LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION

1. ATOMIC LEVEL
 Building blocks of matter
ANATOMY
 Smallest unit of element
 Physical structure of an organism
 Ana = “apart”, tomy = “to cut” 2. MOLECULAR LEVEL
 Studied mainly by dissecting  Group of atoms
TWO SUBDIVISIONS OF ANATOMY 3. CHEMICAL LEVEL
1. GROSS
 Involves the Atomic and Molecular Levels
 Easily observable
 Large structures 4. CELULLAR LEVEL
 Basic unit of life
2. MICROSCOPIC
 Smallest unit of life
 Cannot be seen by the naked eye
 Very small structures 5. TISSUE LEVEL
 Needs a microscope  Consists of similar types of cells
 Cytology: Cells  Ie. Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, Neural
 Histology: Tissues
6. ORGAN LEVEL
3. MACROSCOPIC  Combination of two or more types of tissues
 Includes viscera (internal or visceral organs) that have the same functions
 Systemic Anatomy: One system at a time
 Regional Anatomy: Regions and relations 7. ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL
between structures  Group of organs that have varying functions

4. DEVELOPMENTAL 8. ORGANISMAL LEVEL

 Study of the structural changes from  Several organ systems that function
fertilization to maturity together in order to form one organism
 Embryology: Study of the development of
the embryonic stages ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW (RUN MRS LIDEC)
1. INTEGUMENTARY
PHYSIOLOGY  Forms the external body covering
 Function of the individual parts, systems,  Protects deeper tissue from injury
and an organism as a whole  Synthesizes vitamin D (7 to 9 am)
 More dynamic (small processes to larger  Location of Cutaneous Nerve Receptors
complex systems) (Senses changes in the body)
 Best studied in living organisms
 Physio = “nature”, Ology = “the study of” 2. SKELETAL
 Supports and protects body organs
PRINCIPLE OF COMPLEMENTARITY  Site of blood cell formation (Hematopoiesis)
 Function always reflects structure  Provides muscle attachment for movement
 What a structure can do depends on it  Stores minerals in the form of calcium
specific form  Tendons: Bone to Muscle
 Anatomy depicts Physiology  Joints: Bone to Bone
 Cartilage: Rubber-like pudding, elastic
connective tissue
3. MUSCULAR  Eliminates indigestible material
 Allows locomotion  Small Intestine: Contains Villi which aids in
 Maintains posture digestion and absorption of nutrients
 Produces heat needed by the body

4. NERVOUS 10. URINARY

 Fast acting control system  Eliminates nitrogenous waste
 Responds to internal and external change  Maintains acid-base balance
 Activates muscles and glands  Regulation of materials (water, electrolytes)
 Main control system of the body
11. REPRODUCTIVE
5. ENDOCRINE  Production of offspring
 Secretes regulatory hormones
Pituitary Adrenocortitrophic and NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS
Growth Hormone 1. Movement
Pineal Melatonin 2. Responsiveness/Sensitivity/Irritability
Thyroid Growth Hormone and 3. Digestion
Metabolism 4. Metabolism
Thymus Production of T-Cells 5. Excretion
Adrenal Adrenaline (Cortisol and 6. Reproduction
Aldosterone) 7. Growth
Testes Testosterone
Ovary Estrogen and Progesterone SURVIVAL NEEDS
Pancreas Degrades macromolecules 1. NUTRIENTS
 Chemicals needed for energy and cell
6. CARDIOVASCULAR building
 Transports materials in the body via blood  Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Minerals
pumped by the heart
2. OXYGEN
 Oxygen: Utilized in Respiratory (Aerobic: 36
ATP, Anaerobic: 2 ATP)  Required for chemical reactions (Main)
 Carbon Dioxide  Composes 20% of air in the atmosphere
 Nutrients
3. WATER
 Wastes
 60 to 80% of body weight
7. LYMPATHIC  Provides metabolic reaction
 Involves Basophils, Eosinophils, Neutrophils
4. STABLE BODY TEMPERATURE
 Returns fluids to blood vessels
 37 Celsius or 99 Fahrenheit
 Disposes of debris
 Involved in Immunity
5. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE MUST BE
APPROPRIATE
8. RESPIRATORY
 Keeps blood supplied with oxygen
HOMEOSTASIS
 Removes carbon dioxide
 Dynamic state of equilibrium
 Maintained for normal body functioning
9. DIGESTIVE
 IMPORTANCE: Survival
 Breakdowns food
 Disturbance = HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
 Allows for nutrient absorption into blood
COMPONENTS ANATOMICAL POSITION
1. RECEPTORS  Standard position of the body
 Responds to environmental changes via to  Body Erect
stimulus (Change in environment)  Feet Slightly Apart
 Palms Facing Forward
2. AFFERENT  Thumbs Point Away from the Body
 Delivers the information from the receptors
to the control center

3. CONTROL CENTRE
 Gives out the response
 Maintains and analyses information

4. EFFERENT
 Delivers the response from the Control
Centre to the Effector

5. EFFECTOR
 Response to stimulus DIRECTIONAL TERMS
1. SUPERIOR
FEEDBACK MECHANISMS 2. INFERIOR
1. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
 Includes most homeostatic controls 3. ANTERIOR
 Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its 4. POSTERIOR
intensity
5. MEDIAL – Towards the midline
2. POSITIVE FEEDBACK 6. LATERAL – Away from the midline
 Increases original stimulus 7. INTERMEDIATE – Between more medial and
 Only occurs during blot clotting and child lateral structures, In-between (compares 3
birth parts)

ANATOMIC VARIABILITY 8. PROXIMAL – Closer to point of attachment

 Humans vary slightly in both external and 9. DISTAL – Farther from point of attachment
internal anatomy
 Overall 90% of all anatomical structures 10. SUPERFICIAL – Towards body surface
match textbook descriptions (External)
• Nerves and Blood Vessels may 11. DEEP – Away from the body surface
be out of place (Internal)
• Small muscles may be missing
 Extreme anatomical variations are seldom 12. CONTRALATERAL – Opposite Side
seen 13. IPSILATERAL – Same Side

THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY EXAMPLES OF USING DIRECTIONAL TERMS

 Special terminologies used to prevent 1. The forehead is SUPERIOR to the nose
misunderstanding 2. The kidneys are INFERIOR to the lungs
 Exact terms are used for Position, Direction, 3. The breastbone is ANTERIOR to the spinal
Regions, and Structures cord
4. The kidneys are POSTERIOR to the liver BODY CAVITY
5. The ears are MEDIAL to the eyes  Any fluid-filled space
6. The arms are LATERAL to the chest
7. The elbow is INTERMEDIATE between the A. DORSAL CAVITY
shoulder and the wrist 1. CRANIAL CAVITY – Houses the brain
8. The femur is PROXIMAL to the tibia 2. SPINAL CAVITY – Houses the spinal cord
9. The fibula is DISTAL to the patella
10. The skin is SUPERFICIAL to the muscle B. VENTRAL CAVITY
11. The dermis is DEEP to the epidermis 1. PELVIC CAVITY – Reproductive organs,
12. The left lung is CONTRALATERAL to the right bladder, rectum
kidney 2. ABDOMINAL CAVITY – Stomach, Liver,
13. The right lung is IPSILATERAL to the right Intestines
kidney 3. THORACIC CAVITY – Lungs, Heart,
Diaphragm
BODY PLANES 4. MEDIASTINUM – Area in thorax that lies
1. SAGITTAL between the lungs
 Aka Median
 Divides body into left and right BODY LANDMARKS
ANTERIOR VIEW
2. MIDSAGITTAL A. AXIAL REGION
 Aka Media 1. Cephalic (Head)
 Cuts through the midline  Frontal
 Divides body into left and right equally  Orbital
 Nasal
 Oral
 Mental

2. Cervical (Neck)

3. Thoracic
 Sternal
 Axillary
 Mammary

4. Abdominal
 Umbilical
3. CORONAL
5. Pelvic
 Aka Frontal
 Divides body into Posterior and Anterior  Inguinal (Groin)
4. TRANSVERSE
6. Pubic (Genital)
 Aka Horizontal or Cross Section
 Divides body into Superior and Inferior
B. APPENDICULAR REGION
1. Upper Limb
5. OBLIQUE
 Acromial
 Divides the body diagonally
 Brachial (Arm)
 Antecubital
  Antebrachial (Forearm)  Digital
 Carpal (Wrist)
3. Lower Limb
2. Manus (Hand)  Femoral
 Pollex  Popliteal
 Palmar  Sural
 Digital  Fibular or Peroneal

3. Lower Limb 4. Pedal (Foot)

 Coxal (Hip)  Calcaneal
 Femoral  Plantar
 Patellar
 Cural BIOCHEMISTRY
 Fibular or Peroneal  The study of chemical composition and
reactions of living matter
4. Pedal (Foot)  All chemicals can be either organic or
 Tarsal (Ankle) inorganic
 Metatarsal
 Digital INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
 Hallux  Do not contain carbon and tend to be small,
single molecules
POSTERIOR VIEW  Water, salts, and many (but not all) acids and
A. AXIAL REGION bases
1. Cephalic
 Otic ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
 Occipital  Contain carbon, are usually large, and
covalently bonded
2. Cervical  Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic
acids
3. Back (Dorsal)
 Scapular TYPES INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
 Vertebral 1. WATER
 Lumbar  Most abundant inorganic compound in the
 Sacral body
 Gluteal  2/3 of the body weight
 Perineal (Between anus and external
genitalia) PROPERTIES OF WATER
✓ High heat capacity
B. APPENDICULAR REGION o It absorbs and releases large amounts of
1. Upper Limb heat before its temperature changes
 Acromial appreciably
 Brachial (Arm) o It prevents sudden changes in body
temperature
 Olecranal
 Antebrachial (Forearm)
✓ Polarity or Solvent Properties
o Water is an excellent solvent
2. Manus (Hand)
o Most important property
 Metacarpal
 o All chemical reactions that occur in the  It is the release of the protons that
body depend on water’s solvent determines an acid’s effect on the
properties environment
o Forms hydration layers around large  HCl H+ + Cl-
charged molecules (e.g. proteins)  Strong acids: liberate all protons
o Body’s major transport medium  Weak acids: ionize incompletely

✓ High heat and vaporization BASES

o Evaporation requires large amount of  Have a bitter taste, feel slippery, and are
heat proton acceptors
o Useful cooling mechanism  Hydroxides are common inorganic bases
✓ Chemical Reactivity  Hydroxides ionize and dissociates in water;
o Necessary part of hydrolysis and but in this case, the hydroxyl ion (OH-) and
dehydration some cations are released
 Neutralization reaction:
✓ Cushioning  NaOH Na+ + OH-
o Protects certain organs from physical
trauma MEASUREMENT RELATIVE CONCENTRATION OF
o E.g. Cerebrospinal fluid cushions nervous HYDROGEN IONS
system organs
 Neutral: pH = 7
 Acidic: pH below 7
2. SALT
 Basic: pH above 7
 Is an ionic compound containing cations
other than H+ and anions other than the
BUFFER
hydroxyl ion (OH-)
 Chemical that can regulate pH change
 When dissolved in body fluids, salts easily
 Slight change in pH affects tissues in our
separate into their ions – dissociation
body
 All ions are called electrolytes because they
can conduct electrical currents in solution
RESPIRATORY ACIDOSIS
 Common salts in body: NaCl, CaCO3, KCl
 Unable to excrete carbon dioxide
 High pH level
3. ACIDS AND BASES
 Are also electrolytes for they ionize and then
RESPIRATORY ALKALOSIS
dissociate in water and can then conduct an
 Excreting too much carbon dioxide
electrical current
SOME IMPORTANT PH SCALE IN THE HUMAN
ACIDS
BODY
 Have a sour taste and can dissolve many
 Saliva: 5.75-7.05
metals or burn a hole in your rug
 Gastric Juice: 1.5-3.5
 A substance that can release hydrogen ions
 Pancreatic Juice: 8
(H+) in detectable amounts
 Blood: 7.35-7.45
 Hydrogen ion (H+) is essentially a hydrogen
nucleus (“naked proton”) – acids are also  Spinal fluid: 7.4
defined as proton donors
If the pH turns 6, it is already acidic
 When dissolved in water, they release
hydrogen and some anions  Blood can’t function properly
 Blood can’t function nutrients
 Blood can’t transport oxygen and essential  Too large to pass through cell membranes
amounts  Needs to be broken down – water; hydrolysis
 Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS  Lactose = Glucose + Galactose
 Exceptions: CO2 and CO, which are inorganic  Maltose = Glucose + Glucose
waste and respiratory gases, aren’t polymers
 Needs to be broken down and readily used C. POLYSACCHARIDES
in our body  Polymers of monosaccharides
 Carbon is electroneutral: it shares electrons,  Long, branching chains of linked simple
never gains/loses them sugars
 Ideal for storage products
MAJOR ORGANIC COMPOUNDS  They lack the sweetness of the simple and
 Carbohydrates (BB: monosaccharides) double sugars
 Lipids (BB: glycerol and fatty acids)  Only two polysaccharides are important to
 Proteins (BB: amino acids) the body: starch and glycogen
 Nucleic Acids (BB: nucleotides)  Starch: is the storage of polysaccharide
formed by plants
1. CARBOHYDRATES  Glycogen: carbohydrate-storage form used
 Includes sugars and starches by animals
 Contain C, H, and O  Not soluble in water
 “hydrated carbon”
 Immediate source of energy 2. LIPIDS
 Hydrogen and oxygen are in 2:1 ratio  Are large and diverse groups of organic
 Provide a ready, easily used source of food compounds
for cells  Enter the body in the form of fat-marbled
 Glucose: is at the top of the cellular menu meats, egg yolks, milk products, and oils
 The most abundant lipids in the body are
THREE CLASSES OF CARBOHYDRATES triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids.
A. MONOSACCHARIDES  All lipids contain carbon, hydrogen, and
 One sugar / simple sugars oxygen atoms
 Single chain / single-ring structures (3-7  Carbon and hydrogen far outnumber oxygen
carbon atoms) atoms
 Pentose: monomers of carbohydrates  Most lipids are insoluble in water but readily
 Ribose and Deoxyribose: form part of the dissolve in other lipids and in organic
structure of nucleic acids, another group of solvents such as alcohol and acetone
organic molecules
 Hexose: glucose, fructose, galactose TYPES OF LIPIDS
 Glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, and A. TRIGLYCERIDES
deoxyribose  “neutral fats”
 Glucose: “blood sugar”  Represent the body’s most abundant and
 Glucose: universal cellular fuel concentrated source of usable energy
 Fructose and Galactose: are converted to  When they are oxidized, they yield large
glucose for use by body cells amounts of energy
 Galactose: cheese and yoghurt  They are stored chiefly in fat deposits
beneath the skin and around body organs,
B. DISACCHARIDES where they help insulate the body and
 Double sugars
 protect deeper body tissues from heat loss  Modified triglycerides
and bumps  They differ in that a phosphorus-containing
 Composed of two types of building blocks: group is always part of the molecule and
fatty acid and glycerol takes place of one of the fatty acid chains
 Make up 75% of fats in the human body  Have two instead of three attached fatty
 Their synthesis involves the attachments of acids
three fatty acids to a single glycerol  Because the phosphorus-containing portion
molecule (the “head”) bears an electrical charge, it
 Called fats when solid gives phospholipids special chemical
 Oils when liquid properties and polarity
 Main functions: energy storage, insulation,  Glycerol and 2 fatty acids plus a phosphorus
and protection against trauma and other containing group
injuries  Contain C, H, O, and phosphorus
 Can be constructed of saturated and
unsaturated fatty acids C. STEROIDS
 Lipids that contain cholesterol
SATURATED  Flat molecules formed of four interlocking
 Fatty acid chains with only single covalent rings
bonds between carbon atoms  Like fats, they are made largely by hydrogen
 Their fatty acid chains are straight and carbon atoms and are fat-soluble
 At room temperature, the molecules are  Common steroids; cholesterol, vitamin D,
pack closely together, forming a solid steroid hormones, and bile salts
 Most important steroid is cholesterol
UNSATURATED  Cholesterol: building block for Vitamin D,
 Contain one (monounsaturated) or more steroid synthesis, and bile salts synthesis
double (polyunsaturated) bonds between  Hormones such as estrogens and
carbon atoms testosterones are steroids
 The double and triple bonds cause fatty
acids chains to kink so that they cannot pack D. EICOSANOIDS
closely enough to solidify  Derived from a fatty acid (arachidonic acid)
found in cell membranes
TRANS FAT  Most important eicosanoids are
 Common in many margarines and baked prostaglandins which play a role in blood
products, are oils that have been solidified clotting, control of blood pressure,
by addition of hydrogen atoms at sites of inflammation and labor contraction
double carbon bonds  Thromboxanes: initiate the construction
 Increasing the risk of heart disease and clotting of platelets
 Modified oils – unhealthy
3. PROTEINS
OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS  Comprises 20%-30% of cell mass
 Found naturally in cold-water fish  Have most varied functions of any
 Appear to decrease the risk of heart disease molecules
and some inflammatory diseases  Structural, chemical (enzymes), and
 “heart healthy” contraction (muscle)
 Contain C, H, O, N, and sometimes S and P
B. PHOSPOHOLIPIDS
 Found in cell membranes
AMINO ACIDS  Some exhibit only secondary structure but
 Amino acids: building blocks of proteins most have tertiary or even quaternary
 About 20 common varieties of amino acids structure
are found in proteins  Important in binding structures together
 Carboxyl gives the acidic property and providing strength and mechanical
 Amine gives the basic property support in certain body tissues
 R group sets differences of amino acids  Collagen: found in bones, cartilage, and
 Joined together in chains to form large, tendons and is the most abundant protein
complex protein molecules that contain in the body
from 50 to thousands of amino acids  Keratin: is the structural protein of hair and
 Polypeptide: amino acid chains containing nails and the material that makes skin tough
fewer than 50 amino acids
GLOBULAR PROTEINS
STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS  “functional proteins”
 Primary Structure: sequence of amino acids  Mobile, compact, spherical, water soluble,
composing the polypeptide chain and sensitive to environmental changes
 Primary Structure: resembles a strand of  Have at least tertiary structure
amino acids “beads”, is the backbone of  Play crucial roles in virtually all biological
protein molecule processes because they do things rather
than just form structures
 Secondary Structure: alpha helix and beta  Some antibodies hep to provide immunity
pleated sheet  Hormones help to regulate growth and
 Secondary Structure: alpha helix is formed development
by coiling of the primary chain and is  Enzymes regulate essentially every chemical
stabilized by hydrogen bonds reaction that goes on within the body
 Secondary Structure: beta pleated sheet is  If subjected into high temperature,
wherein the polypeptide chains are linked denaturation might happen
side by side by hydrogen bonds to form a
pleated, ribbonlike structure that resembles ENZYMES
an accordion  Are functional proteins that act as biological
catalysts
 Tertiary Structure: is achieved when an  No enzyme, no reaction
alpha-helical or beta-pleated regions of the
polypeptide chain fold upon one another to CATALYSTS
produce a compact ball-like, or globular  Substance that regulates and increases the
molecule rate of a chemical reaction without
becoming part of the product or being
 Quaternary Structure: two or more changed itself
polypeptide chains combine in a regular  Lower the energy needed to initiate a
manner to form a complex protein chemical reaction

FIBROUS & GLOBULAR PROTEINS 4. NUCLEIC ACIDS

FIBROUS PROTEINS  Make up the genes which are the basic
 “structural proteins” blueprint of life
 Strand-like, water soluble, and stable  Composed of C, H, O, N, and P
 Appear most often in body structures  Considered as the largest biological
molecules in the body
 Three basic parts: nitrogen-containing base,  Chemical energy released when glucose is
pentose sugar, and phosphate group broken down
 Offers immediate, usable energy needed by
TWO MAJOR CLASSES body cells
A. DNA  Used to provide cellular energy
 Double strand  Provides a form of chemical energy that all
 Holds the genetic blueprint for the synthesis body cells can use
of all proteins  Without it, molecules cannot be made or
 Located in the cell nucleus broken down, cells cannot maintain their
 Nucleotides contain a deoxyribose sugar, a boundaries, and all life processes grind to a
phosphate group, and one of 4 nitrogen halt
bases
 Purines: adenine (A), guanine (G) CELLS
 Pyrimidines: cytosine (C), thymine (T)  The most basic living unit of all living things
 it replicates itself exactly before a cell  Discovered by Robert Hooke
divides, thus ensuring that the genetic
information in every cell is identical THE CELL THEORY
 it provides the instructions for building  Proposed by Schleiden (Plant Cells),
every protein in the body Schwann (Animal Cells), and Virchow (Pre-
 Bases: A, G, C, and T existing)
 Viruses are not true cells and are not living
B. RNA things
 Single strand
 Located outside the nucleus BASIC
 “molecular slave” of DNA 1. The cell is the basic functional and structural
 Carries out the orders for protein synthesis unit of all organisms.
issued by DNA 2. All living things are made up of one cell
 Bases: A, G, C, and U (unicellular) or more cells (multicellular).
 Three major varieties: messenger, 3. Cells come from pre-existing cells.
ribosomal, and transfer RNA
 Messenger RNA: carries the information for ADVANCED
building the protein from the DNA genes to 1. The activity of an organism depends on the
the ribosomes, the protein-synthesizing collective activities of its cells.
sites 2. The biochemical activities of cells are
 Transfer RNA: ferries amino acids to the dictated by their shape or form, and by the
ribosomes relative number of their specific subcellular
structures (Principle of Complementarity).
 Ribosomal RNA: forms part of the
3. Continuity of life has cellular basis.
ribosomes, where it oversees the
translation of the message and the binding
TYPES OF CELLS
together of amino acids to form the
A. PROKARYOTIC
proteins
 Cells without a true nucleus and membrane-
ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP) bound organelles
 Modified nucleotide
B. EUKARYOTIC
 Consists of adenine base, ribose sugar, and
 Cells with a true nucleus and membrane-
three phosphate groups
bound organelles
ANATOMY OF A GENERALIZED CELL ✓ Wavy contours of adjacent cells
1. THE NUCLEUS fit together in a tongue-and-
 The control center of the cell groove fashion
 Contains the Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) ✓ Special membrane junctions are
formed – which vary depending
A. NUCLEAR ENVELOPE/MEMBRANE on the function
• A double-membrane fused barrier that • Intercellular bridges
bounds the nucleus • Combines cells together – aggregates
• In between the nucleus and nuclear them to form tissues
envelope is a fluid-filled space • Consists of multiple-protein complexes
• The fused region of its two layers are that provide contact between cells or
penetrated by nuclear pores – which between a cell and the extracellular
allows some entrance and can be passed matrix
through with ease • Free flowing cells are in the extracellular
• Encloses a fluid-like substance called fluid
nucleoplasm • All three types of cell junctions can be
found within the same tissue
B. NUCLEOLI
• Small, dark-staining, round • Tight Junctions
• Where ribosomes are assembled ✓ Prevents fluid and molecules
from moving in between cells
C. CHROMATIN ✓ No leakage occurs
• DNA combined with protein ✓ Impermeable Membrane
• Loose network of bumpy threads ✓ Ie. Urinary Bladder
• During mitosis or meiosis, threads coil
and condenses to form chromosomes • Desmosomes
✓ aka Adhesion
2. PLASMA MEMBRANE ✓ Strong and flexible connections
 Fragile, transparent barrier ✓ Prevents cells from being pulled
 Separates the cells from its surrounding by mechanical stress
environment ✓ Rivet like cell junction formed
 Semi-permeable when linker (Cadherins),
connectedly button like plagues,
A. THE FLUID MOSAIC MODEL of cells interlock like zipper teeth
• Essentially the plasma membrane is ✓ Cadherins form the actual
made of phospholipids and a substantial anchors as the transmembrane
amount of cholesterol linker
• Hydrophilic ✓ Ie. Keratin Pigments, Skeletal
Muscle
• Hydrophobic
• Self-orienting
• Gap Junctions
• Surrounded by protein
✓ Transmembrane proteins
(Connexons) form tunnels that
B. MEMBRANE JUNCTIONS
allow molecules to pass from the
• Cells are bound together in the ff. ways:
cell
✓ Glycoproteins act as a cellular
✓ Connexons are where ion and
glue
electrical signals can flow
 ✓ Allows communication and • System of fluid-filled canals or tubules
attachment (called cisterns) that coil and twist
✓ More effective for through the cytoplasm
communication rather than • Mini-circulatory system of the cell
binding
✓ Ie. Cardiac, Smooth, and Muscle • Rough ER
Cells ✓ Studded with ribosomes
✓ Proteins made from the
3. CYTOPLASM ribosomes are dispatched
 Site of most cellular activities through the transport vesicles
 Contains three major elements ✓ Main Responsibility: Proteins
A. CYTOSOL
• Semi-transparent fluid that suspends
other elements • Smooth ER
• Largely water which contains nutrients ✓ Main Responsibility: Lipid
and a variety of other solutes Synthesis

B. INCLUSIONS D. GOLGI APPARATUS

• Presence depends on the cell type • “Traffic Director” or “Post Office”
• Mostly stored nutrients or cell products • Main Function: Modify and package
proteins
C. ORGANELLES • Exports proteins through the secretory
• “Little organs” vesicles
• Each organelle has a specific function • Stack of flattened membranous sacs
with swarms of tiny vesicles
4. CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES • Generally found close to the nucleus
 The little factories of the cell
E. LYSOSOMES
A. MITOCHONDRIA • “Suicide bags” or “Demolition Sites”
• “Powerhouse” of the Cell • Contains powerful digestive enzymes
• Lozenge-like or Sausage-like shape and numerous phagocytes
• Can squirm, lengthen, or change shape
• Outer Membrane: Smooth, featureless F. PEROXISOMES
• Inner Membrane: Cristae (Shelf-like • “Tea bag”
Intrusions) • Detoxifies and disarms free radicals
• Ie. Liver and Muscle cells have huge (Reactive chemicals with unpaired
amounts of Mitochondria electrons that can scramble nucleic acid
– byproducts of cellular metabolism)
B. RIBOSOMES • Converts free radicals into hydrogen
• Responsible for Protein Synthesis peroxide
• Tiny, bilobed, dark bodies made of • Catalase converts excess hydrogen
protein and Ribosomal RNA peroxide into water
• Contains powerful oxidase enzymes that
C. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUMS uses oxygen to detoxify harmful
• Passageway of food and substances substances (ie. Alcohol and
Formaldehyde)
• Ie. Kidneys and Livers
 G. CYTOSKELETON • Ie. Sperm Cell
• “Bones and Muscles” or “Framework”
• Elaborate network of protein structures C. MICROVILLI
• Furnishes the cell with an internal • Tiny, finger-like extensions projected out
framework of the plasma membrane
• Determines the cell shape and supports • Tremendously increases cell surface
other organisms • Usually found in cell types that are
• Provides the machinery for intracellular plenty involved in absorption
transport and cellular movements • Have a core of actin filaments that
extends into the internal cytoskeleton of
• Intermediate Filaments the cell and stiffens the microvillus
✓ Strong, stable, and rope-like • Ie. Intestinal and Kidney tubule cells
✓ Provides internal “guy wires” to
resist pulling forces on cells MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
✓ Helps form desmosomes  Involves the selectively permeable, Plasma
Membrane
• Microfilaments  INTRACELULLAR FLUID: Solution that
✓ Actin and Myosin contains small amount of gases, nutrients,
✓ Most involved in cell motility and salts dissolved in water
and shape changes  INTERSTITIAL FLUID: Continuously bathes
the exterior of cells – “has lots of
• Microtubules ingredients”
✓ Tube-like  SOLUTION: Homogenous mixture
✓ Determines overall shape of the  SOLVENT: Largest amount in a solution (Ie.
cell and organelle distribution Water)
✓ Important during cell division  SOLUTES: Smaller amount in a solution

H. CENTRIOLES 1. PASSIVE PROCESSES

• Rod-shaped bodies that lie at right  Requires no ATP
angles to each other
• Internally made up of pinwheel array of A. DIFFUSION
fine microtubules • Process wherein molecules move away
• Lies close to the nucleus from a region where they are more
• Main Function: Generates microtubules concentrated (more numerous) to a
and directs the formation of mitotic region where they are less concentrated
spindle (less numerous)
• Main Source of “Energy”: The Kinetic
5. CELL EXTENSIONS Energy of the Molecules
 Surface extensions • Due to the kinetic energy of the
molecules they tend to move erratically
A. CILIA and collide with each other
• Whip-like cellular extensions • This tendency overall results to the
• Moves substances along the cell surface molecules moving down their
concentration gradient
B. FLAGELLA • The greater the difference in
• Substantially longer than cilia concentration gradient, the faster the
• Provides propulsion diffusion
 • Scatters molecules equally A. ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• Speed of Diffusion: Size : Temperature • Sometimes called “Solute Pump”
• The plasma membrane’s hydrophobic • Requires a protein carrier
core is a physical barrier to diffusion. • Uses ATP to energize protein carrier
However, diffusion may still occur if the called solute pumps
following are true: • Sometimes moves against concentration
✓ Molecules are small enough to or electrical gradients
pass through the membrane’s • Usually involves large and not lipid
pores soluble molecules
✓ Molecules are lipid-soluble
✓ Molecules are assisted by a
membrane carrier • Sodium-Potassium Pump
✓ Necessary for normal
• Simple Diffusion transmission of nerve impulses
✓ Unassisted, diffuses directly ✓ Sodium ions tend to stay inside
✓ Molecules are either non-polar, the cell unless forcible pumped
lipid-soluble or can pass through out by the cell
pores
✓ ATP converts into ADP
(Adenosine Diphosphate)
• Osmosis
✓ Diffusion of water through a ✓ High Energy Bonding Phosphate
selectively permeable changes the shape of the Protein
membrane Pump (Phosphorylation)
✓ AQUAPORINS: Special water ✓ The cell then expels the Sodium
pores out of the cell and releases the
✓ Occurs all the time as water Potassium into the cell
moves down its concentration
gradient B. VESICULAR TRANSPORT
• Moves substances in and out of the cells
• Facilitated Diffusion without actually crossing the plasma
✓ Assisted by carrier or channel membrane
mediated
• Exocytosis
B. FILTRATION ✓ Moves substances out of cells
• Water and solutes are pushed by using ✓ Secretions are packaged by Golgi
fluid or hydrostatic pressure Apparatus into vesicles
• Pressure Gradient must exist (Filtration
version of Concentration Gradient) • Endocytosis
• Filtrate is pushed by the Pressure ✓ Extracellular substances are
Gradient from high pressure area to low engulfed by vesicles and moves
pressure area them into the cytoplasm
✓ Usually fused with a lysosome
• Generally, only occurs across capillary
and the contents are digested by
walls (Ie. Kidneys – Main site of
the lysosomal enzymes
nitrogenous waste filtration)

2. ACTIVE PROCESSES
 Requires ATP
OSMOLARITY 3. HYPOTONIC
 Measure of total concentration of solute  Solution (External Environment) has fewer
particles solutes than the cell thus the water enters
 Water concentration varies with the the cells
number of solute particles because solute  Water Concentration is higher in the
particles displace water molecules solution than inside the cell
 Solute Concentration and Water  The cell becomes bigger – it swells, and, in
Concentration have an indirect relationship some cases, it bursts or lyse
 Water moves by the osmosis from low to  Extreme Case: Distilled Water
high solute concentration  Hypotonic Solutions are usually used to
 When solutions are separated by rehydrate dehydrated patients
permeable membrane both solutes and
water cross in order to achieve equilibrium TISSUES
 Osmosis occurs until equilibrium is achieved  Collection of cells with the same function
 Sometimes equilibrium means same and structure
concentrations but different volumes
 The number of solutes and osmotic FOUR TYPES OF BODY TISSUES
pressure have a direct relationship 1. Epithelial Tissue (Covering)
 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE: Pressure inside 2. Connective Tissue (Support)
the cell 3. Muscle Tissue (Movement)
 OSMOTIC PRESSURE: Tendency of water to 4. Nervous Tissue (Communication)
move via osmosis
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
TONICITY  Body Covering, Body Linings, and Glandular
 Ability to change via altering the cell’s water Tissue
volume
 LOW TONICITY: Low concentration of  Functions:
solutes ✓ PROTECTION (ie. Against Bacteria)
 HIGH TONICITY: High concentration of ✓ ABSORPTION (ie. Digestive System)
solutes ✓ FILTRATION (ie. Kidneys)
✓ SECRETION (ie. Sweat Glands)
1. ISOTONIC
 Equilibrium  Characteristics:
 Same osmolarity inside the cell thus the ✓ FORMS A CONTINUOUS SHEET
volume is unchanged • Cells are fit closely together
 Same tonicity
✓ HAS AN APICAL SURFACE
 Has the same solute and water
• Most are slick and smooth
concentration as is inside the cell
• Some can have cilia or
 Causes no visible changes
microvilli
• Membranes always have one
2. HYPERTONIC
unattached/free surface/edge
 There are more solutes in the solution than
• Exposed to the body’s exterior
inside the cell
or to the cavity of an internal
 Water Concentration is higher inside the
organ
cell than outside the cell thus the water
leaves the cell ✓ LOWER SURFACE RESTS ON A
 The cell shrivels and becomes dehydrated BASEMENT MEMBRANE
 • Anchoring device for tissues  Types of Simple Epithelium Tissues:
• Holds tissues together ✓ SIMPLE SQUAMOUS
• For scaffolding • Fits closely together (like floor
• Structureless material secreted tiles)
by epithelial cells and the • Forms membranes that
connective tissue cells facilitate filtration or exchange
of substances through rapid
✓ AVASCULAR diffusion
• No own blood supply • Forms serous membranes or
• Depends on diffusion from serosae
capillaries for food and oxygen • Commonly found in air sacs,
capillary walls
✓ REGENERATES EASILY IF WELL
NOURISHED ✓ SIMPLE CUBOIDAL
• Commonly found in glands and
 Classifications (According to No. of Layers): their ducts
✓ SIMPLE EPITHELIUM (1 Layer) • Forms walls of the kidney
• Focus: Absorption, Secretion, tubules and covers the surface
Filtration of the ovaries
• Very thin • Ie. Salivary Glands and
• Not specialized for protection Pancreas
✓ STRATIFIED (> 1 Layers) ✓ SIMPLE COLUMNAR
• Focus: Protection • Often contains goblet cells –
• Considerably durable which produce lubricating
mucus
 Classifications (According to Shape):
• Lines the entire length of the
✓ SQUAMOUS digestive tract (S to A)
• Flattened like fish scales
• Mucosae or Mucous
• Reduces frictions Membranes - epithelial tissues
• Diffusion and Filtration that line body cavities that
✓ CUBOIDAL open to the body exterior
• Cube-shaped like a dice
✓ PSUEDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR
• Secretion and Absorption
• Gives false sense that it is a
• Rare in humans
stratified type of epithelial
✓ COLUMNAR tissue
• Stretched cuboidal • Some cells are shorter than the
• Secretion and Absorption others
• Rare in human (Stratified only) • Its ciliated variety lines the
respiratory tract
✓ TRANSITIONAL • Also contains goblet cells
• Stretching to accommodate
distension of urinary structures  Types of Stratified Epithelium Tissues:
• Only associated with Stratified ✓ STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS
Layers • Most common stratified
epithelium tissue
 • Mostly refers to the cells near • Secretion also indicates a
the apical surface specific active process
• Usually located in places that • ENDOCRINE GLANDS
deal with lots of abuse (your ▪ Often called ductless
Heart 😉 jk no – Esophagus, glands
Mouth, and other outer parts) ▪ Diffuses directly onto
and friction the blood vessels
▪ Ie. Thyroid, Adrenals,
✓ STRATIFIED CUBIODAL AND and Pituitary
STRATIFIED COMLUMNAR
• Both are uncommon or rare in • EXOCRINE GLANDS
the body ▪ Retains their ducts
• Both are usually found in ducts ▪ Releases secretions onto
of large glands the apical surface’s
• SCub: Only contains two cell ducts
layers – typically with its ▪ Ie. Sweat, Sebaceous,
surface in a cuboidal shape Liver, Pancreas
• SCol: Basal cells vary in size and
shape CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Is the most abundant and widely
✓ TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM distributed of the tissue types
• Highly modified  Primarily involved in protecting,
• Subjected to a lot of stretching supporting, and binding together other
• Can slide past one another and body tissues
change shape  Consists of living cells surrounded by a
• Forms the lining of only a few matrix
organs all found in the urinary
system – urinary bladder, CHARACTERISTICS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
ureters, and part of the urethra  Variations in blood supply
• Basal Layer may contain • Most tissues are well vascularized
columnar or cuboidal shaped • They have a good blood supply but
cells they have exceptions (e.g., tendons,
• Cells in apical surface vary in and ligaments)
appearance • Cartilage – avascular (having few or
• NS: Membrane is many no blood vessels)
layered, Superficial cells are • Broken bone heals faster than a torn
rounded and domelike ligament
• S: Membrane thins, Superficial
cells flatten and become  Extracellular Matrix
squamous-like • Non-living substance found outside
the cells
✓ GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
• It is what makes connective tissue
• A gland consists of one or more different from other tissue types
cells that make and secrete a
• Produced by the connective tissue
product (secretion)
cells and then secreted to their exterior
• Secretion typically contains
• Two main elements: structureless
protein molecules in an
ground substance and fibers.
aqueous (water-based) fluid
 1. Ground substance: composed largely support other body organs (ex. skull-
of water plus some cell adhesion brain)
proteins and large, charged
polysaccharide molecules. 2. CARTILAGE
 Major cell type: chondrocytes (cartilage
• Cell Adhesion Proteins: serve as a cells)
glue that allows the connective tissue  Found in only a few places in the body
cells to attach themselves to the matrix  Hyaline cartilage: most widespread that
fibers embedded in the ground has abundant collagen fibers hidden by a
substance rubbery matrix with a glassy
• Charged Polysaccharide Molecules: (hyaline=glass), blue-white appearance.
trap water as they intertwine. As these  Fibrocartilage: highly compressible and
polysaccharides become more forms the cushion-like disks between the
abundant, they cause the matrix to vary vertebrae of the spinal column
from fluid to gel-like to firm in its  Elastic Cartilage: found in structures
consistency. with elasticity such as the external ear

2. Fibers: mainly produced by the cells 3. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

 Dense fibrous tissue
• Collagen/White Fibers: high tensile  Collagen fibers are the main matrix
strength element
• Elastic/Yellow Fibers: has the ability  Makes up the lower layers of the skin
to stretch and recoil (dermis) where it is arranged in sheets
• Reticular Fibers: fine collagen fibers  Fibroblast (fiber-forming cells): crowds
that form the internal “skeleton” of soft between the collagen fibers that
organs such as the spleen. manufacture the building blocks of these
• Spleen – recycles blood cells fibers
• Spleen – immunity (WBC)  Forms strong, rope-like structures such
as tendons and ligaments
TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE  Tendons: attach skeletal muscles to
 Their major differences reflect specific bones
cell types, fiber types, and the number of  Ligaments: connect bones to bones at
fibers in the matrix joints
 From most rigid to softest or most fluid,
the major connective tissue classes are 4. LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
bone, cartilage, dense connective tissue,  Softer and have more cells and fewer
loose connective tissue, and blood fibers than any other connective tissue
types except blood
1. BONE  Three main types: areolar, adipose, and
 “osseous” tissue reticular
 Composed of osteocytes (bone cells)
sitting in the cavities called lacunae –  Areolar: most widely distributed
“pits” connective tissue variety in the body
 Pits: contain calcium salt in addition to  Areolar: soft, pliable, cobwebby tissue
large numbers of collagen fibers that cushions and protects the body
 Pits: has a rocklike hardness that’s why organs it wraps
bone has an ability to protect and
  Areolar: functions as a universal packing  Three types: skeletal, cardiac, and
tissue and glue because it helps to hold smooth
the internal organs together and in their
proper positions 1. SKELETAL MUSCLE
✓ Lamina Propria: soft layer of areolar  Tissue is packaged by connective tissue
connective tissue that underlies all sheets into these organs which are
mucous membranes attached to the skeleton
✓ Areola = small open space  These muscles, which can be controlled
✓ Edema: condition when a body region voluntarily (consciously), form the flesh of
is inflamed and the area swells and the body, the so-called muscular system
becomes puffy  When they contract, they pull on bones or
skin
 Adipose: fat  As a result, gross body movements or
 Adipose: forms the subcutaneous tissue changes in our facial expressions occur
beneath the skin, where it insulates the  Its cells are long, cylindrical, and
body and protects it from bumps and multinucleate, and they have obvious
extremes of both heat and cold striations (stripes)
 “Muscle fibers” – elongated to provide a
 Reticular: consist of a delicate network long axis for contraction
of interwoven reticular fibers associated
with reticular cells, which resemble 2. CARDIAC MUSCLE
fibroblasts  Is found only in the heart wall
 Reticular: forms the stroma  It is under involuntary control, which
(bed/mattress) that can support many means that we cannot consciously
free blood cells (WBC and lymphocytes) control the activity of the heart
 Reticular: “cellular bleachers” where  As it contracts, the heart acts as a pump
other cells can observe their to propel blood through blood vessels
surroundings  Also has striations but have only a single
nucleus and are relatively short,
5. BLOOD branching cells that fit tightly together
 Vascular tissue (clasped fingers) at junctions called
 Consists of blood cells surrounded by a intercalated discs
non-living, fluid matrix called blood  Intercalated discs: contain gap junctions
plasma that allow ions to pass freely from cell to
 Fibers of blood are soluble proteins that cell
become visible only during blood clotting  This ties the cardiac cells into a functional
 Is the transport vehicle for the syncytium (syn = together, cyt = cell),
cardiovascular system, carrying nutrients, resulting in rapid conduction of the
wastes, respiratory gases, WBC, and electrical signal to contract across the
many other substances throughout the heart
body
3. SMOOTH MUSCLE
MUSCLE TISSUES  Visceral muscle
 Are highly specialized to contract, or  No striations are visible
shorten, which generates the force  Individual cells have a single nucleus and
required to produce movement are tapered at both ends
  Found in the walls of hollow organs such  Permeability allows clotting proteins to
as the stomach, uterus, and blood vessels seep into the injured area
 As it contracts, the cavity of an organ  Prevents bacteria from entering
alternately becomes smaller (constricts  Exposure to air causes the clot to quickly dry
when smooth muscle contracts) or and harden (in simple words: it forms a
enlarges (dilates when smooth muscle scab)
relaxes) so that substances are mixed
and/or propelled through the organ along 2. GRANULATION TISSUE FORMS
a specific pathway  Delicate pink tissues
 Contracts much more slowly than the  Composed mostly of new capillaries from
other two muscle types, and these undamaged capillaries near the injured area
contractions tend to last longer  Fragile as fuck and bleed freely (like picked
 Peristalsis: a wavelike motion that keeps away scab)
food moving through the small intestine,  Contains phagocytes who eventually
is typical of its activity remove the blood clot (aka like the people
who pick up the broken shards of your
NERVOUS TISSUE heart)
 Neurons receive and conduct  Contains connective tissues (FIBROBLASTS)
electrochemical impulses from one part that forms the collagen fibers (SCAR TISSUE)
of the body to another to permanently bridge the cap (aka mga
 Irritability and conductivity are their two taga-buo permanently ng buhay at puso
major functional characteristics mo)
 Neuroglia: special group of supporting
cells that insulate, support, and protect 3. REGENERATION AND FIBROSIS
the delicate neurons in the structures of  Surface tissue begins to regenerate and
the nervous system – the brain, spinal goes under the granulation tissue beneath
cord, and nerves the scar tissue
 Once the scab detaches, the fully
TISSUE REPAIR (WOUND HEALING) regenerated surface epithelial tissue
 Skin and mucus membrane, cilia, and the emerges
strong acid produced by stomach glands  The SET then covers the fibrosis (the scar)
are just three examples of body  The fibrosis’ visibility depends on its
defences exerted at the tissue level severity
 Inflammation: is a general (nonspecific)  Regeneration varies differently
body response that attempts to prevent  Epithelial Tissues recover beautifully
further injury  Fibrous Connective Tissues and Bones
 Immune response: is extremely specific recover well enough
and mounts a vigorous attack against  Skeletal Muscles regenerate poorly
recognized invades (bacteria, viruses,  Cardiac Muscle and Nervous Tissue (Brain
toxins) and Spinal Cord) are mostly replaced by scar
tissue
TISSUE REPAIR PROCESS
1. INFLAMMATION DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF CELLS AND
 Triggered by the injured tissues and cells TISSUES
 Capillaries become permeable which 1. Growth by cell division continues through
severely helps in blood clotting puberty
 Cell populations exposed to friction (such as  Composed of two layers; superficial
epithelium) replace lost cells throughout life epidermis and underlying dermis
 Connective tissue remains mitotic and  Epidermis: composed of stratified squamous
forms repair (scar) tissue epithelium
 With some exceptions, muscle tissue  Dermis: mostly dense (fibrous) connective
becomes amitotic by the end of puberty, tissue, packed with collagen and utilized in
and nervous tissue becomes amitotic making leather bags
shortly after birth
 Injury can severely handicap amitotic 3. MUCOUS MEMBRANE
tissues  Composed of epithelium resting on a loose
 Amitotic: the loss of ability to divide when connective tissue membrane called lamina
cells are fully mature propria
 Amitotic tissues: are severely handicapped  Lamina propria: lines all body cavities that
by injury because the lost cells cannot be open to the exterior, such as those of hollow
replaced by the same type of cells organs of the respiratory, digestive, urinary,
and reproductive tracts
2. The cause of aging is unknown, but chemical  Mucosa: only location of the epithelial
and physical insults, as well as genetic membranes and not their cellular makeup
programming, have been proposed as  Moist membranes that are continuously
possible causes. bathed in secretions or urine
 Stratified squamous: mouth and esophagus
3. Neoplasm, both benign and cancerous,  Simple columnar: digestive tract
represent abnormal cell masses in which  The epithelium of mucosae is often adapted
normal controls on cell division are not for absorption or secretion
working  Microvilli increases the supine area and is
 Hyperplasia: increase in size of a tissue or efficient in absorption of nutrients
organ may occur when tissue is strongly
stimulated or irritated 4. SEROUS MEMBRANES
 Atrophy: decrease in size of a tissue or organ  Serosa
occurs when the organ is no longer  Composed of a layer of simple squamous
stimulated normally epithelium resting on a thin layer of areolar
connective tissue
BODY MEMBRANES  Line body cavities that are closed to the
 Cover surfaces, line body cavities and form exterior (except for dorsal body cavity and
protective (and often lubricating) sheets joint cavities)
around organs  Occurs in pair
 Two major groups: Epithelial membranes  Parietal (parie=wall) layer: lines a specific
(cutaneous, mucous, and serous) and portion of the wall of the ventral body cavity
 Parietal (parie=wall) layer: it folds in on itself
Connective tissue membranes (synovial)
to form the visceral layer, which covers the
1. EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES outside of the organ(s) in that cavity
 Covering and lining membranes  Serous fluid: allows the organs to slide easily
 Cutaneous, mucous, and serous membranes across the cavity walls and one another
without fiction as they carry out their routine
2. CUTANEOUS MEMBRANE functions
 Exposed to air and is a dry membrane  Peritoneum: abdominal
 Outermost protective boundary  Pleura: around lungs
 Pericardium: around the heart  Hypodermis: serves as a shock absorber and
insulates deeper tissues from extreme
5. CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANES temperature changes occurring outside the
 Synovial membranes are composed of loose body
areolar connective tissue and contain no  Hypodermis: responsible for the curves that
epithelial cells at all are more a part of a woman’s anatomy than
 Line the fibrous capsules surrounding joints man’s
where they provide a smooth surface and
secrete a lubricating fluid LAYERS OF THE SKIN
 Line small sacs of connective tissue called 1. EPIDERMIS
bursae and the tubelike tendon sheaths.  Composed of five layers or strata
 Stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum,
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM lucidum, corneum
 “covering”
 Skin and its appendages (sweat and oil 2. STRATUM BASALE
glands, hairs, and nails)  Deepest cell layer of the epidermis
 Insulates and cushions the deeper body  Lies closest to the dermis and is connected
organs and protects the entire body from to it along a wavy border that resembles
mechanical damage (bumps and cuts), corrugated cardboard
chemical damage (acids and bases), thermal  Contains the most adequately nourished of
damage (heat and cold), UV radiation, and the epidermal cells because nutrients
microbes diffusing from the dermis reach them first
 Stem cells in this layer are constantly
SKIN FUNCTIONS dividing, and millions of new cells are
 Acids in loss/retention of body heat as produced daily – stratum germinativum
controlled by the nervous system  Cells undergoing mitosis
 Acids in excretion of urea and uric acid  Daughter cells are pushed upward to
 Synthesizes Vitamin D become part of the more superficial layers
 Cutaneous sensory receptors, detect touch,  Stratum spinosum and granulosum: become
temperature, pressure, and pain flatter and easily keratinized

SKIN STRUCTURE 3. STRATUM LUCIDUM

 Epidermis: made up of stratified squamous  Formed from dead cells of the deeper state
epithelium that is capable of becoming hard  Occurs only on thick, hairless skin of the
and tough palms of hands and soles of feet
 Epidermis: hardened by keratin to prevent
water loss 4. STRATUM CORNEUM
 Epidermis: avascular (no blood supply of its  Outermost layer of epidermis
own)  20-30 layers thick, ¾ of the epidermal
 Dermis: made up of mostly dense connective thickness
tissue  Shinglelike dead cell remnants, completely
 Subcutaneous (hypodermis): adipose (fat) filled with keratin are referred to as
tissue cornified, or horny, cells (cornu = horn)
 Hypodermis: anchor the skin to underlying
organs and provides a site for nutrient DEEPEST TO MOST SUPERFICIAL
storage  Basale
 Spinosum
 Granulosum SKIN COLOR
 Lucidum  Melanin: yellow, reddish brown, or black
 Corneum  Carotene: orange-yellow pigment plentiful in
carrots and other orange, deep yellow, or
MELANIN leafy green vegetables
 A pigment that ranges in color from yellow  Haemoglobin: pigment in red blood cells
to brown to black is produced by spider-
shaped cells found chiefly in the stratum ALTERATIONS IN SKIN COLOR
basale  Redness/erythema: embarrassment
 Freckles and moles are seen where melanin (blushing), fever, hypertension,
is concentrated in one spot inflammatory, allergy
 Accumulates membrane-bund granules  Pallor/blanching: certain types of emotional
called melanosomes stress (fear and anger), anemia, low blood
pressure, or impaired blood flow into the
EPIDERMAL DENDRITIC CELLS area
 Important “sentries” that alert and activate  Jaundice: liver disorder in which excess bile
immune system cells to a threat such as pigments accumulate in the blood, circulate
bacterial or viral infection throughout the body, and become deposited
 Merkel cells: associated with nerve endings in body tissues
and serves as touch receptors  Bruises: hematoma, deficiency in Vitamin C
in the diet, or haemophilia (bleeder’s
DERMIS disease)
 Strong, stretchy envelope that helps to bind
the body together APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN
 Two layers: papillary (areolar) and reticular CUTANEOUS GLANDS
(dense irregular connective tissue) areas  Exocrine glands that release their secretions
to the skin surface via ducts
1. PAPILLARY LAYER  Sebaceous glands and sweat glands: as these
 Superficial dermal region glands are formed by the cells of the stratum
 Uneven and has peglike projections from its basale, they push into the deeper skin
superior surface, called dermal papillae regions and ultimately reside almost entirely
 Dermal papillae: contain capillary loops in the dermis
which furnish nutrients to the epidermis  Hair, hair follicles, nails
 Dermal papillae: others house pain
receptors (free nerve endings) and touch SEBACOUS (OIL) GLANDS
receptors  Found all over the skin, except on the palms
 Dermal papillae: fingerprints are identifying of the hands and soles of the feet
films of sweat  Their ducts usually empty into a hair follicle,
but some open directly onto the skin surface
2. RETICULAR LAYER  Very active when androgens (male sex
 Deepest skin layer hormones) are produced in increased
 Contains dense irregular connective tissue, amounts (in both sexes) during adolescence;
as well as blood vessels, sweat and oil glands, thus, the skin tends to become oilier during
and deep receptors called lamellar this period of life
corpuscles  Product: sebum
 Collagen and elastic fibers located  Sebum: a mixture of oily substances and
throughout the dermis fragmented cells
 Sebum: lubricant that jeeps the skin soft and  Cortex surrounds medulla
moist and prevents the hair from becoming  Cuticle on outside of matrix
brittle  Most heavily keratinized region of the hair:
 Sebum: contains chemicals that kill bacteria cuticle
 Cuticle: mostly subjected to abrasion, wears
SWEAT GLANDS away from the shaft, split ends
 “Sudoriferous” glands
 Widely distribted in te skin ASSOCIATED HAIR STRUCTURES
 2.5 M per person  Hair follicle: chemical and epidermal sheath
 Two types: eccrine and apocrine surrounded hair root
 Arrector pili muscle: smooth muscle and
SUDORIFEROUS GLANDS pulls hair upright when person is cold or
ECCRINE GLANDS frightened
 Produce sweat, a clear secretion that is
primarily water plus some salts (NaCl), Vit C, NAILS
traces of metabolic wastes (ammonia, urea,  Scale-like modification of epidermis
uric acid), and lactic acid (chemical that  Heavily keratinized (non-living material)
accumulates during vigorous muscle activity)  Stratum basale beneath as the nail bed
 Can inhibit growth of certain bacteria (responsible for growth)
 Sweat: acidic (pH from 4 to 6) and reaches  Lack of pigment makes them odourless
the skin surface via a duct that open  Nailbed: responsible for nail growth and if
externally as a funnel shaped called sweat it’s heavily damaged, then the nails won’t
pore grow

APOCRINE GLANDS NAIL STRUCTURE

 Largely confined to the axilliary (armpit) and  Free edge
genital areas of thebody  Body is the visible attached portion
 Are usually larger than eccrine glands and  Nail folds are skin folds that overlap the
their ducts empty into hair follicles edges of the nail
 Their secretion contains fatty acids and  Growth occurs from nail matrix
proteins, as well as the substances present in  Root of nail is embedded in skin
eccrine sweat  Cuticle is the proximal nail fold that projects
 The secretion may have a milky r yellowish onto the nail body
color and is odourless  Lunule is in white crescent appearance
(avascular)
HAIR
 Produced by hair follicle BURNS
 Root encloses in the follicle  Tissue damage and cell death caused by
 Shaft projects from the surface of the scalp heat, electrolytes, UV radiation, or chemicals
(skin)  Associated dangers: dehydration, electrolyte
 Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells imbalance, circulatory shock
 Melanocytes provide pigment for the hair  Results in loss of body fluids and invasion of
odor bacteria
 Hair grows in the matrix of the hair bulb in
stratum basale
HAIR ANATOMY RULE OF NINES
 Central medulla  Way to determine the extent of burns
 Body is divided into 11 areas for quick SKIN HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
estimation INFECTIONS
 Each area represents about 9% of total body  Athlete’s Feet (tinea pedis)
surface ✓ Caused by fungal infection
 Area of the surrounding genitals (1%)  Boils and Carbuncles
✓ Caused by bacteria infection
 Contact Dermatitis
✓ Exposures cause allergic reaction

INFECTIONS AND ALLERGIES

 Cold sores: caused by virus
 Impetigo: caused by bacterial infection
 Psoriasis: chronic condition
✓ cause is unknown
✓ triggered by trauma, infection, stress
✓ overproduction of skin cells that causes
red epidermal lesions

SKIN CANCER
CANCER
 Abnormal cell mass
 Benign: does not spread (encapsulated)
 Malignant: metastasize (moves) to other
parts
SEVERITY OF BURNS
 First degree burns: partial thickness burn SKIN CANCER TYPES
✓ One epidermis is damages  Basal Cell Carcinoma
✓ Skin is red and swollen ✓ Least malignant
 Second degree burns: partial thickness burn ✓ Most common type
✓ Epidermal and upper dermis are ✓ Arises from stratum basale
damaged ✓ Occurs on skin due to Sun exposure
✓ Skin is red with blisters ✓ Slow growing and metastasize is seldom
 Third degree burns: full partial thickness ✓ Cure: Surgical removal of Carcinoma
burn
✓ Destroys entire skin layer; burned area  Squamous Cell Carcinoma
is painless ✓ Arises from stratum spinosum
✓ Requires skin grafts ✓ Metastasizes to lymph nodes if not
✓ Burn is gray, white, or black removed
✓ Believed to be sun induced
CRITICAL BURNS ✓ Early removal allows a good chance of
 Over 25% has second degree burns cure
 Over 10% of the body has third degree burn
 There are third degree burn of the face,  Malignant Melanoma
hands, or feet ✓ Most deadly
✓ Cancer of melanocytes
✓ Metastasize rapidly to lymph and blood
vessels
✓ Detection uses ABCD rule

o A – Asymmetry
✓ Two sides of pigmented mole do not
match
o B – Border Irregularity
✓ Borders of mole are not smooth; it
exhibits indentations
o C – Colors
✓ Different colors may arise
o D – diameter
✓ Spot is larger than 6 mm in diameter

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF SKIN

 In youth, skin is thick, resilient and well
hydrated
 Skin cancer is a major threat to skin exposed
to excessive sunlight
 Balding and/or graying occurs with aging,
both are genetically determined
 Other factors that may contribute including
drugs and emotional stress