Anatomy- Derived from the Greek words e.g.

cardiovascular physiology, respiratory physiology and

reproductive physiology.
ANA- apart TOMY- To cut
Pathologic physiology - is the study of the effects of diseases on
HUMAN ANATOMY- study of the normal structures of the
organ or system functions.
human body and their relationships with one another.

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY- study of the different functions of

the normal structures of the human body and the involved
processes of how these body parts work.
HOMEOSTASIS

- Maintenance of the body’s internal environment

DIVISION OF HUMAN ANATOMY
- Negative feedback loop
A. Gross / Macroscopic anatomy
-stability, Balance, Equilibrium
- study of normal structures of the human big enough to be
studied by unaided eye. HOMEOSTASIS REGULATION

1.Systemic Anatomy – study of structures of specific 1. Autoregulation – cells lack oxygen ,chemicals
body systems would be released to dilate blood vessels

e.g. nervous and circulatory systems. 2. Extrinsic regulation - during exercise nervous
system commands inc of heart rate so blood will circulate
2. Regional Anatomy – study of structures by body faster
regions.

e.g. head region, thoracic region.

ESSENTIAL LIFE PROCESS
3. Surface anatomy – study of the landmarks on the
body surface of the different visceral organs.
1. Metabolism –all the chemical processes that
occur in the body.
B. Microscopic Anatomy
2. Responsiveness – the body’s ability to react to
- study of structures of the human body through use of changes in environment both internally or
microscope. externally.

1. Cytology – chemical and microscopic study of cells 3. Movement – motion occurring inside the human
body, either the whole body or individual cells or
2. Histology – study of normal tissues of the body even the organelles within these cells.
C. Embryology 4. Growth – an increase in body size that results from
-study of development of the human body from an increase in the size or number of cells.

5. Differentiation – development of cells from an

fertilization of ovum up to the period of extrauterine life.
unspecialized to a specialized state.
D. Neuroanatomy
6. Reproduction – formation of new cells for
-study of normal microscopic, gross features and growth, repair or replacement or the production of a
development of the nervous system new individual.

LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION

OF THE BODY
DIVISION OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
1. Chemical level
Cell Physiology - the study of the functions of living cells
- the cornerstone of human physiology 2. Cellular level

Special Physiology - is the study of the functions of specific 3. Tissue level

organs 4. Organ level
e.g. cardiac physiology-is the study of the heart function 5. System level
Systemic Physiology - all aspects of the functions of specific
organ systems.
 BODY SYSTEMS

CELLS - Smallest units of life

- Perform all activities necessary to maintain life

e.g. metabolism, assimilation, digestion, excretion,

reproduction
TISSUE
Made up of different types of cells

• Epithelial - covers and protects

• Connective - binds and supports other tissues

• Muscle - movement

• Nervous - connects sensory structures to motor

structures

• Hemopoietic

ORGANS - Tissues with same function grouped

together.

Examples: liver, stomach

SYSTEM -A group of organs that perform a common

function.
CAVITIES

BODY REGIONS Dorsal -cranial, spinal

1. Head
2. Neck
3. Trunk
a) Thorax
b) Abdomen
c) Pelvic cavity
d) Perineum

4. Upper extremities
5. Lower extremities
 Ventral- thoracic, abdominopelvic

THE ANATOMICAL POSITION

-standing (or lying supine) erect

-head and eyes directed forward.

- Upper limbs by the sides with palms facing forward.

-Lower limbs together with toes facing forward.

ANATOMICAL PLANES

1. Coronal / Frontal Plane

- Vertical planes
-running from side to side
-Divides the body or any of it’s part into anterior and
posterior portion

2. Sagittal Plane / Lateral Plane

-Vertical plane
-from front to back
- divides into right & left side

3. Horizontal / Transverse / axial

-horizontal planes
-divides the body into upper and lower parts

4. Median plane
-saggital plane through the midline of the body
-from front to the back dividing it into right and left
halves
 THE ANATOMICAL TERMS OF RELATIONSHIP

1. Superior / Cranial/Cephalic –towars the head end

of the body; Upper (the hand is part of the superior
extremity)

2. Inferior / Caudal – away from the head;

lower(foot is a part of lower extremity)

3. Anterior / Ventral - front

4. Posterior / Dorsal - back

5. Medial – towards the midline; inner 5th finger and 1st

toe

6. Lateral – away from the midline; outer 1st finger

and 5th toe

7. Proximal – towards or nearest the trunk or the

point of origin of a part

8. Distal – away from the trunk

9. Superficial / External
SECTIONS OF THE BODY
10. Deep / Internal
Longitudinal section - vertical
11. Central
Section
12. Peripheral
Transverse sections -cross
13. Parietal
section
14. Visceral
Oblique sections: Cut the body not along any body
planes (slant)
 TYPES OF CELL

PROKARYOTIC – Do not contain nuclear membrane/ envelope

EUKARYOTIC-contains true nuclear

membrane/envelope

PROKARYOTIC vs. EUKARYOTIC CELL

PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
ORGANISM Bacteria protest,fungi,plants
Animals
ORGANELLES few /none nucleus,
mitochondria,
endoplasmic
reticulum, etc
DNA Circular / in the Linear / circular
cytoplasm Bounded by a
membrane
RNA and RNA and protein RNA synthesized in
PROTEIN synthesize in the the nucleus / protein
same in the cytoplasm
compartment
CELL DIVISION Binary fission Mitosis / meiosis

-The cell is the basic unit of biological organization

-Basic composition

 Protoplasm/cytoplasm
 cell membrane
TERMS OF MOVEMENT  nucleus

1. Flexion – contraction; decreases the angle PHYSIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF

between two body parts CELL
2. Extension -straightening; increases the angle
1. Irritability/excitability -nervous tissue
between two body parts
2. Conductivity- nervous tissue
3. Abduction -movement away from the midline
3. Contractility - muscle tissue
4. Adduction -towards the midline
4. Absorption & Secretion – Digestive Track
5. Circumduction – movement of a bvody region in a
5. Excretion - excretory
circular manner
6. Respiration- respiratory
6. Rotation – rotate along axis; can occur within the
7. Growth & Reproduction- different parts of the
vertebral column
body
7. Inversion – sole facing medially
8. Organization
8. Eversion – sole facing laterally
9. Dorsiflextion – sole facing anteriorly PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE EUKARYOTIC
10. Plantarflextion – sole facing posteriorly CELL
11. Supination – radius return the bones to their
parallel position 1. CELL MEMBRANE
12. Pronation – radius rotates over ulna - trilaminar
13. Protraction – Move forward - semipermeable
14. Retraction – move backward
15. Elevation – closing of the mouth 2. CYTOPLASM
16. Depression – opening of the mouth
- colloidal
- with organelles, inclusions, and cytoskeleton

Organelles - iving structure found in cytoplasm

Inclusion-temporary/non living structure

Cytoskeleton- support
 3. NUCLEUS  Movement of solute from an area of high solute
- with DNA in the form of: concentration to an area of low solute concentration
with a CARRIER
a. heterochromatin (inactive)
b. euchromatin (active) OSMOSIS

 Movement of solvent (WATER) from an area of

LOW solute concentration to an area of HIGH solute
concentration

FILTRATION

ACTIVE- Lesser concentration to greater concentration

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

 Movement of solute from an area of LOW solute

concentration to an area of HIGH solute
concentration

ISOTONIC- EQUAL

HYPERTONIC- SHRINKING

HYPOTONIC- Swelling eventually; Lysis=Bursting

The Cell Membrane

- Double phospholipid layer with embedded proteins

(TRILAMINAR)
- the one to give shape

-acts as receptor sites EXOCYTOSIS – releasing;exit; extrusion of substance within

the cell
-plasma membrane

Membrane transport – selectively permeable membrane

 Osmosis
 protein channels
 active transport
 fluid mosaic model

TRANSPORT PROCESSES ACROSS

CELL MEMBRANE

PASSIVE -greater concentration to lesser concentration

SIMPLE DIFFUSION

 Movement of solute from an area of high solute

concentration to an area of low solute
concentration ENDOCYTOSIS- entry of particlesn towards the cell
FACILITATED DIFFUSION •Phagocytosis – cell eating

•pinocytosis – cell drinking

Cytoplasm of the Cell colloid

- Mostly water with chemical compounds in solution or  Solution: atoms or ions distributed in medium
  Polar compounds go into solution 3. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 Nonpolar compounds go into colloidal  System of membranes that makes up channels
suspension
 Connects with outer nuclear and cell membranes
 With organelles, inclusions, Cytoskeleton

ORGANELLES
TYPES OF ER:
Membrane bound organells - MEGLP M

– Mitochondria
 Rough / Granular ER- for protein synthesis
E – Endoplasmic reticulum attached ribosomeS
(protein-EXTRACELLULAR USE)
G- Golgi Complex  Smooth / Non-granular ER- fat transport and sex
hormone synthesis,HCL synthesis, release and
L- Lysosomes
recapture Ca+ in skeletal muslces.
P- Peroxisomes / micorbodies
4. GOLGI COMPLEX/
APPARATUS (Dictyosomes)
Newly Discovered / Temporary to your cells  Collection of flat saclike cisternae
 Concentration and collection of cellular
MELANOSOMES compounds
 Storage warehouses of the cell
SECRETORY GRANULLES
 Carbohydrate synthesis site
“packaging”

Non- Membrane Bound Organelles 5. LYSOSOMES

 Digestive enzyme packages
RIBOSOMES
 With acid hydrolases
 Lack oxidases and catalases
 Functionplay role in cellular defense
1. MITOCHONDRIA
 digest stored food
 MITOCHONDRIA – singular
 maintenance and repair of organelles
MITOCHONDRION- plural
 suicide agents for old or weak cells a,
 Powerhouses of the cell
primary lysosomes
 Cristae - inner folds wherecellular respiration
b. secondary lysosomes
occurs
c. Residual Bodies
 Synthesize ATP Energy requirements of cell
determine cristae number Also accumulate (THE 6. PEROXISOMES / MICROBODIES
MORE CRISTAE YOU HAVE THE MORE  CONTAIN:
ENERGY IS BEING SYNTHESIZED BY  CATALASE – converts H2O2 into H2O
MITOCHONDRION) and O2
 Ca+,synthesize nucleic acids and  OXIDASE
proteins,oxidation of fatty acids.
 Billaminar (outer and inner layer) 7. MELANOSOMES
8. SECRETORY GRANULES

2. RIBOSOMES
 Distributed throughout Cytoplasm
 Attached to rough Endoplasmic Reticulum INCLUSIONS
 No membrane covering
 Site of protein synthesis 1. GLYCOGEN
free ribosomes- protein for INTRACELLULAR 2. LIPID
USE 3. PIGMENTS

a. Exogenous
b. Endogenous
1) lipofuscin
2) melanin
3) hemoglobin
4) bilirubin
 4. CRYSTALS  35-45% of length of interphase
a.Crystals of Reinke b.Crystals 4. G2 phase
of Charcot-Bottcher  phase before onset of mitosis
 10-20% of length of interphase
CYTOSKELETON
MITOSIS
1. MICROFILAMENTS (7 nm in dia.)
2. INTEMEDIATE FILAMENTS (10 nm in dia.)  Prophase
a. Keratin- epithelial cells  Metaphase
b. Vimentin- mesenchymal cells  Anaphase
c. Desmin- muscle cells  Telophase
d. Glial fibrillary protein- glial cells of nervous
system
e. Neurofilaments- neurons

Centrioles

- determine polarity of cell

 Centrosome - two centrioles at right angles to each

other (Composed of a set of triplets fibers)

-Form spindle fibers during cell division

-Guide duplicated chromosomes to daughter cells

Cillia and flagella

-Hair like protrusion from cell membranae

-nuclear membrane has pores to allow substances passage

 cilia – line respiratory tract ; move materials

across cell surface
 Flagellium-propels cell through a medium

The Nucleus

-Control center of the cell

-Nuclear membrane has pores to allow substances passage

 Chromatin - genetic material inside nucleoplasm

 Nucleolus - site of ribosome formation

INTERPHASE
 18-24 hours
 inactive / resting phase

FOUR PHASES OF INTERPHASE

1. . G1 (gap 1) phase
 (-) DNA synthesis
 (+) RNA and protein synthesis
 30-50% of length of interphase KARYOTYPE
2. G0 phase
 cells pull out of the cycle  23 PAIRS
3. S (synthesis) phase  22 pairs: autosomes
 DNA synthesis/replication  1 pair: sex chromosome
 XX : female Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis
 XY : male
MITOSIS layers of cells; not all apices of cells reach
 Two daughter cells with exactly the same the surface (different heights of columnar
genetic material cells)
 Cellular division for growth, maintenance and b.
repair 2. Stratified – more than one layer
a. Transitional (UROTHELIUM – found in
MEISOS urinary system) – several layer of cells
where the shape changes according to
 Four daughter cells with half the genetic material functional status of the organ
 Cellular division for Reproduction
SHAPES OF THE CELLS

1. SQUAMOUS
TISSUES
2. CUBOIDAL

3. COLUMNAR
CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES
SPECIFIC SUBTYPES:
1. LINING/SURFACE EPITHELIUM - protection
 ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF CELL LAYER +
2. GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM – Secretion
SHAPE OP THE CELL AND ITS SPECIAL
functions of epithelial tissues: FEATURE LIKE PRESENCE/ABSENCE OF CILIA
OR KERATIN
1. Protection 1. SIMPLE
A. Simple squamous
2. Secretion
 Blood vessels- single layer of flat cell for easier
EPITHELIAL TISSUE diffusion of substances
 Lungs(alveoli)- have only single layer of cells so
 One of the fundamental types of tissue of the that oxygen and carbondioxide can easily pass through
body B. Simple cuboidal and C. Simple
Columnar
 Secretion (secretory) or absorption
LINING / SURFACE EPITHELIUM
C. columnar
COMPOSITION:
1) non-ciliated
 Epithelial Cells
2) ciliated
 Extra Intercellular Substance
CHARACTERISTICS
2. STRATIFIED
 Contiguous cells -closely packed together
A. Stratified Squamous
 Basal lamina
 If it needs to be moist in the mouth or vocal
 Avascular
activity you have stratified squamous non -
 Sheet or layers
keratinized
SUBTYPE OF LINING/SURFACE  In the skin where it is dry there is a presence of
EPITHELIUM TISSUE keratin so you have stratified keratinized
B. Stratified cuboidal
 Based on the number of :  Sweat glands and sebaceous gland were you have
a secretory function
layers of cells:

1. Simple – single layer of cells

a. Pseudostratifed – single layer of columnar
shaped cells with nucleus at variable
location of the cell giving it false
stratification or appearance of several

C. Stratified Columnar
 Lining cells of the ducts of salivary and mammary
gland

D. Pseudostratified Columnar
 lining of the respiratory tract GLANDULAR
EPITHELIUM

 ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF CELLS

1. UNICELLLULAR – 1 cell

2. MULTICELLULAR – more than 1 cells

 ACCORDING TO PRESENCE /ABSENCE OF

DUCTS

1. EXOCRINE - with ducts salivary glands

2. ENDOCRINE - ductless glands

 ACCORDING TO NATURE OF SECRETION

3. TRANSITIONAL 1. MUCUS -Secretes a thick and viscid product
 There is a change in the shape of the cells ;goblet cells
depending on the functional status; the organ is 2. SEROUS -secretes a thin and watery product
relaxed not stretch(thick cells); organ is stretch ;parotid gland
(flatten cells) 3. MUCO-SEROUS / MIXED - mixed secretion

;submandibular gland ; sublingual gland

4. CYTOGENIC - glands that produce cells

;testis ;ovaries
 ACCORDING TO FATE OF
SECRETING CELLS

1. MEROCRINE -no destruction of the secretory

cells ; sweat gland

2. APOCRINE - partial destruction of secretory

cells ;mammary gland

3. HOLOCRINE - total destruction of secretory

cells ; sebaceous gland

 ACCORDING TO MORPHOLOGY

1. TUBULAR- elongated

a. SIMPLE

1) simple tubular

2) simple coiled tubular

3) simple branched tubular

b. COMPOUND
 1) compound tubular Bone - compact, spongy

2. ALVEOLAR - Expanded Cartilage - hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage

a. simple alveolar Adipose - brown, white, Reticular

b. compound alveolar CLASSIFICATION OF FIBROUS

3. TUBULO-ALVEOLAR – Combination of the CONNECTIVE TISSUE
two 1. Collagenous

A. LOOSE COLLAGENOUS OR LOOSE AREOLAR

- consists of collagen and elastic fiber

II. CONNECTIVE TISSUE - most common cells found are fibroblast

 Supports and binds - Fibroblasts- are responsible for the

 large amounts of extracellular materials that production of the fibers of the matrix.
separate cells from one another

Components of Extracellular Matrix

1. Protein fiber B. DENSE REGULAR COLLAGENOUS

a. Collagen
- Same direction of collagen fibers
b. Reticular
C. Elastic - ex. Tendon
2. Ground Substance
-is the shapeless background against
which cells and collagen fibers are
C. DENSE IRREGULAR COLLAGENOUS
seen in the light microscope. An
important component is - Different direction of collagen fibers
proteoglycans made up of protein and
polysaccharide - ex. Dermis (skin)
3. Fluid

CONNECTIVE TISSUE 2.Elastic

 Found between other tissues  Strong, yet elastic; allows for recoil of tissue after
FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE being stretched

1. Enclosing and separating tissues

2. Connecting tissues to one another CLASSIFICATION OF EMBRYONIC
3. Supporting and moving CONNECTIVE TISSUE
4. Storing energy  MESENCHYMAL CONNECTIVE TISSUE
5. Cushioning and insulating - Source of all adult connective tissue
6. Transporting
7. Protecting – Derived from mesoderm

CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE – Delicate collagen fibers embedded in

TISSUE semifluid matrix
Subtypes: Specialized

Fibrous/Connective Tissue Proper

Collagenous- LCT, DRCT, DICT

Elastic

Embryonic

Mesenchymal

Mucous
  Mucus
- found only in MUSCLE TISSUE
the umbilical
cord.  main characteristic is its ability to contract or
Wharton’s shorten
jelly.
TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE

 SKELETAL
 CARDIAC thermal damage and also bacteria
 SMOOTH
6. Regulates heat loss from body surface

7. Acts as mini-excretory system, urea, salt, water are lost

when we sweat

8. Manufactures several proteins important to immunity

IV. NERVOUS TISSUE

 forms the brain, spinal cord and nerves

 contains very important cells which are
neurons and neuroglia

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

composed of:

1. SKIN

• Heaviest, largest single organ

2.SKIN APPENDAGES:

A.sweat gland

B. sebaceous gland

C. hairs

D. nails

SKIN

- also called integument

- simply means covering

FUNCTIONS:

1. Keeps water and other precious molecules in the

body

2. Keeps water out

3. Protects the body from external agent

4. Insulates and cushions deeper body organs

5. Protects body from mechanical, chemical,

 9. Storage of Vitamin D precursor (active • Composed of Stratified Squamous Keratinized
vitamin D when exposed to sun light) Epithelium that varies in thickness

10. Contains cutaneous receptors that serve as • All but the deepest layers of epidermis are
sensors for touch, pressure, temperature composed of dead cells
and pain.
• Composed of 4-5 layers, depending on its
2 PRINCIPLE LAYER location within the body

• Palms and soles have five layers because these areas

are exposed to most friction

1. STRATUM BASALE
Composed of single layer of cells in contact with the
dermis
4 types of cells:
A) keratinocytes
- produce keratin which toughens &
waterproofs skin
B) melanocytes
- synthesize the pigment melanin providing a protective
barrier to UV radiation in sunlight

2. STRATUM SPINOSUM
- cuboidal or slightly flattened cells
-Contains several layers of cells
-Spiny appearance due to changed shape of
EPIDERMIS keratinocytes
-With limited mitosis
• Superficial protective layer of the skin -This layer plus stratum basale are collectively
called Stratum Germinativum
3. STATUM GRANULOSUM - Brown-black pigment produced by the
- Consists of only 3-4 flattened rows of melanocytes of stratum basale
cells -Guards skin against damaging effect of UV rays of
- Cells here appear granular due to the presence of sunlight
keratohyaline granules -Gradual exposure to sunlight promotes increased
production of melanin; hence tanning of skin
4. STRATUM LUCIDUM (Clear Layer) -In albino, there is a normal number of melanocytes but
-Nuclei,organelles,and cell membranes are no longer lacks enzyme tyrosinase, that converts the amino acid
visible so this layer appears clear tyrosine to melanin
-Exists only in the lips and the thickened skin of soles -“freckles”- caused by aggregated patch of melanin
& palms -“vitiligo”- lack of melanocytes in localized areas of the
-Contains a transluscent substance called eleidin skin causing distinct white spots

5. STRATUM CORNEUM 2. CAROTENE

- 25-30 layers of flattened, scale like anucleated - a yellowish pigment found in epidermal cells &
cells, which arecontinuously shed as flake-like fatty parts of dermis
residues of cells
- This surface layer is cornified and is the real - abundant in skin of Asians
protective layer of the skin - together with melanin, accounts for the yellowish-
- Cornification is brought on by keratinization and the tan color of Asians
hardening , flattening process that takes place as the
cells die and are pushed to the surface 3. HEMOGLOBIN
- Friction at the surface of skin stimulates additional -Not a pigment of the skin, rather it is the oxygen-
mitotic activity of stratum basale, resulting in the binding pigment found in RBc
formation of a callus for additional protection

COLORATION OF SKIN
- caused by expression of a combination of 3 pigments
(melanin, carotene, hemoglbin)

1. MELANIN
 -Oxygenated blood flowing Shallow Flexion Lines - seen on knuckles and
through the dermis gives the skin surface of other joints
its pinkish tones Furrows in the forehead and face (wrinkles) - acquired
from continual contraction of facial muscles, such as from
SURFACE PATTERN
smiling or squinting in bright light or against the wind; facial
1. CONGENITAL PATTERNS lines become more strongly delineated as one ages

- fingerprints or friction ridges 3. LANGER LINES

- Lines of tension in the skin produced by the orientation of
- present on palms and soles collagen and elastic fibers in nonrandom pattern or
arrangement
- formed by the pull of elastic fibers within the dermis
-Surgical incision should be made parallel to Langer lines to
- function to prevent slippage when grasping promote better wound healing.

objects 2.ACQUIRED LINES

Deep Flexion Creases - found on the palms
1. SEBACEOUS (OIL) GLANDS

DERMIS - found all over the skin, except on palms and soles
- ducts usually empty into a hair follicle but some open directly
- Deeper and thicker than the epidermis onto skin surface
- secretion is called sebum, a mixture of oily substance and
- A strong and stretchy envelope that helps to hold the body
fragmented cells that keep skin soft and moist and prevents hair
together
from becoming brittle
- Blood vessels within the dermis nourish the living - if the drainage pathway for sebaceous glands becomes blocked for
portion of the epidermis some reason, the glands may become infected, resulting in acne
- sebum also contains chemicals that kill bacteria
- With numerous collagenous, elastic and reticular fibers that - become very active when sex hormones are produced in increased
give support to the skin amounts during adolescence, thus skin is oilier during this period of
life
- Highly vascular and glandular

- Contains many nerve endings and hair follicles

LAYERS OF DERMIS

1. PAPILLARY LAYER

- in contact with epidermis

- Accounts for about 1/5 of the entire dermis
- With numerous projections called Dermal Papillae, that
extend from the upper portion of the dermis into the
epidermis
- Dermal papillae contain capillary loops, which furnish
nutrients to the epidermis
-Some papillae house pain receptors (free nerve endings) and
touch receptors (meissner’s corpuscles)
- Dermal papillae form the base for the friction ridges on the
fingers and toes

2.RETICULAR LAYER

-Deepest skin layer

- Contains blood vessels, sweat & oil glands, and deep
pressure receptors (Pacinian Corpuscles)
- Many phagocytes are found here; they engulf bacteria that
have managed to get through the epidermis

CUTANEOUS GLANDS
2. SWEAT GLANDS secrete milk during lactation
- Under the stimulus of pituitary gland
- also called sudoriferous glands
- widely distributed in the skin; numerous in palms,
soles, axillary and pubic regions
- secretion evaporates and cools in the body 4. HAIR

TYPES: - Characteristic of all mammals, but its distribution, function,

density and texture varies across mammalian species
1. Merocrine Sweat Glands - Humans are relatively hairless, with only the scalp, face,
pubis & axilla being densely haired
- more numerous and found all over the body - Men with more obvious hair because of the male
especially in forehead, back, palms and soles hormone
- Secretion reaches skin surface via a duct that - Certain regions of body are hairless like the palms,
opens directly on surface of skin through sweat soles, lips, nipples, penis,labia minore
pores - Lifespan 3-4 mos for eyelashes, 3-4 yrs-scalp
- Secretion is mostly water with few salts
PARTS OF HAIR:
2. Apocrine Sweat Glands 1. Shaft – the visible but dead portion of hair projecting
- much larger, localized gland found in axillary and above surface of the skin
pubic regions where they secrete into hair follicles 2. Root – enclosed in the follicle
- Not functional until puberty 3. Hair bulb matrix- the growth zone;
- Secretion is thick and rich in organic substances contains melanocytes that give color to hair
which is odorless when released but quickly broken
down by bacteria into substances responsible for body 3 LAYERS OF HAIR IN CROSS SECTION
odor. 1. Medulla – inner part
3. MAMMARY GLAND 2. Cortex – thick middle part
3. Cuticle – covers cortex and forms toughened outer
- Found within the breasts portion
- Specialized sudoriferous or sweat gland that
3 DISTINCT KIND OF HAIR IN HUMANS  Nail Root- part of the nail covered by skin
1. LANUGO  Nail Bed- where nail root and nail body are
attached
- fine, silky fetal hair that appears during the last
 Free edge- the distal exposed border attached to
trimester of development
undersurface of hyponychium
- Usually not evident on a baby at birth unless it has been born
 Hyponychium - beneath the free edge
prematurely
 Eponychium ( Cuticle) - covers the nail root
2. ANGORA - frequently splits causing a hangnail
 Nail Matrix - proximal part of the nail bed
- grows continuously in length, as on scalp and on face of - growth area of the nail
males 
3. DEFINITIVE Lunula -whitish crescent (half moon) shaped area
at the proximal aspect of
- grows to a certain length and then ceases to grow nail
- most dominant type of hair (eyelashes, eyebrow,pubic, and -Fingernails grow at approximately 1 mm per week
axillary hair) - Growth of toenails is slower
- A sebaceous gland and an arrector pili muscle are - nails are transparent and nearly colorless but they
attached to the hair follicle look pink because of the rich blood supply in the
- When the muscle involuntarily contracts due to thermal or underlying dermis
psychological stimuli, the hair follicle is pulled into an upright
position, causing the hair to”stand on its end” and producing
goosebumps

4. NAILS

- Found on distal dorsum of each fingers and toes

-Forms from a hardened, transparent, stratum corneum of
epidermis

Consists of:

 Nail Body - visible attached portion

 HISTOLOGY OF BONES

COMPONENTS;
1. BONE CELLS
OSTEOBLASTS – embryonic bone cells & active in
bone formation
OSTEOCYTES – mature osteoblasts
OSTEOCLASTS – bone reabsorption/resorption and
remodeling.

2. MATRIX
COLLAGENOUS FIBERS – give resilience to bones
CALCIFIED GROUND SUBSTANCES -give
hardness to bones, Calcium Phosphate, Calcium Carbonate

MAINTAINING THE BONE

SKELETAL
 Endocrine system control
SYSTEM FUNCTION OF
 Parathormone – calcium release
BONES -hypocalcemia – pth release – ca++ release from bone
1. SUPPORT --- increased blood ca++
2. PROTECT -osteoclast
3. MUSCLE ATTACHMENT  Calcitonin – calcium storage
4. HEMOPOIESIS – red bone marrow -hypercalcemia –calcitonin release--- ca++
5. STORAGE OF MINERALS (Phosphorus, Calcium) deposition into the bones---decreased blood ca++
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES  Axial -80 bones-skull,
ossicles,hyoid,sternum,vertebrae
 Appendicular- 126 bones
According to structure
 cranial – 8
 Compact/Dense – outer part of long bones Calvarium- Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, Sphenoid,
-osteon- functional unit/haversian system Occipital
Spongy/Cancellous --in between the flat bones of
skull and the inner part of the long bones.

According to shapes

 Long bone -humerus, tibia, fibula, femur etc.

 Short bone- Tarsal bones, cuboid
 Flat bone – bones of the skull, frontal
 Irregular- facial bone and vertebra
 Sesamoid- develops within a tendon

According to development

 Endochondral/Cartilaginous – formed via

endochondral/intracartilaginous ossification
Cartilage ---Ca++ Bone
 Intramembranous -formed via intramembranous
ossification
Membrane ---Ca++ bone
Clavicle – 1st bone to start developing (5th week
intrauterine)

According to location
 H- shape union of:FRONTAL, Suture
PAREITAL, SPHENOID, CORONAL
TEMPORAL SAGITTAL
LAMBOIDAL
*related to the middle meningeal artery common
cause of EPIDURAL HEMORRHAGE

CRANIAL BONES

CRANIAL BONES
CALVARIUM
 Frontal
 Parietal
 Temporal
 Sphenoid
 occipital

Fontanelles – Anterior & Posterior Fontanelle

PTERION Sunken Fontanelle – Dehydration
Bulging Fontanelle – Meningitis

FACIAL BONE
 HYOID

-only bone in the body that is not attached in a muscle

Facial bones– 14

PAIRED maxilla, palatine, zygomatic, nasal,

lacrimal, and inferior nasal conchae bones
UNPAIRED vomer, mandible

STERNUM

Parts;

- Manubrium

- Body
-Xiphoid Process

Landmarks:

Jugular/Supraternal Notch- T2-T3, Angel of Louis/Manubrio-

sternal Joint – T4-T5, Xiphisternal Joint – T9

OSSICLES

- three bones in either middle ear that are among the smallest
bones in the human body. They serve to transmit sounds from
the air to the fluid-filled labyrinth (cochlea).

Malleus (Hammer)
Incus(Anvil) Stapes
(stirrup)

RIBS

Types according to attachment

1.7 true ribs (vertebra-sternal) (directly attached to the
sternum) 8-10 false ribs (vertebra-chondral) (attached to
cartilage of 7 and not directly attached to sternum) 11- 12
floating ribs (vertebral) (there is no attachment.
Attached only to vertebrae)
 atypical-T1,T2,T11,T12

 Lumbar – kidney shaped body

- short wide straight spine
-mamillary process
Types according to morphology
rd th
1. Typical – 3 -9
-  Sacral -sacrum-posterior wall of pelvic cavity
2 costal facets on head, 1 costal facet on tubercle
rounded upper border, sharp inferior border  Coccygeal- coccyx
st nd th th
2. Atypical – 1 ,2 ,10 -12

Vertebra

 Cervical
typical
- C3-C6
-Quadrangular Body
-Transverse Foramen
-Bifid Spine
-Triangular vertebral foramen

Atypical
– C1(Atlas)(-)body & spine
-C2(Axis)(+)dens/odontoid process
-C7(Vertebra Prominens)bifid spine

 Appendicular – 126 bones

A. Pectoral Girdle (shoulder girdle)

 Thoracic
-heart shaped body
-costal facets on body and transverse processes
-long pointe spine obliquely going down
typical-T3-T10
 Radius (thumb)(lateral)

Ulna(smaller&longer) (pinky)(medial)- forearm

Clavicle collar bone

Scapula -shoulder blade
B. Upper Extremities
Humerus - arm

Carpals(wrist bone)/Metacarpals/Phalanges

C. Pelvic Girdle (Coxae)

D. Lower Extremities
Femur- Thigh bone – Longest bone
 Tibia (medial leg bone) & Fibula (lateral leg bone)
Patella – kneecap (sesamoid bone)

Tarsals/Metatarsal/Phalanges

Talus- also known as astragalus

Calcaneus – heel bone

JOINTS /ARTICULAR SYSTEM

According to mobility

 Synarthrosis -immovable bones

 Amphiarthrosis- slightly immovable
Diarthrosis- freely movable joints
According to intervening structure

 Fibrous – immovable (suture, gomphosis,

schindylesis, syndesmosis)
 Cartilaginous- slightly movable (symphysis,
synchondrosis)

Synovial
-with a fibrous capsule around a synovial cavity between the
articulating bones.

 Spheroid (cotyloid/ball & socket)- hip & shoulder

joint
 Ginglymus/Hinge joint – elbow, ankle, & knee
joint

 Trochoid/Pivot joint – atlantoaxial & superior
radio-ulnar joint
 condyloid joint – metacarphophalangeal joint
 Ellipsoid Joint – radiocarpal joint *some books
condyloid & ellipsoid are considered the same
type of joint.
 Sellar/Saddle- between the trapezium & the
metacarpal of the thumb
 Plane Joint – between 2 carpal bones
 AXIAL MUSCLES
c) Pars mandibularis
Facial Expression (FIGURE 1.1)
• Orbicularis Oculi • Nasalis
- muscle closes the eyelids and assists in - dilates the nostrils, depresses the ala nasi
pumping the tears from the eye into the (nostril wings) laterally and wrinkles the
nasolacrimal duct system. nasal skin.
• Orbicularis Oris a) Transverse part
- controls movements of the mouth and lips. - Wrinkles skin of dorsum of nose
- for pouting your lips. b) Alar part
- Orbicularis – direction of fibers - Depresses ala laterally, dilates nostrils
• Zygomaticus Major
- for smiling, sweet/true smile. Muscles of Mastication (Figure 1.2)
- Elevates and everts angle of mouth - The four pairs of muscles for chewing,
• Zygomaticus Minor 1. Masseter
- Elevates upper lip, exposes maxillary teeth - Elevates and pushes mandible anteriorly
• Depressor Labii Inferioris - closes jaw
- Also known as “Quadriangularis” 2. Temporalis
- Depression of the lower lip - Elevates and draws mandible posteriorly
- Labii – lip; Inferioris – lower (position) - closes jaw
- control the position, shape and movements of 3. Lateral Pterygoid
the lips. - Pushes mandible anteriorly and depresses
• Buccinator mandible; closes jaw
- trumpeter muscle For blowing and sucking. 4. Medial Pterygoid
• Frontalis - Pushes mandible anteriorly and elevates
- covers parts of the forehead of the skull. mandible; closes jaw
- Raises eyebrows and wrinkles forehead.
• Frontalis & Occipitalis Muscles of the Tongue (Figure 1.3)
- occipitofrontalis muscle
- elevates the eyebrows and skin of the forehead, 1. Intrinsic tongue muscles
producing a facial expression of shock or - Changes shape of tongue
surprise. 2. Extrinsic tongue muscles
• Levator Labii superioris ala que nasi - Moves tongue
- Elevates upper lip, exposes maxillary teeth 3. Genioglossus
- a short, paired triangular muscle of the face. - Protracts tongue
4. Infrahyoid –
• Risorius Depresses or stabilizes hyoid
- for sardonic/rise smile. a) Thyrohyoid
- Extends angle of mouth laterally 5. Suprahyoid
- which arises in the fascia - Elevates or stabilizes hyoid
• Depressor anguli oris a) Stylohyoid
- attached to the angle of the mouth. b) Geniohyoid
- Depresses the corner of the mouth c) Hyoglossus
- Also called “Triangularis”
- extends from the mental tubercle of mandible Extraocular Muscles - eye (Figure 1.4)
to the angle of the mouth 1. Superior rectus – upwards medially
• Temporalis 2. Inferior rectus – downwards medially
- For mastication 3. Medial rectus – medially
- Closes jaw 4. Lateral rectus – laterally
- to produce the movements of the mandible and 5. Superior oblique – downwards laterally
facilitate the act of mastication. 6. Inferior oblique – upwards laterally
• Masseter
- for mastication also Muscles of the Middle Ear (Figure 1.5)
- elevation and protrusion of the mandible
• Mentalis 1. Stapedius - protects to loud noises
- Chin 2. Tensor tympani - acts to pull the handle of
- Anterior mandible (origin) malleus medially
• Platysma
- superficial part of your neck. Muscles of Pharynx (Figure 1.6)
a) Pars madiolaris
b) Pars labialis 1. Superior Pharyngeal Constrictor
- It is the highest located muscle of the shortens the mouth floor; widens pharynx
three pharyngeal constrictors. d) Hyoglossus
2. Middle Pharyngeal Constrictor - Hyoid to the tongue
- a fan-shaped sheet-like muscle of the pharynx. - Glossus means tongue
3. Inferior Pharyngeal Constrictor e) Stylohyoid
- -is the thickest of the three constrictors, arises - Elevates and draws hyoid bone posteriorly
from the sides of the cricoid and thyroid 2. Infrahyoid – strap muscles
cartilage. a) Sternohyoid
4. Palatopharyngeus - Coming from the sternum going to hyoid bone
- elevates the pharynx superiorly, anteriorly and - muscle is a long, thin muscle located along the
medially. entire length of the front of the neck.
- is a longitudinal muscle that extends from the b) Sternothyroid
palate to the pharynx. - a paired, flat strap of muscle that serves to fix
the hyoid bone.
5. Salpingopharyngeus c) Thyrohyoid
- Elevates pharynx, opens auditory tube during - Thyroid cartilage to the hyoid bone
swallowing - an infrahyoid muscle of the neck that is
- a muscle of the head and neck, and one of the innervated by the ventral ramus of C1.
inner longitudinal muscles of the pharynx. d) Omohyoid – (superior and inferior belly)
6. Stylopharyngeus - Omo means shoulder (galling sa balikat)
- Elevates pharynx and larynx - depresses the hyoid.
Muscles of the Neck (Figure 1.7) Suboccipital muscles (Figure 1.9)
1. Rectus Capitis Posterior Major
1. Platysma - arises by a pointed tendon from the spinous
- Depresses mandible and angle of mouth, tenses process of the axis.
skin of lower face and anterior neck 2. Rectus Capitis Posterior Minor
2. Sternocleidomastoid - arises by a narrow-pointed tendon from the
- It will bend neck forward tubercle on the posterior arch of the atlas.
- Flexion of the neck 3. Obliquus Capitis Superior
3. Scalene Anterior - extends the head on the neck at the Atlanta-
- Neck flexion occipital joint.
- neck lateral flexion; neck rotation; elevates rib 1 4. Obliquus Capitis Inferior
4. Scalene Medius - to facilitate the movements of the head and
- neck lateral flexion, elevates rib 1 neck and maintain posture by supporting the
- the largest and the longest of the scalene. atlantoaxial joint.
5. Scalene Posterior
- neck lateral flexion, Elevates rib 2 Muscles of The Thoracic Wall (Figure 1.10)
- the smallest of the scalene muscles. 1. External Intercostal
Back: - downwards medially
6. Semispinalis capitis - elevate the ribs during inspiration.
- Straight fibers 2. Internal Intercostal
7. Splenius capitis - downwards laterally
- Slant/oblique fibers - depress the ribs during forced expiration.
8. Levator scapulae 3. Transversus Thoracis
- Downward - its located to thoracic region; attached to the
- Going to the scapula ribs
- Laterally flexes neck - a thin band of muscle and tendon arising
from the lower posterior surface of the
Muscles of the Neck (Figure 1.8) sternum.
1. Suprahyoid – above the hyoid bone
a) Digastric
- Depresses mandible
- Elevates hyoid bone during chewing,
swallowing
Diaphragm (Figure 1.11)
- For separating the thoracic cavity to
b) Mylohyoid abdominal cavity
- Transverse fibers 1. Central tendon
- to facilitate speech and deglutition by elevating 2. Sternal part
the floor of the mouth and hyoid bone and 3. Costal part
depressing the mandible. 4. Lumbar part – consisting of right and left crura

c) Geniohyoid Muscles of the Abdominal wall (Figure 1.12)

- Hyoid to the Genu of the mandible 1. External Oblique
- Elevates and draws hyoid bone anteriorly; - downwards medially
- Compresses abdomen 3. Deep Layer
- flexes and rotates vertebral column a) Erector spinae
2. Internal Oblique 1. Iliocostalis
- downwards laterally 2. Longissimus
- Compresses abdomen 3. Spinalis
- flexes and rotates vertebral column b) Transversospinalis
3. Rectus abdominis - extensions of the cell membrane.
- Flexes vertebral column c) Interspinalis
- compresses abdomen - are short muscular fasciculi, found in pairs
4. Serratus anterior between the spinous processes of the
- Laterally rotates and protracts scapula contiguous vertebrae.
5. Transversus Abdominis
- Transversely oriented fibers located in the d) Intertransversarii
abdomen - passes from one transverse process to the
- compresses abdomen other on each fide.
Front of muscles – they are flexors
Muscles of the Posterior Abdominal wall (Figure 1.13) Back of muscles – they are extensors
1. Quadratus Lumborum
- deepest muscle of the posterior abdominal Muscles of the Pelvis (Figure 1.15)
- dorsal to the iliopsoas 1. Piriformis
2. Iliacus - small muscle located deep in the buttock
- belongs the group of the inner hip muscles 2. Obturator Internus
- the inner hip muscles act upon the hip joint. - muscle originates on the medial surface of
3. Psoas the obturator membrane
- a long, thick, fusiform muscle located in
the lumbar region of the trunk Muscles of Perineum (Figure 1.16)
- lateral to the lumbar vertebrae 1. Bulbospongiosus
- medial to the quadratus lumborum muscle. - Constricts urethra
- erects penis; Erects clitoris
Muscles of the back (Figure 1.14) 2. Ischiocavernosus
1. Superficial Layer - Compresses base of penis or clitoris
a) Trapezius
- When you raise/shrug/lift your shoulder Muscles of the Pectoral Region (Figure 1.17)
- a large paired surface muscle that extends 1. Pectoralis Major
longitudinally from the occipital bone to the - a thick, fan-shaped muscle, situated at the
lower thoracic vertebrae of the spine and chest of the human body
laterally to the spine of the scapula. 2. Pectoralis Minor
b) Latissimus Dorsi - Beneath the pectoralis major
- a large, flat muscle on the back that stretches - Depresses scapula or elevates ribs
to the sides. - triangular muscle, situated at the upper part of
c) Rhomboid Major the chest, beneath the pectoralis major in the
- Makikita to pag tinanggal un deltoid at human body.
trapezius 3. Subclavius
- originates from the spinous processes of - Beneath the clavicle
vertebrae T2-T5, while it inserts to the - small triangular muscle, placed between the
medial border of scapula. clavicle and the first rib.
d) Rhomboid Minor 4. Serratus Anterior
- Nasa ilalim ng trapezius - Rotates and protracts scapula
- a skeletal muscle on the back that connects - elevates ribs
the scapula with the vertebrae of the spinal - muscle that originates on the surface of the
column. 1st to 8th ribs at the side of the chest and
e) Levator Scapula inserts along the entire anterior length of the
- to elevate the scapula and tilt the glenoid medial border of the scapula.
cavity inferiorly by rotating the scapula
downward. Scapulohumeral Muscles (Figure 1.18)
2. Intermediate Layer * rotator cuff muscles
a) Serratus Posterior Superior 1. *Supraspinatus
- elevate the ribs during inspiration and has - Stabilizes shoulder and abducts arm
a stabilization role for thorax. 2. *Teres Minor
b) Serratus Posterior Inferior - Stabilizes and extends shoulder
- depress the ribs during expiration - adducts and laterally rotates arm
c) Levatores Costarum 3. *Infraspinatus
- 12 deep back muscles connecting thoracic - Stabilizes and extends shoulder and laterally
vertebrae and ribs. rotates arm
4. *Subscapularis
- Stabilizes and extends shoulder and medially - Origin: Distal ulna
rotates arm - Pronates forearm
5. Teres Major
- attached below the shoulder joint Muscles of the Lateral Forearm (Figure 1.21)
- Extends shoulder Lateral Compartment of the Forearm:
- adducts and medially rotates arm 1. Brachioradialis
6. Deltoid - Flexes forearm
- Flexes and extends shoulder - Lateral supracondylar ridge of humerus
- abducts and medially and laterally rotates - Lateral boundary will be form by
arm brachioradialis
2. Extensor Carpiradialis Longus
Muscles of the Arm (Figure 1.19) - Extends and abducts wrist
1. Anterior Arm – flexor - Lateral supracondylar ridge of humerus
a) Biceps Brachii
- 2 heads: long and short head Muscles of the Posterior Forearm (Figure 1.211)
- flexes elbow A. Superficial Layer
- supinates forearm 1. Extensor Carpi radialis Brevis
- flexes shoulder - Extends and abducts wrist
b) Brachialis - Lateral epicondyle of humerus
- You will see this when you remove 2. Extensor Digitorum
biceps brachial - Extends fingers and wrist
- flexes elbow - Lateral epicondyle of humerus
c) Coracobrachialis 3. Extensor Digiti Minimi
2. Posterior Arm – extending the forearm 4. Extensor Carpi Ulnaris
a) Triceps Brachii - Extends and adducts wrist
- 3 heads: Lateral head; long head; - Lateral epicondyle of humerus and ulna
medial head 5. Anconeus
- Extends elbow B. Deep Layer
- extends shoulder 1. Abductor Pollicis Longus
- adducts arm - one of the extrinsic muscles of the hand.
2. Extensor Pollicis Brevis
Muscles of the Anterior Forearm (Figure 1.20) - charge of extension of the thumb in the first
- flexors of the forearm 3. Extensor Pollicis Longus
A. Superficial Layer - one of the deep forearm extensors that controls the
1. Pronator Teres movements of the thumb.
- Pronates forearm 4. Extensor Indicis
- Medial boundary will be form by pronator - muscle produces a weak extension of the wrist.
teres 5. Supinator - Supinates forearm (and hand)
- Cubital fossa is a triangular shaped area; - a broad muscle in the posterior compartment.
between the Medial – pronator teres and
lateral – brachioradialis
2. Flexor Carpi Radialis Intrinsic Muscles of Hand (Figure 1.22)
- Flexes and abducts wrist Pollicis – thumb
- Medial epicondyle of humerus Digiti minimi – little finger
3. Palmaris Longus 1. Thenar Muscles – refers to the thumb
- tightens skin of palm a) *Abductor Pollicis Brevis
- papunta sa palm - an abductor of the thumb.
4. Flexor Carpi Ulnaris b) *Flexor Pollicis Brevis
- Medial side; Flexors of the forearm/ fingers - a muscle in the hand that flexes the
- Medial forearm - ulna thumb.
c) *Opponens Pollicis
B. Intermediate Layer - a small, triangular muscle in the
1. Flexor Digitorum Superficialis hand, which functions to oppose the
- Origin: Medial epicondyle of humerus, thumb.
coronoid process, and radius d) Adductor Pollicis
- Flexes fingers and wrist - to adduct the thumb.
C. Deep Layer *thenar eminence muscles
1. Flexor Pollicis Longus
- arises from a broad area on the radius and 2. Hypothenar Muscles – opposite side of the little
adjacent structures. finger side.
2. Flexor Digitorum Profundus a) Abductor Digiti Minimi
- Origin: Ulna - short intrinsic muscle of the hand.
- Flexes fingers and wrist b) Flexor Digiti Minimi
- Profundus means tip - flexes the little finger.
3. Pronator Quadratus c) Opponens Digiti Minimi
- extends mainly between the hamate 2. Adductor Longus
bone. - Adducts and laterally rotates thigh
3. Palmaris Brevis - flexes hip
a) Lumbricals 3. Adductor Brevis
- flex metacarpophalangeal joints and - Abducts hip
extend interphalangeal joints of 4. Adductor Magnus (Adductor Part)
fingers - Adducts and laterally rotates thigh
b) Dorsal Interossei & Palmar Interossei - extends knee
- abducting and adducting your fingers
perspective. Muscles of Posterior Thigh (Figure 1.25)
Muscles of Gluteal Region (Figure 1.23) - extensor of the thigh and flexor of the leg.
1. Gluteus Maximus Hamstring muscles –
- Chief extensor of the thigh 1. Biceps Femoris
- abducts and laterally rotates thigh - Lateral
- upper outer quadrant – proper injection - Flexes knee; laterally rotates leg; extends hip
2. Gluteus Medius 2. Semitendinosus
- If you cut your maximus, you will see Medius - Medially Located
- Abducts and medially rotates thigh - Ischial tuberosity
3. Gluteus Minimus - Tibia
- If you cut the medius, you will see minimus - Flexes knee; medially rotates leg; extends hip
- Abducts and medially rotates thigh
“small lateral rotators of thigh” 3. Semimembranosus
a) Piriformis - Medially Located
- a muscle in the gluteal region of the lower limbs. - Ischial tuberosity
b) Superior gemellus - Medial condyle of tibia and collateral
- is a deep gluteal muscle that acts on the hip joint ligament
c) Obturator internus - Flexes knee; medially rotates leg; extends hip
- the deep muscle of hip joint which is part of
lateral wall of pelvis. Hamstring Portion –
d) Inferior gemellus 4. Adductor Magnus
- small muscle in the posterio-latereal portion of the - Adducts and laterally rotates thigh
hip. - extends knee
e) Quadratus femoris
- a flat, quadrilateral skeletal muscle.

Muscles of Anterior Leg (Figure 1.26)

- dorsiflexing the foot
1. Tibialis Anterior
Muscles of Anterior Thigh (Figure 1.231) - Located at tibia
- Flexor of your thigh/hip joint and extensor of your - Dorsiflexes and inverts foot
knee joint/leg. 2. Peroneus Tertius
1. Sartorius - Dorsiflexes and everts foot
- together with gracilis and semitendinosus will - 6th tendon (feet)
form a Pes Anserinus. 3. Extensor Hallucis Longus
2. Iliopsoas - Between tibialis anterior and ext. digitorum
- Union of the psoas muscle and iliacus muscle. longus
- chief flexor of the thigh - Extends great toe
3. Pectineus - dorsiflexes and inverts foot
- Flexes, adducts and medially rotates hip 4. Extensor Digitorum Longus
4. Quadriceps Femoris - Extends four lateral toes
a) Rectus Femoris - Extends knee; flexes hip - dorsiflexes and everts foot
b) Vastus Lateralis - Greater trochanter and linea
aspera of femur; Extends knee Muscles of Dorsum of Foot (Figure 1.27)
c) Vastus Intermedius - Body of femur; Extends knee 1. Extensor Hallucis Brevis - Extends great toe
d) Vastus Medialis - Linea aspera of femur; Extends 2. Extensor Digitorum Brevis - Extends toes when
knee foot fully dorsiflexed.
5. Tensor fascia latae
- fusiform muscle located in the lateral aspect of Muscles of Lateral Leg (Figure 1.28)
the thigh. - for plantar flexor of foot and evertors of the foot.
- to produce the extension and lateral rotation of (same with posterior leg)
the leg on the knee joint. 1. Peroneus Longus
- Plantar flexes and everts foot.
Muscles of Medial Thigh (Figure 1.24) - Supports lateral longitudinal and transverse
1. Gracilis arches
- Adducts thigh; flexes knee 2. Peroneus Brevis
- Plantar flexes and everts foot 2. Dorsal Interossei
- Supports lateral longitudinal arches. - Abduct 2nd, 3rd and 4th toes from axis of 2nd
toe.
Muscles of the Posterior Leg (Figure 1.29) - Assist lumbricals in extending interphalangeal
- for plantar flexor of foot and evertors of the foot. joints while flexing metatarsal phalangeal
joints
A. Superficial Layer
1. Gastrocnemius Nomenclature
- triceps surae; cuff muscles
- plantar flexes foot and leg 1. Accdg. To Location – temporalis, frontalis,
2. Soleus pectoralis, brachialis
- triceps surae; cuff muscles 2. Accdg. To Origin and Insertion – sterno
- plantar flexes foot (sternum), cleido (clavicle), mastoid (mastoid
3. Plantaris process), brachio (arm), radialis (radius)
- freshmen’s nerve 3. Accdg. To Number of Origin – biceps (2),
- longest tendon triceps, quadriceps
4. Accdg. To Function – flexor (flexion)
B. Deep Layer 5. Accdg. To Size – maximus (largest), minimus
1. Popliteus (smallest), vastus (large)
- assistant knee flexor muscle 6. Accdg. To Shape – deltoid (triangle), orbicularis
2. Tibialis Posterior (circular)
- Plantar flexes and inverts foot 7. Orientation of Fasciculi – rectus (straight)
3. Flexor Digitorum Longus
- Flexes four lateral toes
- plantar flexes and inverts foot
4. Flexor Hallucis Longus
- Flexes great toe
- plantar flexes and inverts foot

Muscles of the Sole (Figure 1.30)

A. 1st Layer
1. Abductor Hallucis
- flexes and abducts the large toe
2. Abductor Digiti Minimi
- Abducts little toe
3. Flexor Digitorum Brevis
- Plantar flexes the lateral four toes
B. 2nd Layer
1. Quadratus Plantae
- assisting flexor digitorum longus with flexion
of the lateral 4 digits of the foot.
2. Lumbricals
- Flex and adduct the lateral four toes
C. 3rd Layer
1. Flexor Hallucis Brevis
- Flexion of the great toe with the assistance
of the flexor hallucis longus
2. Adductor Hallucis
- to facilitate walking by adducting and flexing
the great toe.
- It also contributes to maintaining the transverse
and longitudinal arches of foot.

3. Flexor Digiti Minimi

- Abducts the little toe
D. 4th Layer
1. Plantar Interossei
- they flex and adduct the 3rd, 4th and 5th at the
metatarsophalangeal joints
- extend the 2nd to 4th toes at the
interphalangeal joints.