Introductory 5

which it can supply to the fault point depends on the output kW, disconnected from the rest of the system. The circuit breakers
reactance and voltage rating of the motor. must have sufficient capacity so that they can carry momentarily
3. Induction Motor as a Source of Fault Power. Like the maximum short-circuit current that can flow through them
synchronous motor the induction motor also behaves like a and then interrupt this current; they must also withstand closing
generator at the time of short circuit. The difference between in on such a short circuit and then interrupting it according to
them is that the induction motor does not have dc excitation, but certain prescribed norms.
during normal operation the flux from the stator appears to be as Fuses are employed where protective relays and circuit
if is being produced from the de winding. breakers are not economically justifiable.
On occurrence of a short circuit on a system, the terminal
1.7. FAULT CLEARING PROCESss
voltage across the motor terminals drops to almost zero suddenly,
the flux cutting the rotor does not change instantaneously, and The protective relays are connected in the secondary circuits of
the inertia of the motor continues to drive it, thus it also behaves current transformers (CTs) and/or potential transformers (PTs).
as a generator and starts feeding the fault point until the stator Under normal operating conditions, the voltage induced in the
flux decays. secondary of the CT is small and therefore current flowing in
the relay operating coil is insufficient in magnitude to close the
Although, synchronous motors and induction motors act as
relay contacts. This keeps the trip coil of the circuit breaker de-
generators only for a short intervals; but they definitely produce
energised. Consequently the breaker contacts remain closed and
sufficient power to cause momentary duty on the circuit breakers.
it carries the normal load current. On occurrence of fault, a large
1.6. NECESSITY FOR PROTECTION SYSTEM current flows through the primary of the CT. This increases the
voltage induced in the secondary and hence the current flowing
Modern power systems are growing fast with more generators
through the relay operating coil. The relay contacts are closed
transformers and large network in the systems. For system
and the trip coil of the breaker gets energised to open the breaker
operation a high degree of reliability is required. In order to
contacts. The circuit breaker opens its contacts. An arc is drawn
protect the system (lines and equipment) from damage due to
between the contacts as they separate. The arc is extinguished at
undue currents and/or abnormal voltages caused by faults (such
a natural current zero of the ac wave by suitable medium and
as short circuits) the need for reliable protective devices, such as
technique. After final arc extinction and final current zero, a high
relays and circuit breakers arises. As already mentioned, the most
voltage wave appears across the circuit breaker contacts tending
common electrical hazard against which protection is required
to re-establish this arc. This transient voltage wave is called
is the short circuit. However, there are many other abnormal
transient recovery voltage (TRV). The transient recovery voltage
conditionse.g, overloads, undervoltage and overvoltage, open comprises a high frequency transient component superimposed
phase, unbalanced phase currents, reversal of power,
on a power frequency recovery voltage. These phenomena have
underfrequency and overfrequency, overtemperature, power
a profound influence on the behaviour of the circuit breakers
swings, instability for which some protection is desired. and the associated equipment (Refer to chapters 7 and 8).
As a rule, on the occurrence of short circuits which may
BUS-BAR
lead to heavy disturbances in normal operation (damage to
equipment, impermissible drop in voltage etc.), the protective
scheme is designed to disconnect or isolate the faulty section
from the system without any delay. The protective scheme is TRIP
designed to energise an alarm or signal whenever the overloads COlL
and short circuits do not present a direct danger to the faulted
circuit element and the entire installation, for example,on
occurrence of a single phase fault to earth in overhead circuits
operated with an insulated neutral. In such cases it is possible
for the operating personnel to take the necessary measures for RELAY
removal of the abnormality and prevent any interruption in power OPERATING
OiL
supply to consumers.
The main functions of protective relaying are to detect the
presence of faults, their locations and initiate the action for quick Fig. 1.2. Typical Relay Circuit
removal from service of any element of a power system when it
suffers a short circuit or when it starts to operate in any abnormal 1.8. BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF PROTECTION
manner that might cause damage or otherwise interfere with SYSTEM
effective operation of the rest of the system. The relaying Protection system is an extremely important part of the power
equipment is added in this task by the circuit breakers that are system as it is provided to operate under abnormal conditions to
capable of disconnecting the faulty element when they are called prevent failure or isolate trouble and limit its effect. Every
upon to do so by the relaying equipment.
protection system which isolates a faulty element is required
to

Circuit breakers are generally located so that each generator, satisfy four basic requirements: () reliability; (i) selectively:
transformer, bus, transmission line etc., can be completely (ii) sensitivity; and (iv) speed of operation. Without reliability
 Switchgear and Protection
and selectivity the protection would be rendered largely 3. Sensitivity. Any protective system must be sufficiently
ineffective and could even become liability. sensitive so that it will operate reliably when required under the
1. Reliability and actual condition that produces the least operating tendency.
Simplicity. Reliability is the basic
requirement of the protection system as it is provided to improve Sensitivity of any protective scheme refers to the smallest
the reliability
of the whole system.
Reliability means that the value of actuating quantity at which it starts operating in relation
protection system must be ready to function, correctly at all times with the minimum value of fault current in the protected zone.
and under all conditions of any fault and abnormal
conditions of Sensitivity of a protective relay is a function of volt-amperes
the power system for which it has been
designed. input to the relay coil necessary to cause its operation. The smaller
Reliability
is a qualitative term.
Reliability of protective the volt-ampere input required to cause relay operation, the more
systems is assessed from statistical data. It cannot be sensitive is the relay.
easily
specified in terms of a mathematical expression
with certainty. A protection with high degree of sensitivity is more complex
Statistical survey and records give idea about
reliability of and uses more equipment and circuitry and is, therefore, more
protective systems. With the growing size of systems, use of expensive. Such protection is employed only in that case where
EHV lines, interconnections and use of
large generators and simpler arrangement cannot be applied because of low degree
transformers, the importance of reliability of protective systems of sensitivity.
has increased.
4. Speed of Operation. The protective system should
Inherent reliability is a matter of design based on disconnect the faulty section as quick as possible. This is desirable
long
experience. This can be achieved partly by () simplicity and for many reasons such as () reduction in the amount of damage
robustness in construction; (i) high contact pressure; (ii) dust incurred; (i) improvement in power system stability, (i) less
free enclosures; (iv) good contact material; (V) annoyance to electric power consumers and decrease in total
good
workmanship, and (vi) careful maintenance. outage time for power consumers; (iv) decrease in likelihood of
development of one type of fault into other more severe type
Simplicity is closely associated with reliability. Simplicity
and; () permit use of rapid reclosure of circuit breakers to restore
of construction and good quality of relay, corectness of design
service to consumers.
and installation and good maintenance and supervision etc., are
the main basic factors which influence the protective reliability. However, too fast operation may result in undesired
As a rule, the simple the protective scheme and lesser the number operation during transient faults.
of relays, circuits and contacts it contains, the greater will be its
1.8.1. Economic Considerations
reliability.
A modern power system cannot operate justifiably without
Reliability is rather closely associated with simplicity.
protective scheme but its cost has also to be considered. It is
Therefore one of the basic requirements of the protection
futile to achieve all important general requirements together, so
technique is simplicity.
compromises become necessary. Too much protection is as bad
2. Selectivity and Discrimination. Selectively is the ability as too little and the protection engineer must make a sensible
of the protective system to select correctly that part of the system compromise with due regard to practical situation considered.
in trouble and disconnect or isolate the faulty part without As a rule, the protective gear should not cost more than 5% of
disturbing the rest of the system i.e., the protective system must the total cost of the plant. However, when the apparatus to be
be able to discriminate between those conditions for which protected is of vital importance (such as generators, main
prompt operation is required and those for which no operation transmission lines) economic considerations are subordinated
or time-delay operation is required. to reliability.
A well designed and efficient protective system should be
selective i.e., it should be able to detect the point at which the 1.9. PROTECTION ZONES
fault occurs and cause the opening of the circuit breakers nearest In order to provide selectivity to the system it is usual practice to
to the fault with minimum or no damage to the system. divide the entire system into several protection zones. When a
If the protective system is not selective and operates for fault occurs in a given zone, then only the circuit breakers within
faults beyond its protective zones, a larger portion of the system that zone will be opened and thus only the faulty element will be
will disconnected unnecessarily, causing embarrassment to isolated without disturbing the rest of the
system.
get
supplier and consumers. Depending upon the rating of the machine, its location,
Selectivity is absolute if the protection responds only to the relative importance, probability of faults and abnormal conditions
faults within its own zone, and relative if it is obtained by grading etc., each power system component (generator, transformer,
the settings of the protective relays of several zones all of which transmission lines, bus-bar, cables, capacitors, individual loads
may respond to a given Systems of protection which in
fault. etc.) 1s covered by a protective zone. A part of the system
principle are absolutely selective are called the unit systems protected by a certain protective scheme is called protective
Systems in which selectivity is relative are non-unit systems. zone or zone of protection. The entire power system is coverc
Differential protection and frame leakage protection fall in the by several protective zones and no part of the system is left
former category while the current time graded protection and unprotected. The protection zone usually contains one or at tne
distance protection fall in the latter category. most two elements of the power
system.
Introductory 7
GENERATOR breaker C, will be tripped; however, this does not interrupt the
PROTECTION
flow of fault current from zone A. the relaying equipment of
,CIRCUIT zone B must also trip certain breakers in zone A. This is not a
/BREAKER
LV SWTCHGEAR
disadvantage for a fault at X. but the same breakers in zone A
PROTECTION will be tripped unnecessarily for other faults in zone B to the
STATION BUs-BARS AT STATION BUS-BARS
right of breaker C. How for this unnecessary tripping can be

STEP-L
tolerated will depend on the particular application.
TRANSFORMER
www. ww. 1.10. TYPES OF PROTECTION
ww. www. POWER
TRANSFORMER Very frequently, for attaining higher reliability.speeded-up action
PROTECTION and improvements in operating flexibility of the protection
schemes, the separate elements of a power system, in addition
HV SWTCHGEAR
PROTECTION to main or primary protection, are provided with a backup and
AT SENDING END
auxiliary protection.
BUS TRANSMISsiON The main protection is the first line of defence and ensures
COUPLER LINE
quick acting and selective clearing of faults within the boundary
TRANSMISSION of the circuit section or element it protects. Main protection, as
LINE PROTECTION
a rule, is provided for each section of an electrical installation.

CB CB HV SWITCH GEAR
Backup protection is the name given to a protection which
backs up the main protection whenever the latter fails in operation
PROTECTION
AT RECEIVING or is cut out for repairs etc.
END
Backup protection is important to the proper functioning of
a good system of electrical protection since cent per cent
reliability not only of the protective scheme but also of the
associated CTs, PTs and circuit breakers cannot be guaranteed.
Fig. 1.3. Overlapping Zones of Protection
It is the second line of defence which functions to isolate a faulty
It may be seen from Fig. 1.3 that there is a certain amount section of the system in case the main protection fails to function
of overlapping between the adjacent protection zones. For failures properly. The failure of the main protection may be due to any
within the region where two adjacent protective zones overlap, ofthe following reasons
more breakers will be tripped than the minimum necessary to () The de supply to the tripping circuit fails.
disconnect the faulty portion. But, if there were no overlap, a (i) The current or voltage supply to the relay fails.
failure in a region between zones would not lie in either zone
(in) The tripping mechanism of circuit breakerfails
and therefore no breaker would be tipped. The overlap is the
lesser evil. The extent of overlap is relatively small, and the (iv) The circuit breaker fails to operate.
probability of failure in this region is low; consequently, the
)The main protective relay fails.
tripping of too many breakers will be quite infrequent.
Backup protection may be provided either on the same circuit
Protective scheme which permits sensitivity to faults only breakers which would be normally opened by the main protection
within a certain unit part of the system allows a higher quality of or, still better, if the second line of protection makes use of
system protection by virtue of its high degree of sensitivity and different cireuit breakers. It is generally satisfactory to isolate
its adaptability to fast speed of operation. Figure 1.3 indicates more than the faulty section alone in case "backup" protection
how protection may be set up to operate for faults only in the is called upon to function. Very often the main protection of a

protected area with overlapping of the areas around the given circuit also serves as a backup for the protection of an
connecting circuit breakers. adjacent circuit. Backup protection is only provided where the
main protection of the adjacent circuit is unable to back up the
ZONE B
main protection of the given circuit. In a number of cases, for
ZONE A
simplification, the backup protection can have a lower sensitivity
factor and be operative over a limited backup zone i.e.. be
---- ----:
operative for only part of the protected circuit.
Fig. 14 An example of remote backup protection is provided by
For any fault at
When it becomes desirable for economic or space saving simple time graded relays, as shown in Fig. 1.5.
will the circuit breaker at D and
F normally relay R, operate
reasons to overlap on one side of a breaker, the relaying breaker
isolate the faulty section. Now if for some reasons circuit
cquipment of the zone that overlaps the breaker must be arranged would be isolated by the
at D fails to operate, the faulty section
to trip not only the breakers within its zone but also one or more
breakers of the adjacent zone, in order to completely disconnect operation of the relay R, at C.
Such faults. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.4, where it can be seen Experience has backup protection for other than
shown that
The extent to which
that for a fault at X the circuit breakers of zone B, including short circuits is not economically justifiable.
 and
backup protection is provided, depends upon economic
technical considerations. The cost of backup protectionis justified
on the basis of probability of failure of individual component in
protection system, cost of protected equipment, importance of
protected equipment, location of protected equipment etc.
B c D

LOAD LOAD LOAD

Fig. 1.5
The backup protection is normally of a form different from
the main protection and should preferably be of the non-unit
type, e.g., overcurrent or distance protection. It is usually for
economic reasons not so fast or as discriminative as the main
protection.
Auxiliary protection is employed in separate cases to
accelerate main protection operation during faults within the
protected zone and to also protect what is termed the dead zone
of the main protection scheme. The auxiliary protection devices
usually back up the main protection scheme in the events of its
failure.
Protective Relays 169
Rreaker Time. Time interval between closure of trip circuit
relay, which in turn, if the abnormality is of a dangerous
isolate the
character, causes the breaker to open and so to
and final arc extinction in circuit breaker is called the breaker
of the circuit
fimme faulty element. The relay ensures the safety
otherwise caused
Relay Time. The interval between occurrence of fault and oquipment from any damage which might be
closure of relay contacts is called the relay time. by the fault,
10 TRIP O
Relay time plus breakertime is equal to fault clearing tme. 5IGNAL CIRCuT
Consistency. It is accuracy with which the relay can repeat its
RELAY
electrical or time characteristics.
Reach. A distance relay operates whenever the impedance SENSING COMPARISoN cONTROL
ELEMENT ELEMENT ELEMENT
seen by the relay is less than a pre-specified value. This
impedance or the corresponding distance is known as the
reach of the relay. Fig.9.1. Basic Elements of a Relay
Reach of a relay may be defined as the limiting distance All the relays have three essential fundamental elements,
covered by the protection, the faults beyond which are not as illustrated in Fig. 9.1.
within the reach of the protection and should be covered by 1. Sensing element, sometimes also called the measuring
the other relay. element, responds to the change in the actuating quantity, the
Overreach. The tendency of the relay to operate at impedances current in a protected system in case of overcurrent relay.
larger than its setting is known as overreach. This can occur 2. Comparing element serves to compare the action of the
with some high speed relays if the current applied is not actuating quantity on the relay with a preselected relay setting
symmetrical, as is frequently the case during the first few 3. Control element on a pick up of the relay, accomplishes
cycles following a fault. a sudden change in the control quantity such as closing of the
Underreach. The extra impedance introduced by an arc into operative current circuit.
the fault loop affects the distance measured by the relay and Relays may be classified as to which kind of physica
causes it to underreach. Underreach is just reverse of overeach quantity the sensing element respond to and may be classed
and may be defined as the failure of distance relay to operate as electrical (actuated by some electrical quantity such as
within the set protected distance (say 90%). current, voltage, power etc.); mechanical (actuated by pressure,
velocity of outflow of a liquid or gas etc.), thermal (actuated
9.3. OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF PROTECTIVE and other types of
by heating effect), optical, acoustical,
RELAYS
relays.
All the relays employed for protection against short circuits In power system protective relaying, the most widely
operate by virtue of the current and/or voltage supplied to applied are electrical type relays. Generally speaking the
them by CT's or PTs. Failures in the system are indicated by electrical protective relays can be broadly, classified into two
the individual or relative changes in the currents or voltages
categories: ) electromagnetic relays and (i) static relays. In
supplied to the protective relaying equipment. For every type this chapter electromagnetic relays will be discussed. The study
and location failure, there is some distinctive difference in of static relays will be taken up in chapter 10.
these quantities and there are various types of protective
According to principle of operation and construction the
relays available, each of which is designed to recognise a
relays may be classified such as electromagnetic attraction
particular difference and to operate in response to it. The type, electromagnetic induction type, electrodynamic type.
diference may be in terms of the magnitude, frequency, phase
moving coil type, electro-thermal type, physicoelectric type
angie, rate of change, harmonics or waveshape, duration of the and static relays.
conditions etc.
Electromagnetic attraction relays are of two types namely
The main principle employed in the operation of the
attracted armature type and solenoid type. In an attracted
relay is either electromagnetic attraction or electromagnetic
armature type relay operation depends on the movement of
1nduction. In an electromagnetic attraction relay, a plunger 1s an armature under the influence of attractive force due to
drawn into a solenoid or an armature is attracted to the poles
magnetic field set up by the eurrent flowing through the relay
ol an electromagnet. Such relays can be operated either by de
winding while in a solenoid type relay operation depends on
or ac. In the case of electromagnetic induction relays, the
the movement of an iron plunger core along the axis of
is developed
Pnciple of induction motor is used and the torque solenoid. Moving iron, moving plunger, attracted armatdre
by electromagnetic induction. Such relays are operated by the
hinged, and balanced beam types of relays fall under this
ac quantities only.
category. Such relays are actuated by dc or ac quantities.
9.4. CLASsIFICATION OF RELAYS In an electromagnetic induction type relay operation
he protective relay may be defined as an electrical device depends on the movement of a metallic disc or cylinder free
to rotate by the interaction of induced currents and the
nterposed between the main circuit and the circuit breaker in them
Such a manner that any abnormality in the circuit acts on the alternating magnetic fields producing
 170 Switchgear and Protection
In an electrodynamic type relay moving member consists Primary relays, despite the substantial simplification
coil free to rotate in the protective schemes afforded by them are employed only
of
of
a an electromagnetic field as in case
in the simplest schemes for low-voltage circuits, Th
a moving coil instrument
In a moving coil type relay moving member consists of
application of primary relays to high-voltage circuits
a coil free to rotate in the air gap of a rendered difficult by complications arising from their
permanent magnet. conditions of operation and servicing (adjustment, checking
In an electro-thermal type
relay movement depends up supervision at the high voltage). Protective schemes usine
on the action of heat produced by the curent
flowing through indirect-acting primary relays need, furthermore, the use of an
the element of the relay.
operative current. Such arrangements are bulky and costly
Buchholz y.
relay is
example of physicoelectric relay.
an Direct-acting secondary relays do not require an operative
Static relays employ thermionic valves, transistors or current, their armatures act directly upon the circuit breaker
amplifiers and will be discussed in the next chapter tripping device. Protection schemes using direct-acting
secondary relays, notwithstanding difficulty in checking and
According to their functions in the relay protective seheme,
adjustment, have found application because of their simple
relays may be divided into main, auxiliary (or supplementary)
and signal relays. The main relays are the protective elements design.
which respond to any change in the actuating quantity. e-g. The relay most frequently used is the indirect-acting
current, voltage. power etc. The auexiliary or supplementary secondary relay, notwithstanding the greater complexity of
relays are those which are controlled by other relays to perform the protection scheme and the need for operative power. Such
relays allow changes to be made in their settings and can be
sOme auxilary or supplementary function such as introduction
of a time delay, multiplying the number of contacts, increasing removed, or cut out of the circuit for repair or checking during
the making or breaking capacity of the contacts of another operation of the circuit element they protect. Such relays,
relay, passing a command pulse from one relay to another furthermore, possess a relatively high sensitivity and, due to
relay, acting upon a circuit breaker closing or opening the fact that the connections to the protected circuit elements
coil, energizing a signal or an alarm, etc. Signal relays are made through instrument transformers, are electrically
function to register (by flag or target) the operation of some isolated from the high primary circuit voltage. They are also
relay or relay protection. and control waming (visible) and to a much lesser degree than primary relays subject to the
alarm (audible) signal devices. The choice of signal relay is action of short-circuit currents.
governed by the importance of the associated switchgear, the As to time of action relays be distinguished
can as
relays
method of control and the number of alarm indications to be without time delay and relays with time delay. Among the
displayed. relays which fall under the category of non-time delay are
non-inertia types with operating times of several
According to actuating quantity, electrical relays are thousandths
of a second (milliseconds)-usually electronic
classifiedinto current, voltage. power, reactance,
impedance, relays; quick
frequency relays, and, according to the direction of the change acting relays with operating times ranging from 5 to 40 ms,
they respond to, as minimum (or under) and maximum (over) and ordinary relays with operating times of 0.04 to 0.2 second.
relays. A maxiun (or over) relay is one which responds to Among the time delay or time lag relays are relays with non
the actaating quantity when it exceeds a predetermined value regulable time delay, obtained mainly by the use of short-
as in the case of an overcurrent relay which operates when the circuited windings, eddy current sleeves etc., and also
relays
current exceeds with regulable time delay. The latter
a predetermined value. A minimum (or
under) type is termed time lag
relay is one which operates when the value of actuating relays. Protective relay schemes use time lag relays having8
quantity drops below a predetermined value as in case of an time delays ranging from about 0.2 s
up to 5 to 20s.
undervoltage relay which operates when the voltage falls As to type of contacts, relays can be differentiated as
below a particular level. relays with normally-open (n-o) and normally-closed (0-c)
According to the connection of sensing element, relays contacts. The relay contacts are called
normally-open (n-0) i
are classed as they are open (separated) when the relay winding is not
primary and secondary relays. Primary relays
ane those whose
sensing (or measuring) elements are directly energised, and normally-closed (n-c) if they are closed
connected in the circeit or element (in contact) when the relay winding is not energised. Use 1s
they protect, while the also made of relays
Secondary relays are those whose measuring elements are provided with two-way or double-throw
connected to the circuit they contacts and with sliding contacts (which during relay
protect through instrument
transformers (CTs or PTs). Normally operation close for a brief interval of time). When relays ar
in power systern
secondary relays are used
protection because of the high values of line operated, their contacts may close or open instantaneously Or
voltages and curtents with time delay. Relay contacts, depending upon the type
and
As to how the function of the relay, as well as type and material
relays act upon the circuit breaker, o
are sabdivided into
they contacts themselves, are capable of satisfactorily withstanding
direct-acting relay whose control element multitudes of operations in of
acts mechanicaly operate a cireuit breaker and indirect
to operative circuits the
acting relay whose control element operates an auxiliary corresponding voltage (usually 12 to 220 V) and switch circuits
(operative) power source circuit to control the circuit breaker. handling power flows ranging from several to hundreds o
volt-amperes (VA).
 Protective Relays 171
According to applications the relays may be classified as: characteristic and will normally carry the CT secondary current
0 Overvoltage, Overcurrent and Overpower Relay. The to bypass the trip coil. As and when sufficient current occurs

relay operates when the voltage, current or power to "blow" this fuse, the whole current is then transferred to the
rises above a specified value. trip il which operates to the circuit breaker. This is
trip
(it) Undervoltage, Undercurrent and Underpower Relay. illustrated in Fig. 9.2 (b).
The relay operates when the voltage, curent or power
falls below a specified value. L
TRIP
(Gi) Directional or Reverse Current Relay. The relay COL TIME
operates when the applied current assumes a specified CT TRIP COIL LIMIT
-PLUNGER 8 FuSE
phase displacement with respect to the applied voltage
and the relay is compensated for fall in voltage. PISTON OLDASH
POT
() Directional or Reverse Power Relay. The relay
(a) (b)
operates when the applied current and voltage assume
specified phase displacement and no compensation Fig. 9.2
is allowed for fall in voltage.
9.5. ELECTROMAGNETIC ATTRACTION RELAYS
()Differential Relay. The relay operates when some
These are the simplest type of relays and include plunger
specified phase or magnitude difference between two
or more electrical quantities occurs (or solenoid), hinged armature, rotating armature (or balanced
beam) and moving iron polarized relays-all such relays are
(vi) Distance Relay. In this relay the operation depends shown in Fig. 9.3. All of these relays operate on the same
upon the ratio of the voltage to the current. principle i.e., in such relays the operation is obtained by
According to timing characteristics the relays can be virtue of an armature being attracted to the poles of an
classes drawn into a solenoid. The
divided into following electromagnet or a plunger being
(0 Instantaneous Relays. In these relays complete electromagnetic force exerted on the moving element is
operation takes place after a very short (negligible) proportional to the square of flux in the air gap or the square
time duration from the incidence of the current or of the curent flowing through the coil. It is basically a single
other quantity resulting in operation. The time of actuating quantity relay. Such relays respond to both ac and
de because operating torque is proportional to the square of
operation of such relays is lesser than 0.2 second. current flowing through the coil. With dc the torque developed
(i) Definite Time Lag Relays. In these relays the time of is constant and if it exceeds the restraining torque or force
operation is sensibly independent of the magnitude
caused by the controlling spring. the relay operates reliably.
of the curent or of other quantity causing operation.
In case of ac quantity the electromagnetic force developed
(ii) Imverse Time Lag Relays. In these relays the time of is given as
to
operation is approximately inversely proportional F = KI = K(mus Sin co)
the magnitude of the current or other quantity causing
operation. =KI-Imax COS 20 9.1)
(v) Imverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) Lag Relays.
In these relays the time of operation is approximatelyy It shows that the electromagnetic force consists of two

inversely proportional to the smaller values of

current
components, one constant independent of time(K and
Or other quantity causingoperation and tends to be
a definite minimum time as the value increases another dependent upon time and pulsating at double the
without limit.
supply frequency ( KT cOs 201). The total electromagnetic
be achieved
in induction type of relays the time lag may force, therefore, pulsates at double the supply frequency. Since
that
ycmploying a permanent magnet which is so arranged
of this magnet the restraining force produced by the spring is constant and
e relay rotor cuts the flux between the poles
Such a magnet is called the "drag magnet" the electromagnetic force developed is pulsating, the relay
amature vibrates at double the power supply frequency. This
in two ways.
in other types of relays this may be achieved causes the relay to hum and produce noise and also is a source
coil is used, an
istly, when a series connected overload trip of damage to the relay contacts. This leads to sparking and
connected
Gash pot can be attached in which is a piston unreliable operation of the relay operative circuit contacts
the lower end of the solenoid plunger of the relay. In
case
due to make and break of the circuit.
ot fault when the plunger is pulled, the piston, immersed in To overcome this difficulty in ac electromagnetic
O11, retards plunger motion, thus provides the necessary
drag or delay in the relay operation, as shown in Fig. 9.2 (@). attraction relays, the flux developing the electromagnetic force
1s splitted into two fluxes acting simultaneously but ditenng
coil is transformer operated, time delay is
When the trip in time phase, so that the resultant deflecting force 1s always
cieved by connecting a time-limit fuse across the trip co ether by
parallel. This fuse should have an inverse time-cument positive and constant. This can be easily achieved
172 Switchgear and Protection
VORI CORE providing two windings on the electromagnet havin
a
o INPUT shifting network, as shown in Fig. 9.4 or by putting nase
fings on e of the electromagnet, as shown in
poles
The latter method is more simple and is widely used g. 95.
TOTRIP
CIRCUIT

COIL

MOVING
ARMATURE W
FIXED
TO TRIP CONTACT
CIRCUIT
CONTRO
SPRING
MOVING
CONTACT
Fig. 94. Hinged Armature Electromagnetic Relay
(a) Plnger Type With Two Windings
MOVING
CONTACT TO TRI
CIRCUIT

STOP
FIXED
cONTRO cONTACT
SPRING ***** TRIP
* * * ~

CIRCUIT

( MOVNG
ARMATURE
CORE

COL

Fig. 9.5. Hinged Armature Electromagnetic Relay With a

Yon Shading Coil on the Pole
(b) Hinged Armature Type Hinged armature relays are mainly employed as auxiliary
MOVING MOVNG CONTROL L relays, e.g., tripping relays, ac and dc voltage and current relays.
ARMATURE CONTACT SPRNG
In the case of a balanced beam type relay shown in
FIXED Fig. 9.3 (c) two quantities | A I and | B | are compared because
CONTACTs
electromagnetic forces developed vary as the square ot the
RESTRANNG TO ampere-turns. Ratio of reset/operating current for such relays
COL
OPERATINGs
COL
TRIP CIRCUIT
1s low. f set for fast operation, it will have a tendency to
overreach on transient conditions.
cORE
The sensitivity of the hinged armature relays can be
(c) Balanced Beam Type increased for de operation by the addition of a
permanent
magnet, as illustrated in Fig. 9.3 (d). This is known as d
TO TRIP
CIRCU 7-FOXED
CONTACTs
polarized moving iron relay. It is more robust in construction,
most of these employ leaf-spring supported armatures.
MOVING
cONTACT Modern attraction armature
relays are compact, robu
reliable and fast. VA burden
depends on construction, setung
etc. For a typica! relay it is of the order of 0.2 to 0.6 VA tor
MOVING current range of 0.1 to 0.4 A. usually
ARMATURE
Such relays are
Instantaneous type but can be made a definite time 1ag
inverse-time lag by using an oil dash
cOL pot, an air-escape
chamber, a clockwork mechanism or by placing a
rus
parallel with the relay. These relays do not have
directio
feature unless they are provided with additional
polarized co
(d) Polariced Moving Iron Type The attraction armature relays have fast operation and fast
Fig. 9.3. Electromagnetie Attraction Armature Relays reset because of small length of travel and light moving
pa
 Protective Relays 173
As these relays are fast and operate on de as well as on ac they
DISC
are affected by transients.
The transients contain de
component
in addition to ac wave. Theretore, though the steady-state
value may be less than relays pick-up value, the relay may
pick up durng transient state
Attraction armature relays have many applications in
protection of ac and de equipment They are, however, sensitive
to starting currents, load fluctuations and current surges.
Fig. 9.6. Production of Torque in an Induction Relay
Attraction armature relays can be designed to respond to
over and under current, over/under voltage, for both de and
ac operations. They are employed as measuring or auxiliary
relays.
Balanced beam relay is difficult to be designed over a
wide range current because the force is proportional to square
of current. Such relays are fast and instantaneous but can be
made a definite time lag or inverse time lag by using an oil
dash pot, an air-escapement chamber, a clockwork mechanism
or by placing a fuse in parallel with the relay. Such relays can
have operating time of the order of 0.02 second. High ratio of
resetting quantity can be had. VA burden depends on
application. In current balance type the VA burden is of the
order of 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 VA for 0.1 to 0.6 A current range. This
Fig. 9.7. Phasor Diagram For an lnduction Relay
relay is being largely superseded by permanent magnet moving
coil relay having better accuracy and lower VA burden. Since the two forces (F and Fa) developed are in
opposition, as illustrated in Fig. 9.6, therefore net force acting
9.6. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION RELAYS on the movable element is given as

Electromagnetic induction relays are widely used

the most F
=(F- F)
relays for protective relaying purposes involving only ac oc 2 - ,
quantities. These relays operate on the simple principle of O1max 2max cos ot sin (ot + 8)- sin ot cos(at +8
split-phase induction motor. Actuating force is developed on or F e max 2 max Sin 6
92)
a moving element, that may be a disc or other form of rotor
The following points may be noted from Eq. (9.2)
ol non-magnetic current conducting material (such as () The net force is same at every instant as the term cor
alurminium), by the interaction of electromagnetic fluxes with
is not involved in the expression for the force
cddy currents that are induced in the rotor by these fluxes.
developed. It is most significant. This fact does not
Figure 9.6 illustrates how force is developed in section
a
depend upon the assumptions made in arriving at
0 a rotor that is pierced by two adjacent ac fluxes. directed
Various
Eq. (9.2). The action of a relay under the influence
guaniities are shown at an instant when both fluxes are of such a force is positive and free from vibration.
downward and are increasing in magnitude. Each flux induce (i) The greater the phase angle 0 between the two fuxes
rotor
voltage around itself in the rotor, and currents flow in the the greater is the net force applicable to the movable
under the influence of the two voltages. T he current produced element. Obviously the force developed will be
Dy one fiux reacts with the other flux, and vice versa,
to
maximum when phase angle 8 is 90.
produce forces that act on the rotor. (iii) Also the force developed will be more when the
The quantities shown in Fig. 9.6 may be expressed
as
resistance R of the annular ring is low because
Ptmax Sin 0or ios v/R i.e., the movable element must be of low

2 may Sin(or+ 0) resistance material such as copper or aluminium. From

Where 6 is he angle by which , leads torque-weight ratio point of view the movable element
should be of aluminium alone.
may be assumed with negligible error that the paths
in
self-inductance,
ch the rotor currents flow have negligible () The direction of net force and hence the direction of
and therefore rotor currents are in phase with their respective depends upon which
motion of movable element
dlaced voltages. The phasor diagram is shown in Fig 9.7. flux is leading.
Now The different types of structures that have been used for
obtaining the phase difference in the fluxes and hence the
e cos(ot operating torque in induction relays are () shaded pole
structure (dise type) (ii) watt-hour meter or double winding
e a Cos(01+ )
structure (disc type) and (ii) induction cup structure
 174
Switchgear and Protection
low and adjustable speeds are possible in induction
High, splitting of the flux. Such torque control is used
type relays. The ratio of reset to pick-up is inherently high in directional feature is required, which will be wh
described llater,
case of induction relays as compared to attraction armature The control torque is provided with the help of a
relays their operation does not involve any change in the
as spring attached to the disc spindle. With the movementControl
air gap of the magnetic circuit as it is in the case of latter. The of the
disc towards closing of the contacts spring torque incre
ratio lies between 95% and 100%. This is not perfectly 100% slightly with the winding of the spring. The relay discreases
because of the friction and imperfect compensation of the So
shaped that as it turns towards the pick-up position
control spring torque.
of contacts), there is increase 1n the area of the dise losing
The accuracy of an induction type relay recommends it een
the poles of the actuating structure which causes increase
for protective relaying purposes. Such
relays are comparable eddy currents and, therefore, increase in electrical torque in
in accuracy to meters employed for registration of electrical just balances the increase in the control spring torque. T
that
energy consumption. This accuracy is not a consequence of shape of the disc usually is that of a spiral. Since the shae
the induction principle, but because such of disc is not perfectly circular, suitable balance weight
relays invariably i
employ jewel bearings and precision parts that minimize provided on the part of the disc which has smaller area
friction. permanent magnet of high retentivity steel is provided to give
eddy current braking to the disc. This is necessary to reduce
Induction type relays are employed extensively for
protection against overloads, short circuits, and earth faults on to a minimum the over-run of the disc in case the
cument or
transmission/distribution lines and in industrial plants. voltage providing the driving torque stops before the operation
has been completed. A
9.6.1. Shaded Pole Structure modern induction disc relay
The will have an over-run of not
shadedpole structure, illustrated in Fig. 9.8, is usually
actuated by current flowing in a single coil wound on a more than 2 cycles on
magnetic structure containing an air gap. The air-gap flux interruption of 20 times the
produced by the actuating current is split into two fluxes setting quantity.
displaced in time and space by a so-called shading ring, Modern induction disc
generally of copper, that encircles part of the pole face of each relays are robust and reliable. PICK-UP VALUE
pole, as shown in Fig. 9.8. The dise is normally made of VA burden depends upon CURRENT-
aluminium so as to have low inertia and, therefore, needs less rating. It is of the order of Fig. 9.9. Inverse Characteristic
deflecting torque for its movement. The two rings have currents 2.5 VA. The time-current
induced in them by the alternating flux of the electromagnet characteristics of induction relays are inverse characteristics
and the magnetic fields developed by these induced currents as shown in Fig. 9.9, i.e., the time reduces as current increases.
cause the flux, in the portions of the iron surrounded by the The current setting can be changed by taking the suitable
rings to lag in phase by 40° to 50° behind the flux in the number of turns. Higher current setting will require smaller
unshaded portions of the pole. As already proved, the driving number of turns s0 as to give fixed ampere-tums required tor
torque is given as developing the minimum torque for the movement of the disC.
T 0 ,, sin 6 The time setting can be changed by changing the relative
position of contacts by adjusting the length of travel of moving
Assuming that the flux in the shaded portion of the pole, o,
contacts. This is known as time
and the flux in the unshaded portion of the pole, o, to be multiplier setting. The higher
the time multiplier setting the greater is the
proportional to the actuating current in the coil, I. operating time
The effect of dc offset may be neglected with inverse tmne
To sin0 single quantity induction relays, because they are generally
i.e., the driving torque varies as the square of the current
flowing through the relay coil.
slow. The de offset may affect fast relays. Ratio of resetnotto
pick-up is high (above 95%) because operation does
involve any
SHADING change in air gap.
RING
colL 9.6.2. Watt-hour Meter Structure
TO
ACTUATING Watt-hour meter type induction disc relay gives the sa
QUANTITY results as given by a shaded pole
SOURCE- type. The constructiou
DISC this relay is similar to the
watt-hour meter commoniy
everywhere. It consist of an E-shaped electromagnet and a A
Fig. 9.8. Shaded Pole Construction of Induction Dise Relay shaped electromagnet with a disc free to rotate in betweet
two
phase displacement between the fluxes produced by u
and
The shading rings may be replaced by coils if control of magnets is obtained either by having different resistance
from
the operation of a shaded pole relays is desired. If the shading inductance for the two circuits or by energizing them
coils are short-crcuited by a contact of some pther relay, two different sources whose outputs are relatively displac
ced

torque will be developed; but, if the coils are open-circuited. phase. Many variations in the design and constructio
are

because there will be phase-

no torque will be developed no possible to suit the required conditions.
 175
Protective Relays
carries two windings; the are very fast in operation and
The E-shaped electromagnet structures, Therefore, such relays
secondary. The primary winding carries relay time of less that 0.01 second.
primary and the may have an operating
the secondary Winding is connected to the
cuuTTent I while RON CORE
indings of U-shaped electromagnet (Fig. 9.10). The primary
(STATIONARY)
urrent induces emf in the secondary and so circulates a
induced in the
CUP ROTOR
eurent I, in it. The flux o, U-shaped or lower
the current in the secondary winding of the E
magnet by
shaped or upper magnet will lag behind flux o, by an angle 0,
The two fluxes o, and , induced in upper and lower magnets

respectively differing in phase by angle 0 will develop a

driving torque on the disc proportional to o,0, sin 0.

UPPER MAGNET

RELAY COIL

SECONDARY ELECTROMAGNET
COIL

Fig. 9.11. Induction Cup Relay

COIL RELAY
9.7. PERMANENT MAGNET MOoVING
ro TRIP
CIRCUIT
DIs 9.12. In this relay, the coil
The arrangement is shown in Fig.
magnet.
is free to rotate in the magnetic field of a permanent
is by the interaction between the field
The torque developed
field developed due to
of the permanent magnet and the coil
the coil. The time-current
flow of actuating current in
characteristic of such relays is an inverse-time characteristic.
LOWER MAGNET
can be used with ac in
but it
The relay responds to de only
Induction Disc Relay The characteristic can be varied
Fig.9.10. Watt-hour Meter Type conjunction with a rectifier.
this type. The The time setting is obtained
Most of the modern induction relays are of by adjusting the control spring.
is that it can provide
by adjusting the position of the contact.
advantage of this type of construction
and o and thus higher torque,
larger phase angle between o feature of relay of
being proportional to sin 6. An important FIXED CONTACT
controlled by opening or
this type is that its operation can be
If this circuit is opened,
closing the secondary winding circuit.
thus the relay can be made
no torque will be developed and

inoperative. coIL

9.6.3. Induction Cup (Electromagnetic) Relay PERMANENT MAGNET

as the induction
These relays operate on the same principle Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Relay
electromagnets energized Fig. 9.12.
motor. The relay has two, four or more The operating torque is proportional to the actuating
iron core is placed between
Dy the relay coils. A stationary in Fig. 9.11. current. Such a relay has uniform torque for different positions
number) as illustrated
theseelectromagnets (four in which is free to of the coil and therefore, can be accurately
set. Theoretically
The rotor is a hollow metallic cylindrical cup value.
the electromagnets and the stationary the reset value is equal to the operating
rotate in the gap between two pairs of coils
iron core. The rotating field is produced by induces 9.7.1. Moving Coil Relay With Axial Moving Coil
field
wOund on four poles as shown. The rotating 9.13. The coil is supported
direction. Such a relay is shown in Fig.
to rotate in the
same
CuTents in the cup causing it of rotation of the field
AXIALLY
he rotation depends on the direction SUPPORTED
voltage and/or currents and
and the magnitude of the applied control
COIL
ne phase
angle between them. A spring, and the back
attached
an arm are
or closing of the contacts carried on
Op the continuous TO TRIP
he spindle of the cup so as to prevent CIRCUIT

rotation.
of
he characteristic depends on the type
operating time
udcture. These relays have inverse time characteristics.
efficient torque
Induction cup structures are more Coil
the watt-hour meter Axial Moving
producers than either the shaded pole or Fig. 9.13. Moving Coil Relay With
 176
Switchgear and Protection
axially and moves horizontally when energized by the transformer internal faults and does not
actuating current. Such relay is faster than the rotating coil
respond to exto
bushing or cable connection faults. xtemal
type owing to small travel and lighter parts. Relay of this type
may have an operating time of the order of 0.03 second
Sensitivity can be made as small as 0.1 mW. These relays are
cONSERVATOR
delicate and so require careful
handling FLOAT
9.8. THERMAL RELAYS TO ALARM
CIRCUIT
These relays operate on the
principle of thermal effect of
electric current. It consists of bimetallic
in small sizes and are heated
strips which are used TRIP
by heating coils or strips supplied TANK
through a current transformer. An insulated lever arm carrying
a contact is
pivoted and is held in contact with this trip with
the belp of spring S. The spring tension can be varied by Fig. 9.15. Arrangement of Buchholz Relay
rotating the sector shaped plate A. Under nomal operating
condition the strip remains straight but under the action of Working Principle. Whenever a fault occurs inside
the
fault current the strip is heated and bent and the tension of the transformer, the oil of the tank gets overheated and
gases are
spring is released. Thus the relay contacts are closed which generated. The generation of the gases may be slow or violent
energises the trip circuit. depending upon whether the fault is a minor or incipient one or
heavy short circuit. Most short circuits are developed either by
BIMETALLIc
STRIP
impulse breakdown between adjacent turns at the end turns of the
winding or as a very poor initial contact which will immediately
'ELAY CONTACT heat to arcing temperature. The heat generated
by the high local
current causes the transformer oil to
decompose and produce gas
HEATING which can be used to detect the winding faults. Buchholz
COIL relay
TOTRIP operates only on this principlel
TO CT
CIRCUIT
Construction. The construction of a Buchholz
relay is shown
in Fig. 9.16. It consists of two
SPRING hinged floats in a metallic
chamber located in the pipe connection between
NSULATED CONTACT ARM the
conservator and the transfornmer tank. One of the floats is near
Fig.9.14. Schematic Arrangement of Thermal Relay the top of the chamber and
actuates the mercury switch
The construction of the bimetal element consists of connected to the external alarm circuit. The other float is
two
nickel alloyed steel strips, welded opposite the orifice of the pipe to the transformer and actuates
together. These strips havea the mercury switch connected to
high heat resistivity and are free from thermal secondary effects the tripping circuit.
and ageing
TEST
These relays are mostly used for OCK
protection of low-voltage MERCURY
squirrel cage induction motors or dc motors of lower output
SWITCH

ratings. The limitation of such a relay is the short-time overload TO

withstand. Its heating element is usually ALARM CIRCuIT
designed to withstand
short-time overload say up to 6 or 7 times full-load
00
current.
The thermal relay is not suitable for operation on short
as it wil1 burn the element
circuit
sufficiently before the strip may FLOAT
deflect so as to close the contacts. This type of
TO
cONSERVATER FROMER
TRANSFOAMER

in conjunction with instantaneous relay is used TANK

short-circuit relays of high
setting or suitably graded time limit fuses
HINGE
9.9. BUCHHOLZ RELAY
DRAIN
Buchholz relay is a gas actuated relay. It is PLUG TO TRIP

universally used on all oil immersed transformerspractically CIRCUIT

rating more than S00 kVA". Such having

relay can only be fitted to Fig. 9.16. Buchholz Relay
the transformers equipped with conservator tanks as it
is Operation, When a minor fault
due
installed in between the conservator tank and the main tank to current
occurs, heat is produced nk
ie., in the pipe connceung ne two (Fig. 9.15). It is employed leakage, of the
oil in the transformer
some
in conjunction with s o e torm of electrically operated evaporates and some vapours collect in the top of the cha
while passing to the
conservator tank. When a predetethe e
protective gear because p0v1des protection only against the
afnount of vapours
accumulate in the top of the chamb
are
ot provided
not for transformer
orovided for transformers below 500 kVA from the
Buchholz relays point of view of economic considerations.
Protective Relays 177
l level falls, the mercury type switch attached to the float hinged armature relays, the time of operation of 0.01 second
oil
tilted and so, closes the alarm circuit and rings the bell.
is at three times the setting can be obtained. Such relays are
Therel the operator knows that there is some incipient fault
the transformer. The transformer is disconnected at the employed for restricted earth fault and other types of
in
liest possible and the gas sample is tested. The testing of Circulating current protection. With so fast an operation it is
earlies

provides clue regarding the type of insulation failure.

ikely that the relay may operate on transients beyond the
gas normal range of setting
Dechholz relay gives an alarm so that the transformer can be
Aisconnected before the incipient fault grows into a severe (i) Inverse-Time Overcurrent Relay. An inverse time relay is
ne A release cock is provided at the top of the chamber so one in which the operating time is approximately inversely
that after operation the pressure in the chamber can be released proportional to the magnitude of the actuating quantity.
and the gas emitted to allow. the chamber to refill with oil. Figure 9.9 illustrates the time-current characteristics an
of
When a severe fault occurs large volume of gas is evolved inverse current relay. At values of current less than pick-up
so that the lower float containing a mercury switch mounted
value, the relay never operates. At higher values, the operating
on a hinged type flat is tilted and the trip coil is energized.
time of the relay decreases steadily with the increase of current.
The more pronounced the effect is the more inverse the
There after the transformer is removed from the service.
characteristic is said to be. In fact, all time-current curves are
The main advantage of Buchholz relays is that they inverse to a greater or lesser degree. They are normally more
indicate incipient faults, for example, between turns faults or inverse near the pick-up value of the actuating quantity and
core heating and so may enable a transformer to be taken out become less inverse as it is increased.
of service before serious damage occurs.
The operating time of all overcurrent relays tends to
However, Buchholz relays have some limitations also, as become asymptotic to a definite minimum value with increase
given below. in the value of actuating quantity. This is inherent in
Only faults below oil levels are detected. For faults above electromagnetic relays due to saturation of the magnetic
the oil level, this relay is ignorant. These relays do not protect circuit. So by varying the point of saturation different
the connecting cables which must therefore have a separate characteristics are obtained. These are (i) definite time
protection. (ii) inverse definite minimum time (iii) very inverse and
Setting of the mercury switch cannot be very sensitive, (iv) extremely inverse, as shown in Fig. 9.17.
otherwise there can be a false operation by vibrations,
earthquakes, mechanical shocks to the pipe, sitting of birds
etc.
The relay is slow, minimum operating time is about 0.1
DEFINITE TIME
second, average time 0.2 second. This is not desirable.
1DMT
9.10. OVERCURRENT RELAYS --
**-... VERY INVERSE
Depending upon the time of operation, already defined in Art. 9.2,
overcurrent relays may be categorized as () instantaneous EXTREMELY
-*--****
INVERSE
Overcurrent relays (ii) inverse time overcurrent relay (ii) definite
time overcurrent relay (iv) inverse definite minimum
time (1DMT) overcurrent relay (v) very inverse overcurrent 10 00
relay and (vi) extremely inverse overcurrent relay. MULTIPLES OF PLUG SETTING

) Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay. An instantaneous Fig. 9.17. Characteristics of Various Overcurrent Relays
Overcurrent relay is one in which no intentional time delay is
These characteristics can be obtained by induction disc
provided for operation. In such a relay, the relay contacts
and induction cup relays, already explained in Art. 9.6.
CcIOse immediately after the curent in the relay coil exceeds (iit) If the core is made to saturate at a very early stage, the
nat for which it is set. Although there will be a short time
time of operation remains same over the working range. This
ierval between the instant of pick-up and the closing of the characteristic is shown by curve I in Fig. 9.17 and is known
4y contacts, no intentional time delay is provided. This as definite time characteristic. Such a relay operates after a
Cuaracteristic can be achieved with the help of hinged armature specified time irrespective of the magnitude of the fault current.
uys. Such relay has a unique advantage of reducing the
une of operation to a minimum for faults very close to he The definite time relays are used in () radial or loop
urce where the fault current is the greatest. The instantaneous circuits having a few sections (i) as backup protection for
eay is effective only where the impedance between the relay other types of protection and (ii) on systems with wide
d source is small compared with the impedance of the variations of fault current due to source impedance.
Section to be
protected, Selectivity amongst such relays is obtained if there is
One of the most important considerations in overCurrent difference of 0.5 s in the time settings of the two successive
dd overvoltage protection is the speed of operation. With relays.
 178 Switchgear and Protection
ion
(iv) Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) Relays. Such a an overcurrent relay having a current setting of 1S
relay 1s one in which operating time is approximately inverselyy connected to a supply circuit through a CT of 50%
500/5 A. The
is
proportional to fault current near pick-up value and becomes rated secondary current of CT is 5A and therefore
ne
substantially constant slightly above the pick-up value of the up value will be 1.5 x 5 ie., 7.5 A. It means that withc
relay, as illustrated by curve II in Fig. 9.17. This is achieved current setting, the relay will actually operate for
with above
by using a core of the electromagnet which gets saturated for current equal to or greater than 7.5 A. Similarly for lay
currents slightly greater than the pick-up current.
settings of 50,100 and 200% the relay will operate foncurrent
(0) Very Iverse Relay. In such a relay the saturation of the
currents of 2.5 A, 5 A and 10 A respectively. Adjustmen relay
tment of
current setting is made by inserting a pin between the
core occurs at a still later stage, as illustrated by curve lII in
Fig. 9.17. This curve is known as very inverse characteristic loaded jaw of the bridge socket at the tap value spring
When the pin is withdrawn for the purpose of required
curve. The time-current characteristic is
inverse over a greater he
setting value while the relay in service, the relay automatical
changine
range and after saturation tends to definite time. Relays with
very inverse time-current characteristics are employed on feeders adopts higher setting, thus the CT's secondary is not
and long sub-transmission lines. circuited. open-

(vi) PRIMARY WINDING

Extremely Inverse Relay. The curve IV in Fig. 9.17
illustrate
extremely inverse characteristic i.e., core saturation TRIP CIRCUIT
O-
OCCurs at a very late
stage. The equation describing the curve
IV in the figure is UPPER
approximately of the form I't K where I
=

ELECTROMAGNET
is the operating current
and r is the operating time. Such
relays are quite suitable for the protection of transformers, ALUMINIUM DISC
cables etc, as it is possible to achieve accurate
discrimination
with fuses and autoreclosures in their case, which can
seldom =
be made selective with standard IDMT
relays. This is becausee SECONDARY
of their ability to ride WINDING
through starting currents and surges,
providing at the same time fast operation under fault
conditions. They are, thus more suitable for installations with -LOWER
: ELECTROMAGNET
large inrush currents after an outage.
PLUGBRIDGE
Relays with imverse time-current characteristics are widely
employed in distribution networks and industrial plant systems.
Their relatively flat time-current characteristic
to achieve
permits them
reasonably fast operation over a wide range of SECONDARY OF CT
short-circuit currents. *********** ***
IDMT is the
only characteristic which is specified by Indian Fig. 9.18. Induction Type Non-Directional Overcurrent Relay
Standards (IS: 3231-1965) the remaining are all relative curves. The second winding is
energized by induction from the
9.10.1. Induction Type Overcurrent primary, and is connected in series with the winding on the
Relay lower magnet. By thi_
An induction type overcurrent arrangement, leakage fuxes of upper
relay giving inverse-time and lower
electromagnets are sufficiently displaced in space
operation with a definite minimum time characteristic is shown and phase to set
in up a rotational torque on the aluminium dise
Fig. 9.18. It consists essentially of an ac energy meter
mechanism with slight-modification to give suspended between the two magnets, as in the shaded pole
required induction disc motor. This
torque is controlled by the spira
characteristics. The relay has two electromagnets. The
upper
electromagnet has two windings, one of these is primary and spring and also sometimes by a
permanent magnet brake o
the disc. The torque is
is connected to the
secondary of a CT in the line to be given by the
expression
T
protected and is tapped at intervals. The tappings are connected
where
=K,F mS- K2
to a plug setting bridge by which the number of turns in use ms is the current
through the coil and K, is th
can be adjusted, thereby giving the desired current setting. restraining torque of the spring. The disc spindle cames
The plug bridge is usually arranged to give seven sections of moving contact which bridges two fixed contacts (trip
tappings to give overcurrent range from 50% to 200% in steps contacts) when the disc has rotated through a
circu
The
preset ang
of 25%. If the relay is required to response for earth fault the angle can be set to any value between 0° and 360 a
steps are arranged to give a range from 10 % to 70 % or 20 thereby giving desired time setting, This adjustment is know
as time
to 80% in steps of 10%. The values assigned to each tap are setting multiplier. Time multiplier setting is geneta
in the fom of an adjustable backstop which decides the
expressed in terms of percentage of full-load rating of CT with
which the relay is associated and represents and value above length through which the disc travels, by reducing the ic
of travel, the operating time is reduced. The time se
which the disc commences to rotate and finally closes the trip
the rated secondary current mulüplier is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05. 1u
circuit, Thus pick-up current equals figures do not represent the actual operating times but
For example suppose that
of CT multiplied by current setting. multipliers to be used to convert the time known from
 z1o0
0PA
183
ProtectiveRelays
is necessary top
Transformer r e l a y c u r e n t , for the fault flowing in aspecific direction, it non-directional
add a directional element (Fig. 9.23) to the
1,365 6.825 A element.
Ir 1,000/5 *****

Transformer relay pick-up

current
TRIP CIACUIT vOLTAGE CoL
= PS x 5 where PS means plug setting
relay must not operate to overload current, -UPPER
nce the transformer ELECTROMAGNET

(PS)> 0.825 1.365 or 136.5% SECONDARY

OF PT
ALUMINIUM DISC

Plugsetting
are restricted to standard values in steps of 25%,
The plug settings
nearest value but higher than 136.5% is 150%. LOWER
so the ELECTROMAGNET
15
pick-up c u r e n t = x5 = 7.5 A
So transformer relay 100 CURRENT COIL-

current corresponding to fault current of 5,000 AA

Transformer relay
5,000 25 A
1,000/5
PLUG BRIDGE A N

PSM 3.33 Ans.

Transformer relay
=
SECONDARY OF CT

to PSM of 3.33 from PSM-time curve shown ---

Time corresponding
in Fig. 9.19 is 5.6
seconds
Fig. 9.23. Induction Type Directional Power Relay
Time setting for transformer relay when thee
The directional (or reverse) power relay operates
= Actual operating time of feeder relay + time grading margin supply
power through the relay will be reversing i.e., generator
sources in
other
= 0.9 + 0.5 = 1.4 seconds
to the network fails and the power from the
this unit in the reverse
Time setting multiplier the system try to feed the power to
is employed to
direction. In the case of motors such a relay
560.25 Ans. prevent the motorsreversing the direction of rotation.

similar to that
Example 9.7. A 100/1A bar primary current transformer supplies The principle of operation of this relay is
an overcurrent relay setting at 50% pick-up value and has a
of an overcurrent (non-directional) induction relay shown in
the fact that in case of
Fig. 9.18. The difference lies in
and cross
burden of 2 VA. Determine the knee point voltage
50 its secondary and is due to interaction
section of the core if the CT has turns on
overcurrent relay the torque developed
times the relay setting. Assume the flux from the in the circuit
the fault current is 15 of magneticfields obtained current
Hz.
density as 14 Wb/m and frequency 50 through CT, while in case of directional power relay
the
=

2006] interaction of the fields

[U.P.S.C. L.E.S. Electrical Enginee ring-11, driving torque is derived from the
the circuit
Solution: Rated current secondary =1 A
of CT produced from both voltage and current sources of
it protects. Since the relay has both voltage and current coils,
Operating current of the relay
of CT and the direction of the
= Current setting x rated secondary current the relay is essentially a wattmeter

in the relay depends upon the direction of

= 0.5 x 1 = 0.5 A torque developed
current in relation to the voltage with which it is associated
Rated burden 2 VA
i.e., the relay recognizes the phase difference between voltage
Rated secondary voltage RelayRated burden rent
operating 4V and current.
The secondary voltage of the CT when the current is 15 times the relay Constructional Details. The induction type directional power
4 x 15 =60 V.
setting
1he knee voltage must be slightly greater than 60 V.
relay is shown in Fig. 9.23. It essentially consists of an
aluminium disc which is free to rotate in between the poles
Now since, Induced emf, of two electromagnets. The upper electromagnet has a winding.
E = 4.44 max fN called the voltage or potential coil, on the middle limb
BmaxX A
= 4.44 Bmax X A x fx N * max connected to the circuit voltage source through a potential
S0 cross section of the core,
transformer (PT). The lower electromagnet has a separate
E winding, called the current coil, connected to the seconday
A
4.44 Bmax SN of CT in the line to be protected. The current coil is provided
60 with a number of tappings connected to the plug bridge. so
4.44 x1.4 x 50 x 50
Ans.
as to give the desired current setting. The restraint torque 1s
38.61 x
10 m or 38.61 em provided by a spiral spring.
POWER
22. INDUCTION TYPE DIRECTIONAL Operation. The torque developed on the disc suspend
RELAY between the two magnets is proportional to V
on
9.10.1 can operate power flows in torque developed
the normal direction, the
fo -directional relay discussed in Art. the disc assisted by the spring tends to turn away the moving
achieve operation
Lault flow in either direction. In order to
 184 Switchgear and Protection
contact from the fixed T KVI sin (0 +90°-T)
trip circuit contacts. Thus the relay
remains inoperative. A reversal of
current in the circuit reverses KVI cos(0- T)
the torque
produced on the disc and when this is large enough
to overcome the control When the relay is about to start, neglecting the
19.7)
reverse direction and the
spring torque, the disc rotates in the
constant,
spring
moving contact closes the trip circuit. VI cos ( 0 - t ) = 0
This causes the
operation of the circuit breaker to disconnect
the faulty section. The
relay can be made very sensitive by or 0 - T = 90°
having a very light control spring so that a very small reversal
or 0=T + 90
of power will cause the 9.8)
relay to operate. This is the equation describing the polar characteristie
The relay can be a
single-phase or a 3-phase having two (Fig. 9.25) of the directional relay.
ristic
voltage and two curent elements like a 3-phase energy meter.
POSITIVETORQUE
Operating Characteristics. LetV be the voltage applied to ZERO TORQUE LINE
the relay through PT and I be the REGION
relay current through CT. FORMAXIMUM
POSITION
O F I

In phasor diagram POSITIVETORQUE

(Fig. 9.24) I is shown leading the relay
voltage V by an angle 6. Here oy is the flux due to voltage
coil and lags behind the
NEGATIVETORQUE-
voltage by angle o (about 60° to 70)
and is the flux due to the current coil and is in REGION
phase with
NEGATIVETOROUE
POSITIONOFI
current I. The net torque is
produced due to the interaction of FOR
MAXIMUM
y and Oy
FOR MAXIMUM ZONE TO ACCOUNT
TORQUE SPRING TORQUE

WO
30OHOL Fig. 9.25. Polar Characteristic of Directional Relay
ZERO TOROUE The
zone between the dotted line and the line

LINE parallel to it
corresponds to the spring torque. If the current phasor lies
within these lines the torque developed is less than
,REFERENCE
QUANTITY
spring
torque and hence the relay does not operate. If the current
phasor crosses the dotted line the operating torque exceeds the
spring torque and hence the relay operates.
Relay wili not pick
up or it will reset for any current
phasor lying in the negative
Fig. 9.24. Phasor Diagram For Directional Element torque region.
It
may be noted that the system current usually lags
Torque, therefore, is given as
behind the system voltage but the relay curent is made to
T 0 sin ( +0) where oy V and o, o I lead the relay voltage by inserting resistance or capacitanCe
So the torque equation for the relay can be given as or a combination of the two in series with the voltage or

T KVI sin (+0) potential coil.

.9.5)
The torque is maximum when the two fluxes are Such relays are very suitable for
displaced protection of parallet
feeders. The directional overcurrent relay suffers from the
by 90° i.e., when ( +0) 90". Here dotted line in the
=
phasor drawback that the feeder voltage falls to a much lower value
diagram represents the desired position of o for maximum
a fault occurs
whe
torque. Since V is the reference quantity and Oy has fixed resulting into non-operation of the relay. This
position with respect to V for a particular design, the angle shortcoming may be overcome by compensating the relay
between the dotted line and the reference quantity V is known secondary winding on the lower
magnet. The compensating
as the maximum torque angle and let it be denoted
by
t. Zero Winding ampere-turns on the lower magnet opposes the ampe
torque will occur when sin(Ù + 6) = 0 i.e., (0 +0) = 0° or 180°, turns
produced by the current coil. There fore turns of current coll
this being satisfied when the relay current phasor lies will have to be
along appropriately increased. When the voltage tanis
the chain dotted line which is at right angles to the maximum due to the fault on the feeder, the
resultant ampere-turns provic
torque line. The directional element will, therefore, operate by the
windings on the lower electromagnet jointly increas
provided the current phasor lies with in t 90 of the maximum compensating the reduced ampere-turns provided by the voltag
torque line. If the current phasor is displaced by more than 90° coil.
the directional element will restrain. The operating and the
9.12. INDUCTION TYPE
non-operating regions are shown in the figure. DIRECTIONAL
It may be seen that OVERCURRENT AND EARTH FAULT RELAT
The directional power relay, discussed in Art. 9.11, canno be
T = 90°-
employed as a directional protective relay under shortcircuit
oro= 90- T ..(9.6) conditions because under short-circuit
conditions the
ystem

becomes eloped
Voltage drops to a low value and therefore the torque deve
and the torque equation
 185
rotective Relays
nsufficient its operation. This
to cause completes the circuit for overcurrent
may be starts, rotating and
in the relay disc
in the directional overcurrent relay Due to overcurrent a torque is produced in the
difficulty is
overcome
clement.
which is designed to be almost independent of system voltage and the action closes the trip circuit, thereby enabling the
and power factor. Circuit breaker to operate and isolate
the faulty section.
sensitive as possible
Constructional Details. Constructional details of a typical The directional element is made as
the power in the
linduction type directional overcurrent and earth fault relay to ensure operation-even 20% of
positive
only when
are shown in Fig. 9.26. It consists of two relay elements. viz., reverse direction operates it. The relay operates
direction (i) current
(0 directional element and (i) non-directional element, (0 the direction current is in reverse
of value and
in a common case. in the reverse direction exceeds the preset
mounted
(i) excessive current (greater than the preset value) persists
see****dee
Jor duration longer than its time setting.
oVERCURRENT
ELEMENT must have the following features:
Directional relays
) high speed of operation (ii) high sensitivity
(li) adequate short-time thermal rating (iv) ability to operate
excessive
TRIP with low values of voltage (v) burden must not be
and (vi) there should be no voltage and current creep i.e.,
CIRCUIT if

either the voltage coil alone or the current coil alone is

energized with the other one denergized there should be
no

movement.
AMN Induction cup units satisfy the above requirements and
are, therefore, very popular.
Such relays are employed when graded time overload
o SECONDARY protection is applied to ring mains and interconnected
OF PT
networks, since fault current can flow in either direction.
DIRECTIONAL
:ELEMENT 9.12.1. Directional Overcurrent Relay
Connections
SECONDARY Relay connections must be made so that the currents and
OF CT
***********
voltages applied to the relay during different fault conditions
which may arise on the protected circuit section afford the
Fig. 9.26. Induction Type Directional Overcurrent and
relay a positive and sufficiently large operating torque. To
Earth Faul Relay
achieve this for all types of faults the relays cannot be
Directional element is essentially a directional power relay, connected to operate on true watts since for some faults the
already discussed in Art. 9.11. The voltage coil of this element voltage will be extremely small and also the power factor will
is connected to the circuit voltage through a PT while its current be very smal which will result in a negligible small torque.
coil is energized through a CT by circuit current. This winding To overcome this difficulty, and thus ensure that sufficient
is carried over the upper magnet of the non-directional element. torque is available, each relay is supplied with curent and
The trip contacts of the directional element are connected in voltage as described below.
Series with the secondary circuit of the overcurrent element.
There are two types of relay connections in use. Directional
Thus overcurrent element cannot start to operate until its
element connections are conveniently and popularly described
Secondary circuit is completed i.e., the directional element must
in terms of the angle by which unity power factor (UPF) balanced
operate first in order to operate the overcurrent element.
load current flowing in the tripping direction leads the
applied
Non-directional element is an overcurrent element similar voltage applied to the relay voltage coil with due consideration
in all respects to a non-directional overcurrent relay deseribed given to the polarity of the relay coils.
In Art. 9,10.1, The spindle of the disc of this element carries a
The two types of relay connections used are:
moving contact which closes the trip circuit contacts after the
operation of directional element. The tappings are provided () The 30-relay with a maximum torque
angle of 0
over the upper magnet of the overcurrent element and are (i) The
90-relay with
maximum torque angle of 45
a

nected to the bridge, thereby provide facility for current The relay angle is defined as the
angle between the
setting. voltage and current supplied to the relay under balanced
is in the
Uhder normal operating conditions, power flow three phase unity power factor conditions.
l direction the circuit protected by relay.
in the Thus the In phasor diagram for 0
a p o w e r relay (lower element) does not operate, directional relay with zero
maximum torque angle shown in
Fig. 9.27 Ig Ig and Vg Vy
tCby keeping the overcurrent element (upper element)
ehergised. But as soon as there is a reversal of current or
V represent the phase currents, and phase Iys voltages of a 3-
POwer the disc of the
phase balanced system with unity power factor conditions.
reverse power relay (lower element) Phasor VRB
representing the system red phase to blue phase
S.13. UNIVERSAL RELAY TORQUE EQUATION
Most of the protection relays consist of some arrangement of
electromagnets. These electromagnets have either current
windings or voltage windings and in some cases both the
windings. Currents through the windings produce magnetic
fluxes and the torque is produced by interaction between the
fluxes of the same winding or between the fluxes of both the
windings.
Torque developed by curent winding = K,I
2
Torque developed by voltage winding = K,V

If both the current and voltage windings are used, the

torque developed by the interaction between the
fluxes

= K,VI cos (0- t) ..Refer to Eq. (9.7)

where 0 is the angle betweenV and I and t is the relay maximum
torque angle.
If a relay consists of all the three elements, the torque wil
be developed due to all the three causes and therefore, its
torque in general will be given as
 T K,I + K,V + K,VI cos (0 - t ) + K ..(9.11)
V and
where K, K2, K are tap settings or constants of I and
K is the mechanical restraint due to spring or gravity.
plus minus signs to certain of the constants
By assigning or

and letting others be zero, and sometimes by adding other

similar terms, the operating characteristics of all types of
protective relays can be obtained.
For example, in case of an overcurrent relay K, =
K^ = 0
because of absence of voltage windings and therefore torque
equation becomes
T K,- K, . 9.12)
-ve sign is assigned to K as the torque produced by spring
is restraining one.
Similarly, for directional relay K = K, = 0 and the torque
developed will be given as

T K,VI cos(0-t)-K .(9.13)

NEerA MOe p p a T E a T L A