Tep Esc

European Heart Journal (2014) 35, 3033–3080 ESC GUIDELINES
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehu283
2014 ESC Guidelines on the diagnosis and

management of acute pulmonary embolism
The Task Force for the Diagnosis and Management of Acute
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/article-abstract/35/43/3033/503581 by guest on 20 January 2019

Pulmonary Embolism of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC)
Endorsed by the European Respiratory Society (ERS)

Authors/Task Force Members: Stavros V. Konstantinides* (Chairperson) (Germany/
Greece), Adam Torbicki* (Co-chairperson) (Poland), Giancarlo Agnelli (Italy),
Nicolas Danchin (France), David Fitzmaurice (UK), Nazzareno Galiè (Italy),
J. Simon R. Gibbs (UK), Menno V. Huisman (The Netherlands), Marc Humbert†
(France), Nils Kucher (Switzerland), Irene Lang (Austria), Mareike Lankeit (Germany),
John Lekakis (Greece), Christoph Maack (Germany), Eckhard Mayer (Germany),
Nicolas Meneveau (France), Arnaud Perrier (Switzerland), Piotr Pruszczyk (Poland),
Lars H. Rasmussen (Denmark), Thomas H. Schindler (USA), Pavel Svitil (Czech
Republic), Anton Vonk Noordegraaf (The Netherlands), Jose Luis Zamorano (Spain),
Maurizio Zompatori (Italy)
ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines (CPG): Jose Luis Zamorano (Chairperson) (Spain), Stephan Achenbach
(Germany), Helmut Baumgartner (Germany), Jeroen J. Bax (Netherlands), Hector Bueno (Spain), Veronica Dean
(France), Christi Deaton (UK), Çetin Erol (Turkey), Robert Fagard (Belgium), Roberto Ferrari (Italy), David Hasdai
(Israel), Arno Hoes (Netherlands), Paulus Kirchhof (Germany/UK), Juhani Knuuti (Finland), Philippe Kolh (Belgium),
Patrizio Lancellotti (Belgium), Ales Linhart (Czech Republic), Petros Nihoyannopoulos (UK), Massimo F. Piepoli
* Corresponding authors. Stavros Konstantinides, Centre for Thrombosis and Hemostasis, Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, University Medical Centre Mainz, Langenbeckstrasse
1, 55131 Mainz, Germany. Tel: +49 613 1176255, Fax: +49 613 1173456. Email: stavros.konstantinides@unimedizin-mainz.de, and Department of Cardiology, Democritus University of
Thrace, Greece. Email: skonst@med.duth.gr.
Adam Torbicki, Department of Pulmonary Circulation and Thromboembolic Diseases, Medical Centre of Postgraduate Education, ECZ-Otwock, Ul. Borowa 14/18, 05-400 Otwock,
Poland. Tel: +48 22 7103052, Fax: +48 22 710315. Email: adam.torbicki@ecz-otwock.pl.
†
Representing the European Respiratory Society
Other ESC entities having participated in the development of this document:
ESC Associations: Acute Cardiovascular Care Association (ACCA), European Association for Cardiovascular Prevention & Rehabilitation (EACPR), European Association of Cardio-
vascular Imaging (EACVI), Heart Failure Association (HFA), ESC Councils: Council on Cardiovascular Nursing and Allied Professions (CCNAP), Council for Cardiology Practice (CCP),
Council on Cardiovascular Primary Care (CCPC)
ESC Working Groups: Cardiovascular Pharmacology and Drug Therapy, Nuclear Cardiology and Cardiac Computed Tomography, Peripheral Circulation, Pulmonary Circulation and
Right Ventricular Function, Thrombosis.
Disclaimer: The ESC Guidelines represent the views of the ESC and were produced after careful consideration of the scientific and medical knowledge and the evidence available at the
time of their publication.
The ESC is not responsible in the event of any contradiction, discrepancy and/or ambiguity between the ESC Guidelines and any other official recommendations or guidelines issued by
the relevant public health authorities, in particular in relation to good use of healthcare or therapeutic strategies. Health professionals are encouraged to take the ESC Guidelines fully into
account when exercising their clinical judgment, as well as in the determination and the implementation of preventive, diagnostic or therapeutic medical strategies; however, the ESC
Guidelines do not override, in any way whatsoever, the individual responsibility of health professionals to make appropriate and accurate decisions in consideration of each patient’s
health condition and in consultation with that patient and, where appropriate and/or necessary, the patient’s caregiver. Nor do the ESC Guidelines exempt health professionals from
taking into full and careful consideration the relevant official updated recommendations or guidelines issued by the competent public health authorities, in order to manage each patient’s
case in light of the scientifically accepted data pursuant to their respective ethical and professional obligations. It is also the health professional’s responsibility to verify the applicable rules
and regulations relating to drugs and medical devices at the time of prescription.
National Cardiac Societies document reviewers: listed in the Appendix.
& The European Society of Cardiology 2014. All rights reserved. For permissions please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.
3034 ESC Guidelines
(Italy), Piotr Ponikowski (Poland), Per Anton Sirnes (Norway), Juan Luis Tamargo (Spain), Michal Tendera (Poland),
Adam Torbicki (Poland), William Wijns (Belgium), Stephan Windecker (Switzerland).
Document Reviewers: Çetin Erol (CPG Review Coordinator) (Turkey), David Jimenez (Review Coordinator) (Spain),
Walter Ageno (Italy), Stefan Agewall (Norway), Riccardo Asteggiano (Italy), Rupert Bauersachs (Germany),
Cecilia Becattini (Italy), Henri Bounameaux (Switzerland), Harry R. Büller (Netherlands), Constantinos H. Davos
(Greece), Christi Deaton (UK), Geert-Jan Geersing (Netherlands), Miguel Angel Gómez Sanchez (Spain),
Jeroen Hendriks (Netherlands), Arno Hoes (Netherlands), Mustafa Kilickap (Turkey), Viacheslav Mareev (Russia),
Manuel Monreal (Spain), Joao Morais (Portugal), Petros Nihoyannopoulos (UK), Bogdan A. Popescu (Romania),
Olivier Sanchez† (France), Alex C. Spyropoulos (USA).
The disclosure forms provided by the experts involved in the development of these guidelines are available on the ESC website

www.escardio.org/guidelines.
Online publish-ahead-of-print 29 August 2014
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Keywords Guidelines † Pulmonary embolism † Venous thrombosis † Shock † Hypotension † Chest pain † Dyspnoea
† Heart failure † Diagnosis † Treatment–Anticoagulation † Thrombolysis
Table of Contents
Abbreviations and acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3035 5.2.1 Parenteral anticoagulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3052
1. Preamble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3035 5.2.2 Vitamin K antagonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3053
2. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3036 5.2.3 New oral anticoagulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3054
2.1 Epidemiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3037 5.3 Thrombolytic treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3055
2.2 Predisposing factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3037 5.4 Surgical embolectomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3056
2.3 Natural history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3038 5.5 Percutaneous catheter-directed treatment . . . . . . . . . .3056
2.4 Pathophysiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3038 5.6 Venous filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3056
2.5 Clinical classification of pulmonary embolism severity . . .3039 5.7 Early discharge and home treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3057
3. Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3039 5.8 Therapeutic strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3058
3.1 Clinical presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3039 5.8.1 Pulmonary embolism with shock or hypotension
3.2 Assessment of clinical probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3040 (high-risk pulmonary embolism) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3058
3.3 D-dimer testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3040 5.8.2 Pulmonary embolism without shock or hypotension
3.4 Computed tomographic pulmonary angiography . . . . . .3042 (intermediate- or low-risk pulmonary embolism) . . . . . . .3058
3.5 Lung scintigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3043 5.9 Areas of uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3059
3.6 Pulmonary angiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3043 6. Duration of anticoagulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3061
3.7 Magnetic resonance angiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3043 6.1 New oral anticoagulants for extended treatment . . . . . .3062
3.8 Echocardiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3043 7. Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension . . . . . . . .3063
3.9 Compression venous ultrasonography . . . . . . . . . . . . .3044 7.1 Epidemiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3063
3.10. Diagnostic strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3044 7.2 Pathophysiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3063
3.10.1 Suspected pulmonary embolism with shock 7.3 Clinical presentation and diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3063
or hypotension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3044 7.4 Treatment and prognosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3064
3.10.2 Suspected pulmonary embolism without 8. Specific problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3066
shock or hypotension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3045 8.1 Pregnancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3066
3.11. Areas of uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3046 8.1.1 Diagnosis of pulmonary embolism in pregnancy . . . .3066
4. Prognostic assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3047 8.1.2 Treatment of pulmonary embolism in pregnancy . . .3066
4.1 Clinical parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3047 8.2 Pulmonary embolism and cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3067
4.2 Imaging of the right ventricle by echocardiography 8.2.1 Diagnosis of pulmonary embolism in patients with
or computed tomographic angiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3048 cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3067
4.3 Laboratory tests and biomarkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3049 8.2.2 Prognosis for pulmonary embolism in patients with
4.3.1 Markers of right ventricular dysfunction . . . . . . . . .3049 cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3067
4.3.2 Markers of myocardial injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3049 8.2.3 Management of pulmonary embolism in patients with
4.3.3 Other (non-cardiac) laboratory biomarkers . . . . . .3050 cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3067
4.4 Combined modalities and scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3051 8.2.4 Occult cancer presenting as unprovoked pulmonary
4.5 Prognostic assessment strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3051 embolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3068
5. Treatment in the acute phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3052 8.3 Non-thrombotic pulmonary embolism . . . . . . . . . . . .3068
5.1 Haemodynamic and respiratory support . . . . . . . . . . .3052 8.3.1 Septic embolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3068
5.2 Anticoagulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3052 8.3.2 Foreign-material pulmonary embolism . . . . . . . . . .3068
ESC Guidelines 3035
8.3.3 Fat embolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3068 PIOPED Prospective Investigation On Pulmonary Embolism

8.3.4 Air embolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3069 Diagnosis
8.3.5 Amniotic fluid embolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3069 PVR pulmonary vascular resistance
8.3.6 Tumour embolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3069 RIETE Registro Informatizado de la Enfermedad Throm-
9. Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3069 boembolica venosa
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3069 RR relative risk
rtPA recombinant tissue plasminogen activator
RV right ventricle/ventricular
SPECT single photon emission computed tomography
Abbreviations and acronyms sPESI simplified pulmonary embolism severity index
TAPSE tricuspid annulus plane systolic excursion

Tc technetium
ACS acute coronary syndrome TOE transoesophageal echocardiography
AMPLIFY Apixaban for the Initial Management of Pulmonary TTR time in therapeutic range
Embolism and Deep-Vein Thrombosis as First-line TV tricuspid valve
Therapy UFH unfractionated heparin
aPTT activated partial thromboplastin time V/Q scan ventilation– perfusion scintigraphy
b.i.d. bis in diem (twice daily) VKA vitamin K antagonist(s)
b.p.m. beats per minute VTE venous thromboembolism
BNP brain natriuretic peptide
BP blood pressure
CI confidence interval
CO cardiac output
1. Preamble
COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Guidelines summarize and evaluate all available evidence at the time
CPG Committee for Practice Guidelines of the writing process, on a particular issue with the aim of assisting
CRNM clinically relevant non-major health professionals in selecting the best management strategies for
CT computed tomographic/tomogram an individual patient, with a given condition, taking into account the
CTEPH chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension impact on outcome, as well as the risk-benefit-ratio of particular diag-
CUS compression venous ultrasonography nostic or therapeutic means. Guidelines and recommendations
DSA digital subtraction angiography should help the health professionals to make decisions in their daily
DVT deep vein thrombosis practice. However, the final decisions concerning an individual
ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay patient must be made by the responsible health professional(s) in
ESC European Society of Cardiology consultation with the patient and caregiver as appropriate.
H-FABP heart-type fatty acid-binding protein A great number of Guidelines have been issued in recent years by
HIT heparin-induced thrombocytopenia the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) as well as by other soci-
HR hazard ratio eties and organisations. Because of the impact on clinical practice,
ICOPER International Cooperative Pulmonary Embolism quality criteria for the development of guidelines have been estab-
Registry lished in order to make all decisions transparent to the user. The
ICRP International Commission on Radiological Protection recommendations for formulating and issuing ESC Guidelines can
INR international normalized ratio be found on the ESC Web Site (http://www.escardio.org/guidelines-
iPAH idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension surveys/esc-guidelines/about/Pages/rules-writing.aspx). ESC Guide-
IVC inferior vena cava lines represent the official position of the ESC on a given topic and
LMWH low molecular weight heparin are regularly updated.
LV left ventricle/left ventricular Members of this Task Force were selected by the ESC to represent
MDCT multi-detector computed tomographic (angiography) professionals involved with the medical care of patients with this
MRA magnetic resonance angiography pathology. Selected experts in the field undertook a comprehensive
NGAL neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin review of the published evidence for management (including diagno-
NOAC(s) Non-vitamin K-dependent new oral anticoagulant(s) sis, treatment, prevention and rehabilitation) of a given condition
NT-proBNP N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide according to ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines (CPG) policy.
o.d. omni die (every day) A critical evaluation of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures was
OR odds ratio performed including assessment of the risk-benefit-ratio. Estimates
PAH pulmonary arterial hypertension of expected health outcomes for larger populations were included,
PE pulmonary embolism where data exist. The level of evidence and the strength of recom-
PEA pulmonary endarterectomy mendation of particular management options were weighed and
PEITHO Pulmonary EmbolIsm THrOmbolysis trial graded according to predefined scales, as outlined in Tables 1 and 2.
PESI pulmonary embolism severity index The experts of the writing and reviewing panels filled in declara-
PH pulmonary hypertension tions of interest forms which might be perceived as real or potential
3036 ESC Guidelines
Table 1 Classes of recommendations

sources of conflicts of interest. These forms were compiled into one
file and can be found on the ESC Web Site (http://www.escardio.org/ Table 2 Levels of evidence
guidelines). Any changes in declarations of interest that arise during
the writing period must be notified to the ESC and updated. The
Task Force received its entire financial support from the ESC
without any involvement from healthcare industry.
The ESC CPG supervises and coordinates the preparation of new
Guidelines produced by Task Forces, expert groups or consensus
panels. The Committee is also responsible for the endorsement
process of these Guidelines. The ESC Guidelines undergo extensive
review by the CPG and external experts. After appropriate revisions
it is approved by all the experts involved in the Task Force. The fina-
lized document is approved by the CPG for publication in the Euro-
pean Heart Journal. It was developed after careful consideration of
the scientific and medical knowledge and the evidence available at
in the determination and the implementation of preventive, diag-
the time of their dating.
nostic or therapeutic medical strategies. However, the ESC Guide-
The task of developing ESC Guidelines covers not only the integra-
lines do not override in any way whatsoever the individual
tion of the most recent research, but also the creation of educational
responsibility of health professionals to make appropriate and ac-
tools and implementation programmes for the recommendations.
curate decisions in consideration of each patient’s health condition
To implement the guidelines, condensed pocket guidelines versions,
and in consultation with that patient and the patient’s caregiver
summary slides, booklets with essential messages, summary cards
where appropriate and/or necessary. It is also the health professio-
for non-specialists, electronic version for digital applications (smart-
nal’s responsibility to verify the rules and regulations applicable to
phones etc) are produced. These versions are abridged and, thus,
drugs and devices at the time of prescription.
if needed, one should always refer to the full text version which
is freely available on the ESC Website. The National Societies of
the ESC are encouraged to endorse, translate and implement the
ESC Guidelines. Implementation programmes are needed because
2. Introduction
it has been shown that the outcome of disease may be favourably This document follows the two previous ESC Guidelines focussing
influenced by the thorough application of clinical recommendations. on clinical management of pulmonary embolism, published in 2000
Surveys and registries are needed to verify that real-life daily prac- and 2008. Many recommendations have retained or reinforced their
tice is in keeping with what is recommended in the guidelines, thus validity; however, new data has extended or modified our knowl-
completing the loop between clinical research, writing of guidelines, edge in respect of optimal diagnosis, assessment and treatment of
disseminating them and implementing them into clinical practice. patients with PE. The most clinically relevant new aspects of this
Health professionals are encouraged to take the ESC Guidelines 2014 version as compared with its previous version published in
fully into account when exercising their clinical judgment as well as 2008 relate to:
ESC Guidelines 3037
(1) Recently identified predisposing factors for venous thrombo- In children, studies reported an annual incidence of VTE between
embolism 53 and 57 per 100 000 among hospitalized patients,10,11 and between
(2) Simplification of clinical prediction rules 1.4 and 4.9 per 100 000 in the community at large.12,13
(3) Age-adjusted D-dimer cut-offs
(4) Sub-segmental pulmonary embolism 2.2 Predisposing factors
(5) Incidental, clinically unsuspected pulmonary embolism
A list of predisposing (risk) factors for VTE is shown in Web Addenda
(6) Advanced risk stratification of intermediate-risk pulmonary
Table I. There is an extensive collection of predisposing environmen-
embolism
tal and genetic factors. VTE is considered to be a consequence of the
(7) Initiation of treatment with vitamin K antagonists
interaction between patient-related—usually permanent—risk
(8) Treatment and secondary prophylaxis of venous thrombo-
factors and setting-related—usually temporary—risk factors. VTE
embolism with the new direct oral anticoagulants

is considered to be ‘provoked’ in the presence of a temporary or re-
(9) Efficacy and safety of reperfusion treatment for patients at inter-
versible risk factor (such as surgery, trauma, immobilization, preg-
mediate risk
nancy, oral contraceptive use or hormone replacement therapy)
(10) Early discharge and home (outpatient) treatment of pulmonary
within the last 6 weeks to 3 months before diagnosis,14 and ‘unpro-
embolism
voked’ in the absence thereof. PE may also occur in the absence of
(11) Current diagnosis and treatment of chronic thromboembolic
any known risk factor. The presence of persistent—as opposed to
pulmonary hypertension
major, temporary—risk factors may affect the decision on the dur-
(12) Formal recommendations for the management of pulmonary
ation of anticoagulation therapy after a first episode of PE.
embolism in pregnancy and of pulmonary embolism in patients
Major trauma, surgery, lower limb fractures and joint replace-
with cancer.
ments, and spinal cord injury, are strong provoking factors for
These new aspects have been integrated into previous knowledge to VTE.9,15 Cancer is a well-recognized predisposing factor for VTE.
suggest optimal and—whenever possible—objectively validated The risk of VTE varies with different types of cancer;16,17 haemato-
management strategies for patients with suspected or confirmed pul- logical malignancies, lung cancer, gastrointestinal cancer, pancreatic
monary embolism. cancer and brain cancer carry the highest risk.18,19 Moreover,
In order to limit the length of the printed text, additional informa- cancer is a strong risk factor for all-cause mortality following an
tion, tables, figures and references are available as web addenda at the episode of VTE.20
ESC website (www.escardio.org). In fertile women, oral contraception is the most frequent predis-
posing factor for VTE.21,22 When occurring during pregnancy, VTE
is a major cause of maternal mortality.23 The risk is highest in the
2.1 Epidemiology third trimester of pregnancy and over the 6 weeks of the postpartum
Venous thromboembolism (VTE) encompasses deep vein throm- period, being up to 60 times higher 3 months after delivery, compared
bosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE). It is the third most fre- with the risk in non-pregnant women.23 In vitro fertilization further
quent cardiovascular disease with an overall annual incidence of increases the risk of pregnancy-associated VTE. In a cross-sectional
100– 200 per 100 000 inhabitants.1,2 VTE may be lethal in the acute study derived from a Swedish registry, the overall risk of PE (com-
phase or lead to chronic disease and disability,3 – 6 but it is also pared with the risk of age-matched women whose first child was
often preventable. born without in vitro fertilization) was particularly increased during
Acute PE is the most serious clinical presentation of VTE. Since PE the first trimester of pregnancy [hazard ratio (HR) 6.97; 95% confi-
is, in most cases, the consequence of DVT, most of the existing data dence interval (CI) 2.21–21.96]. The absolute number of women
on its epidemiology, risk factors, and natural history are derived from who suffered PE was low in both groups (3.0 vs. 0.4 cases per 10 000
studies that have examined VTE as a whole. pregnancies during the first trimester, and 8.1 vs. 6.0 per 10 000
The epidemiology of PE is difficult to determine because it may pregnancies overall).24 In post-menopausal women who receive
remain asymptomatic, or its diagnosis may be an incidental finding;2 hormone replacement therapy, the risk of VTE varies widely depend-
in some cases, the first presentation of PE may be sudden death.7,8 ing on the formulation used.25
Overall, PE is a major cause of mortality, morbidity, and hospitaliza- Infection has been found to be a common trigger for hospitaliza-
tion in Europe. As estimated on the basis of an epidemiological tion for VTE.15,26,27 Blood transfusion and erythropoiesis-stimulating
model, over 317 000 deaths were related to VTE in six countries of agents are also associated with an increased risk of VTE.15,28
the European Union (with a total population of 454.4 million) in In children, PE is usually associated with DVT and is rarely unpro-
2004.2 Of these cases, 34% presented with sudden fatal PE and voked. Serious chronic medical conditions and central venous lines
59% were deaths resulting from PE that remained undiagnosed are considered to be likely triggers of PE.29
during life; only 7% of the patients who died early were correctly diag- VTE may be viewed as part of the cardiovascular disease con-
nosed with PE before death. Since patients older than 40 years are at tinuum and common risk factors—such as cigarette smoking,
increased risk compared with younger patients and the risk approxi- obesity, hypercholesterolaemia, hypertension and diabetes melli-
mately doubles with each subsequent decade, an ever-larger number tus30 – 33—are shared with arterial disease, notably atheroscler-
of patients are expected to be diagnosed with (and perhaps die of) PE osis.34 – 37 However, at least in part, this may be an indirect
in the future.9 association, mediated by the effects of coronary artery disease and,
3038 ESC Guidelines
in the case of smoking, cancer.38,39 Myocardial infarction and heart suffered PE or proximal vein thrombosis compared to distal (calf)
failure increase the risk of PE;40,41conversely, patients with VTE vein thrombosis. On the other hand, factors for which an independ-
have an increased risk of subsequent myocardial infarction and ent association with late recurrence have not been definitely estab-
stroke.42 lished include age, male sex,59,60 a family history of VTE, and an
increased body mass index.54,56 Elevated D-dimer levels, either
during or after discontinuation of anticoagulation, indicate an
2.3 Natural history increased risk of recurrence;61 – 63 on the other hand, single thrombo-
The first studies on the natural history of VTE were carried out in the philic defects have a low predictive value and anticoagulation manage-
setting of orthopaedic surgery during the 1960s.43 Evidence collected ment based on thrombophilia testing has not been found to reduce
since this initial report has shown that DVT develops less frequently VTE recurrence.64,65
in non-orthopaedic surgery. The risk of VTE is highest during the first

two post-operative weeks but remains elevated for two to three
months. Antithrombotic prophylaxis significantly reduces the risk 2.4 Pathophysiology
of perioperative VTE. The incidence of VTE is reduced with increas- Acute PE interferes with both the circulation and gas exchange. Right
ing duration of thromboprophylaxis after major orthopaedic surgery ventricular (RV) failure due to pressure overload is considered the
and (to a lesser extent) cancer surgery: this association has not been primary cause of death in severe PE.
shown for general surgery.44,45 The majority of patients with symp- Pulmonary artery pressure increases only if more than 30 –50%
tomatic DVT have proximal clots, complicated by PE in 40–50% of of the total cross-sectional area of the pulmonary arterial bed
cases, often without clinical manifestations.44,45 is occluded by thromboemboli.66 PE-induced vasoconstriction,
Registries and hospital discharge datasets of unselected patients mediated by the release of thromboxane A2 and serotonin, contri-
with PE or VTE yielded 30-day all-cause mortality rates between butes to the initial increase in pulmonary vascular resistance after
9% and 11%, and three-month mortality ranging between 8.6% and PE,67 an effect that can be reversed by vasodilators.68,69 Anatomical
17%.46 – 48 Following the acute PE episode, resolution of pulmonary obstruction and vasoconstriction lead to an increase in pulmonary
thrombi, as evidenced by lung perfusion defects, is frequently incom- vascular resistance and a proportional decrease in arterial
plete. In one study, lung perfusion scintigraphy demonstrated abnor- compliance.70
malities in 35% of patients a year after acute PE, although the degree of The abrupt increase in pulmonary vascular resistance results in RV
pulmonary vascular obstruction was ,15% in 90% of the cases.49 dilation, which alters the contractile properties of the RV myocar-
Two relatively recent cohort studies covering 173 and 254 patients dium via the Frank-Starling mechanism. The increase in RV pressure
yielded incidences approaching 30%.50,51 The incidence of confirmed and volume leads to an increase in wall tension and myocyte stretch.
chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH) after RV contraction time is prolonged, while neurohumoral activation
unprovoked PE is currently estimated at approximately 1.5% (with leads to inotropic and chronotropic stimulation. Together with sys-
a wide range reported by mostly small-cohort studies), with most temic vasoconstriction, these compensatory mechanisms increase
cases appearing within 24 months of the index event.52,53 pulmonary artery pressure, improving flow through the obstructed
The risk of recurrence of VTE has been reviewed in detail.54 – 56 pulmonary vascular bed, and thus temporarily stabilize systemic
Based on historical data, the cumulative proportion of patients with blood pressure (BP).71 The extent of immediate adaptation is
early recurrence of VTE (on anticoagulant treatment) amounts to limited, since a non-preconditioned, thin-walled right ventricle
2.0% at 2 weeks, 6.4% at 3 months and 8% at 6 months; more (RV) is unable to generate a mean pulmonary artery pressure
recent, randomized anticoagulation trials (discussed in the section above 40 mm Hg.
on acute phase treatment) indicate that recurrence rates may have The prolongation of RV contraction time into early diastole in the
dropped considerably recently. The rate of recurrence is highest left ventricle leads to leftward bowing of the interventricular
during the first two weeks and declines thereafter. During the early septum.72 The desynchronization of the ventricles may be exacer-
period, active cancer and failure to rapidly achieve therapeutic bated by the development of right bundle-branch block. As a
levels of anticoagulation appear to independently predict an result, left ventricular (LV) filling is impeded in early diastole, and
increased risk of recurrence.56,57 this may lead to a reduction of the cardiac output and contribute
The cumulative proportion of patients with late recurrence of VTE to systemic hypotension and haemodynamic instability.73
(after six months, and in most cases after discontinuation of anticoa- As described above, excessive neurohumoral activation in PE can
gulation) has been reported to reach 13% at 1 year, 23% at 5 years, be the result both of abnormal RV wall tension and of circulatory
and 30% at 10 years.56 Overall, the frequency of recurrence does shock. The finding of massive infiltrates in the RV myocardium of
not appear to depend on the clinical presentation (DVT or PE) of patients who died within 48 hours of acute PE may be explained by
the first event, but recurrent VTE is likely to occur in the same clinical high levels of epinephrine released as a result of the PE-induced ‘myo-
form as the index episode (i.e. if VTE recurs after PE, it will most likely carditis’.74 This inflammatory response might explain the secondary
be PE again). Recurrence is more frequent after multiple VTE epi- haemodynamic destabilization which sometimes occurs 24 –48
sodes as opposed to a single event, and after unprovoked VTE as hours after acute PE, although early recurrence of PE may be an alter-
opposed to the presence of temporary risk factors, particularly native explanation in some of these cases.75
surgery.58 It is also more frequent in women who continue Finally, the association between elevated circulating levels of bio-
hormone intake after a VTE episode, and in patients who have markers of myocardial injury and an adverse early outcome indicates
ESC Guidelines 3039

Figure 1 Key factors contributing to haemodynamic collapse in
acute pulmonary embolism
that RV ischaemia is of pathophysiological significance in the acute

phase of PE.76 – 78 Although RV infarction is uncommon after PE, it
is likely that the imbalance between oxygen supply and demand can
result in damage to cardiomyocytes and further reduce contractile Figure 2 Initial risk stratification of acute PE.
forces.
The detrimental effects of acute PE on the RV myocardium and the
circulation are summarized in Figure 1.
Respiratory failure in PE is predominantly a consequence of
3. Diagnosis
haemodynamic disturbances.79 Low cardiac output results in desat- Throughout these Guidelines and for the purpose of clinical manage-
uration of the mixed venous blood. In addition, zones of reduced ment, ‘confirmed PE’ is defined as a probability of PE high enough to
flow in obstructed vessels, combined with zones of overflow in the indicate the need for PE-specific treatment, and ‘excluded PE’ as a
capillary bed served by non-obstructed vessels, result in ventila- probability of PE low enough to justify withholding PE-specific treat-
tion–perfusion mismatch, which contributes to hypoxaemia. In ment with an acceptably low risk.
about one-third of patients, right-to-left shunting through a patent
foramen ovale can be detected by echocardiography: this is caused 3.1 Clinical presentation
by an inverted pressure gradient between the right atrium and left PE may escape prompt diagnosis since the clinical signs and symptoms
atrium and may lead to severe hypoxaemia and an increased risk of are non-specific (Table 3). When the clinical presentation raises the
paradoxical embolization and stroke.80 Finally, even if they do not suspicion of PE in an individual patient, it should prompt further
affect haemodynamics, small distal emboli may create areas of alveo- objective testing. In most patients, PE is suspected on the basis of dys-
lar haemorrhage resulting in haemoptysis, pleuritis, and pleural effu- pnoea, chest pain, pre-syncope or syncope, and/or haemoptysis.81 – 83
sion, which is usually mild. This clinical presentation is known as Arterial hypotension and shock are rare but important clinical pre-
‘pulmonary infarction’. Its effect on gas exchange is normally mild, sentations, since they indicate central PE and/or a severely reduced
except in patients with pre-existing cardiorespiratory disease. haemodynamic reserve. Syncope is infrequent, but may occur regard-
less of the presence of haemodynamic instability.84 Finally, PE may
be completely asymptomatic and be discovered incidentally during
2.5 Clinical classification of pulmonary diagnostic work-up for another disease or at autopsy.
embolism severity Chest pain is a frequent symptom of PE and is usually caused by
The clinical classification of the severity of an episode of acute PE is pleural irritation due to distal emboli causing pulmonary infarction.85
based on the estimated PE-related early mortality risk defined by In central PE, chest pain may have a typical angina character, possibly
in-hospital or 30-day mortality (Figure 2). This stratification, which reflecting RV ischaemia and requiring differential diagnosis with acute
has important implications both for the diagnostic and therapeutic coronary syndrome (ACS) or aortic dissection. Dyspnoea may be
strategies proposed in these guidelines, is based on the patient’s clin- acute and severe in central PE; in small peripheral PE, it is often
ical status at presentation, with high-risk PE being suspected or con- mild and may be transient. In patients with pre-existing heart failure
firmed in the presence of shock or persistent arterial hypotension or pulmonary disease, worsening dyspnoea may be the only
and not high-risk PE in their absence. symptom indicative of PE.
3040 ESC Guidelines
prediction rule is the one offered by Wells et al. (Table 4).95 This
Table 3 Clinical characteristics of patients with rule has been validated extensively using both a three-category
suspected PE in the emergency department (adapted scheme (low, moderate, or high clinical probability of PE) and a two-
from Pollack et al. (2011)).82 category scheme (PE likely or unlikely).96 – 100 It is simple and based on
information that is easy to obtain; on the other hand, the weight of
one subjective item (‘alternative diagnosis less likely than PE’) may
reduce the inter-observer reproducibility of the Wells rule.101 – 103
The revised Geneva rule is also simple and standardized
(Table 4).93 Both have been adequately validated.104 – 106
More recently, both the Wells and the revised Geneva rule were
simplified in an attempt to increase their adoption into clinical prac-

tice (Table 4),107,108 and the simplified versions were externally vali-
dated.105,109 Whichever is used, the proportion of patients with
confirmed PE can be expected to be around 10% in the low-
probability category, 30% in the moderate-probability category,
and 65% in the high-clinical probability category when using the
three-level classification.104 When the two-level classification is
used, the proportion of patients with confirmed PE in the PE-unlikely
category is around 12%.104
DVT ¼ deep vein thrombosis.
3.3 D-dimer testing

D-dimer levels are elevated in plasma in the presence of acute throm-
Knowledge of the predisposing factors for VTE is important in de- bosis because of simultaneous activation of coagulation and fibrin-
termining the likelihood of PE, which increases with the number of olysis. The negative predictive value of D-dimer testing is high and a
predisposing factors present; however, in as many as 30% of the normal D-dimer level renders acute PE or DVT unlikely. On the
patients with PE, no provoking factors can be detected.86 In blood other hand, fibrin is also produced in a wide variety of conditions
gas analysis, hypoxaemia is considered a typical finding in acute PE, such as cancer, inflammation, bleeding, trauma, surgery and necrosis.
but up to 40% of the patients have normal arterial oxygen saturation Accordingly, the positive predictive value of elevated D-dimer levels
and 20% a normal alveolar-arterial oxygen gradient.87,88 Hypocapnia is low and D-dimer testing is not useful for confirmation of PE.
is also often present. The chest X-ray is frequently abnormal and, al- A number of D-dimer assays are available.110,111 The quantitative
though its findings are usually non-specific in PE, it is useful for exclud- enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) or ELISA-derived
ing other causes of dyspnoea or chest pain.89 Electrocardiographic assays have a diagnostic sensitivity of 95% or better and can therefore
changes indicative of RV strain, such as inversion of T waves in be used to exclude PE in patients with either a low or a moderate
leads V1–V4, a QR pattern in V1, S1Q3T3 pattern, and incomplete pre-test probability. In the emergency department, a negative ELISA
or complete right bundle-branch block, may be helpful. These elec- D-dimer, in combination with clinical probability, can exclude the
trocardiographic changes are usually found in more severe cases of disease without further testing in approximately 30% of patients
PE;90 in milder cases, the only anomaly may be sinus tachycardia, with suspected PE.100,112,113 Outcome studies have shown that the
present in 40% of patients. Finally, atrial arrhythmias, most frequently three-month thromboembolic risk was ,1% in patients left untreated
atrial fibrillation, may be associated with acute PE. on the basis of a negative test result (Table 5);99,112 – 116 these findings
were confirmed by a meta-analysis.117
3.2 Assessment of clinical probability Quantitative latex-derived assays and a whole-blood agglutination
Despite the limited sensitivity and specificity of individual symptoms, assay have a diagnostic sensitivity ,95% and are thus often referred
signs, and common tests, the combination of findings evaluated by to as moderately sensitive. In outcome studies, those assays proved
clinical judgement or by the use of prediction rules allows to classify safe in ruling out PE in PE-unlikely patients as well as in patients
patients with suspected PE into distinct categories of clinical or with a low clinical probability.99,100,105 Their safety in ruling out PE
pre-test probability that correspond to an increasing actual preva- has not been established in the intermediate clinical probability cat-
lence of confirmed PE. As the post-test (e.g. after computed tomog- egory. Point-of-care tests have moderate sensitivity, and data from
raphy) probability of PE depends not only on the characteristics of the outcome studies in PE are lacking, with the exception of a recent
diagnostic test itself but also on pre-test probability, this has become a primary care-based study using the Simplify D-dimer assay,118 in
key step in all diagnostic algorithms for PE. which the three-month thromboembolic risk was 1.5% in PE-unlikely
The value of clinical judgement has been confirmed in several large patients with a negative D-dimer.
series,91 – 93 including the Prospective Investigation On Pulmonary The specificity of D-dimer in suspected PE decreases steadily with
Embolism Diagnosis (PIOPED).94 Note that clinical judgement age, to almost 10% in patients .80 years.119 Recent evidence sug-
usually includes commonplace tests such as chest X-ray and electro- gests using age-adjusted cut-offs to improve the performance of
cardiogram for differential diagnosis. However, clinical judgement D-dimer testing in the elderly.120,121 In a recent meta-analysis,
lacks standardization; therefore, several explicit clinical prediction age-adjusted cut-off values (age x 10 mg/L above 50 years) allowed
rules have been developed. Of these, the most frequently used increasing specificity from 34 –46% while retaining a sensitivity
ESC Guidelines 3041
Table 4 Clinical prediction rules for PE
b.p.m.¼ beats per minute; DVT ¼ deep vein thrombosis; PE ¼ pulmonary embolism.
above 97%.122 A multicentre, prospective management study evalu- (instead of the ‘standard’ 500 mg/L cut-off) increased the number
ated this age-adjusted cut-off in a cohort of 3346 patients. Patients of patients in whom PE could be excluded from 43 (6.4%; 95% CI
with a normal age-adjusted D-dimer value did not undergo computed 4.8 –8.5%) to 200 (29.7%; 95% CI 26.4 –33.3%), without any addition-
tomographic pulmonary angiography and were left untreated and al false-negative findings.123 D-dimer is also more frequently elevated
formally followed up for a three-month period. Among the 766 in patients with cancer,124,125 in hospitalized patients,105,126 and
patients who were 75 years or older, 673 had a non-high clinical prob- during pregnancy.127,128 Thus, the number of patients in whom
ability. On the basis of D-dimer, using the age-adjusted cut-off D-dimer must be measured to exclude one PE (number needed to
3042 ESC Guidelines
Table 5 Diagnostic yield of various D-dimer assays in excluding acute PE according to outcome studies

CI ¼ confidence interval; PE ¼ pulmonary embolism.
a
Low or intermediate clinical probability, or PE unlikely, depending on the studies.
test) varies between 3 in the emergency department and ≥10 in the (1.3%) with a negative CT had a DVT, and one had a thromboembolic
specific situations listed above. The negative predictive value of a event during follow-up.135 Hence, the three-month thromboembolic
(negative) D-dimer test remains high in these situations. risk would have been 1.5% (95% CI 0.8 –2.9) if only CT had been
used.135 A European study compared two diagnostic strategies
based on D-dimer and MDCT, one with- and the other without
3.4 Computed tomographic pulmonary lower limb compression venous ultrasonography (CUS).116 In the
angiography D-dimer –CT arm, the three-month thromboembolic risk was
Since the introduction of multi-detector computed tomographic 0.3% (95% CI 0.1 –1.2) among the 627 patients left untreated,
(MDCT) angiography with high spatial and temporal resolution and based on a negative D-dimer or MDCT.
quality of arterial opacification, computed tomographic (CT) angiog- Taken together, these data suggest that a negative MDCT is an ad-
raphy has become the method of choice for imaging the pulmonary equate criterion for excluding PE in patients with a non-high clinical
vasculature in patients with suspected PE. It allows adequate visualiza- probability of PE. Whether patients with a negative CT and a high clin-
tion of the pulmonary arteries down to at least the segmental ical probability should be further investigated is controversial. MDCT
level.131 – 133 The PIOPED II trial observed a sensitivity of 83% and a showing PE at the segmental or more proximal level is adequate proof
specificity of 96% for (mainly four-detector) MDCT.134 PIOPED II of PE in patients with a non-low clinical probability; however, the
also highlighted the influence of clinical probability on the predictive positive predictive value of MDCT is lower in patients with a low clin-
value of MDCT. In patients with a low or intermediate clinical prob- ical probability of PE, and further testing may be considered, especial-
ability of PE as assessed by the Wells rule, a negative CT had a high ly if the clots are limited to segmental or sub-segmental arteries.
negative predictive value for PE (96% and 89%, respectively), The clinical significance of isolated sub-segmental PE on CT angiog-
whereas this was only 60% in those with a high pre-test probability. raphy is questionable. This finding was present in 4.7% (2.5–7.6%) of
Conversely, the positive predictive value of a positive CT was high patients with PE imaged by single-detector CT angiography and 9.4%
(92 –96%) in patients with an intermediate or high clinical probability (5.5–14.2%) of those submitted to MDCT.136 The positive predictive
but much lower (58%) in patients with a low pre-test likelihood of PE. value is low and inter-observer agreement is poor at this distal level.137
Therefore, clinicians should be particularly cautious in case of discor- There may be a role for CUS in this situation, to ensure that the patient
dancy between clinical judgement and the MDCT result. does not have DVT that would require treatment. In a patient with iso-
Four studies provided evidence in favour of computed tomog- lated sub-segmental PE and no proximal DVT, the decision on whether
raphy as a stand-alone imaging test for excluding PE. In a prospective to treat should be made on an individual basis, taking into account the
management study covering 756 consecutive patients referred to the clinical probability and the bleeding risk.
emergency department with a clinical suspicion of PE, all patients with Computed tomographic venography has been advocated as a
either a high clinical probability or a non-high clinical probability and a simple way to diagnose DVT in patients with suspected PE, as it can
positive ELISA D-dimer test underwent both lower limb ultrasonog- be combined with chest CT angiography as a single procedure, using
raphy and MDCT.113 The proportion of patients in whom—despite a only one intravenous injection of contrast dye. In PIOPED II, combining
negative MDCT—a proximal DVT was found on ultrasound was only CT venography with CT angiography increased sensitivity for PE from
0.9% (95% CI 0.3 –2.7).113 In another study,99 all patients classified as 83% to 90% and had a similar specificity (around 95%);134,138 however,
PE-likely by the dichotomized Wells rule, or those with a positive the corresponding increase in negative predictive value was not
D-dimer test, underwent a chest MDCT. The three-month thrombo- clinically significant. CT venography adds a significant amount of irradi-
embolic risk in the patients left untreated because of a negative CT ation, which may be a concern, especially in younger women.139 As CT
was low (1.1%; 95% CI 0.6 –1.9).99 Two randomized, controlled venography and CUS yielded similar results in patients with signs or
trials reached similar conclusions. In a Canadian trial comparing V/ symptoms of DVT in PIOPED II,138 ultrasonography should be used
Q scan and CT (mostly MDCT), only seven of the 531 patients instead of CT venography if indicated (see Section 3.10).
ESC Guidelines 3043
The incidental discovery of clinically unsuspected PE on CT is an in- 3.6 Pulmonary angiography

creasingly frequent problem, arising in 1–2% of all thoracic CT exam- Pulmonary angiography has for decades remained the ‘gold standard’
inations, most often in patients with cancer, but also among those with for the diagnosis or exclusion of PE, but is rarely performed now as
paroxysmal atrial fibrillation or heart failure and history of atrial fibril- less-invasive CT angiography offers similar diagnostic accuracy.163 Pul-
lation.140 – 143 There are no robust data to guide the decision on how to monary angiography is more often used to guide percutaneous
manage unsuspected PE with anticoagulants, but most experts agree catheter-directed treatment of acute PE. Digital subtraction angiog-
that patients with cancer and those with clots at the lobar or more raphy (DSA) requires less contrast medium than conventional cinean-
proximal level should be treated with anticoagulants.144 giography and has excellent imaging quality for peripheral pulmonary
3.5 Lung scintigraphy vessels in patients who can hold their breath; it is less useful for
imaging of the main pulmonary arteries, due to cardiac motion artefacts.
Ventilation –perfusion scintigraphy (V/Q scan) is an established diag-
The diagnosis of acute PE is based on direct evidence of a thrombus

nostic test for suspected PE. It is safe and few allergic reactions have
in two projections, either as a filling defect or as amputation of a pul-
been described. The test is based on the intravenous injection of
monary arterial branch.94 Thrombi as small as 1 –2 mm within the
technetium (Tc)-99m-labelled macroaggregated albumin particles,
sub-segmental arteries can be visualized by DSA, but there is substan-
which block a small fraction of the pulmonary capillaries and
tial inter-observer variability at this level.164,165 Indirect signs of PE,
thereby enable scintigraphic assessment of lung perfusion. Perfusion
such as slow flow of contrast, regional hypoperfusion, and delayed
scans are combined with ventilation studies, for which multiple
or diminished pulmonary venous flow, are not validated and hence
tracers such as xenon-133 gas, Tc-99m-labelled aerosols, or
are not diagnostic. The Miller score may be used in quantifying the
Tc-99m-labelled carbon microparticles (Technegas) can be used.
extent of luminal obstruction.166
The purpose of the ventilation scan is to increase specificity: in
Pulmonary angiography is not free of risk. In a study of 1111
acute PE, ventilation is expected to be normal in hypoperfused seg-
patients, procedure-related mortality was 0.5%, major non-fatal
ments (mismatch).145,146 According to the International Commission
complications occurred in 1%, and minor complications in 5%.167
on Radiological Protection (ICRP), the radiation exposure from a
The majority of deaths occurred in patients with haemodynamic
lung scan with 100 MBq of Tc-99m macroaggregated albumin parti-
compromise or respiratory failure. The risk of access-related bleed-
cles is 1.1 mSv for an average sized adult, and thus is significantly
ing complications is increased if thrombolysis is attempted in patients
lower than that of CT angiography (2– 6 mSv).147,148
with PE diagnosed by pulmonary angiography.168
Being a radiation- and contrast medium-sparing procedure, the
Haemodynamic measurements should always be recorded during
V/Q scan may preferentially be applied in outpatients with low
pulmonary angiography for estimation of the severity of PE and
clinical probability and a normal chest X-ray, in young (particularly
because they may suggest alternative cardiopulmonary disorders.
female) patients, in pregnancy, in patients with history of contrast
In patients with haemodynamic compromise, the amount of contrast
medium-induced anaphylaxis and strong allergic history, in severe
agent should be reduced and non-selective injections avoided.169
renal failure, and in patients with myeloma and paraproteinaemia.149
Lung scan results are frequently classified according to the criteria
established in the PIOPED study: normal or near-normal, low, inter-
3.7 Magnetic resonance angiography
mediate (non-diagnostic), and high probability of PE.94 These criteria Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) has been evaluated for
have been the subject of debate, following which they were several years in suspected PE but large-scale studies were published
revised.150,151 To facilitate communication with clinicians, a three- only recently.170,171 Their results show that this technique, although
tier classification is preferable: normal scan (excluding PE), high- promising, is not yet ready for clinical practice due to its low sensitiv-
probability scan (considered diagnostic of PE in most patients), and ity, high proportion of inconclusive MRA scans, and low availability in
non-diagnostic scan.135,152,153 Prospective clinical outcome studies most emergency settings. The hypothesis—that a negative MRA
suggested that it is safe to withhold anticoagulant therapy in patients combined with the absence of proximal DVT on CUS may safely
with a normal perfusion scan. This was recently confirmed by a ran- rule out clinically significant PE—is being tested in a multicentre
domized trial comparing the V/Q scan with CT.135 An analysis from outcome study (ClinicalTrials.gov NCT 02059551).
the recent PIOPED II study confirmed the effectiveness of the high-
probability V/Q scan for diagnosing PE and of the normal perfusion 3.8 Echocardiography
scan for ruling it out.154 Performing only a perfusion scan is acceptable Acute PE may lead to RV pressure overload and dysfunction, which can
in patients with a normal chest X-ray; any perfusion defect in this situ- be detected by echocardiography. Given the peculiar geometry of the
ation will be considered to be a mismatch.155 The high frequency of RV, there is no individual echocardiographic parameter that provides
non-diagnostic intermediate probability scans has been a cause for fast and reliable information on RV size or function. This is why echocar-
criticism, because they indicate the necessity for further diagnostic diographic criteria for the diagnosis of PE have differed between studies.
testing. Various strategies to overcome this problem have been pro- Because of the reported negative predictive value of 40–50%, a nega-
posed, notably the incorporation of clinical probability.91,156,157 tive result cannot exclude PE.157,172,173 On the other hand, signs of
Recent studies suggest that data acquisition in the tomographic RV overload or dysfunction may also be found in the absence of
mode in single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) acute PE and be due to concomitant cardiac or respiratory disease.174
imaging, with or without low-dose CT may reduce the frequency RV dilation is found in at least 25% of patients with PE, and its detec-
of non-diagnostic scans.152,158 – 161 SPECT imaging may even allow tion, either by echocardiography or CT, is useful for risk stratification of
the use of automated detection algorithms for PE.162 Large-scale pro- the disease. Echocardiographic findings—based either on a disturbed
spective studies are needed to validate these new approaches. RV ejection pattern (so-called ‘60–60 sign’) or on depressed
3044 ESC Guidelines
contractility of the RV free wall compared with the RV apex (‘McCon- of patients with suspected PE and a positive D-dimer result, in whom
nell sign’)—were reported to retain a high positive predictive value for a DVT could be detected by complete CUS.195,196 The diagnostic
PE, even in the presence of pre-existing cardiorespiratory disease.175 yield of complete CUS was almost twice that of proximal CUS, but a
Additional echocardiographic signs of pressure overload may be high proportion (26–36%) of patients with distal DVT had no PE on
required to avoid a false diagnosis of acute PE in patients with RV free thoracic MDCT. In contrast, a positive proximal CUS result has a high
wall hypokinesia or akinesia due to RV infarction, which may mimic positive predictive value for PE, as confirmed by data from a large pro-
the McConnell sign.176 Measurement of the tricuspid annulus plane sys- spective outcome study, in which 524 patients underwent both MDCT
tolic excursion (TAPSE) may also be useful.177 New echocardiographic and CUS. The sensitivity of CUS for the presence of PE on MDCT was
parameters of RV function, derived from Doppler tissue imaging and 39% and its specificity was 99%.194 The probability of a positive prox-
wall strain assessment, were reported to be affected by the presence imal CUS in suspected PE is higher in patients with signs and symptoms
of acute PE, but they are non-specific and may be normal in haemo- related to the leg veins than in asymptomatic patients.192,193

dynamically stable patients, despite the presence of PE.178 – 181
Echocardiographic examination is not recommended as part of the 3.10 Diagnostic strategies
diagnostic work-up in haemodynamically stable, normotensive The prevalence of confirmed PE in patients undergoing diagnostic
patients with suspected (not high-risk) PE.157 This is in contrast to sus- work-up because of suspicion of disease has been rather low (10–
pected high-risk PE, in which the absence of echocardiographic signs of 35%) in large series.99,100,113,116,197 Hence, the use of diagnostic algo-
RV overload or dysfunction practically excludes PE as the cause of rithms is warranted, and various combinations of clinical assessment,
haemodynamic instability. In the latter case, echocardiography may plasma D-dimer measurement, and imaging tests have been pro-
be of further help in the differential diagnosis of the cause of shock, posed and validated. These strategies were tested in patients present-
by detecting pericardial tamponade, acute valvular dysfunction, ing with suspected PE in the emergency ward,99,113,114,116,197 during
severe global or regional LV dysfunction, aortic dissection, or hypovol- the hospital stay and more recently in the primary care setting.118,126
aemia. Conversely, in a haemodynamically compromised patient with Failure to comply with evidence-based diagnostic strategies when
suspected PE, unequivocal signs of RV pressure overload and dysfunc- withholding anticoagulation was associated with a significant increase
tion justify emergency reperfusion treatment for PE if immediate CT in the number of VTE episodes and sudden cardiac death at three-
angiography is not feasible.182 month follow-up.198 The most straightforward diagnostic algorithms
Mobile right heart thrombi are detected by transthoracic or trans- for suspected PE—with and without shock or hypotension—are pre-
oesophageal echocardiography (or by CT angiography) in less than sented in Figures 3 and 4, respectively; however, it is recognized that
4% of unselected patients with PE,183 – 185 but their prevalence may the diagnostic approach to suspected PE may vary, depending on
reach 18% in the intensive care setting.185 Mobile right heart the availability of—and expertise in—specific tests in various hospi-
thrombi essentially confirm the diagnosis of PE and their presence tals and clinical settings. Accordingly, Table 6 provides the necessary
is associated with RV dysfunction and high early mortality.184,186,187 evidence for alternative evidence-based diagnostic algorithms.
Consequently, transoesophageal echocardiography may be consid- The diagnostic strategy for suspected acute PE in pregnancy is dis-
ered when searching for emboli in the main pulmonary arteries in cussed in Section 8.1.
specific clinical situations,188,189 and it can be of diagnostic value in 3.10.1 Suspected pulmonary embolism with shock
haemodynamically unstable patients due to the high prevalence of or hypotension
bilateral central pulmonary emboli in most of these cases.190 The proposed strategy is shown in Figure 3. Suspected high-risk PE is an
In some patients with suspected acute PE, echocardiography may immediately life-threatening situation, and patients presenting with
detect increased RV wall thickness and/or tricuspid insufficiency jet shock or hypotension present a distinct clinical problem. The clinical
velocity beyond values compatible with acute RV pressure overload. probability is usually high, and the differential diagnosis includes acute
In these cases, chronic pulmonary hypertension, and CTEPH in par- valvular dysfunction, tamponade, acute coronary syndrome (ACS),
ticular, should be included in the differential diagnosis. and aortic dissection. The most useful initial test in this situation is
bedside transthoracic echocardiography, which will yield evidence of
3.9 Compression venous ultrasonography acute pulmonary hypertension and RV dysfunction if acute PE is the
In the majority of cases, PE originates from DVT in a lower limb. In a cause of the patient’s haemodynamic decompensation. In a highly un-
study using venography, DVT was found in 70% of patients with stable patient, echocardiographic evidence of RV dysfunction is suffi-
proven PE.191 Nowadays, lower limb CUS has largely replaced venog- cient to prompt immediate reperfusion without further testing. This
raphy for diagnosing DVT. CUS has a sensitivity .90% and a specifi- decision may be strengthened by the (rare) visualization of right heart
city of approximately 95% for symptomatic DVT.192,193 CUS shows a thrombi.184,199,200 Ancillary bedside imaging tests include transoeso-
DVT in 30– 50% of patients with PE,116,192,193 and finding a proximal phageal echocardiography which, if available, may allow direct visualiza-
DVT in patients suspected of having PE is considered sufficient to tion of thrombi in the pulmonary artery and its main branches,188,190,201
warrant anticoagulant treatment without further testing.194 and bedside CUS, which can detect proximal DVT. As soon as the
In the setting of suspected PE, CUS can be limited to a simple four- patient can be stabilized by supportive treatment, final confirmation
point examination (groin and popliteal fossa). The only validated diag- of the diagnosis by CT angiography should be sought.
nostic criterion for DVT is incomplete compressibility of the vein, For unstable patients admitted directly to the catheterization la-
which indicates the presence of a clot, whereas flow measurements boratory with suspected ACS, pulmonary angiography may be con-
are unreliable. The diagnostic yield of CUS in suspected PE may be sidered as a diagnostic procedure after the ACS has been excluded,
increased further by performing complete ultrasonography, which provided that PE is a probable diagnostic alternative and particularly
includes the distal veins. Two recent studies assessed the proportion if percutaneous catheter-directed treatment is a therapeutic option.
ESC Guidelines 3045

Figure 3 Proposed diagnostic algorithm for patients with suspected high-risk PE, i.e. presenting with shock or hypotension.
3.10.2 Suspected pulmonary embolism without shock to be diagnostic of PE when it shows a clot at least at the segmental
or hypotension level of the pulmonary arterial tree. False-negative results of
Strategy based on computed tomographic angiography (Figure 4) MDCT have been reported in patients with a high clinical probability
Computed tomographic angiography has become the main thor- of PE;134 however, this situation is infrequent, and the three-month
acic imaging test for investigating suspected PE but, since most thromboembolic risk was low in these cases.99 Therefore, both the
patients with suspected PE do not have the disease, CT should not necessity of performing further tests and the nature of these tests
be the first-line test. in such patients remain controversial.
In patients admitted to the emergency department, plasma
Value of lower limb compression ultrasonography
D-dimer measurement, combined with clinical probability assess-
Under certain circumstances, CUS can still be useful in the
ment, is the logical first step and allows PE to be ruled out in
diagnostic work-up of suspected PE. CUS shows a DVT in 30–50%
around 30% of patients, with a three-month thromboembolic risk
of patients with PE,116,192,193 and finding proximal DVT in a patient
in patients left untreated of ,1%. D-dimer should not be measured
suspected of PE is sufficient to warrant anticoagulant treatment
in patients with a high clinical probability, owing to a low negative pre-
without further testing.194 Hence, performing CUS before CT may
dictive value in this population.202 It is also less useful in hospitalized
be an option in patients with relative contraindications for CT such
patients because the number needed to test to obtain a clinically rele-
as in renal failure, allergy to contrast dye, or pregnancy.195,196
vant negative result is high.
In most centres, MDCT angiography is the second-line test in Value of ventilation –perfusion scintigraphy
patients with an elevated D-dimer level and the first-line test in In centres in which V/Q scintigraphy is readily available, it
patients with a high clinical probability. CT angiography is considered remains a valid option for patients with an elevated D-dimer and a
3046 ESC Guidelines

Figure 4 Proposed diagnostic algorithm for patients with suspected not high-risk pulmonary embolism.
contraindication to CT. Also, V/Q scintigraphy may be preferred over and mortality rates) between patients with sub-segmental and
CT to avoid unnecessary radiation, particularly in younger and female more proximal PE; outcomes were largely determined by comorbid-
patients in whom thoracic CT may raise the lifetime risk of breast ities.205 The definition of sub-segmental PE has yet to be standardized
cancer.139 V/Q lung scintigraphy is diagnostic (with either normal and a single sub-segmental defect probably does not have the same
or high-probability findings) in approximately 30 –50% of emergency clinical relevance as multiple, sub-segmental thrombi.
ward patients with suspected PE.83,94,135,203 The proportion of diag- There is also growing evidence suggesting over-diagnosis of
nostic V/Q scans is higher in patients with a normal chest X-ray, and PE.206 A randomized comparison showed that, although CT
this supports the recommendation to use V/Q scan as the first-line detected PE more frequently than V/Q scanning, three-month out-
imaging test for PE in younger patients.204 comes were similar, regardless of the diagnostic method used.135
The number of patients with inconclusive findings may also be Data from the United States show an 80% rise in the apparent in-
reduced by taking into account clinical probability.94 Thus, patients cidence of PE after the introduction of CT, without a significant
with a non-diagnostic lung scan and low clinical probability of PE impact on mortality.207,208
have a low prevalence of confirmed PE.94,157,203 The negative predict- Some experts believe that patients with incidental (unsuspected)
ive value of this combination is further increased by the absence of a PE on CT should be treated,144 especially if they have cancer and a
DVT on lower-limb CUS. If a high-probability lung scan is obtained proximal clot, but solid evidence in support of this recommendation
from a patient with low clinical probability of PE, confirmation by is lacking. The value and cost-effectiveness of CUS in suspected PE
other tests may be considered on a case-by-case basis. should be further clarified.
Finally, ‘triple rule-out’ (for coronary artery disease, PE and aortic
3.11 Areas of uncertainty dissection) CT angiography for patients presenting with non-
Despite considerable progress in the diagnosis of PE, several areas of traumatic chest pain appears to be accurate for the detection of cor-
uncertainty persist. The diagnostic value and clinical significance of onary artery disease.209 However, the benefits vs. risks (including
sub-segmental defects on MDCT are still under debate.136,137 A increased radiation and contrast exposure) of such a diagnostic ap-
recent retrospective analysis of two patient cohorts with suspected proach need thorough evaluation, given the low (,1%) prevalence
PE showed similar outcomes (in terms of three-month recurrence of PE and aortic dissection in the studies published thus far.
ESC Guidelines 3047
Recommendations for diagnosis

CT ¼ computed tomographic (pulmonary angiography); CUS ¼ compression
venous ultrasonography; DVT ¼ deep vein thrombosis; MRA ¼ magnetic
resonance angiography; PE ¼ pulmonary embolism; RV ¼ right ventricular;
TOE ¼ transoesophageal echocardiography; V/Q ¼ ventilation –perfusion.
a
Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
c
References.
d
Refers to multi-detector CT.
4. Prognostic assessment
4.1 Clinical parameters
Acute RV dysfunction is a critical determinant of outcome in acute PE.
Accordingly, clinical symptoms and signs of acute RV failure such as
persistent arterial hypotension and cardiogenic shock indicate a
high risk of early death. Further, syncope and tachycardia—as well
as routinely available clinical parameters related to pre-existing
conditions and comorbidity—are associated with an unfavourable
3048 ESC Guidelines
Table 6 Validated diagnostic criteria (based on non-invasive tests) for diagnosing PE in patients without shock or
hypotension according to clinical probability

+/green ¼ valid diagnostic criterion (no further testing required); –/red ¼ invalid criterion (further testing mandatory); +/yellow ¼ controversial criterion (further testing to be
considered).
a
Low or intermediate probability lung scan according to the PIOPED classification.
CT ¼ computed tomographic; CUS ¼ proximal lower limb venous ultrasonography; DVT ¼ deep vein thrombosis; PE ¼ pulmonary embolism; PIOPED ¼ Prospective
Investigation of Pulmonary Embolism Diagnosis; V/Q scan ¼ ventilation –perfusion scintigram.
short-term prognosis. For example, in the International Cooperative biomarkers proposed by the previous ESC Guidelines.221 Combin-
Pulmonary Embolism Registry (ICOPER), age .70 years, systolic BP ation of the sPESI with troponin testing provided additional prognos-
,90 mm Hg, respiratory rate .20 breaths/min, cancer, chronic tic information,222 especially for identification of low-risk patients.76
heart failure and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD),
were all identified as prognostic factors.48 In the Registro Informati-
zado de la Enfermedad Thomboembolica venosa (RIETE) study, im-
4.2 Imaging of the right ventricle by
mobilization for neurological disease, age .75 years, and cancer echocardiography or computed
were independently associated with an increased risk of death tomographic angiography
within the first three months after acute VTE.47 The diagnosis of con- Echocardiographic findings indicating RV dysfunction have been
comitant DVT has also been reported to be an independent predict- reported in ≥25% of patients with PE.223 They have been identified
or of death within the first three months following diagnosis.210 as independent predictors of an adverse outcome,224 but are
Various prediction rules based on clinical parameters have been heterogeneous and have proven difficult to standardize.225 Still, in
shown to be helpful in the prognostic assessment of patients with haemodynamically stable, normotensive patients with PE, echocardio-
acute PE. Of those, the pulmonary embolism severity index (PESI; graphic assessment of the morphology and function of the RV may help
Table 7) is the most extensively validated score to date.211 – 214 In in prognostic stratification.
one study,215 the PESI performed better than the older Geneva prog- As already mentioned in the previous section on the diagnosis of
nostic score216 for identification of patients with an adverse 30-day PE, echocardiographic findings used to risk stratify patients with PE
outcome. The principal strength of the PESI lies in the reliable identi- include RV dilation, an increased RV– LV diameter ratio, hypokinesia
fication of patients at low risk for 30-day mortality (PESI Class I and II). of the free RV wall, increased velocity of the jet of tricuspid regurgi-
One randomized trial employed a low PESI as the inclusion criterion tation, decreased tricuspid annulus plane systolic excursion, or com-
for home treatment of acute PE.217 binations of the above. Meta-analyses have shown that RV
Owing to the complexity of the original PESI, which includes 11 dif- dysfunction detected by echocardiography is associated with an ele-
ferently weighted variables, a simplified version known as sPESI vated risk of short-term mortality in patients without haemodynamic
(Table 7) has been developed and validated.218,219 In patients with instability, but its overall positive predictive value is low
PE, the sPESI was reported to quantify their 30-day prognosis (Table 8).226,227 In addition to RV dysfunction, echocardiography
better than the shock index (defined as heart rate divided by systolic can also identify right-to-left shunt through a patent foramen ovale
BP),220 and a simplified PESI of 0 was at least as accurate for identifi- and the presence of right heart thrombi, both of which are associated
cation of low-risk patients as the imaging parameters and laboratory with increased mortality in patients with acute PE.80,184
ESC Guidelines 3049
Table 7 Original and simplified PESI

b.p.m. ¼ beats per minute; PESI ¼ Pulmonary embolism severity index.
a
based on the sum of points.
Four-chamber views of the heart by CT angiography may detect In normotensive patients with PE, the positive predictive value of
RV enlargement (end-diastolic diameter, compared with that of the elevated BNP or NT-proBNP concentrations for early mortality is
left ventricle) as an indicator of RV dysfunction. Following a low.233 In a prospective, multicentre cohort study that included
number of early retrospective studies,227 the prognostic value of an 688 patients, NT-proBNP plasma concentrations of 600 pg/mL
enlarged RV on CT angiography was confirmed by a prospective mul- were identified as the optimal cut-off value for the identification of
ticentre cohort study of 457 patients (Table 8).228 In-hospital death or elevated risk (Table 8).234 On the other hand, low levels of BNP or
clinical deterioration occurred in 44 patients with- and in 8 patients NT-proBNP can identify patients with a favourable short-term clinic-
without RV dysfunction on CT (14.5% vs. 5.2%; P , 0.004). Right ven- al outcome based on their high negative predictive value.226,232,235,236
tricular dysfunction was an independent predictor for an adverse Haemodynamically stable patients with low NT-proBNP levels may
in-hospital outcome, both in the overall population (HR 3.5; 95% be candidates for early discharge and outpatient treatment.237
CI 1.6 –7.7; P ¼ 0.002) and in haemodynamically stable patients 4.3.2 Markers of myocardial injury
(HR 3.8; 95% CI 1.3 –10.9; P ¼ 0.007). Additional recent publications Transmural RV infarction despite patent coronary arteries has been found
have confirmed these findings.229,230 at autopsy of patients who died of massive PE.238 Elevated plasma tropo-
nin concentrations on admission have been reported in connection
4.3 Laboratory tests and biomarkers with PE and were associated with worse prognosis. A meta-analysis
4.3.1 Markers of right ventricular dysfunction covering a total of 1985 patients showed elevated cardiac troponin I
Right ventricular pressure overload is associated with increased myo- or -T concentrations in approximately 50% of the patients with acute
cardial stretch, which leads to the release of brain natriuretic peptide PE (Table 8).239 Elevated troponin concentrations were associated
(BNP) or N-terminal (NT)-proBNP. The plasma levels of natriuretic with high mortality both in unselected patients [odds ratio (OR) 9.44;
peptides reflect the severity of haemodynamic compromise and 95% CI 4.14–21.49] and in haemodynamically stable patients
(presumably) RV dysfunction in acute PE.231 A meta-analysis found [OR 5.90; 95% CI 2.68–12.95], and the results were consistent for
that 51% of 1132 unselected patients with acute PE had elevated troponin I or -T; however, other reports have suggested a limited prog-
BNP or NT-proBNP concentrations on admission. These patients nostic value of elevated troponins in normotensive patients.240
had a 10% risk of early death (95% CI 8.0 –13) and a 23% (95% CI The reported positive predictive value of troponin elevation for
20–26) risk of an adverse clinical outcome.232 PE-related early mortality ranges from 12–44%, while the negative
3050 ESC Guidelines
predictive value is high, irrespective of the assays and cut-off values ≥6 ng/mL had a positive predictive value of 28% and a negative pre-
used. Recently developed high-sensitivity assays have improved dictive value of 99% for an adverse 30-day outcome (Table 8).244 A
the prognostic performance of this biomarker, particularly with simple score, based on the presence of tachycardia, syncope, and a
regard to the exclusion of patients with an adverse short-term positive bedside test for H-FABP, provided prognostic information
outcome.241 For example, in a prospective, multicentre cohort of similar to that of RV dysfunction on echocardiography.245,246
526 normotensive patients with acute PE, troponin T concentrations
,14 pg/mL, measured by a high-sensitivity assay, had a negative pre- 4.3.3 Other (non-cardiac) laboratory biomarkers
dictive value of 98% with regard to a complicated clinical course, Elevated serum creatinine levels and a decreased (calculated) glom-
which was similar to that of the sPESI.76 erular filtration rate are related to 30-day all-cause mortality in
Heart-type fatty acid-binding protein (H-FABP), an early marker acute PE.247 Elevated neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin
of myocardial injury, was also found to possess prognostic value in (NGAL) and cystatin C, both indicating acute kidney injury, have

acute PE.242,243 In normotensive patients, circulating H-FABP levels also been found to be of prognostic value.248 Elevated D-dimer
Table 8 Imaging and laboratory testsa for prediction of earlyb mortality in acute PE
BNP ¼ brain natriuretic peptide; CT ¼ computed tomographic; H-FABP ¼ heart-type fatty acid-binding protein; HR ¼ hazard ratio; LV ¼ left ventricular; NPV ¼ negative
predictive value; NR ¼ not reported in the reference cited; NT-proBNP ¼ N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide; OR ¼ odds ratio; PE ¼ pulmonary embolism; PPV ¼ positive
predictive value; RV ¼ right ventricular.
a
The Table shows the results of meta-analyses or, in the absence thereof, of the largest prospective cohort studies.
b
In most studies, ‘early’ refers to the in-hospital period or the first 30 days after the index event.
c
In the studies included in this meta-analysis, cut-off values for the cardiac troponin tests used corresponded to the 99thpercentile of healthy subjects with a coefficient variation of
,10%.
d
High-sensitivity assay.
e
These studies included only normotensive patients and used a combined outcome (all-cause death or major cardiovascular complications).
ESC Guidelines 3051
concentrations were associated with increased short-term mortality At the stage of clinical suspicion of PE, haemodynamically unstable
in some studies,249,250 while levels ,1500 ng/mL had a negative pre- patients with shock or hypotension should immediately be identified
dictive value of 99% for excluding three-month all-cause mortality.251 as high-risk patients (Figure 2). They require an emergency diagnostic
algorithm as outlined in the previous section and, if PE is confirmed,
4.4 Combined modalities and scores primary pharmacological (or, alternatively, surgical or interventional)
reperfusion therapy.
In patients with acute PE who appear haemodynamically stable at
Patients without shock or hypotension are not at high risk of
diagnosis, no individual clinical, imaging, or laboratory finding has
an adverse early outcome. Further risk stratification should be
been shown to predict risk of an adverse in-hospital outcome that
considered after the diagnosis of PE has been confirmed, as this
could be considered high enough to justify primary reperfusion.
may influence the therapeutic strategy and the duration of the hospi-
As a result, various combinations of clinical findings with imaging
talization (see Section 5.8). In these patients, risk assessment should
and laboratory tests have been proposed and tested in registries

begin with a validated clinical prognostic score, preferably the PESI or
and cohort studies in an attempt to improve risk stratifica-
sPESI, its simplified version, to distinguish between intermediate and
tion.222,246,254 – 259 The clinical relevance of most of these modalities
low risk. Around one-third of PE patients are at low risk of an early
and scores, particularly with regard to the therapeutic implications,
adverse outcome as indicated by a PESI Class I or II, or a simplified
remains to be determined; however, the combination of RV dysfunc-
PESI of 0. On the other hand, in registries and cohort studies, patients
tion on the echocardiogram (or CT angiogram) with a positive
in PESI Class III –V had a 30-day mortality rate of up to 24.5%,214 and
cardiac troponin test256,260 was used as an inclusion criterion in a
those with a simplified PESI ≥1 up to 11%.218 Accordingly, normoten-
recently published randomized thrombolysis trial,261 which enrolled
sive patients in PESI Class ≥III or a simplified PESI of ≥1 are considered
1006 normotensive patients with acute PE. Patients treated
to constitute an intermediate-risk group. Within this category, further
with standard anticoagulation had a 5.6% incidence of death or
risk assessment should be considered, focusing on the status of the
haemodynamic decompensation within the first 7 days following
RV in response to the PE-induced acute pressure overload. Patients
randomization.253
who display evidence of both RV dysfunction (by echocardiography
or CT angiography) and elevated cardiac biomarker levels in the circu-
4.5 Prognostic assessment strategy lation (particularly a positive cardiac troponin test) should be classified
For prediction of early (in-hospital or 30-day) outcome in patients into an intermediate-high-risk category. As discussed in more detail in
with acute PE, both the PE-related risk and the patient’s clinical the following section, close monitoring is recommended in these
status and comorbidities should be taken into consideration. The def- cases to permit early detection of haemodynamic decompensation
inition for level of clinical risk is shown in Table 9. The risk-adjusted and the need for initiation of rescue reperfusion therapy.253 On the
therapeutic strategies and algorithms recommended on the basis of other hand, patients in whom the RV is normal on echocardiography
this classification are discussed in the following section and summar- or CT angiography and/or cardiac biomarker levels are also normal,
ized in Figure 5. belong to an intermediate-low-risk group.
Table 9 Classification of patients with acute PE based on early mortality risk
PE ¼ pulmonary embolism; PESI ¼ Pulmonary embolism severity index; RV ¼ right ventricular; sPESI ¼ simplified Pulmonary embolism severity index.
a
PESI Class III to V indicates moderate to very high 30-day mortality risk; sPESI ≥1 point(s) indicate high 30-day mortality risk.
b
Echocardiographic criteria of RV dysfunction include RV dilation and/or an increased end-diastolic RV–LV diameter ratio (in most studies, the reported threshold value was 0.9 or
1.0); hypokinesia of the free RV wall; increased velocity of the tricuspid regurgitation jet; or combinations of the above. On computed tomographic (CT) angiography (four-chamber
views of the heart), RV dysfunction is defined as an increased end-diastolic RV/LV (left ventricular) diameter ratio (with a threshold of 0.9 or 1.0).
c
Markers of myocardial injury (e.g. elevated cardiac troponin I or -T concentrations in plasma), or of heart failure as a result of (right) ventricular dysfunction (elevated natriuretic
peptide concentrations in plasma).
d
Neither calculation of the PESI (or sPESI) nor laboratory testing are considered necessary in patients with hypotension or shock.
e
Patients in the PESI Class I– II, or with sPESI of 0, and elevated cardiac biomarkers or signs of RV dysfunction on imaging tests, are also to be classified into the intermediate-low-risk
category. This might apply to situations in which imaging or biomarker results become available before calculation of the clinical severity index.
3052 ESC Guidelines
Data from registries and cohort studies suggest that patients mismatch by further redistributing flow from (partly) obstructed to
in PESI Class I–II, or with sPESI of 0, but with elevated cardiac unobstructed vessels.265 Epinephrine combines the beneficial prop-
biomarkers or signs of RV dysfunction on imaging tests, should also erties of norepinephrine and dobutamine, without the systemic vaso-
be classified into the intermediate-low-risk category.76,222,262 Never- dilatory effects of the latter. It may therefore exert beneficial effects in
theless, routine performance of imaging or laboratory tests in the patients with PE and shock.
presence of a low PESI or a simplified PESI of 0 is not considered Vasodilators decrease pulmonary arterial pressure and pulmonary
necessary at present as, in these cases, it has not been shown to vascular resistance, but the main concern is the lack of specificity of
have therapeutic implications. these drugs for the pulmonary vasculature after systemic (intraven-
ous) administration. According to data from small clinical studies, in-
Recommendations for prognostic assessment halation of nitric oxide may improve the haemodynamic status and
gas exchange of patients with PE.266,267 Preliminary data suggest

that levosimendan may restore right ventricular –pulmonary arterial
coupling in acute PE by combining pulmonary vasodilation with an in-
crease in RV contractility.268
Hypoxaemia and hypocapnia are frequently encountered in
patients with PE, but they are of moderate severity in most cases.
A patent foramen ovale may aggravate hypoxaemia due to shunting
when right atrial- exceeds left atrial pressure.80 Hypoxaemia is
usually reversed with administration of oxygen. When mechanical
ventilation is required, care should be taken to limit its adverse
haemodynamic effects. In particular, the positive intrathoracic pres-
sure induced by mechanical ventilation may reduce venous return
and worsen RV failure in patients with massive PE; therefore, positive
end-expiratory pressure should be applied with caution. Low tidal
volumes (approximately 6 mL/kg lean body weight) should be used
in an attempt to keep the end-inspiratory plateau pressure
,30 cm H2O.
CT ¼ computed tomographic (pulmonary angiography); PE ¼ pulmonary Experimental evidence suggests that extracorporeal cardiopul-
embolism; PESI ¼ pulmonary embolism severity index; sPESI ¼ simplified monary support can be an effective procedure in massive PE.269
pulmonary embolism severity index. This notion is supported by occasional case reports and patient
a
b
Level of evidence. series.270 – 272
c
References.
5.2 Anticoagulation
In patients with acute PE, anticoagulation is recommended, with the
objective of preventing both early death and recurrent symptomatic
5. Treatment in the acute phase or fatal VTE. The standard duration of anticoagulation should cover at
least 3 months (also see Section 6). Within this period, acute-phase
5.1 Haemodynamic and respiratory treatment consists of administering parenteral anticoagulation
support [unfractionated heparin (UFH), low molecular weight heparin
Acute RV failure with resulting low systemic output is the leading (LMWH), or fondaparinux] over the first 5–10 days. Parenteral
cause of death in patients with high-risk PE. Therefore, supportive heparin should overlap with the initiation of a vitamin K antagonist
treatment is vital in patients with PE and RV failure. Experimental (VKA); alternatively, it can be followed by administration of one of
studies indicate that aggressive volume expansion is of no benefit the new oral anticoagulants: dabigatran or edoxaban. If rivaroxaban
and may even worsen RV function by causing mechanical overstretch, or apixaban is given instead, oral treatment with one of these
or by reflex mechanisms that depress contractility.263 On the other agents should be started directly or after a 1 –2 day administration
hand, modest (500 mL) fluid challenge may help to increase cardiac of UFH, LMWH or fondaparinux. In this latter case, acute-phase
index in patients with PE, low cardiac index, and normal BP.264 treatment consists of an increased dose of the oral anticoagulant
Use of vasopressors is often necessary, in parallel with (or while over the first 3 weeks (for rivaroxaban), or over the first 7 days
waiting for) pharmacological, surgical, or interventional reperfusion (for apixaban).
treatment. Norepinephrine appears to improve RV function via a In some cases, extended anticoagulation beyond the first 3
direct positive inotropic effect, while also improving RV coronary months, or even indefinitely, may be necessary for secondary preven-
perfusion by peripheral vascular alpha-receptor stimulation and the tion, after weighing the individual patient’s risk of recurrence vs.
increase in systemic BP. Its use should probably be limited to hypo- bleeding risk.
tensive patients. Based on the results of small series, the use of dobu-
tamine and/or dopamine may be considered for patients with PE, low 5.2.1 Parenteral anticoagulation
cardiac index, and normal BP; however, raising the cardiac index In patients with high or intermediate clinical probability for PE (see
above physiological values may aggravate the ventilation–perfusion Section 3), parenteral anticoagulation should be initiated whilst
ESC Guidelines 3053
awaiting the results of diagnostic tests. Immediate anticoagulation can reported with fondaparinux.282 Subcutaneous fondaparinux is con-
be achieved with parenteral anticoagulants such as intravenous UFH, traindicated in patients with severe renal insufficiency (creatinine
subcutaneous LMWH, or subcutaneous fondaparinux. LMWH or clearance ,30 mL/min) because it will accumulate and increase
fondaparinux are preferred over UFH for initial anticoagulation in the risk of haemorrhage. Accumulation also occurs in patients with
PE, as they carry a lower risk of inducing major bleeding and moderate renal insufficiency (clearance 30 –50 mL/min) and, there-
heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT).273 – 276 On the other fore, the dose should be reduced by 50% in these patients.283
hand, UFH is recommended for patients in whom primary reperfu-
sion is considered, as well as for those with serious renal impairment 5.2.2 Vitamin K antagonists
(creatinine clearance ,30 mL/min), or severe obesity. These recom- Oral anticoagulants should be initiated as soon as possible, and pref-
mendations are based on the short half-life of UFH, the ease of mon- erably on the same day as the parenteral anticoagulant. VKAs have
itoring its anticoagulant effects, and its rapid reversal by protamine. been the ‘gold standard’ in oral anticoagulation for more than 50

The dosing of UFH is adjusted, based on the activated partial years and warfarin, acenocoumarol, phenprocoumon, phenindione
thromboplastin time (aPTT; Web Addenda Table II).277 and flunidione remain the predominant anticoagulants prescribed
The LMWHs approved for the treatment of acute PE are listed for PE.284 Anticoagulation with UFH, LMWH, or fondaparinux
in Table 10. LMWH needs no routine monitoring, but periodic mea- should be continued for at least 5 days and until the international nor-
surement of anti-factor Xa activity (anti-Xa levels) may be considered malized ratio (INR) has been 2.0 –3.0 for two consecutive days.285
during pregnancy.279 Peak values of anti-factor Xa activity should be Warfarin can be started at a dose of 10 mg in younger (e.g. ,60
measured 4 hours after the last injection and trough values just before years of age), otherwise healthy outpatients, and at a dose of 5 mg
the next dose of LMWH would be due; the target range is 0.6 –1.0 IU/ in older patients and in those who are hospitalized. The daily dose
mL for twice-daily administration, and 1.0 –2.0 IU/mL for once-daily is adjusted according to the INR over the next 5–7 days, aiming for
administration.280 an INR level of 2.0 –3.0. Rapid-turnaround pharmacogenetic testing
Fondaparinux is a selective factor Xa inhibitor administered once may increase the precision of warfarin dosing.286,287 In particular, var-
daily by subcutaneous injection at weight-adjusted doses, without the iations in two genes may account for more than one-third of the
need for monitoring (Table 10). In patients with acute PE and no indi- dosing variability of warfarin. One gene determines the activity of
cation for thrombolytic therapy, fondaparinux was associated with cytochrome CYP2C9, the hepatic isoenzyme that metabolizes the
recurrent VTE and major bleeding rates similar to those obtained S-enantiomer of warfarin into its inactive form, while the other deter-
with intravenous UFH.281 No proven cases of HIT have been mines the activity of vitamin K epoxide reductase, the enzyme
that produces the active form of vitamin K.288 Pharmacogenetic
algorithms incorporate genotype and clinical information and
Table 10 Low molecular weight heparin and recommend warfarin doses according to integration of these data.
pentasaccharide (fondaparinux) approved for the A trial published in 2012 indicated that, compared with standard
treatment of pulmonary embolism care, pharmacogenetic guidance of warfarin dosing resulted in a
10% absolute reduction in out-of-range INRs at one month, primarily
due to fewer INR values ,1.5; this improvement coincided with a
66% lower rate of DVT.289 In 2013, three large randomized trials
were published.290 – 292 All used, as the primary endpoint, the per-
centage of time in therapeutic range (TTR) (a surrogate for the
quality of anticoagulation) for the INR during the first 4– 12 weeks
of therapy. In 455 patients, genotype-guided doses of warfarin, with
a point-of-care test, resulted in a significant but modest increase in
TTR over the first 12 weeks, compared with a fixed 3-day loading-
dose regimen (67.4% vs. 60.3%; P , 0.001). The median time to
reaching a therapeutic INR was reduced from 29 to 21 days.292
Another study in 1015 patients compared warfarin loading—based
on genotype data in combination with clinical variables—with a
loading regimen based on the clinical data alone; no significant im-
provement was found in either group in terms of the TTR achieved
between days 4 and 28 of therapy.291 Lack of improvement was
All regimens administered subcutaneously.
also shown by a trial involving 548 patients, comparing acenocou-
IU ¼ international units; LMWH ¼ low molecular weight heparin.
a
Once-daily injection of enoxaparin at the dosage of 1.5 mg/kg is approved for marol or phenprocoumon loading—based on point-of-care geno-
inpatient (hospital) treatment of PE in the United States and in some, but not all, typing in combination with clinical variables (age, sex, height,
European countries.
b weight, amiodarone use)—with a loading regimen based entirely
In cancer patients, dalteparin is given at a dose of 200 IU/kg body weight (maximum,
18 000 IU) once daily over a period of 1 month, followed by 150 IU/kg once daily for 5 on clinical information.290
months.278 After this period, anticoagulation with a vitamin K antagonist or a LMWH In summary, the results of recent trials appear to indicate that
should be continued indefinitely or until the cancer is considered cured.
c pharmacogenetic testing, used on top of clinical parameters, does
Nadroparin is approved for treatment of PE in some, but not all, European
countries. not improve the quality of anticoagulation. They also suggest that
dosing based on the patient’s clinical data is possibly superior to
3054 ESC Guidelines
fixed loading regimens, and they point out the need to place emphasis results (primary efficacy outcome: HR 1.08; 95% CI 0.64-1.80; major
on improving the infrastructure of anticoagulation management by bleeding: HR 0.69; 95% CI 0.36-1.32) (Table 11). For the pooled
optimizing the procedures that link INR measurement with provision RE-COVER population, the HR for efficacy was 1.09 (95% CI
of feedback to the patient and individually tailoring dose adjustments. 0.76-1.57) and for major bleeding 0.73 (95% CI 0.48-1.11).294
In the EINSTEIN-DVT and EINSTEIN-PE trials,295,296 single oral
5.2.3 New oral anticoagulants drug treatment with the direct factor Xa inhibitor rivaroxaban
The design and principal findings of phase III clinical trials on the acute- (15 mg twice daily for 3 weeks, followed by 20 mg once daily)
phase treatment and standard duration of anticoagulation after PE or was tested against enoxaparin/warfarin in patients with VTE using a
VTE with non-vitamin K-dependent new oral anticoagulants randomized, open-label, non-inferiority design. In particular,
(NOACs) are summarized in Table 11. In the RE-COVER trial, the EINSTEIN-PE enrolled 4832 patients who had acute symptomatic
direct thrombin inhibitor dabigatran was compared with warfarin PE, with or without DVT. Rivaroxaban was non-inferior to standard

for the treatment of VTE.293 The primary outcome was the therapy for the primary efficacy outcome of recurrent symptomatic
6-month incidence of recurrent, symptomatic, objectively confirmed VTE (HR 1.12; 95% CI 0.75–1.68). The principal safety outcome
VTE. Overall, 2539 patients were enrolled, 21% with PE only and [major or clinically relevant non-major (CRNM) bleeding] occurred
9.6% with PE plus DVT. Parenteral anticoagulation was administered with similar frequency in the two treatment groups (HR for rivarox-
for a mean of 10 days in both groups. With regard to the efficacy end- aban, 0.90; 95% CI 0.76–1.07) (Table 11), but major bleeding was
point, dabigatran was non-inferior to warfarin (HR 1.10; 95% CI less frequent in the rivaroxaban group, compared with the
0.65 –1.84). No significant differences were observed with regard standard-therapy group (1.1% vs. 2.2%, HR 0.49; 95% CI 0.31–0.79).
to major bleeding episodes (Table 11), but there were fewer episodes The Apixaban for the Initial Management of Pulmonary Embolism
of any bleeding with dabigatran (HR 0.71; 95% CI 0.59 –0.85). Its twin and Deep-Vein Thrombosis as First-line Therapy (AMPLIFY) study
study, RE-COVER II,294 enrolled 2589 patients and confirmed these compared single oral drug treatment using the direct factor Xa
Table 11 Overview of phase III clinical trials with non-vitamin K-dependent new oral anticoagulants (NOACs) for the
acute-phase treatment and standard duration of anticoagulation after VTE
b.i.d. ¼ bis in die (twice daily); CRNM ¼ clinically relevant non-major; DVT¼ deep vein thrombosis; o.d. ¼ omni die (once daily); PE¼ pulmonary embolism; UFH ¼ unfractionated
heparin; VTE ¼ venous thromboembolism.
a
Approved doses of dabigatran are 150 mg b.i.d. and 110 mg b.i.d.
ESC Guidelines 3055
inhibitor apixaban (10 mg twice daily for 7 days, followed by 5 mg over 2 hours are preferable to prolonged infusions of first-generation
b.i.d.) with conventional therapy (enoxaparin/warfarin) in 5395 thrombolytic agents over 12 –24 hours.305 – 308 Reteplase and des-
patients with acute VTE, 1836 of whom presented with PE moteplase have been tested against recombinant tissue plasminogen
(Table 11).297 The primary efficacy outcome was recurrent symp- activator (rtPA) in acute PE, with similar results in terms of haemo-
tomatic VTE or death related to VTE. The principal safety outcomes dynamic parameters;309,310 tenecteplase was tested against placebo
were major bleeding alone, and major bleeding plus CRNM bleeding. in patients with intermediate-risk PE.253,303,311 At present, none of
Apixaban was non-inferior to conventional therapy for the primary these agents is approved for use in PE.
efficacy outcome (relative risk [RR] 0.84; 95% CI 0.60–1.18). Major Unfractionated heparin infusion should be stopped during admin-
bleeding occurred less frequently under apixaban compared with istration of streptokinase or urokinase; it can be continued during
conventional therapy (RR 0.31; 95% CI 0.17– 0.55; P , 0.001 for su- rtPA infusion. In patients receiving LMWH or fondaparinux at the
periority) (Table 11). The composite outcome of major bleeding and time that thrombolysis is initiated, infusion of UFH should be

CRNM bleeding occurred in 4.3% of the patients in the apixaban delayed until 12 hours after the last LMWH injection (given twice
group, compared with 9.7% of those in the conventional-therapy daily), or until 24 hours after the last LMWH or fondaparinux injec-
group (RR 0.44; 95% CI 0.36–0.55; P , 0.001). tion (given once daily). Given the bleeding risks associated with
The HokusaI –VTE study compared the direct factor Xa inhibitor thrombolysis and the possibility that it may become necessary to im-
edoxaban with conventional therapy in 8240 patients with acute VTE mediately discontinue or reverse the anticoagulant effect of heparin,
(3319 of whom presented with PE) who had initially received heparin it appears reasonable to continue anticoagulation with UFH for
for at least 5 days (Table 11).298 Patients received edoxaban at a dose several hours after the end of thrombolytic treatment before switch-
of 60 mg once daily (reduced to 30 mg once daily in the case of cre- ing to LMWH or fondaparinux.
atinine clearance of 30–50 mL/min or a body weight ,60 kg), or Overall, .90% of patients appear to respond favourably to
warfarin. The study drug was administered for 3–12 months; all thrombolysis, as judged by clinical and echocardiographic improve-
patients were followed up for 12 months. Edoxaban was non-inferior ment within 36 hours.313 The greatest benefit is observed when
to warfarin with respect to the primary efficacy outcome of recurrent treatment is initiated within 48 hours of symptom onset, but thromb-
symptomatic VTE or fatal PE (HR 0.89; 95% CI 0.70–1.13). The prin- olysis can still be useful in patients who have had symptoms for 6–14
cipal safety outcome, major or CRNM bleeding, occurred less fre- days.314
quently in the edoxaban group (HR 0.81; 95% CI 0.71– 0.94; P ¼ A review of randomized trials performed before 2004 indicated
0.004 for superiority) (Table 11). In 938 patients who presented that thrombolysis may be associated with a reduction in mortality
with acute PE and elevated NT-proBNP concentrations (≥500 pg/ or recurrent PE in high-risk patients who present with haemodynam-
mL), the rate of recurrent VTE was 3.3% in the edoxaban group ic instability.168 In a recent epidemiological report, in-hospital mortal-
and 6.2% in the warfarin group (HR 0.52; 95% CI 0.28–0.98). ity attributable to PE was lower in unstable patients who received
In summary, the results of the trials using NOACs in the treatment thrombolytic therapy, compared with those who did not (RR 0.20;
of VTE indicate that these agents are non-inferior (in terms of effi- 95% CI 0.19–0.22; P,0.0001).315 Most contraindications to thromb-
cacy) and possibly safer (particularly in terms of major bleeding) olysis (Web Addenda Table IV) should be considered relative in
than the standard heparin/VKA regimen.299 High TTR values were patients with life-threatening, high-risk PE.
achieved under VKA treatment in all trials; on the other hand, the In the absence of haemodynamic compromise at presentation, the
study populations included relatively young patients, very few of clinical benefits of thrombolysis have remained controversial for
whom had cancer. At present, NOACs can be viewed as an alterna- many years. In a randomized comparison of heparin vs. alteplase in
tive to standard treatment. At the moment of publication of these 256 normotensive patients with acute PE and evidence of RV dysfunc-
guidelines, rivaroxaban, dabigatran and apixaban are approved for tion or pulmonary hypertension—obtained by clinical examination,
treatment of VTE in the European Union; edoxaban is currently echocardiography, or right heart catheterization—thrombolytic
under regulatory review. Experience with NOACs is still limited treatment (mainly secondary thrombolysis) reduced the incidence
but continues to accumulate. Practical recommendations for the of escalation to emergency treatment (from 24.6% to 10.2%; P ¼
handling of NOACs in different clinical scenarios and the manage- 0.004), without affecting mortality.252 More recently, the Pulmonary
ment of their bleeding complications have recently been published Embolism Thrombolysis (PEITHO) trial was published.253 This was a
by the European Heart Rhythm Association.300 multicentre, randomized, double-blind comparison of thrombolysis
with a single weight-adapted intravenous bolus of tenecteplase plus
5.3 Thrombolytic treatment heparin vs. placebo plus heparin. Patients with acute PE were eligible
Thrombolytic treatment of acute PE restores pulmonary perfusion for the study if they had RV dysfunction, confirmed by echocardiog-
more rapidly than anticoagulation with UFH alone.301,302 The early raphy or CT angiography, and myocardial injury confirmed by a posi-
resolution of pulmonary obstruction leads to a prompt reduction tive troponin I or -T test. A total of 1006 patients were enrolled. The
in pulmonary artery pressure and resistance, with a concomitant im- primary efficacy outcome, a composite of all-cause death or haemo-
provement in RV function.302 The haemodynamic benefits of dynamic decompensation/collapse within 7 days of randomization,
thrombolysis are confined to the first few days; in survivors, differ- was significantly reduced with tenecteplase (2.6% vs. 5.6% in the
ences are no longer apparent at one week after treatment.301,303,304 placebo group; P ¼ 0.015; OR 0.44; 95% CI 0.23– 0.88). The
The approved regimens of thrombolytic agents for PE are shown in benefit of thrombolysis was mainly driven by a significant reduction
Web Addenda Table III; the contraindications to thrombolysis are dis- in the rate of haemodynamic collapse (1.6% vs. 5.0%; P ¼ 0.002); all-
played in Web Addenda Table IV. Accelerated regimens administered cause 7-day mortality was low: 1.2% in the tenecteplase group and
3056 ESC Guidelines
1.8% in the placebo group (P ¼ 0.43). In another randomized study With a rapid multidisciplinary approach and individualized indica-
comparing LMWH alone vs. LMWH plus an intravenous bolus of tions for embolectomy before haemodynamic collapse, perioperative
tenecteplase in intermediate-risk PE, patients treated with tenecte- mortality rates of 6% or less have been reported.326,328 – 330 Pre-
plase had fewer adverse outcomes, better functional capacity, and operative thrombolysis increases the risk of bleeding, but it is not an
greater quality of life at 3 months.311 absolute contraindication to surgical embolectomy.331
Thrombolytic treatment carries a risk of major bleeding, including Over the long term, the post-operative survival rate, World Health
intracranial haemorrhage. Analysis of pooled data from trials using Organization functional class, and quality of life were favourable in
various thrombolytic agents and regimens reported intracranial published series.327,329,332,333
bleeding rates between 1.9% and 2.2%.316,317 Increasing age and Patients presenting with an episode of acute PE superimposed on a
the presence of comorbidities have been associated with a higher history of long-lasting dyspnoea and pulmonary hypertension are
risk of bleeding complications.318 The PEITHO trial showed a 2% in- likely to suffer from chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hyperten-

cidence of haemorrhagic stroke after thrombolytic treatment with sion. These patients should be transferred to an expert centre for
tenecteplase (versus 0.2% in the placebo arm) in patients with pulmonary endarterectomy (see Section 7).
intermediate-high-risk PE. Major non-intracranial bleeding events
were also increased in the tenecteplase group, compared with 5.5 Percutaneous catheter-directed
placebo (6.3% vs. 1.5%; P , 0.001).253 These results underline the
treatment
need to improve the safety of thrombolytic treatment in patients at
The objective of interventional treatment is the removal of
increased risk of intracranial or other life-threatening bleeding.
obstructing thrombi from the main pulmonary arteries to facilitate
A strategy using reduced-dose rtPA appeared to be safe in the
RV recovery and improve symptoms and survival.169 For patients
setting of ‘moderate’ PE in a study that included 121 patients,319
with absolute contraindications to thrombolysis, interventional
and another trial on 118 patients with haemodynamic instability
options include (i) thrombus fragmentation with pigtail or balloon
or ‘massive pulmonary obstruction’ reported similar results.320 An
catheter, (ii) rheolytic thrombectomy with hydrodynamic catheter
alternative approach may consist of local, catheter-delivered,
devices, (iii) suction thrombectomy with aspiration catheters and
ultrasound-assisted thrombolysis using small doses of a thrombolytic
(iv) rotational thrombectomy. On the other hand, for patients
agent. (See Section 5.5.)
without absolute contraindications to thrombolysis, catheter-directed
In patients with mobile right heart thrombi, the therapeutic
thrombolysis or pharmacomechanical thrombolysis are preferred
benefits of thrombolysis remain controversial. Good results were
approaches. An overview of the available devices and techniques for
reported in some series,199,200 but in other reports short-term mor-
percutaneous catheter-directed treatment of PE is given in Web
tality exceeded 20% despite thrombolysis.184,321,322
Addenda Table V.169,334
A review on interventional treatment included 35 non-randomized
5.4 Surgical embolectomy studies covering 594 patients.334 Clinical success, defined as stabiliza-
tion of haemodynamic parameters, resolution of hypoxia, and
The first successful surgical pulmonary embolectomy was performed
survival to discharge, was 87%. The contribution of the mechanical
in 1924, several decades before the introduction of medical treat-
catheter intervention per se to clinical success is unclear because 67%
ment for PE. Multidisciplinary teams enjoying the early and active in-
of patients also received adjunctive local thrombolysis. Publication
volvement of cardiac surgeons have recently reintroduced the
bias probably resulted in underreporting of major complications
concept of surgical embolectomy for high-risk PE, and also for
(reportedly affecting 2% of interventions), which may include death
selected patients with intermediate-high-risk PE, particularly
from worsening RV failure, distal embolization, pulmonary artery
if thrombolysis is contraindicated or has failed. Surgical embolectomy
perforation with lung haemorrhage, systemic bleeding complications,
has also been successfully performed in patients with right heart
pericardial tamponade, heart block or bradycardia, haemolysis,
thrombi straddling the interatrial septum through a patent foramen
contrast-induced nephropathy, and puncture-related complications.169
ovale.323,324
While anticoagulation with heparin alone has little effect on im-
Pulmonary embolectomy is technically a relatively simple oper-
provement of RV size and performance within the first 24 –48
ation. The site of surgical care does not appear to have a significant
hours,304 the extent of early RV recovery after low-dose catheter-
effect on operative outcomes, and thus patients need not be trans-
directed thrombolysis appears comparable to that after standard-
ferred to a specialized cardiothoracic centre if on-site embolectomy
dose systemic thrombolysis.303,335 In a randomized, controlled clinic-
using extracorporeal circulation is possible.325 Transportable extra-
al trial of 59 intermediate-risk patients, when compared with treat-
corporeal assistance systems with percutaneous femoral cannulation
ment by heparin alone, catheter-directed ultrasound-accelerated
can be helpful in critical situations, ensuring circulation and oxygen-
thrombolysis—administering 10 mg t-PA per treated lung over 15
ation until definitive diagnosis.326,327 Following rapid transfer to the
hours—significantly reduced the subannular RV/LV dimension ratio
operating room and induction of anaesthesia and median sternot-
between baseline and 24-hour follow-up without an increase in
omy, normothermic cardiopulmonary bypass should be instituted.
bleeding complications.336
Aortic cross-clamping and cardioplegic cardiac arrest should be
avoided.328 With bilateral PA incisions, clots can be removed from
both pulmonary arteries down to the segmental level under direct 5.6 Venous filters
vision. Prolonged periods of post-operative cardiopulmonary Venous filters are usually placed in the infrarenal portion of the infer-
bypass and weaning may be necessary for recovery of RV function. ior vena cava (IVC). If a thrombus is identified in the renal veins,
ESC Guidelines 3057
suprarenal placement may be indicated. Venous filters are indicated When non-permanent filters are used, it is recommended that
in patients with acute PE who have absolute contraindications to anti- they be removed as soon as it is safe to use anticoagulants. Despite
coagulant drugs, and in patients with objectively confirmed recurrent this, they are often left in situ for longer periods, with a late complica-
PE despite adequate anticoagulation treatment. Observational tion rate of at least 10%; this includes filter migration, tilting or de-
studies suggest that insertion of a venous filter might reduce formation, penetration of the cava wall by filter limbs, fracturing of
PE-related mortality rates in the acute phase,337,338 benefit possibly the filter and embolization of fragments, and thrombosis of the
coming at the cost of an increased risk of recurrence of VTE.338 device.343,344
Complications associated with permanent IVC filters are There are no data to support the routine use of venous filters in
common, although they are rarely fatal.339 Overall, early complica- patients with free-floating thrombi in the proximal veins; in one
tions—which include insertion site thrombosis—occur in approxi- series, among PE patients who received adequate anticoagulant treat-
mately 10% of patients. Placement of a filter in the superior vena ment alone (without a venous filter), the recurrence rate was low

cava carries the risk of pericardial tamponade.340 Late complications (3.2%).345 There is also no evidence to support the use of IVC
are more frequent and include recurrent DVT in approximately 20% filters in patients scheduled for systemic thrombolysis, surgical em-
of patients and post-thrombotic syndrome in up to 40%. Occlusion of bolectomy, or pulmonary thrombendarterectomy.
the IVC affects approximately 22% of patients at 5 years and 33% at 9
years, regardless of the use and duration of anticoagulation.341,342 5.7 Early discharge and home treatment
Eight-year follow-up of a randomized study on 400 patients with When considering early discharge and outpatient treatment of
DVT (with or without PE), all of whom had initially received anti- patients with acute PE, the crucial issue is to select those patients
coagulant treatment for at least 3 months, showed that patients who are at low risk of an adverse early outcome. A number of risk-
undergoing permanent IVC filter insertion had a reduced risk of re- prediction models have been developed (see Section 4).346
current PE—at the cost of an increased risk of recurrent DVT— Of these, the PESI (Table 7) is the most extensively validated score
and no overall effect on survival.341 to date.211 – 214 One randomized trial employed a low (Class I or II)
Non-permanent IVC filters are classified as temporary or retriev- PESI as one of the inclusion criteria for home treatment of acute
able devices. Temporary filters must be removed within few days, PE.217 The simplified form of this index (sPESI) possesses a high sen-
while retrievable filters can be left in place for longer periods. sitivity for identification of low-risk PE,76,221 but its value for selecting
Table 12 Design of recent multicentre trials on home treatment of acute PE (modified from (348))
BP ¼ (systolic) blood pressure; COPD ¼ (severe) chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; CrCl ¼ creatinine clearance; ED ¼ emergency department(s); HIT ¼ heparin-induced
thrombocytopenia; i.v. ¼ intravenous; LMWH ¼ low molecular weight heparin; NT-proBNP ¼ N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide; PE ¼ pulmonary embolism; PESI ¼
Pulmonary embolism severity index (see Table 7); RV ¼ right ventricular; s.c. ¼ subcutaneous; TTE ¼ transthoracic echocardiography; VKA ¼ vitamin K antagonist.
3058 ESC Guidelines
candidates for early discharge and home treatment has not yet been with contraindications to thrombolysis—and in those in whom
directly investigated. thrombolysis has failed to improve the haemodynamic status—surgi-
The Hestia criteria comprise a set of clinical parameters that can cal embolectomy is recommended if surgical expertise and resources
easily be obtained at the bedside. In a single-arm management trial are available. As an alternative to surgery, percutaneous catheter-
that used these criteria to select candidates for home treatment, directed treatment should be considered if expertise with this
the rate of recurrent VTE was 2.0% (0.8– 4.3%) in patients with method and the appropriate resources are available on site. In
acute PE who were discharged within 24 hours.347 The Hestia criteria these cases, treatment decisions should be made by an interdisciplin-
have not yet been externally validated. ary team involving a thoracic surgeon or interventional cardiologist,
The value of NT-proBNP as a laboratory biomarker for selecting as appropriate.
candidates for home treatment has been evaluated in a single-arm
management study in which, out of 152 patients (upper margin of 5.8.2 Pulmonary embolism without shock or hypotension

the 95% CI: 2.4%) with clinically defined very low-risk PE and BNP (intermediate- or low-risk pulmonary embolism)
levels ,500 pg/mL, none died or suffered recurrence of VTE or For most cases of acute PE without haemodynamic compromise,
major bleeding complications during three-month follow-up.237 LMWH or fondaparinux, given subcutaneously at weight-adjusted
The value of imaging procedures (echocardiography or CT scan) doses without monitoring, is the treatment of choice unless there
for excluding RV dysfunction before early discharge has not been is severe renal dysfunction.
investigated in clinical outcome trials. Patients not suffering from shock or hypotension require further
Table 12 summarizes the designs of the recent multicentre clinical risk stratification after the diagnosis of PE has been confirmed. In
trials that investigated the three-month clinical outcome of patients these patients, risk assessment should begin with a validated clinical
with PE, who were discharged early or treated entirely as outpatients. score, preferably the PESI or sPESI.
Overall, the proportion of screened patients who were identified as Low-risk patients in the PESI Class I or II, and probably those with
eligible for home treatment ranged from 13–51%.348 Two of the sPESI of 0 (Table 9), should be considered for early discharge and
studies were randomized, one allocating patients to receive either outpatient treatment, if this appears feasible based on the patient’s
in-hospital treatment for only 3 days (followed by discharge) or a anticipated compliance as well as his/her family and social back-
‘full’ hospital stay,349 while the other assigned them to receive antic- ground. For all other patients, assessment of RV function by echo-
oagulation either entirely outside the hospital (patients were dis- cardiography (or CT angiography) and cardiac troponin testing
charged within 24 hours) or partly in hospital.217 The first of these should be considered.
studies, in which a prospectively developed prediction rule was Based on the results of a recently published randomized trial,253
used to define low risk, was terminated prematurely because of an and as explained in the section on prognostic assessment, patients
increased short-term mortality rate in the early-discharge arm; two with acute PE, an echocardiogram or CT scan indicating RV
patients (2.8%) in this arm died early, one from gastrointestinal bleed- dysfunction, and a positive cardiac troponin test belong to an
ing and the other as a result of cardiac arrest in the presence of a right intermediate-high-risk group (Table 9). Full-dose systemic thrombo-
heart thrombus. Overall mortality was 4.2% in the early-discharge lytic therapy, given as primary reperfusion therapy, can prevent po-
arm, as against 8.3% in the hospitalization arm.349 In the second tentially life-threatening haemodynamic decompensation or
trial, which was larger, there was one non-VTE related death in collapse in these patients, but this benefit is counterbalanced by a
each treatment group (0.6%); one patient in the outpatient arm high risk of haemorrhagic stroke or major non-intracranial
(0.6%) but none in the hospital group suffered non-fatal recurrent bleeding.253 Accordingly, systemic thrombolysis is not routinely
VTE.217 In a meta-analysis of 14 (mostly cohort-) studies, the recommended as primary treatment for patients with intermedi-
pooled incidences of recurrent VTE, major bleeding and total mortal- ate-high-risk PE, but should be considered if clinical signs of
ity did not differ significantly between outpatients, patients dis- haemodynamic decompensation appear. Surgical pulmonary em-
charged early, and those treated as inpatients.351 bolectomy or percutaneous catheter-directed treatment may be
considered as alternative, ‘rescue’ procedures for patients with
5.8 Therapeutic strategies intermediate-high-risk PE, in whom haemodynamic decompensation
An algorithm of the recommended therapeutic strategies for acute appears imminent and the anticipated bleeding risk under systemic
PE is shown in Figure 5. thrombolysis is high.
Other laboratory markers, such as BNP, NT-proBNP and H-FABP,
5.8.1 Pulmonary embolism with shock or hypotension have also been shown to possess additive prognostic value to clinical
(high-risk pulmonary embolism) and imaging parameters in cohort studies; their potential therapeutic
Patients with PE presenting with shock or hypotension are at high risk implications have not yet been investigated in prospective trials.
of in-hospital death, particularly during the first few hours after ad- Normotensive patients in the PESI Class III or higher, or sPESI of
mission. Besides haemodynamic and respiratory support, intraven- at least 1, in whom the echocardiogram (or CT angiogram) or
ous UFH should be administered to these patients as the preferred the cardiac troponin test—or both—are normal, belong to an
mode of initial anticoagulation, as LMWH or fondaparinux have intermediate-low-risk group. Anticoagulation is indicated. Existing evi-
not been tested in the setting of hypotension and shock. dence does not support primary reperfusion treatment. There is no
Primary reperfusion treatment, particularly systemic thromboly- evidence to suggest that bed rest has any beneficial effect on these
sis, is the treatment of choice for patients with high-risk PE. In patients patients’ clinical outcome.
ESC Guidelines 3059
Figure 5 Risk-adjusted management strategies in acute PE (see Table 9 for definition of the risk categories).
5.9 Areas of uncertainty in particular the therapeutic strategy for patients at intermediate-
Although a large number of recent cohort studies have helped to high risk—warrant further investigation. It will be necessary to elab-
further refine risk stratification in not-high-risk patients with con- orate on (i) whether reduced-dose intravenous thrombolysis is
firmed PE, the clinical implications of prognostic assessment—and indeed safe and effective and (ii) whether catheter-directed
3060 ESC Guidelines
treatment can evolve to become a widely available (and affordable)

alternative option. The results of the completed large phase III
trials on the use of new oral anticoagulants in the treatment of PE
and secondary prevention of VTE appear convincing and confirm
that the breakthrough in anticoagulation therapy has extended to
include VTE. Nevertheless, the accumulation of clinical experience
with these drugs under ‘real world’ conditions will have to proceed
at a prudent pace. Finally, further management trials are necessary
to ‘crystallize’ the criteria that might permit early discharge and
home treatment of low-risk patients with acute PE.

Recommendations for acute phase treatment
PE ¼ pulmonary embolism; UFH ¼ unfractionated heparin.

a
b
Level of evidence.
c
References.
d
If appropriate expertise and resources are available on site.
Recommendations for acute phase treatment
* CAUTION: Edoxaban is currently subject to regulatory review for the treatment

of venous thromboembolism in the European Union.
aPTT ¼ activated partial thromboplastin time; INR ¼ international normalized
ratio; LMWH ¼ low molecular weight heparin; PE ¼ pulmonary embolism;
UFH ¼ unfractionated heparin; VKA ¼ vitamin K antagonist.
a
b
Level of evidence.
c
References.
d
See Table 9 for definition of the risk categories.
e
RE-COVER and RE-COVER II are considered one large trial.
f
Creatinine clearance ,30 mL/min for rivaroxaban, dabigatran and edoxaban; and
,25 mL/min for apixaban.
g
If appropriate expertise and resources are available on site.
ESC Guidelines 3061
With the exception of patients with cancer, the risk for recurrent
Recommendations for venous filters VTE after discontinuation of treatment is related to the features of
the index VTE event. A study that followed patients with a first
episode of acute PE found that the recurrence rate after discontinu-
ation of treatment was approximately 2.5% per year after PE asso-
ciated with reversible risk factors compared with 4.5% per year
after unprovoked PE.358 Similar observations were made in other
prospective studies in patients with DVT.360 Recurrence rates may
be higher, up to 10%, in the first year after withdrawal of anticoagulant
treatment. As mentioned in the Introduction, VTE is held to be ‘pro-
voked’ in the presence of a temporary or reversible risk factor (such
IVC ¼ inferior vena cava; PE ¼ pulmonary embolism.

a
Class of recommendation. as surgery, trauma, immobilization, pregnancy, oral contraceptive use
b
Level of evidence. or hormone replacement therapy) at the time of diagnosis, and ‘un-
c
References.
provoked’ in the absence thereof. For patients with provoked PE,
treatment with a VKA for 3 months is preferable to a shorter
period. Treatment for longer than 3 months is generally not recom-
mended, provided that the transient risk factor no longer exists.358
6. Duration of anticoagulation The assessment of the risk of recurrence in patients with unpro-
The aim of anticoagulant treatment in patients with PE is to prevent re- voked PE is more complex.54 – 56 The following risk factors may help
currence of VTE. VKAs are used in most cases, while LMWH is preferred to identify patients at higher long-term relative risk of recurrence
in patients with VTE and cancer.356,357 Three new oral anticoagulant (1.5–2.0): (i) one or more previous episodes of VTE, (ii) antiphos-
agents have been evaluated in the extended treatment of VTE. pholipid antibody syndrome, (iii) hereditary thrombophilia and (iv) re-
Most of the studies focusing on long-term anticoagulation for VTE sidual thrombosis in the proximal veins. An additional risk factor for
have included patients with DVT, with or without PE, and only one recurrence after PE was reported to be the persistence of RV dysfunc-
study specifically focussed on patients with PE.358 The incidence of tion at hospital discharge as assessed by echocardiography.366 On the
recurrent VTE does not depend on the clinical manifestation of the other hand, a negative D-dimer test one month after withdrawal of
first event (i.e. it is similar after PE and after DVT); however, in VKA seems to be a protective factor for recurrence of VTE (RR 0.4).367
patients who have suffered PE, VTE more frequently recurs as symp- Among carriers of molecular thrombophilia, patients with lupus
tomatic PE while, in patients who have suffered DVT, it tends to recur anticoagulant, those with a confirmed deficit of protein C or
more frequently as DVT.359 protein S, and patients with homozygous factor V Leiden or homozy-
Clinical trials have evaluated various durations of anticoagulant gous prothrombin G20210A (PTG20210A), may be candidates for
treatment for VTE. The main findings of these studies were indefinite anticoagulant treatment after a first unprovoked VTE. No
(i) patients with PE should receive at least 3 months of anticoagulant evidence of the clinical benefit of extended anticoagulant treatment
treatment, (ii) after withdrawal of anticoagulant treatment, the risk of is currently available for carriers of heterozygous factor V Leiden or
recurrence if anticoagulants are stopped after 6 or 12 months can be PTG20210A.
expected to be similar to that after 3 months and (iii) indefinite treat- There are no properly evaluated bleeding risk scores for patients
ment reduces the risk for recurrent VTE by about 90%, but this receiving anticoagulant treatment for VTE. Based on currently avail-
benefit is partially offset by a 1% or higher annual risk of major bleed- able evidence, risk factors include (i) old age (particularly .75 years),
ing.360 – 363 In general, VKAs are highly effective in preventing recur- (ii) previous gastrointestinal bleeding (particularly if not associated
rent VTE during treatment, but they do not eliminate the risk of with a reversible or treatable cause), (iii) previous stroke, either
subsequent recurrence after discontinuation of treatment.361,362 haemorrhagic or ischaemic, (iv) chronic renal or hepatic disease,
Thus, anticoagulants are discontinued when the perceived risk of (v) concomitant antiplatelet therapy (to be avoided, if possible),
anticoagulation-related bleeding and the inconvenience of remaining (vi) other serious acute or chronic illness, (vii) poor anticoagulation
on treatment outweigh the risk of recurrent VTE. control and (viii) sub-optimal monitoring of anticoagulant therapy.
Active cancer is a major risk factor for recurrence of VTE, the rate Based on the balance between the risk of recurrence of VTE and
of recurrence being approximately 20% during the first 12 months that of bleeding, patients with unprovoked PE should be treated
after the index event.364,365 Therefore, patients with cancer are can- with VKA for at least 3 months. After this period, indefinite anti-
didates for indefinite anticoagulant treatment after an initial episode coagulation therapy should be considered for patients with a first un-
of PE. In a randomized trial of patients with DVT and cancer, provoked proximal DVT or PE and a low risk of bleeding, provided
the LMWH dalteparin, given at the dose of 200 U/kg once daily for that this is consistent with the patient’s preference. Notably, the
4–6 weeks, followed by 75% of the initial dose given once daily for term ‘indefinite anticoagulation’ is not synonymous with ‘lifelong
up to 6 months, was more effective than warfarin in preventing recur- treatment’; it simply indicates that the duration of treatment cannot
rent VTE.278 Accordingly, at least 3–6 months of treatment with be defined at three-month follow-up after the acute event. In these
LMWH are recommended for patients with VTE and cancer (see patients, the option to withdraw anticoagulant treatment should
Section 8.2). The optimal treatment to be given after the first 6 periodically be re-assessed, based on the dynamic balance between
months is less clear but treatment with LMWH or VKA is recom- the risks of recurrence and bleeding. Lifelong treatment is recom-
mended as long as the disease is considered active. mended for most patients with a second unprovoked DVT or PE.
3062 ESC Guidelines
In two recent trials with a total of 1224 patients, extended therapy observed in the dabigatran group vs. 0% in the placebo group;
with aspirin (after termination of standard oral anticoagulation) was major or CRNM bleeding occurred in 5.3% and 1.8% of the patients,
associated with a 30–35% reduction in the risk of recurrence after un- respectively (HR 2.92; 95% CI 1.52–5.60).370
provoked DVT and/or PE.368,369 This corresponds to less than half of The randomized, double-blind EINSTEIN Extension study assessed
the risk reduction achieved by oral anticoagulants; on the other hand, the efficacy and safety of rivaroxaban for extended treatment of
the bleeding rates associated with aspirin were low (Table 13). VTE.295 An additional 6- or 12-month course of rivaroxaban (20 mg
once daily) was compared with placebo in patients who had completed
6–12 months of anticoagulation treatment for a first VTE. Rivaroxaban
6.1 New oral anticoagulants for extended had superior efficacy over placebo for preventing recurrent VTE (1.3%
treatment vs. 7.1%; HR 0.18; 95% CI 0.09–0.39). Non-fatal major bleeding occurred
Three NOACs have been evaluated in the extended treatment of in 0.7% of patients in the rivaroxaban arm vs. none in the placebo arm.

patients with VTE: dabigatran, rivaroxaban, and apixaban. In all The incidence of major or CRNM bleeding was 6.0% in the rivaroxaban
studies, patients with PE made up approximately one-third of the group and 1.2% in the placebo group (HR 5.19; 95% CI 2.3–11.7).
entire study population, while the remaining two-thirds were The AMPLIFY Extension study was a double-blind trial in which
patients with DVT but no clinically overt PE. To be included in the patients with VTE were randomized to receive two different doses
extended studies, patients needed to have completed the initial of apixaban (2.5 mg or 5 mg twice daily) or placebo.371 Patients
and long-term anticoagulation phase. were eligible for inclusion if there was clinical equipoise regarding
The design and principal findings of the recent trials on extended the continuation or cessation of anticoagulation therapy. The study
anticoagulation are summarized in Table 13. Dabigatran was com- treatment was given for a 12-month period. Symptomatic recurrent
pared with warfarin or placebo in two different studies. In VTE or death from any cause occurred in 11.6% of patients receiving
RE-MEDY, 2866 patients were randomized to receive dabigatran placebo, compared with 3.8% of those receiving 2.5 mg of apixaban
150 mg twice daily, or warfarin (INR 2– 3). Dabigatran was non- (HR 0.33 vs. placebo; 95% CI 0.22–0.48) and with 4.2% of the patients
inferior to warfarin for the prevention of confirmed recurrent symp- who were receiving 5 mg of apixaban (HR 0.36 vs. placebo; 95% CI
tomatic VTE or VTE-related death (HR 1.44; 95% CI 0.78-2.64; P ¼ 0.25–0.53). The rates of major bleeding were 0.5% in the placebo
0.01 for non-inferiority).370 The rate of major bleeding was 0.9% group, 0.2% in the 2.5 mg apixaban group, and 0.1% in the 5 mg apix-
under dabigatran, compared with 1.8% under warfarin (HR 0.52; aban group; major or CRNM bleeding occurred in 2.7%, 3.2% (HR
95% CI 0.27–1.02). In the RE-SONATE study, 1353 patients were 1.20 vs. placebo; 95% CI 0.69– 2.10) and 4.3% (HR 1.62 vs. placebo;
randomized to dabigatran or placebo for an additional anticoagula- 95% CI 0.96 –2.73) of the patients, respectively.
tion period of 6 months.370) Dabigatran was associated with a 92% In summary, the results of the trials using NOACs in the extended
risk reduction in symptomatic recurrent VTE or unexplained death treatment of VTE are in line with those of the studies that tested
(HR 0.08; 95% CI 0.02–0.25). A 0.3% rate of major bleeding was these agents in the acute-phase treatment and standard duration of
Table 13 Clinical trials on extended treatment of venous thromboembolism
b.i.d. ¼ bis in die (twice daily); CRNM ¼ clinically relevant non-major; SD ¼ standard deviation; VKA ¼ vitamin K antagonists; VTE ¼ venous thromboembolism.
a
‘Active’ denotes in the Table the direct oral thrombin or factor Xa inhibitor (or aspirin) tested; the comparator arm also received anticoagulation (a vitamin K antagonist) in some of
the studies.
b
Incidence per patient-year.
c
Approved doses of dabigatran are 150 mg b.i.d. and 110 mg b.i.d.
d
This is the approved dose of apixaban for extended treatment.
ESC Guidelines 3063
anticoagulation after PE or VTE (discussed in the previous section). 7. Chronic thromboembolic

They indicate that NOACs are both effective (in terms of prevention
of symptomatic or fatal recurrence of VTE) and safe (particularly in pulmonary hypertension
terms of major bleeding)—probably safer than standard VKA regimens.
7.1 Epidemiology
Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension is a debilitating
disease caused by chronic obstruction of major pulmonary arteries.
Recommendations for duration of anticoagulation after
Although the exact prevalence and annual incidence of CTEPH is
pulmonary embolism
unknown, data from the United Kingdom suggest that this condition
may occur in approximately five individuals per million population
per year.378 According to the 2009 ESC Guidelines on pulmonary

hypertension (PH)379 and the recently updated clinical classification
of PH,380 CTEPH is listed as a distinct subgroup of PH (group 4).
Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension has been
reported to be a long-term complication of PE, with a reported cu-
mulative incidence of 0.1 –9.1% within the first two years after a
symptomatic PE event.381 The large margin of error is probably
due to referral bias, absence of early symptoms, and the difficulty in
differentiating ‘true’ acute PE from an acute episode superimposed
on pre-existing CTEPH. Routine screening for CTEPH after PE is
not supported by current evidence; a significant number of CTEPH
cases develop in the absence of previous acute PE.
7.2 Pathophysiology
The available evidence indicates that CTEPH is primarily caused by
pulmonary thromboembolism. In a recent international registry, a
clinical history of VTE was recorded in 80% of patients with
CTEPH.382 Inadequate anticoagulation, large thrombus mass, re-
sidual thrombi, and recurrence of VTE may contribute to the devel-
opment of CTEPH. On the other hand, CTEPH does not share the
same risk factor profile with VTE and has been associated with only
a few specific thrombophilic factors. These include the presence of
lupus anticoagulant or antiphospholipid antibodies and elevated
levels of coagulation factor VIII.4,383 It has been proposed that, in
some patients, PE may be followed by a pulmonary vascular remod-
elling process modified by infection,384 inflammation,385 circulating
and vascular-resident progenitor cells,386,387 thyroid hormone re-
placement, or malignancy.4 Hypercoagulation, ‘sticky’ red blood
cells, high platelet counts, and ‘uncleavable’ fibrinogen may further
contribute to obliteration of the pulmonary arteries in CTEPH.388
In addition, non-plasmatic risk factors such as splenectomy, ventricu-
loatrial shunt for hydrocephalus therapy, inflammatory bowel
disease, and chronic osteomyelitis are associated with a higher inci-
dence and a worse prognosis of CTEPH.4,389
Apart from major pulmonary vascular obstruction, the pathophysi-
ology of CTEPH includes a pulmonary microvascular disease,390
which may be responsible for the poor outcome in some cases of pul-
monary endarterectomy.391 This condition may originate from a high-
flow or high-pressure state in previously unaffected vessels, or may be
LMWH ¼ low molecular weight heparin; PE ¼ pulmonary embolism; VKA ¼ driven by hypoxia, infection, or inflammation.
vitamin K antagonist.
a
b
Level of evidence.
7.3 Clinical presentation and diagnosis
c
References. The median age of patients at diagnosis of CTEPH is 63 years, and
d
Long-term data on patients taking new oral anticoagulants for secondary PE
both genders are equally affected;392 paediatric cases are
prophylaxis are not yet available.
e
B refers to the evidence available for each drug separately. rare.393,394 Clinical symptoms and signs are non-specific or absent
in early CTEPH, with signs of right heart failure only becoming
3064 ESC Guidelines
evident in advanced disease; thus, early diagnosis remains a challenge

in CTEPH, with a median time of 14 months between onset of symp-
toms and diagnosis in expert centres.392 When present, the clinical
symptoms of CTEPH may resemble those of acute PE, or of idiopathic
pulmonary arterial hypertension (iPAH); in the latter context,
oedema and haemoptysis occur more often in CTEPH, while
syncope is more common in iPAH.
The diagnosis of CTEPH is based on findings obtained after at least
3 months of effective anticoagulation, in order to discriminate this
condition from ‘sub-acute’ PE. These findings are:

† mean pulmonary arterial pressure ≥25 mm Hg, with pulmonary
arterial wedge pressure ≤15 mm Hg;
† at least one (segmental) perfusion defect detected by perfusion
lung scan, or pulmonary artery obstruction seen by MDCT angiog-
raphy or conventional pulmonary cineangiography.
Some patients, particularly those with complete unilateral obstruc-

tion, may present with normal pulmonary haemodynamics at rest,
despite symptomatic disease. These patients are also considered as
having CTEPH and managed accordingly. Suitable terminology to de-
scribe this condition of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary vascular
disease is still lacking.
An algorithm for CTEPH diagnosis is shown in Figure 6. While
MDCT angiography is the investigation of choice for the diagnosis
of acute PE, planar V/Q lung scan remains the main first-line
imaging modality for CTEPH, as it carries a 96 –97% sensitivity and
90 –95% specificity for the diagnosis.395 By contrast, in iPAH and pul-
monary veno-occlusive disease, perfusion scans are either normal or
show sub-segmental defects.396
Right heart catheterization is an essential diagnostic tool. Mean
pulmonary artery pressure, pulmonary vascular resistance, and pul-
monary arterial wedge pressure are key haemodynamic parameters.
In candidates for surgery, pulmonary vascular resistance has prognos- Figure 6 Algorithm for the diagnosis of chronic thromboembolic
tic value.398 pulmonary hypertension (adapted from Lang et al. (2010)).397
Multi-detector CT angiography has become an established imaging
technique for CTEPH,399 but CT alone cannot rule out the
disease.397 CT angiography may help identify complications of the
disease, such as pulmonary artery distension, resulting in left main 7.4 Treatment and prognosis
coronary artery compression. A proposed algorithm for CTEPH treatment is displayed in Figure 7.
A high-resolution CT scan of the chest delivers images of the lung Pulmonary endarterectomy (PEA) is the treatment of choice for
parenchyma, and identifies emphysema, bronchial disease or intersti- the disease. In Europe, in-hospital mortality is currently as low as
tial lung disease, as well as infarcts, vascular- and pericardial malfor- 4.7% in expert centres.398 The majority of patients experience sub-
mations, and thoracic wall deformities. Perfusion inequalities stantial relief from symptoms and near-normalization of haemo-
manifest as a mosaic parenchymal pattern with dark areas corre- dynamics.391,398,403 In contrast to surgical embolectomy for acute
sponding to relatively decreased perfusion. Although a mosaic PE, treatment of CTEPH necessitates a true endarterectomy
pattern is frequent in CTEPH, it can also be observed in up to 12% through the medial layer of the pulmonary arteries, which is per-
of patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension.400 Magnetic reson- formed under deep hypothermia and circulatory arrest.404
ance imaging of the pulmonary vasculature is still considered inferior The operability of patients with CTEPH is determined by multiple
to CT,401 but this modality, as well angioscopy,402 intravascular ultra- factors that cannot easily be standardized; these are related to the
sound or optical coherence tomography, may be used according to suitability of the patient, the expertise of the surgical team, and avail-
local experience and practice. able resources. General criteria include pre-operative New York
The final step in the diagnostic pathway is side-selective pulmonary Heart Association functional class II –IV and the surgical accessibility
angiography in the anterior-posterior and lateral projections, illus- of thrombi in the main, lobar, or segmental pulmonary arteries.
trating pulmonary artery webs and bands, wall irregularities, sten- Advanced age per se is no contraindication for surgery. There is no
oses, aneurysms, and complete vascular obstructions, as well as pulmonary vascular resistance threshold or measure of RV dysfunc-
bronchial collaterals. tion that absolutely precludes PEA.
ESC Guidelines 3065
Patients who do not undergo surgery, or suffer from persistent or The dual endothelin antagonist bosentan was evaluated over 16
residual pulmonary hypertension after PEA, face a poor prognosis. weeks in 157 patients with inoperable CTEPH or persistent/recur-
Advances in balloon pulmonary angioplasty are continuing in an rent pulmonary hypertension after PEA; the primary combined end-
attempt to make this technique a therapeutic alternative for selected point of a decrease in pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) and an
patients with non-operable CTEPH.405 – 408 increase in the 6-minute walking distance was not met.410 PVR is
Optimal medical treatment for CTEPH consists of anticoagulants, defined as mean pulmonary arterial pressure minus pulmonary
diuretics, and oxygen. Lifelong anticoagulation is recommended, artery wedge pressure, divided by cardiac output. Riociguat, a soluble,
even after PEA, while no data exist on the efficacy and safety of oral stimulator of guanylate cyclase, was administered to 261 of 446
new direct oral anticoagulants. Although there is no consensus, screened patients with inoperable CTEPH—or persistent/recurrent
routine cava filter placement is not justified by the available evidence. pulmonary hypertension after PEA—for 16 weeks, and led to a
Pulmonary microvascular disease in CTEPH has provided the ration- mean increase of 39 metres in the 6-minute walking distance (P ,

ale for use of drugs approved for pulmonary arterial hypertension 0.001; primary endpoint) and to a least-squared mean difference of
(PAH).409 These drugs may be justified (i) in inoperable patients, 246 dyn.cm.s25 in pulmonary vascular resistance (P , 0.001; second-
(ii) in patients with persistent or residual pulmonary hypertension ary endpoint); the time to clinical worsening remained unchanged.411
after PEA or (iii) in the presence of an unacceptable surgical risk – Riociguat has received approval for use in the treatment of adults with
benefit ratio. persistent or recurrent CTEPH after surgical treatment, or inoperable
CTEPH, to improve exercise capacity and WHO functional class.
Off-label use of drugs approved for PAH, or the use of riociguat as a
therapeutic bridge to PEA in patients considered to be at high risk
due to poor haemodynamics, is currently not justified.
Recommendations for chronic thomboembolic

pulmonary hypertension
CTEPH ¼ chronic thomboembolic pulmonary hypertension; PE ¼ pulmonary

embolism; PEA ¼ pulmonary endarterectomy.
Figure 7 Algorithm for the treatment of chronic thromboembolic a
pulmonary hypertension (adapted from Ghofrani et al. (2013)).412 b
Level of evidence.
c
References.
3066 ESC Guidelines
8. Specific problems Table 14 Estimated radiation absorbed in procedures

used for diagnosing PE (adapted from Bajc et al. (2009)430
8.1 Pregnancy and Chunilal et al. (2009)).431
Pulmonary embolism is the leading cause of pregnancy-related ma-
ternal death in developed countries.415 The risk of PE is higher in
the post-partum period, particularly after a caesarean section.
Recommendations for the management of venous thromboembol-
ism in pregnancy are included in the 2011 ESC Guidelines on the man-
agement of cardiovascular diseases during pregnancy.416 The present
section is in agreement with those guidelines.
Pregnancy does not alter the clinical features of PE but, as pregnant

women often complain of breathlessness, this symptom should be
interpreted with caution. Arterial blood should be drawn with the
patient in the upright position, as the partial pressure of oxygen
may be lower in the supine position during the third trimester.
Data on the validity of clinical prediction rules for PE in pregnancy
are lacking, but a recent retrospective series of 125 pregnant
mSv ¼ milisievert; PE ¼ pulmonary embolism
women who were referred for CT angiography showed that no
patient with an original Wells score of ,6 points had a PE.417
These data need to be confirmed in large-scale prospective studies. further limiting radiation exposure. The diagnostic yield of scintig-
raphy is around 80%, with 70% of tests yielding normal perfusion
8.1.1 Diagnosis of pulmonary embolism in pregnancy scans and 5–10% yielding high-probability scans.422 – 428 This is at
Exposure of the foetus to ionizing radiation is a concern when inves- least as high as that of CT in this particular population, due to a
tigating suspected PE during pregnancy; although this concern is higher proportion of inconclusive CT scans during pregnancy.425 A
largely overruled by the hazards of missing a potentially fatal diagno- normal perfusion scan and a negative CT are equally safe for ruling
sis. This is particularly true for pregnant patients with suspected high- out PE in pregnancy, as shown by several retrospective series.427,429
risk PE. Moreover, erroneously assigning a diagnosis of PE to a preg- Conventional pulmonary angiography carries a significantly higher
nant woman is also fraught with risks, since it unnecessarily exposes radiation exposure for the foetus (2.2 –3.7 mSv) and should be
the mother and foetus to the risks of anticoagulant treatment and will avoided during pregnancy.420
impact on delivery plans, future contraception, and thromboprophy-
laxis during future pregnancies. Therefore, investigations should aim 8.1.2 Treatment of pulmonary embolism in pregnancy
at diagnostic certainty. The treatment of PE in pregnancy is based on heparin anticoagulation,
The usefulness of D-dimer in pregnancy is controversial. A normal because heparin does not cross the placenta and is not found in breast
D-dimer value has the same exclusion value for PE in pregnant milk in significant amounts. Increasing experience suggests that LMWHs
women as for other patients with suspected PE but is found more are safe in pregnancy,432 – 435 and their use is endorsed in several
rarely, because plasma D-dimer levels physiologically increase reports.436,437 Treatment should consist of a weight-adjusted dose of
throughout pregnancy.127,418 Study of a series of pregnant patients LMWH. Adaptation according to anti-Xa monitoring may be consid-
with suspected DVT found that an agglutination assay would have ered in women at extremes of body weight or with renal disease, but
ruled out the disease in 55% of the cases with a negative predictive routine monitoring is generally not justified.279,436,437 Unfractionated
value of 100%.418 The same study attempted to establish higher heparin is not contraindicated in pregnancy, although it requires
cut-off levels in pregnancy for several commonly used D-dimer aPTT monitoring and is probably more likely to cause osteoporosis if
assays.419 These thresholds await prospective validation and, in the used for longer periods. Fondaparinux should not be used in pregnancy
meantime, the usual D-dimer cut-off value should apply to rule out due to the lack of data. VKAs cross the placenta and are associated with
PE in pregnancy. If the D-dimer result is abnormal, diagnostic a well-defined embryopathy during the first trimester. Administration
work-up may continue with lower-limb CUS, since proximal DVT war- of VKAs in the third trimester can result in foetal and neonatal
rants anticoagulation treatment and makes thoracic imaging unneces- haemorrhage, as well as placental abruption. Warfarin may be asso-
sary. If ultrasonography is negative, the diagnosis should be pursued. ciated with central nervous system anomalies throughout pregnancy.
The amount of radiation absorbed by the foetus during different New oral anticoagulants are contraindicated in pregnant patients.
diagnostic tests is shown in Table 14. The danger threshold for The management of labour and delivery require particular atten-
injury to the foetus is considered to be 50 mSv (50 000 mGy),420 tion. Epidural analgesia cannot be used unless LMWH has been dis-
and all radiological tests fall well below this figure; nevertheless continued at least 12 hours before delivery. Treatment can be
lung scintigraphy, when available, may be preferred over CT resumed 12–24 hours after removal of the epidural catheter.
because it avoids the high radiation dose delivered to the female Close collaboration between the obstetrician, the anaesthesiologist,
breast by CT angiography and the resulting small but significant in- and the attending physician is recommended.
crease of the lifetime risk of breast cancer.421 As a rule, a ventilation After delivery, heparin treatment may be replaced by anticoagula-
lung scan is unnecessary as the chest X-ray is usually normal, thus tion with VKA. Anticoagulant treatment should be administered for
ESC Guidelines 3067
at least 6 weeks after delivery and with a minimum overall treatment The risk of VTE increases over 90-fold in the first 6 weeks after
duration of 3 months. VKAs can be given to breast-feeding mothers. cancer surgery, compared with that in healthy controls, and is
Published data on 28 pregnant women treated with thrombolytic second only to the risk of VTE after hip or knee replacement
agents—mainly with rtPA at the dose of 100 mg over 2 hours— surgery. Notably, the risk of VTE after cancer surgery remains ele-
suggest that the risk of complications for the mother may be similar vated (up to 30-fold) between the fourth and twelfth post-operative
to that in the non-pregnant population.438 Thrombolytic treatment month.442 Continued vigilance is therefore necessary, as currently
should not be used peripartum, except for critical cases. recommended prophylactic anticoagulation covers only the first
30 days after cancer surgery.
Recommendations for pulmonary embolism in
pregnancy 8.2.1 Diagnosis of pulmonary embolism in patients
with cancer

Malignancy is taken into account in the estimation of clinical probabil-
ity of PE (see Section 3). A negative D-dimer test has the same diag-
nostic value as in non-cancer patients. On the other hand, D-dimer
levels are non-specifically increased in many patients with cancer.
In one study, raising the D-dimer cut-off level to 700 mg/L, or using
age-dependent cut-off levels, increased the proportion of cancer
patients in whom PE could be ruled out from 8.4 to 13% and 12%, re-
spectively; the corresponding false-negative rates appeared accept-
able.443 This strategy needs further validation.
The widespread use of CT scanners has resulted in an increasing
number of incidentally diagnosed, asymptomatic PEs in cancer
patients.444 Their significance, particularly if limited to segmental or
sub-segmental arteries, is unclear; however, in view of the high risk
of an adverse outcome reported by uncontrolled studies,445 – 449 the
treatment strategies recommended for symptomatic PE should be
also considered for incidental PE found in patients with malignancy.
8.2.2 Prognosis for pulmonary embolism in patients

with cancer
Cancer is a risk factor for an adverse outcome in acute PE. In a multi-
variate analysis of 570 patients with PE, the presence of cancer tripled
the 30-day risk of death, shock, or recurrence of PE.257 In the RIETE
registry, in patients with and without cancer, all-cause three-month
CT ¼ computed tomographic; DVT ¼ deep vein thrombosis; LMWH ¼ low mortality were 26.4% and 4.1% respectively (P , 0.001). Among
molecular weight heparin; PE ¼ pulmonary embolism.
a
Class of recommendation. over 35 000 patients with VTE, cancer was the strongest independent
b
Level of evidence. risk factor for both all-cause and PE-related mortality.20 The worse
c
References. outcome is due to the increased bleeding risk during anticoagulation
therapy and to the high rate of recurrence of VTE.450 – 454
The risk of recurrence of PE in cancer was recently assessed in a
cohort study of 543 patients and was validated in an independent
8.2 Pulmonary embolism and cancer set of 819 patients.453 A suggested score predicting risk of recurrence
The overall risk of venous thromboembolism in cancer patients is included breast cancer (minus 1 point), tumour node metastasis
four times as great as in the general population.8 Although the Stage I or II (minus 1 point), female sex, lung cancer, and previous
largest absolute numbers of VTE episodes occur in patients with VTE (plus 1 point each). Patients with a score ≤0 were at low risk
lung, colon, and prostate cancer, the relative risk for VTE is highest (≤4.5%) and those with a score .1 were at high risk (≥19%) of re-
in multiple myeloma, brain, and pancreatic cancer (46-, 20-, and currence of VTE.453 The score may assist in making individually tai-
16-fold increased vs. healthy controls, respectively).439 In the meta- lored decisions regarding the duration of anticoagulant treatment.
static stage, stomach, bladder, uterine, renal, and lung cancer are
also associated with a high incidence of VTE.17 8.2.3 Management of pulmonary embolism in patients
Patients receiving chemotherapy have a six-fold increase in the with cancer
adjusted risk ratio for VTE compared with a healthy population.8 When selecting the mode of anticoagulation in patients with cancer
Nevertheless, prophylactic anticoagulation is not routinely recom- and acute PE, LMWH administered in the acute phase (except for
mended during ambulatory anti-cancer chemotherapy, with the ex- high-risk PE) and continued over the first 3–6 months should be con-
ception of thalidomide- or lenalidomide-based regimens in multiple sidered as first-line therapy. However, this strategy is based largely on
myeloma.440,441 LMWH or VKA are not effective in preventing the results of a single trial with an observed 50% reduction in the rate
thrombosis related to the use of permanent central venous lines in of recurrence of VTE without increased bleeding risk, as compared
cancer patients.441 with the early transition from heparin to VKA.376,377 Evidence
3068 ESC Guidelines
regarding treatment of cancer-related PE with fondaparinux and the 8.3 Non-thrombotic pulmonary embolism
new oral anticoagulants is limited. Different cell types can cause non-thrombotic embolization, includ-
Chronic anticoagulation may consist of continuation of LMWH, ing adipocytes, haematopoietic, amniotic, trophoblastic, and tumour
transition to VKA, or discontinuation of anticoagulation. The deci- cells. In addition, bacteria, fungi, parasites, foreign materials, and gas
sions should be made on a case-by-case basis after considering the can lead to PE. Symptoms are similar to those of acute VTE and
success of anti-cancer therapy, the estimated risk of recurrence of include dyspnoea, tachycardia, chest pain, cough, and occasionally
VTE, the bleeding risk, and the preference of the patient. Periodic re- haemoptysis, cyanosis, and syncope.
assessment of the risk –benefit ratio of chronic anticoagulant treat- Diagnosis of non-thrombotic PE can be a challenge.464 In the case of
ment is a reasonable strategy. small particles, microemboli cannot be detected on CT images. An
Recurrence of VTE in cancer patients on VKA or LMWH therapy overview of typical imaging findings for the various types of non-
may be managed by changing to the highest permitted dose of LMWH thrombotic PE has been provided.465 Given the rarity of this disease,

or opting for vena cava filter placement.455 Venous filters should pri- clinical evidence is limited and mainly based on small case series.
marily be considered when anticoagulation is impossible due to
haemorrhage; however, the risk of filter thrombosis in the absence
8.3.1 Septic embolism
of anticoagulation may be particularly high in cancer patients. In a
Septic embolism to the pulmonary circulation is a relatively rare clin-
recent prospective, randomized trial in cancer patients with DVT
ical event and is commonly associated with right-sided endocarditis.
or PE, no clinical advantage was found in placement of a vena cava
Risk factors include intravenous drug abuse and infected indwelling
filter in addition to anticoagulation with fondaparinux.456
catheters or pacemaker wires. Other causes include septic thrombo-
8.2.4 Occult cancer presenting as unprovoked pulmonary phlebitis from the tonsils and the jugular, dental, and pelvic regions.
embolism The diagnosis is based on identifying the source of septic emboli, posi-
Approximately 10% of patients presenting with unprovoked PE will tive blood culture tests, and chest X-ray or CT after considering the
develop cancer within the next 5–10 years, with the majority of clinical context. Although Staphylococcus aureus is the most common
cases appearing in the first 1–2 years after diagnosis of PE.457 Recently, bacterial pathogen, the increasing number of immunocompromised
Sorensen et al. reported that cancer will emerge with a similarly high patients—and those with indwelling catheters and vascular pros-
incidence after unprovoked VTE and after that provoked by surgery, theses—leads to a rise in the incidence of anaerobic gram positive
but more often than after post-traumatic VTE.458 The evidence sup- and -negative bacteria, bacterioide species, and fungi.466 Specific
porting screening for occult cancer after unprovoked VTE is inconclu- treatment of the responsible bacterial or fungal micro-organism is ne-
sive. Di Nisio et al. recommended, as the most effective and least cessary.
harmful approach for such patients, a screening strategy of performing
pelvic and abdominal CT combined with mammography and sputum 8.3.2 Foreign-material pulmonary embolism
cytology.459 However, when such an extensive screening strategy The increasing use of interventional techniques in modern medicine
was compared with basic clinical evaluation, no benefit was found in has drastically increased the incidence of foreign-material PE.467
terms of 5-year survival.460 Therefore, the search for occult cancer Examples of foreign material include silicone, broken catheters,
after an episode of VTE may be restricted to careful history, physical guide wires, vena cava filters, coils for embolization, and endovascular
examination, basic laboratory tests, and a chest X-ray.461,462 stent components. If possible, intravascular foreign objects should be
removed, since the material may cause further thrombosis and sepsis.
Recommendations for pulmonary embolism in cancer
8.3.3 Fat embolism
Embolization of fat occurs in almost all patients with pelvic or long-
bone fractures and in those undergoing endomedullary nailing or
placement of knee and hip prostheses, but also during lipid and pro-
pofol infusion, intra-osseous infusion and bone marrow harvest, and
in sickle cell disease, fatty liver disease, pancreatitis, and after liposuc-
tion. Pulmonary involvement is not only due to vascular obstruction
but also to the release of substances triggering an inflammatory
cascade, thus explaining why some patients with fat embolism
develop acute respiratory distress syndrome.468
The classical triad of fat embolization is characterized by altered
mental status, respiratory distress, and petechial rash occurring typ-
ically 12–36 hours after injury. Fat globules can be found in blood,
urine, sputum, broncho-alveolar lavage, and cerebrospinal fluid.469
In most cases the condition is self-limiting. Treatment should be sup-
LMWH ¼ low molecular weight heparin; PE ¼ pulmonary embolism. portive. Although the successful use of high doses of methyl prednis-
a
Class of recommendation. olone has been reported in humans, along with the positive effects of
b
Level of evidence.
c
References. phorbol myristate acetate and sivelestat in animals, there is no evi-
dence that these drugs alter the course of the disease.470
ESC Guidelines 3069
8.3.4 Air embolism whereas tumour macroembolism is indistinguishable from VTE.

Although air embolism can occur in both the venous and arterial Treatment should target the underlying malignant disease.
systems, venous emboli are more common. Venous air embolization
is often an iatrogenic complication of the manipulation of central
venous and haemodialysis catheters. The lethal volume of air after in-
9. Appendix
jection in humans is estimated to range from 100 to 500 mL.471 The ESC National Cardiac Societies actively involved in the review
major effect of venous air embolism is the obstruction of the right process of the 2014 ESC Guidelines on the diagnosis and manage-
ventricular outflow tract, or of the pulmonary arterioles, by a ment of acute pulmonary embolism.
mixture of air bubbles and fibrin. Although the diagnosis can be Austria, Austrian Society of Cardiology, Nika Skoro-Sajer – Azer-
made by X-ray or echocardiography, CT scanning may be the most baijan, Azerbaijan Society of Cardiology, Ruslan Najafov – Belarus,
sensitive diagnostic test, showing a unique picture of round or mirror- Belorussian Scientific Society of Cardiologists, Svetlana Sudzhaeva –

shaped densities localized ventrally in the supine patient.465 Treat- Belgium, Belgian Society of Cardiology, Michel De Pauw – Bosnia
ment includes maintenance of the circulation, prevention of further and Herzegovina, Association of Cardiologists of Bosnia & Herze-
entry of gas, and volume expansion. The patient should be placed govina, Fahir Baraković – Bulgaria, Bulgarian Society of Cardiology,
in the left lateral decubitus position to prevent right ventricular Mariya Tokmakova – Croatia, Croatian Cardiac Society, Bosko
outflow obstruction by airlock.472 In the case of large amounts of Skoric – Czech Republic, Czech Society of Cardiology, Richard
central air, aspiration with the use of a central venous catheter Rokyta – Denmark, Danish Society of Cardiology, Morten Lock
might be an option. Administration of up to 100% oxygen can de- Hansen – Estonia, Estonian Society of Cardiology, Märt Elmet –
crease bubble size by establishing a diffusion gradient that favours Finland, Finnish Cardiac Society, Veli-Pekka Harjola – France,
elimination of the gas.471 French Society of Cardiology, Guy Meyer – Georgia, Georgian
Society of Cardiology, Archil Chukhrukidze – Germany, German
8.3.5 Amniotic fluid embolism Cardiac Society, Stephan Rosenkranz – Greece, Hellenic Cardio-
Amniotic fluid embolism is a rare but catastrophic complication unique logical Society, Aristides Androulakis – Hungary, Hungarian
to pregnancy. Estimated incidences, obtained through validated case Society of Cardiology, Tamás Forster – Italy, Italian Federation of Car-
identification, range between 1.9 and 2.5 cases per 100 000 mater- diology, Francesco Fedele – Kyrgyzstan, Kyrgyz Society of Cardi-
nities.473 The most likely mechanism is that amniotic fluid is forced ology, Talant Sooronbaev – Latvia, Latvian Society of Cardiology,
into the uterine veins during normal labour or when the placenta is dis- Aija Maca – Lithuania, Lithuanian Society of Cardiology, Egle Eremi-
rupted by surgery or trauma. As a consequence, pulmonary vessels are niene – Malta, Maltese Cardiac Society, Josef Micallef – Norway,
obstructed by cell groups and meconium, and an inflammatory reac- Norwegian Society of Cardiology, Arne Andreasen – Poland, Polish
tion occurs due to the release of active metabolites. The majority of Cardiac Society, Marcin Kurzyna – Portugal, Portuguese Society of
patients develop seizures. Some patients are diagnosed with pulmon- Cardiology, Daniel Ferreira – Romania, Romanian Society of Cardi-
ary oedema and acute respiratory distress syndrome later in the course ology, Antoniu Octavian Petris – Russia, Russian Society of Cardi-
of the event. Mortality is high—up to 21%, even in recent cohort ology, Sergey Dzemeshkevich – Serbia, Cardiology Society of
studies.473 Management should be supportive. Serbia, Milika Asanin – Slovakia, Slovak Society of Cardiology, Iveta
Šimkova – Spain, Spanish Society of Cardiology, Manuel Anguita –
8.3.6 Tumour embolism Sweden, Swedish Society of Cardiology, Christina Christersson –
Pulmonary intravascular tumour emboli are seen in up to 26% of aut- The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Macedonian
opsies of patients with solid malignancies, although the diagnosis is FYR Society of Cardiology, Nela Kostova – Tunisia, Tunisian
rarely made before death.474 Carcinoma of the prostate gland, digest- Society of Cardiology and Cardio-Vascular Surgery, Hedi Baccar –
ive system, liver, and breast is most commonly implicated. Radiologic- Turkey, Turkish Society of Cardiology, Leyla Elif Sade – Ukraine,
ally, tumour microembolism may mimic many lung conditions, Ukrainian Association of Cardiology, Alexander Parkhomenko –
including pneumonia, tuberculosis, and interstitial lung disease, United Kingdom, British Cardiovascular Society, Joanna Pepke-Zaba.
The CME text ‘2014 ESC Guidelines on diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism’ is accredited by the European Board for Accreditation in Cardiology (EBAC). EBAC
works according to the quality standards of the European Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education (EACCME), which is an institution of the European Union of Medical
Specialists (UEMS). In compliance with EBAC/EACCME Guidelines, all authors participating in this programme have disclosed any potential conflicts of interest that might cause a bias in the
article. The Organizing Committee is responsible for ensuring that all potential conflicts of interest relevant to the programme are declared to the participants prior to the CME activities.
CME questions for this article are available at: European Heart Journal http://www.oxford-elearning.oup.com/journals/ and European Society of Cardiology http://www.escardio.
org/guidelines.
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European Heart Journal (2014) 35, 3033–3080 ESC GUIDELINES

2014 ESC Guidelines on the diagnosis and

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Endorsed by the European Respiratory Society (ERS)

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Online publish-ahead-of-print 29 August 2014

8.3.3 Fat embolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3068 PIOPED Prospective Investigation On Pulmonary Embolism

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Table 1 Classes of recommendations

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that RV ischaemia is of pathophysiological significance in the acute

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3.3 D-dimer testing

Table 4 Clinical prediction rules for PE

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The incidental discovery of clinically unsuspected PE on CT is an in- 3.6 Pulmonary angiography

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Recommendations for diagnosis

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Table 7 Original and simplified PESI

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Table 9 Classification of patients with acute PE based on early mortality risk

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treatment can evolve to become a widely available (and affordable)

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PE ¼ pulmonary embolism; UFH ¼ unfractionated heparin.

Recommendations for acute phase treatment

* CAUTION: Edoxaban is currently subject to regulatory review for the treatment

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Table 13 Clinical trials on extended treatment of venous thromboembolism

anticoagulation after PE or VTE (discussed in the previous section). 7. Chronic thromboembolic

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evident in advanced disease; thus, early diagnosis remains a challenge

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Some patients, particularly those with complete unilateral obstruc-

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Recommendations for chronic thomboembolic

CTEPH ¼ chronic thomboembolic pulmonary hypertension; PE ¼ pulmonary

8. Specific problems Table 14 Estimated radiation absorbed in procedures

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