0 facies. Despite the relatively few data
extracted from 3777.50 m hole-depth (Fig. 11, a) available from the drowned interval, three observa-
exhibits miliolid and soritid-dominated, shallow tions can be made concerning the demise of the
inner-shelf facies (facies M3h), affected by intense Malampaya buildup: 1) a deepening event occurred
leaching and meteoric to shallow burial cementation. after an exposure episode as suggested by intense
The 3773.50-m-deep sample (at 0.50m below the top leaching of the shallow inner-shelf facies M3h at
of carbonates) is a planktonic foraminifer-dominated 3777.50 m depth; 2) this deepening event is of Late
packstone, with fragments of echinoderms, coralline Burdigalian age as indicated by the presence of
algae and large benthic foraminifers (facies M0, Fig. Globigerinoides sicanus in the 3773.50-m-deep sam-
9, c). This facies is indicative of a deep open marine ple; 3) the oldest evidence of significant terrigenous
environment. There are no siliciclastic particles in this supply (3772.50 m depth) occurs above the clastic-
sample. In addition, low gamma-ray values (b40 API) free M0 deep shelf environment facies.

Fig. 11. Drowning event in MA-8: (a) gamma-ray, density, and porosity well-logs from the uppermost Nido Limestone and basal Pagasa
clastics; carbonate facies and paleoenvironments are indicated; (b) sandstone composed of sub-angular quartz grains (Qz.), planktonic
foraminifers (Pl.), and planktonic foraminifer-bearing carbonate lithoclasts (Lith.), representing the basal Pagasa clastics in MA-8; (c) packstone
M0 with numerous planktonic foraminifers (Pl.), echinoderm fragments (Ech.); (d) coral-foraminiferal-coralline algal packstone M3, with
recrystallised coral fragments (Cor.), Miliolids (Mil.); dissolution vugs (V) and drusy calcite cements (dc) are visible.
208 F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215

5. Discussion deposits during the Late Eocene, within the SR1 unit.
The relatively important terrigenous supply during
5.1. Controls on carbonate sedimentation this early stage of the Malampaya buildup develop-
ment may have been deleterious to coral settlement
Based on seismic interpretation and rock sample and growth. It also explains the extreme scarcity of
analysis, the following model for the carbonate coral remains in the Late Eocene carbonates, since
buildup development is proposed (Fig. 12). Initial such continental material may have been associated to
topography, differential subsidence at regional to local high nutrient levels as observed in modern land-
scales, faulting, eustacy, climate, and the type of bordering carbonate systems (Ambatsian et al., 1997;
carbonate producers influenced by varying terrige- Mc Culloch et al., 2003).
nous and nutrient input are known to be the main
controlling factors of carbonate platform growth (e.g. 5.1.2. Subsidence and tectonic deformation of the
Longman, 1981; Crevello et al., 1989; Hallock and Malampaya buildups
Schlager, 1986; Montaggioni, 2000; Masse and Deposition and preservation of up to 600 m of
Montaggioni, 2001). The effects of ocean currents shallow-water carbonates indicate that regional sub-
and wind circulation patterns, however, are difficult to sidence was the dominant control on accommodation
recognize. The high-frequency cyclicity typifying the space. Changes in the geodynamic pattern of the
Late Oligocene and Early Miocene inner-shelf depos- southern margin of the South-China Sea from the
its could reflect a glacio-eustatic control, but episodic Eocene to the Miocene probably induced changes in
tectonism could have also generated such metre-scale regional subsidence rates during the Malampaya
cycles (Fournier et al., 2004). Possible salinity buildup growth. In addition, variations in the lateral
fluctuations probably have had low impact on the unit thickness, lateral facies changes and the nature of
development of this system; strongly restricted or seismic terminations show that tectonic processes
brackish environments were not recognized in the (tilting, faulting, and local folding) operating during
available rock dataset (Table 3). the building growth has resulted in local variations in
subsidence rates or local uplifts.
5.1.1. Topographic control on carbonate growth During the Late Eocene to Early Oligocene, the
initiation (Late Eocene) Malampaya shelf was controlled by two tectonic
Numerous authors have discussed the predominant processes (Fig. 12): 1) an eastward tilting of the
role of topography in the initiation of carbonate carbonate platform along the western fault and 2)
buildup development in various tectonic settings block faulting in the North-East generating a short and
(e.g. Longman, 1985; Fulthorpe and Schlanger, narrow graben within the Malampaya shelf. The
1989; Purdy and Bertram, 1993; Wilson et al., eastward tilting promoted non-deposition and/or
2000). In the North Palawan block, the settlement erosion of the uplifted crest (during SR1 unit
sites of carbonate buildups and associated hydro- deposition) and possibly controlled the prograding
carbon accumulations are restricted to the crests of pattern of the SC1.1 unit. The westward, steep dipping
tilted blocks formed during the rifting phase of the clinoforms present in the north-eastern graben sug-
South China Sea (Wiliams, 1997). In Malampaya, due gests that most of the fault movement occurred prior
to the presence of exposed area on the highest points to and/or at the top of unit SR1; however, faults may
of the tilted block, the carbonate system developed as still have been active during the SC1.1 unit deposi-
land-attached shelves onlapping an uneven topogra- tion. The north-eastern graben was completely filled
phy. The initial topography has not simply controlled at the top of this unit. The end of the rifting phase
the location and the morphology of carbonate occurred at the top of the SR1 unit boundary or within
systems, but has also influenced the composition of the SC1.1 unit. The small-scale internal architecture of
the carbonate rocks. The basal carbonates are rela- these syn-rift deposits cannot be determined directly
tively rich in quartz sand, probably derived from the from seismic lines due to insufficient vertical reso-
pre-Nido hinterland clastic sources. The initial pre- lution (25 m). Bosence et al. (1998) showed that, in
Nido basement highs were buried by carbonate syn-rift carbonate systems, the internal architecture is
 F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215
Fig. 12. Model for the development history the Malampaya buildup and facies distribution, from the northern area along a MA-1–MA-5–MA-2 transect. The possible controlling
parameters are indicated.

209
210 F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215

Table 3
Main expected environmental factors and their effects on the development of the Malampaya buildup
Sedimentologic, diagenetic, Main possible controlling factors
and stratigraphic features of Initial Regional Logical tectonic Eustatism Climate Nutrient Wind/ Type of
Malampaya buildup topography subsidence deformation/differential supplies currents carbonate
subsidence producers
Buildup location x
Buildup dimensions x x
(extention/thickness)
Type of carbonate shelf: x x x x
land attached/isolated
Intra-inner shelf onlaps x
Development of x x x
small-size buildups
Lateral variations of x x x
sequence thickness
Buildup asymmetry x x
High-frequency cyclicity x x x
Protected versus open x
signature of inner-shelf
environments
Depositional facies x x x x
Meteoric-dominated x x x x
evolution
Buildup drowning x x

mainly governed by the interplay between fault ential development of the carbonate buildup along the
movement rates and carbonate production rates. Malampaya western margin: 1) a topographic high
In the lower part of the Late Oligocene, prior to was created along the western fault by eastward tilting
and/or during the deposition of unit SC1.2, local uplift of the carbonate shelf or by local bending due to
occurred along the western fault and in the central transpressive movement along the fault. The carbo-
area (Fig. 7). This event resulted in the development nate system drowned in the distal parts whereas
of partially land-attached shelves onlapping carbonate carbonate production kept pace with relative sea-level
islands. Episodic uplift of these topographic highs in the shallower parts, 2) oceanographic conditions
could have caused the development of the exposure- (presence of currents along the western flank, water
capped high-frequency cycles reported from this chemistry, prevailing wind direction) created a variety
interval. of environments more or less favourable for reef
After the deposition of unit SC1.2, a high formed development.
in the north-eastern part of the buildup (Fig. 12). Unit During the early Miocene (units SM2 and SM3),
SC1.1 was locally eroded; a carbonate platform differential subsidence, controlled by the reactivation
started to grow from this high and prograded to the of a SW–NE-oriented high, resulted in a significant
north-west and to the south-east (unit SC2.1). The westward thickening of the inner-shelf deposits. The
SW–NE paleo-high orientation could be related to the presence of shallow protected inner-shelf deposits in
reactivation of a Late Eocene–Early Oligocene syn- the actively subsiding area (as evidenced in MA-1,
rift fault. MA-7, MA-8, close to the western margin) indicates
After a period of tectonic quiescence in the that carbonate accumulation rates have been high
uppermost part of the Oligocene (aggrading unit enough to fill up the main part of the accommodation
SC2.2), a narrow carbonate buildup (300 m width) space. The high-frequency cyclicity and associated
developed along the western fault (unit SC2.3). Two exposure events recognized in this interval (Fournier
interpretations can be offered to explain the prefer- et al., 2004) could have been controlled by episodic
 F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215 211

uplifts (or folding) and subsequent flooding of the during the Early Oligocene–Early Miocene. The
north-eastern area of the Malampaya shelf. The occurrence of coarse-grained coral rudstone facies
asymmetry of the Malampaya buildup during the (facies R2 and M4: Table 2) probably indicates the
Early Miocene between the northern (broad platform proximity of coral reefs. Fournier et al. (2004)
interior) and the southern area (narrow platform discussed the role played by coral-reef rims in the
interior) is possibly related to the development of this nature of inner-shelf facies successions. Although the
SW–NE oriented structure. dominance of benthonic foraminifers and coralline
Concerning the last stage of buildup development algae has resulted in lower rates of carbonate
(Burdigalian unit SM4), the same interpretation as for production, compared to those reported from modern
unit SC2.3 can explain the westward backstep of the tropical coralgal associations, accumulation rates
shallow-water carbonates. estimated in the inner-shelf appear to be generally
The most conspicuous features are the asymmetric sufficient to infill the accommodation space created
sedimentation patterns along the flanks of the Malam- by structural deformation. Carbonate sedimentation
paya system. Whereas the eastern flank and the has led to form low-relief shelves.
adjacent basin are almost completely sediment starved, The type of carbonate producers probably is known
the western flank exhibits thick carbonate deposits (up to be strongly influenced by oceanographic and
to 300 m). The cored interval of well MA-3 (Fig. 3) climatic factors such as currents, nutrient levels, water
represents relatively proximal part of the western temperatures, and prevailing winds (Pomar et al.,
flank; deposition is probably largely autochtonous 2004; Vecsei, 2004). In the Malampaya inner-shelf
(facies C5a and C5b), and took place in the mesophotic environments, the green alga Halimeda is common in
zone as indicated by the dominance of large and the SR1 unit (Late Eocene–Early Oligocene) whereas
flattened benthonic foraminifers and coralline algae it is lacking completely from units SC1.2 to SM3 (late
(mainly Sporolithon). However, in the most distal part Early Oligocene to Early Miocene). However, Hal-
of the western flank and in the basin, carbonate imeda algae are common in the Early Oligocene to
sediments were probably in large part redeposited Early Miocene slope and outer shelf environments;
(Fig. 1). Two factors can be invoked to explain this they have formed Halimeda sands (Fig. 5, b).
asymmetry: 1) the western shelf margin and slope were Halimeda is known to preferentially develop in
destabilized episodically by gravity processes and nutrient-rich waters (Davies and Marshall, 1985;
carbonate material has redeposited in the basin. Fault Drew and Abel, 1985). The disappearance of Hal-
activity could have enhanced such a destabilization; 2) imeda in the Malampaya inner-shelf above the top of
redeposited material could have derived from the shelf unit SR1 could be related to changes in nutrient
by winds (prevailing SW direction) or currents. A concentrations and current regime in relation to the
similar asymmetrical depositional pattern was docu- opening of the South China Sea. The persistence or
mented in the Miocene carbonate platform of the occasional occurrence of Halimeda in the buildup
Queensland Plateau, northeastern Australia (Betzler et flanks could be attributed to locally active upwellings.
al., 1995): calciturbidite development is predominant, This interpretation was invoked to explain the
respectively, on the leeward side of the reefs during the presence of Halimeda sands along the Great Barrier
stages of active reef growth, and on the windward side Reef slopes at depths down to 100 m (Drew and Abel,
during the stages of reef emergence. 1988). The difference in buildup geometry and type
between the SR1 unit and the overlying stratigraphic
5.1.3. Influence of climate, oceanic factors, and units could originate from the difference in the type of
composition of biological assemblages carbonate producers (Halimeda-rich open shelf versus
The type of carbonate producers is an important coral–foraminifer-rich rimmed platform).
control on the development of the Malampaya At diverse stages of its development, the Malam-
buildups. Although high-magnesium calcite bioclasts, paya carbonate system displayed an asymmetric
i.e. benthonic foraminifers and coralline algae are morphology, particularly during the growth of narrow
dominant, aragonitic frame-builders, i.e. corals, are buildups along the western margin (units SC2.3 and
common in the Malampaya inner-shelf deposits SM4). In Cenozoic South-East Asian carbonate
212 F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215

systems, platform asymmetry is explained usually by exposures on the Malampaya shelf. In addition, the
the influence of dominant paleowinds and paleocur- increasing upward imprint of meteoric diagenesis
rents (Cucci and Clark, 1993: Late Eocene to Miocene through the Oligocene could be related to the south-
Gunung Putih carbonate complex; Rudolph and ward drifting of the Palawan block (from 208N at 35
Lehmann, 1989: Miocene Natuna Platform; Grötsch Ma to 128N at 15 Ma, after Hall, 2002). This motion
and Mercadier, 1999: Malampaya buildups). Frame- could have shifted the Malampaya buildup to lower
work builders as corals have developed chiefly in latitudes, from tropical to equatorial conditions. As
agitated and oxygenated waters at the windward side; discussed by Fournier et al. (2004), the onset of the
skeletal grains and muds were moved off the leeward East Asian monsoon in the earliest Miocene has
side. As discussed above (Section 5.1.3), such an probably influenced the nature and distribution of
asymmetry could have resulted from the development barriers along the platform and therefore the lateral and
of carbonate buildups, during sea-level highstands, at vertical distribution of the inner-shelf facies (Late
the top of tectonically active topographic highs along Oligocene cycles generated in protected settings
the western fault. A similar pattern is present in the versus Early Miocene cycles originated under open-
Pedro Bank (Nicaragua Rise), where higher calcitur- marine conditions).
bidite supply during highstands in sea level is
documented (Andresen et al., 2003; Glaser and 5.1.4. Drowning of the Malampaya buildup
Droxler, 1991). Siliciclastic supplies from the mainland of North
Climate is known to strongly influence the proper- Palawan, that was uplifted and exposed in the latest
ties of carbonate reservoirs since they control both Early Miocene–earliest Middle Miocene are inter-
depositional patterns and diagenetic alteration (Sun preted as being the main control of platform drowning
and Esteban, 1994). The development of reefal in the North Palawan offshore area (Lighty et al., 1983;
environments during the Early Oligocene to Early Fulthorpe and Schlanger, 1989). However, in Malam-
Miocene required warm sea surface temperatures paya, the earliest evidence of significant terrigenous
(humid equatorial to arid tropical conditions). In the input is observed above the clastic-free M0 deep
Late Oligocene–Early Miocene, the Malampaya shelf carbonate shelf facies. This siliciclastic input occurred
has exhibited a meteoric-dominated diagenetic evolu- subsequently to the deepening stage. Therefore, they
tion affecting the Nido carbonates, that is more likely cannot therefore be considered to be responsible for
related to a prevailing humid equatorial climate the drowning of the Malampaya buildup. Hence
favouring severe leaching and caliche development. drowning may have resulted from: 1) a rapid relative
In contrast, the Late Eocene to Early Oligocene sea level rise, related to the downward flexure of the
Malampaya shelf is characterized by reduced meteoric North Palawan Block, which outpaced carbonate
diagenetic alteration that could be related to a less accumulation, 2) inimical waters (anoxia, excess in
humid climate and/or few exposure events during this nutrient level) limiting rates of carbonate production.
interval. However, no evidence of arid conditions was The second hypothesis is supported by the reappear-
found in this interval and the sediments deposited are ance of Halimeda in MA-8, at 6 meters below the top
totally devoid of evaporites or dolomites. Compared to of inner-shelf carbonates (Fig. 11). As mentioned
the Late Oligocene–Early Miocene interval, the Late above, the growth of Halimeda beds is favoured by
Eocene–Early Oligocene shelf deposits do not display high nutrient content. In Malampaya, increases in
any high-frequency cyclicity. Such a change in strati- nutrient level may have been related to the emergence
graphic and diagenetic patterns in the mid-Oligocene of the North Palawan Island.
can be explained in terms of climate. The global
cooling event, penecontemporaneous to the Early– 5.2. Comparison with other Cenozoic tropical carbo-
Late Oligocene transition is recorded in the Indo- nate systems
Pacific region (Fulthorpe and Schlanger, 1989). It
could have modified the climatic regime of South-East 5.2.1. Buildup initiation
Asia through glacio-eustatic sea-level fluctuation, Many Cenozoic carbonate platforms initially have
which favoured high-frequency cyclicity and repeated developed on the footwall crests of tilted blocks in
 F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215 213

extensional settings: the Eocene to Miocene Tonasa 5.2.3. Platform drowning

Platform, Sulawesi (Wilson et al., 2000), the Peutra One of the best documented drowning sequence
Formation, Sumatra (Collins et al., 1996), the Liuhua from the South-East Asian Cenozoic is that of the
platform, South China Sea (Erlich et al., 1990), Early Miocene Liuhua Platform, offshore People’s
Miocene–Pliocene Segitiga platform, east Natuna Republic of China (Erlich et al., 1990, 1991). Similar
sea, Indonesia (Bachtel et al., 2003), the Oligo- to Malampaya, the following features were reported
Miocene Salalah platform, South Oman (Borgomano from the Liuhua Platform: 1) development of an
and Peters, 2004). Similar to the Late Eocene–Early asymmetric platform prior to drowning, 2) deposition
Oligocene Malampaya carbonate system, the Tonasa of planktonic and flattened benthic foraminifer-rich
platform initially formed as a land-attached shelf and packstone in the uppermost section of the carbonate
comprised clastic-rich basal deposits. In the Carib- series. In addition, relative sea-level rise and environ-
bean region, the initiation of the Pleistocene–Hol- mental deterioration (excluding excess in clastic
ocene reefal buildup was largely controlled by supply) were invoked as possible causes for platform
antecedent topography inherited from the tectonic drowning.
deformation of underlying siliciclastic deposits Other examples of subaerial exposure prior to
(Esker et al., 1998; Ferro et al., 1999; Purdy et al., buildup drowning were documented in south-east
2003). Asia: Middle Miocene Anepahan A-1X site, offshore
south Palawan (Rehm, 2003), Middle Miocene
5.2.2. Influence of local tectonics Luconia Province, offshore Sarawak (Epting, 1980,
There are few published models in the literature, Vahrenkamp et al., 2003).
documenting the tectonic control on the development
of South-East Asian Tertiary carbonate systems. The
formation of the Late Eocene to Miocene Gunung 6. Conclusions
Putih carbonate complex was influenced by differ-
ential subsidence that controlled the distribution of The combined analysis of rock, well-log and 3D-
carbonates on the platform and favoured the develop- seismic data shows that the Malampaya carbonate
ment of small-sized buildups on structural highs system has recorded tectonic, climatic, eustatic,
(Cucci and Clark, 1993). In the Miocene–Pliocene oceanographic events and changes in benthic com-
Segitiga carbonate system, east Natuna sea, faulting munity structures during the Late Eocene–Early
controlled the distribution of facies and the establish- Miocene period.
ment of localized buildups on structural highs, The structural relief created by block tilting, in the
whereas local differential subsidence caused lateral late Eocene, during the rifting phase of the South
variations in sequence stacking pattern throughout the China Sea has determined the size, shape, and
platform (Bachtel et al., 2003). The syn-rift develop- location of the initial carbonate buildup.
ment of the Tonasa platform (Wilson et al., 2000) The growth of large frame-building organisms such
could be regarded as an analogue of the Late Eocene as scleractinians has led to the formation of a reefal
and Early Oligocene series from Malampaya: syn- rimmed-shelf topography during the Early Oligocene–
tilting deposition of shallow-water on the footwall, Early Miocene. Accumulation rates on the inner-shelf
thick successions of redeposited carbonates in the have generally been high enough to form flat shelves
hangingwall. Numerous other examples of syn-rift from initially uneven topography.
carbonate development are documented in the Gulf of The active deformation during sedimentation
Suez (Burchette, 1988; Bosence et al., 1998; Cross et largely controlled the internal architecture (develop-
al., 1998). ment of small-sized buildups on highs, internal onlaps
Unlike Malampaya, the establishment and the in inner shelfal deposits, truncation of strata) and the
development of Miocene carbonate buildups, in the asymmetry of the buildup. The episodic reactivation
offshore area of south Palawan (Rehm, 2003) and of structural highs could have been responsible for the
Vietnam (Mayall and Cox, 1988), are not significantly high-frequency cyclicity recorded in the inner-shelf,
influenced by tectonics. but the role of glacio-eustacy cannot be ruled out.
214 F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215

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