2015 Esc Pericard

European Heart Journal (2015) 36, 2921–2964 ESC GUIDELINES
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehv318
2015 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and

management of pericardial diseases
The Task Force for the Diagnosis and Management of Pericardial
Diseases of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC)
Endorsed by: The European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery

(EACTS)
Authors/Task Force Members: Yehuda Adler* (Chairperson) (Israel),
Philippe Charron* (Chairperson) (France), Massimo Imazio† (Italy), Luigi Badano
(Italy), Gonzalo Barón-Esquivias (Spain), Jan Bogaert (Belgium), Antonio Brucato
(Italy), Pascal Gueret (France), Karin Klingel (Germany), Christos Lionis (Greece),
Bernhard Maisch (Germany), Bongani Mayosi (South Africa), Alain Pavie (France),
Arsen D. Ristić (Serbia), Manel Sabaté Tenas (Spain), Petar Seferovic (Serbia),
Karl Swedberg (Sweden), and Witold Tomkowski (Poland)
Document Reviewers: Stephan Achenbach (CPG Review Coordinator) (Germany), Stefan Agewall
(CPG Review Coordinator) (Norway), Nawwar Al-Attar (UK), Juan Angel Ferrer (Spain), Michael Arad (Israel),
Riccardo Asteggiano (Italy), Héctor Bueno (Spain), Alida L. P. Caforio (Italy), Scipione Carerj (Italy), Claudio Ceconi
(Italy), Arturo Evangelista (Spain), Frank Flachskampf (Sweden), George Giannakoulas (Greece), Stephan Gielen
(Germany), Gilbert Habib (France), Philippe Kolh (Belgium), Ekaterini Lambrinou (Cyprus), Patrizio Lancellotti
(Belgium), George Lazaros (Greece), Ales Linhart (Czech Republic), Philippe Meurin (France), Koen Nieman
(The Netherlands), Massimo F. Piepoli (Italy), Susanna Price (UK), Jolien Roos-Hesselink (The Netherlands),
* Corresponding authors: Yehuda Adler, Management, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer Hospital, City of Ramat-Gan, 5265601, Israel. Affiliated with Sackler Medical School,
Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel, Tel: +972 03 530 44 67, Fax: +972 03 530 5118, Email: Yehuda.Adler@sheba.health.gov.il.
Philippe Charron, Service de Cardiologie, Chu Ambroise Paré, 9 av Charles de Gaulle, 92104 Boulogne Billancourt, France, Tel: +33 1 49 09 55 43, Fax: +33 1 42 16 13 64,
Email: philippe.charron@aphp.fr.
†Massimo Imazio: Coordinator, affiliation listed in the Appendix.
ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines (CPG) and National Cardiac Societies document reviewers: listed in Appendix.
a
Representing the European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS).
ESC entities having participated in the development of this document.
ESC Associations: Acute Cardiovascular Care Association (ACCA), European Association for Cardiovascular Prevention and Rehabilitation (EACPR), European Association of Car-
diovascular Imaging (EACVI), European Association of Percutaneous Cardiovascular Interventions (EAPCI), Heart Failure Association (HFA).
ESC Councils: Council for Cardiology Practice (CCP), Council on Cardiovascular Nursing and Allied Professions (CCNAP), Council on Cardiovascular Primary Care (CCPC).
ESC Working Groups: Cardiovascular Pharmacotherapy, Cardiovascular Surgery, Grown-up Congenital Heart Disease, Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases, Pulmonary Circulation
and Right Ventricular Function, Valvular Heart Disease.
The content of these European Society of Cardiology (ESC) Guidelines has been published for personal and educational use only. No commercial use is authorized. No part of the
ESC Guidelines may be translated or reproduced in any form without written permission from the ESC. Permission can be obtained upon submission of a written request to Oxford
University Press, the publisher of the European Heart Journal and the party authorized to handle such permissions on behalf of the ESC.
Disclaimer: The ESC Guidelines represent the views of the ESC and were produced after careful consideration of the scientific and medical knowledge and the evidence available at
the time of their publication. The ESC is not responsible in the event of any contradiction, discrepancy and/or ambiguity between the ESC Guidelines and any other official recom-
mendations or guidelines issued by the relevant public health authorities, in particular in relation to good use of healthcare or therapeutic strategies. Health professionals are encour-
aged to take the ESC Guidelines fully into account when exercising their clinical judgment, as well as in the determination and the implementation of preventive, diagnostic or
therapeutic medical strategies; however, the ESC Guidelines do not override, in any way whatsoever, the individual responsibility of health professionals to make appropriate and
accurate decisions in consideration of each patient’s health condition and in consultation with that patient and, where appropriate and/or necessary, the patient’s caregiver. Nor
do the ESC Guidelines exempt health professionals from taking into full and careful consideration the relevant official updated recommendations or guidelines issued by the competent
public health authorities, in order to manage each patient’s case in light of the scientifically accepted data pursuant to their respective ethical and professional obligations. It is also the
health professional’s responsibility to verify the applicable rules and regulations relating to drugs and medical devices at the time of prescription.
& The European Society of Cardiology 2015. All rights reserved. For permissions please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.
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2922 ESC Guidelines
François Roubille (France), Frank Ruschitzka (Switzerland), Jaume Sagristà Sauleda (Spain), Miguel Sousa-Uvaa
(Portugal), Jens Uwe Voigt (Belgium), and Jose Luis Zamorano (Spain)
The disclosure forms of all experts involved in the development of these guidelines are available on the ESC website
http://www.escardio.org/guidelines.
Online publish-ahead-of-print 29 August 2015
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Keywords Guidelines † Aetiology † Constrictive pericarditis † Diagnosis † Myopericarditis † Pericardial effusion †
Pericardiocentesis † Pericarditis † Pericardium † Prognosis † Tamponade † Therapy
Table of Contents
Abbreviations and acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2923 4.1.6 Cardiac catheterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2942
Preamble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2923 4.1.7 Multimodality imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2942
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2924 4.2 Proposal for a general diagnostic workup . . . . . . . . . .2943
1.1 What is new in pericardial diseases? . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2925 5. Specific aetiologies of pericardial syndromes . . . . . . . . . . .2944
2. Epidemiology, aetiology and classification of pericardial 5.1 Viral pericarditis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2944
diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2925 5.1.2 Definition and clinical spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . .2944
2.1 Epidemiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2925 5.1.3 Pathogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2945
2.2 Aetiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2925 5.1.4 Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2945
3. Pericardial syndromes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2925 5.1.5 Identification of viral nucleic acids . . . . . . . . . . . .2946
3.1 Acute pericarditis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2925 5.1.6 Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2946
3.1.1 Clinical management and therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . .2927 5.2 Bacterial pericarditis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2946
3.1.2 Prognosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2929 5.2.1 Tuberculous pericarditis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2946
3.2 Incessant and chronic pericarditis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2929 5.2.1.1 Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2947
3.3 Recurrent pericarditis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2929 5.2.1.2 Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2947
3.3.1 Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2929 5.2.2 Purulent pericarditis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2948
3.3.2 Prognosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2932 5.2.2.1 Epidemiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2948
3.4 Pericarditis associated with myocardial involvement 5.2.2.2 Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2948
(myopericarditis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2932 5.2.2.3 Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2948
3.4.1 Definition and diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2932 5.3 Pericarditis in renal failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2949
3.4.2 Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2932 5.4 Pericardial involvement in systemic autoimmune and
3.4.3 Prognosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2933 autoinflammatory diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2949
3.5 Pericardial effusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2933 5.5 Post-cardiac injury syndromes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2950
3.5.1 Clinical presentation and diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . .2933 5.5.1 Definition and diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2950
3.5.2 Triage and management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2934 5.5.2 Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2950
3.5.3 Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2934 5.5.3 Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2950
3.5.4 Prognosis and follow-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2935 5.5.4 Prognosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2950
3.6 Cardiac tamponade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2936 5.5.4.1 Post-myocardial infarction pericarditis . . . . .2950
3.7 Constrictive pericarditis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2937 5.5.4.2 Postoperative effusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2951
3.7.1 Clinical presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2937 5.6 Traumatic pericardial effusion and haemopericardium .2951
3.7.2 Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2937 5.7 Pericardial involvement in neoplastic disease . . . . . . .2952
3.7.3 Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2937 5.8 Other forms of pericardial disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2953
3.7.4 Specific forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2938 5.8.1 Radiation pericarditis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2953
3.7.4.1 Transient constrictive pericarditis . . . . . . . . .2938 5.8.2 Chylopericardium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2954
3.7.4.2 Effusive-constrictive pericarditis . . . . . . . . . .2939 5.8.3 Drug-related pericarditis and pericardial effusion . .2954
3.7.4.3 Chronic constrictive pericarditis . . . . . . . . . .2939 5.8.4 Pericardial effusion in metabolic and endocrine
4. Multimodality cardiovascular imaging and diagnostic work-up .2940 disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2954
4.1 Multimodality imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2940 5.8.5 Pericardial involvement in pulmonary arterial
4.1.1 Chest X-ray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2940 hypertension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2954
4.1.2 Echocardiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2940 5.8.6 Pericardial cysts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2955
4.1.3 Computed tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2940 6. Age and gender issues in pericardial diseases . . . . . . . . . . .2955
4.1.4 Cardiac magnetic resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2940 6.1 Paediatric setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2955
4.1.5 Nuclear medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2942 6.2 Pregnancy, lactation and reproductive issues . . . . . . . .2955

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ESC Guidelines 2923
6.3 The elderly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2956 TRAPS tumour necrosis factor receptor-associated periodic
7. Interventional techniques and surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2956 syndrome
7.1 Pericardiocentesis and pericardial drainage . . . . . . . . .2956 TSH thyroid stimulating hormone
7.2 Pericardioscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2957 Tx treatment
7.3 Pericardial fluid analysis, pericardial and epicardial biopsy 2957 uIFN-g unstimulated interferon-gamma
7.4 Intrapericardial treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2957 VEGF vascular endothelial growth factor
7.5 Pericardial access for electrophysiology . . . . . . . . . . . .2957
7.6 Surgery for pericardial diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2957
7.6.1 Pericardial window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2957
7.6.2 Pericardiectomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2957
Preamble
8. Perspective and unmet needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2958 Guidelines summarize and evaluate all available evidence on a par-
9. To do and not to do messages from the pericardium guidelines 2958 ticular issue at the time of the writing process, with the aim of assist-
10. Web addenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2959 ing health professionals in selecting the best management strategies
11. Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2959 for an individual patient with a given condition, taking into account
12. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2960 the impact on outcome, as well as the risk– benefit ratio of particu-
lar diagnostic or therapeutic means. Guidelines and recommenda-
tions should help health professionals to make decisions in their
daily practice. However, the final decisions concerning an individual
Abbreviations and acronyms patient must be made by the responsible health professional(s) in
consultation with the patient and caregiver as appropriate.
ADA adenosine deaminase A great number of Guidelines have been issued in recent years by
AMI acute myocardial infarction the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) as well as by other soci-
ANA anti-nuclear antibody eties and organisations. Because of the impact on clinical practice,
bFGF basic fibroblast growth factor quality criteria for the development of guidelines have been estab-
CK creatine kinase lished in order to make all decisions transparent to the user. The re-
CMR cardiac magnetic resonance commendations for formulating and issuing ESC Guidelines can be
CMV cytomegalovirus found on the ESC Web Site (http://www.escardio.org/Guidelines-
CP Child–Pugh &-Education/Clinical-Practice-Guidelines/Guidelines-development/
CRP C-reactive protein Writing-ESC-Guidelines). ESC Guidelines represent the official pos-
CT computed tomography ition of the ESC on a given topic and are regularly updated.
EBV Epstein–Barr virus Members of this Task Force were selected by the ESC to
ECG electrocardiogram represent professionals involved with the medical care of patients
ESR erythrocyte sedimentation rate with this pathology. Selected experts in the field undertook a
ESRD end-stage renal disease comprehensive review of the published evidence for management
FDG fluorodeoxyglucose (including diagnosis, treatment, prevention and rehabilitation) of
FMF familial Mediterranean fever a given condition according to ESC Committee for Practice
GM-CSF granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor Guidelines (CPG) policy. A critical evaluation of diagnostic and
HHV human herpesvirus therapeutic procedures was performed, including assessment of
HIV human immunodeficiency virus the risk –benefit ratio. Estimates of expected health outcomes for
HR hazard ratio larger populations were included, where data exist. The level of
IL interleukin evidence and the strength of the recommendation of particular
IVIG intravenous immunoglobulins management options were weighed and graded according to prede-
LCE late contrast-enhanced fined scales, as outlined in Tables 1 and 2.
NSAIDs non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs The experts of the writing and reviewing panels provided declara-
OR odds ratio tions of interest forms for all relationships that might be perceived as
PAH pulmonary arterial hypertension real or potential sources of conflicts of interest. These forms were
PCIS post-cardiac injury syndromes compiled into one file and can be found on the ESC website (http://
PCR polymerase chain reaction www.escardio.org/guidelines). Any changes in declarations of inter-
PET positron emission tomography est that arise during the writing period must be notified to the ESC
PPS post-pericardiotomy syndrome and updated. The Task Force received its entire financial support
RCT randomized controlled trial from the ESC without any involvement from the healthcare
spp. species industry.
SSFP steady-state free-precession The ESC CPG supervises and coordinates the preparation of new
STIR short-tau inversion-recovery Guidelines produced by task forces, expert groups or consensus pa-
TB tuberculosis nels. The Committee is also responsible for the endorsement pro-
TNF tumour necrosis factor cess of these Guidelines. The ESC Guidelines undergo extensive

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2924 ESC Guidelines
Table 1 Classes of recommendations
Classes of Suggested wording to use

recommendations
Class I Evidence and/or general Is recommended/is

agreement that a given treatment indicated
or procedure is beneficial, useful,
effective.
Class II Conflicting evidence and/or a

divergence of opinion about the
usefulness/efficacy of the given
treatment or procedure.
Class IIa Weight of evidence/opinion is in Should be considered

favour of usefulness/efficacy.
Class IIb Usefulness/efficacy is less well May be considered

established by evidence/opinion.
Class III Evidence or general agreement Is not recommended

that the given treatment or
procedure is not useful/effective,
and in some cases may be harmful.
programmes are needed because it has been shown that the out-
Table 2 Levels of evidence come of disease may be favourably influenced by the thorough ap-
plication of clinical recommendations.
Level of Data derived from multiple randomized Surveys and registries are needed to verify that real-life daily prac-
evidence A clinical trials or meta-analyses.
tice is in keeping with what is recommended in the guidelines, thus
Data derived from a single randomized completing the loop between clinical research, writing of guidelines,
Level of
clinical trial or large non-randomized
evidence B disseminating them and implementing them into clinical practice.
studies.
Health professionals are encouraged to take the ESC Guidelines
Consensus of opinion of the experts and/ fully into account when exercising their clinical judgment, as well as
Level of
or small studies, retrospective studies,
evidence C in the determination and the implementation of preventive, diagnos-
registries.
tic or therapeutic medical strategies. However, the ESC Guidelines
do not override in any way whatsoever the individual responsibility
of health professionals to make appropriate and accurate decisions
in consideration of each patient’s health condition and in consult-
ation with that patient and the patient’s caregiver where appropriate
review by the CPG and external experts. After appropriate revi- and/or necessary. It is also the health professional’s responsibility to
sions the Guidelines are approved by all the experts involved verify the rules and regulations applicable to drugs and devices at the
in the Task Force. The finalized document is approved by time of prescription.
the CPG for publication in the European Heart Journal. The Guide-
lines were developed after careful consideration of the scientific
and medical knowledge and the evidence available at the time of
their dating.
1. Introduction
The task of developing ESC Guidelines covers not only the The pericardium (from the Greek p1ri´, ‘around’ and kárdion,
integration of the most recent research, but also the creation of ‘heart’) is a double-walled sac containing the heart and the roots
educational tools and implementation programmes for the recom- of the great vessels. The pericardial sac has two layers, a serous vis-
mendations. To implement all guidelines, condensed pocket guide- ceral layer (also known as epicardium when it comes into contact
lines versions, summary slides, booklets with essential messages, with the myocardium) and a fibrous parietal layer. It encloses the
summary cards for non-specialists, and an electronic version for pericardial cavity, which contains pericardial fluid. The pericardium
digital applications (smartphones, etc.) are produced. These ver- fixes the heart to the mediastinum, gives protection against infection
sions are abridged and thus, if needed, one should always refer to and provides lubrication for the heart.
the full text version, which is freely available on the ESC website. Pericardial diseases may be either isolated disease or part of a sys-
The National Societies of the ESC are encouraged to endorse, temic disease.1 – 5 The main pericardial syndromes that are encoun-
translate and implement the ESC Guidelines. Implementation tered in clinical practice include pericarditis (acute, subacute,

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ESC Guidelines 2925
chronic and recurrent), pericardial effusion, cardiac tamponade, 2. Epidemiology, aetiology and
constrictive pericarditis and pericardial masses.1,4,5 All medical ther-
apies for pericardial diseases are off-label, since no drug has been re- classification of pericardial diseases
gistered until now for a specific pericardial indication.
2.1 Epidemiology
Despite the relative high frequency of pericardial diseases, there are
1.1 What is new in pericardial diseases? few epidemiological data, especially from primary care. Pericarditis
Pericardial diseases are relatively common in clinical practice and is the most common disease of the pericardium encountered in clin-
new data have been published since the publication of the 2004 ical practice. The incidence of acute pericarditis has been reported
ESC Guidelines on pericardial diseases.1 as 27.7 cases per 100,000 population per year in an Italian urban
New diagnostic strategies have been proposed for the triage of area.7 Pericarditis is responsible for 0.1% of all hospital admissions
patients with pericarditis and pericardial effusion and allow the se- and 5% of emergency room admissions for chest pain.4,5,42 Data col-
lection of high-risk patients to be admitted as well as when and how lected from a Finnish national registry (2000–9) showed a standar-
additional diagnostic investigations are to be performed.4 – 9 More- dized incidence rate of hospitalizations for acute pericarditis of 3.32
over, specific diagnostic criteria have been proposed for acute and per 100,000 person-years.16 These data were limited to hospitalized
recurrent pericarditis in clinical practice.2,4 – 15 patients and therefore may account for only a minority of cases, as
Multimodality imaging for pericardial diseases has become an es- many patients with pericarditis are commonly not admitted to hos-
sential approach for a modern and comprehensive diagnostic evalu- pital.8,9,42,43 Men ages 16 –65 years were at higher risk for pericar-
ation. Both the American Society of Echocardiography and the ditis (relative risk 2.02) than women in the general admitted
European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging have provided rec- population, with the highest risk difference among young adults
ommendation documents in recent years.2,3 compared with the overall population. Acute pericarditis caused
The aetiology and pathophysiology of pericardial diseases remain 0.20% of all cardiovascular admissions. The proportion of caused ad-
to be better characterized, but new data supporting the immune- missions declined by an estimated 51% per 10-year increase in age.
mediated pathogenesis of recurrences and new forms related to The in-hospital mortality rate for acute pericarditis was 1.1% and
autoinflammatory diseases have been documented, especially in was increased with age and severe co-infections (pneumonia or
paediatric patients.4,6 The first epidemiological data have become septicaemia).16 However, this is a study based on hospital admis-
available.7,16 sions only. Recurrences affect about 30% of patients within
Age and gender issues are now more evident and clear, including 18 months after a first episode of acute pericarditis.10,11
specific recommendations for patients during pregnancy.17 – 27
Major advances have occurred in therapy with the first multi- 2.2 Aetiology
centre randomized clinical trials.10,11,13 – 15 Colchicine has been A simple aetiological classification for pericardial diseases is to
demonstrated as a first-line drug to be added to conventional anti- consider infectious and non-infectious causes (Table 3).4,6,12,44 The
inflammatory therapies in patients with a first episode of pericarditis aetiology is varied and depends on the epidemiological background,
or recurrences in order to improve the response to therapy, in- patient population and clinical setting. In developed countries,
crease remission rates and reduce recurrences.10,11,13 – 15 Specific viruses are usually the most common aetiological agents of pericar-
therapeutic dosing without a loading dose and weight-adjusted ditis,6 whereas tuberculosis (TB) is the most frequent cause of
doses have been proposed to improve patient compliance.11,15 pericardial diseases in the world and developing countries, where
New therapeutic choices have become available for refractory TB is endemic. In this setting, TB is often associated with human
recurrent pericarditis, including alternative immunosuppressive immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, especially in sub-Saharan
therapies (e.g. azathioprine), intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIGs) Africa.44
and interleukin-1 (IL-1) antagonists (e.g. anakinra).20 – 23,28 – 32
Pericardiectomy has been demonstrated as a possible valuable
alternative to additional medical therapies in patients with re- 3. Pericardial syndromes
fractory recurrent pericarditis.33 The first large prospective and Pericardial syndromes include different clinical presentations of
retrospective studies (.100 patients) have investigated the prog- pericardial diseases with distinctive signs and symptoms that can
nosis and complication risk in patients with acute and recurrent be grouped in specific ‘syndromes’. The classical pericardial syn-
pericarditis.7,9,34 – 38 dromes include pericarditis, pericardial effusion, cardiac tamponade
Imaging techniques for the detection of pericardial inflammation and constrictive pericarditis. Pericardial effusion and cardiac tam-
[e.g. cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR)] may identify forms of initial ponade may occur without pericarditis and will be considered in
reversible constrictive pericarditis, allowing a trial of medical anti- separate chapters. Specific considerations apply to cases with peri-
inflammatory therapy that may reduce the need for surgery.2,39 – 41 carditis and concomitant myocardial inflammatory involvement,
In conclusion, significant new data have become available since usually referred to in the literature as ‘myopericarditis’.
2004, and a new version of guidelines has become mandatory for
clinical practice. Nevertheless, in the field of pericardial diseases
there are a limited number of randomized controlled trials 3.1 Acute pericarditis
(RCTs). Therefore the number of class I level A indications are Acute pericarditis is an inflammatory pericardial syndrome with or
limited. without pericardial effusion.1 – 11,42 The clinical diagnosis can be

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2926 ESC Guidelines
Table 3 Aetiology of pericardial diseases. The Table 4 Definitions and diagnostic criteria for
pericardium may be affected by all categories of pericarditis (see text for explanation)
diseases, including infectious, autoimmune, neoplastic,
iatrogenic, traumatic, and metabolic
Acute
A. Infectious causes: with at least 2 of the 4 following criteria:
(1) pericarditic chest pain
Viral (common): Enteroviruses (coxsackieviruses, echoviruses),
(2) pericardial rubs
herpesviruses (EBV, CMV, HHV-6), adenoviruses, parvovirus B19 (possible
overlap with aetiologic viral agents of myocarditis). (3) new widespread ST-elevation or PR depression
on ECG
Bacterial: Mycobacterium tuberculosis (common, other bacterial (4) pericardial effusion (new or worsening)
rare), Coxiella burnetii, Borrelia burgdorferi, rarely: Pneumococcus spp, Additional supporting findings:
Meningococcus spp, Gonococcus spp, Streptococcus spp, Staphylococcus - Ele
spp, Haemophilus spp, Chlamydia spp, Mycoplasma spp, Legionella spp,
C-reactive protein, erythrocyte sedimentation
Leptospira spp, Listeria spp, Providencia stuartii.
rate, and white blood cell count);
Fungal (very rare): Histoplasma spp (more likely in immunocompetent - Evidence of pericar
patients), Aspergillus spp, Blastomyces spp, Candida spp (more likely in imaging technique (CT, CMR).
immunocompromised host).
Incessant Pericarditis lasting for >4–6 weeks but <3 months
Parasitic (very rare): Echinococcus spp, Toxoplasma spp without remission.
B. Non-infectious causes: Recurrent
Autoimmune (common): episode of acute pericarditis and a symptom-free
interval of 4–6 weeks or longera.
erythematosus, Sjögren syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, scleroderma),
systemic vasculitides (i.e. eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis
Chronic Pericarditis lasting for >3 months.
or allergic granulomatosis, previously named Churg-Strauss syndrome,
Horton disease, Takayasu disease, Behçet syndrome), sarcoidosis, familial
CMR ¼ cardiac magnetic resonance; CT ¼ computed tomography;
ECG ¼ electrocardiogram.
a
Neoplastic: Usually within 18 – 24 months but a precise upper limit of time has not been
Primary tumours (rare, above all pericardial mesothelioma). established.
Secondary metastatic tumours (common, above all lung and breast cancer,
lymphoma).
Metabolic: Uraemia, myxoedema, anorexia nervosa, other rare.
Traumatic and Iatrogenic: cases)—a superficial scratchy or squeaking sound best heard with
Early onset (rare):
the diaphragm of the stethoscope over the left sternal border;
• Direct injury (penetrating thoracic injury, aesophageal perforation).
• Indirect injury (non-penetrating thoracic injury, radiation injury).
(iii) electrocardiogram (ECG) changes (up to 60% of cases)—with
Delayed onset: Pericardial injury syndromes (common) such as new widespread ST elevation or PR depression in the acute phase
postmyocardial infarction syndrome, postpericardiotomy syndrome, (Web Figure 1); and (iv) pericardial effusion (up to 60% of cases, gen-
posttraumatic, including forms after iatrogenic trauma (e.g. coronary
percutaneous intervention, pacemaker lead insertion and radiofrequency erally mild) (Web Figure 2). Additional signs and symptoms may be
ablation). present according to the underlying aetiology or systemic disease
Drug-related (rare): Lupus-like syndrome (procainamide, hydralazine, (i.e. signs and symptoms of systemic infection such as fever and
methyldopa, isoniazid, phenytoin); antineoplastic drugs (often associated with a
cardiomyopathy, may cause a pericardiopathy): doxorubicin, daunorubicin, leucocytosis, or systemic inflammatory disease or cancer).45
Widespread ST-segment elevation has been reported as a
hypersensitivity pericarditis with eosinophilia; amiodarone, methysergide, typical hallmark sign of acute pericarditis (Web Figure 1). However,
mesalazine, clozapine, minoxidil, dantrolene, practolol, phenylbutazone,
thiazides, streptomycin, thiouracils, streptokinase, p-aminosalicylic acid, sulfa- changes in the ECG imply inflammation of the epicardium,
drugs, cyclosporine, bromocriptine, several vaccines, GM-CSF, anti-TNF since the parietal pericardium itself is electrically inert. 5 – 7,34
agents.
Typical ECG changes have been reported in up to 60% of
Other (common): Amyloidosis, aortic dissection, pulmonary arterial cases. 10,11 The temporal evolution of ECG changes with acute
hypertension and chronic heart failure.
pericarditis is highly variable from one patient to another and is
Other (uncommon): congenital partial and complete absence of the
pericardium. affected by therapy. Major differential diagnoses include acute
coronary syndromes with ST-segment elevation and early
CMV ¼ cytomegalovirus; EBV ¼ Epstein-Barr virus; GM-CSF ¼
repolarization.6,12,46
granulocyte-macrophage colonystimulating factor; HHV ¼ human herpesvirus; Elevation of markers of inflammation [i.e. C-reactive protein
spp ¼ species; TNF ¼ tumor necrosis factor. (CRP) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), as well as
elevation of the white blood cell count] is a common and support-
ive finding in patients with acute pericarditis and may be helpful
for monitoring the activity of the disease and efficacy of
made with two of the following criteria (Table 4):2,4 – 15 (i) chest pain therapy.2,47 Patients with concomitant myocarditis may present
(.85 –90% of cases)—typically sharp and pleuritic, improved by sit- with an elevation of markers of myocardial injury [i.e. creatine ki-
ting up and leaning forward; (ii) pericardial friction rub (≤33% of nase (CK), troponin].7,34

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ESC Guidelines 2927
A chest X-ray is generally normal in patients with acute features can be managed as outpatients with empiric anti-
pericarditis since an increased cardiothoracic ratio only occurs inflammatories and short-term follow-up after 1 week to assess
with pericardial effusions exceeding 300 ml.48 In the case of pleur- the response to treatment.9
opulmonary diseases, signs of pleuropericardial involvement may be
found in patients with pericarditis.2,3
Recommendations for the management of acute
pericarditis
Recommendations for diagnosis of acute pericarditis
Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref.c

Hospital admission is recommended for
ECG is recommended in all patients with high-risk patients with acute pericarditis I B 8,9
I C
suspected acute pericarditis (at least one risk factord)
Transthoracic echocardiography is Outpatient management is
recommended in all patients with I C recommended for low-risk patients with I B 8,9
suspected acute pericarditis acute pericarditis
Chest X-ray is recommended in all Evaluation of response to
patients with suspected acute I C anti-inflammatory therapy is I B 8,9
pericarditis recommended after 1 week
Assessment of markers of
inflammation (i.e. CRP) and myocardial a
Class of recommendation.
b
injury (i.e. CK, troponin) is I C Level of evidence.
c
recommended in patients with Reference(s) supporting recommendations.
d
suspected acute pericarditis See Figure 1 (both major and minor predictors of poor prognosis).
CK ¼ creatine kinase; CRP ¼ C-reactive protein; ECG ¼ electrocardiogram.

a
b
Level of evidence.
c In patients identified with a cause other than viral infection, spe-
Reference(s) supporting recommendations.
cific therapy appropriate to the underlying disorder is indi-
cated 49,51 and the epidemiological background (high vs. low
prevalence of TB) should be considered. 8,12,52 The first non-
3.1.1 Clinical management and therapy pharmacological recommendation is to restrict physical activity
It is not mandatory to search for the aetiology in all patients, espe- beyond ordinary sedentary life until resolution of symptoms and
cially in countries with a low prevalence of TB, because of the rela- normalization of CRP for patients not involved in competitive
tively benign course associated with the common causes of sports. 53 Athletes are recommended to return to competitive
pericarditis and the relatively low yield of diagnostic inves- sports only after symptoms have resolved and diagnostic tests
tigations.6,8,12,49 Specific final identifiable causes (non-viral – (i.e. CRP, ECG and echocardiogram) have been normalized.53,54
non-idiopathic) as well as high-risk features in the context of acute A minimal restriction of 3 months (after the initial onset of the at-
pericarditis have been identified as being associated with an in- tack) has been arbitrarily defined according to expert consensus.54
creased risk of complications during follow-up (tamponade, recur- We suggest applying this restriction only to athletes, while a
rences and constriction).9,12,43,50 The major risk factors associated shorter period (until remission) may be suitable for non-athletes.
with poor prognosis after multivariate analysis include high fever Aspirin or NSAIDs are mainstays of therapy for acute peri-
[.388C (.100.48F)], subacute course (symptoms over several carditis.5,6,55,56 Different anti-inflammatory drugs have been pro-
days without a clear-cut acute onset), evidence of large pericardial posed (Table 5).
effusion (i.e. diastolic echo-free space .20 mm), cardiac tampon- The choice of drug should be based on the history of the patient
ade and failure to respond within 7 days to non-steroidal anti- (contraindications, previous efficacy or side effects), the presence of
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).9,43,50 Other risk factors should also concomitant diseases (favouring aspirin over other NSAIDs when
be considered (i.e. ‘minor risk factors’); these are based on expert aspirin is already needed as antiplatelet treatment) and physician
opinion and literature review, including pericarditis associated expertise.56
with myocarditis (myopericarditis), immunodepression, trauma Colchicine is recommended at low, weight-adjusted doses to
and oral anticoagulant therapy. improve the response to medical therapy and prevent recur-
On this basis a triage for acute pericarditis is proposed (Figure 1, rences. 10,11,57 – 59 Tapering of colchicine is not mandatory but
Web Table 6).5,6,43 Any clinical presentation that may suggest an may be considered to prevent persistence of symptoms and re-
underlying aetiology (e.g. a systemic inflammatory disease) or currence.5,6,56 Corticosteroids should be considered as a second
with at least one predictor of poor prognosis (major or minor option in patients with contraindications and failure of aspirin or
risk factors) warrants hospital admission and an aetiology NSAIDs because of the risk of favouring the chronic evolution of
search. 9,43,49 – 51 On the other hand, patients without these the disease and promoting drug dependence; in this case

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2928 ESC Guidelines
Pericarditis?
(physical examination, ECG, chest x-ray,
echacardiogram, CRP, troponin)
NO YES
Diagnostic criteria not satisfied. Specific aetiology highly suspected or
Search for alternative diagnoses any predictor of poor prognosis
NO
YES
Empiric trial with NSAID
Predictors of poor prognosis: HIGH RISK CASES NON-HIGH RISK CASES

Admission and aetiology search No admission and etiology search.
Major (major or minor prognostic predictor) Response to NSAID?
• Fever >38°C
• Subacute onset
• Large pericardial effusion
• Cardiac tamponade
• Lack of response to aspirin or NSAIDs NO YES
after at least 1 week of therapy
Minor
• Myopericarditis MODERATE RISK CASES LOW RISK CASES
• Immunosuppression Admission and aetiology search Outpatient follow-up
• Trauma
• Oral anticoagulant therapy
CRP = C-reactive protein; ECG = electrocardiogram.
Figure 1 Proposed triage of pericarditis.
Table 5 Commonly prescribed anti-inflammatory therapy for acute pericarditis
Drug Usual dosinga Tx durationb Tapering a
Aspirin 750–1000 mg every 8h 1–2 weeks Decrease doses by 250–500 mg every 1–2 weeks
Ibuprofen 600 mg every 8h 1–2 weeks Decrease doses by 200–400 mg every 1–2 weeks
Colchicine 0.5 mg once (<70 kg) or 0.5 mg b.i.d. 3 months Not mandatory, alternatively 0.5 mg every other day
(≥70 kg) (< 70 kg) or 0.5 mg once (≥70 kg) in the last weeks
b.i.d. ¼ twice daily; CRP ¼ C-reactive protein; NSAIDs ¼ non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; Tx ¼ treatment.
a
Tapering should be considered for aspirin and NSAIDs.
b
Tx duration is symptoms and CRP guided but generally 1–2 weeks for uncomplicated cases. Gastroprotection should be provided. Colchicine is added on top of aspirin or
ibuprofen.
they are used with colchicine. If used, low to moderate doses (i.e. equivalent).35 The initial dose should be maintained until reso-
prednisone 0.2 – 0.5 mg/kg/day or equivalent) should be recom- lution of symptoms and normalization of CRP, then tapering
mended instead of high doses (i.e. prednisone 1.0 mg/kg/day or should be considered.5,6,35,47,56

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Recommendations for the treatment of acute

3.2 Incessant and chronic pericarditis
pericarditis The term ‘incessant’ has been adopted for cases with persistent
symptoms without a clear-cut remission after the acute episode.
The term ‘chronic’ generally refers—especially for pericardial effu-
Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref.c sions—to disease processes lasting .3 months.48 The Task Force
Aspirin or NSAIDs are recommended as suggests that the term ‘acute’ should be adopted for new-onset
first-line therapy for acute pericarditis I A 55 pericarditis, ‘incessant’ for pericarditis with symptoms persisting
with gastroprotection for .4 –6 weeks (that is generally the approximate length of con-
Colchicine is recommended as first-line ventional anti-inflammatory therapy and its tapering), 11,60 and
10,11,
therapy for acute pericarditis as an I A ‘chronic’ for pericarditis lasting .3 months.
58,59
adjunct to aspirin/NSAID therapy
Serum CRP should be considered to
guide the treatment length and assess IIa C 3.3 Recurrent pericarditis
the response to therapy Recurrent pericarditis is diagnosed with a documented first episode
Low-dose corticosteroidsd should be of acute pericarditis, a symptom-free interval of 4 – 6 weeks or
considered for acute pericarditis in cases longer and evidence of subsequent recurrence of pericarditis
of contraindication/failure of aspirin/ (Table 4).11,13 – 15 Diagnosis of recurrence is established according
NSAIDs and colchicine, and when an IIa C to the same criteria as those used for acute pericarditis. CRP,2,47
infectious cause has been excluded, or
when there is a specific indication such
computed tomography (CT) and/or CMR may provide confirma-
as autoimmune disease tory findings to support the diagnosis in atypical or doubtful cases
showing pericardial inflammation through evidence of oedema
Exercise restriction should be
considered for non-athletes with acute and contrast enhancement of the pericardium.2,39
pericarditis until resolution of symptoms IIa C The recurrence rate after an initial episode of pericarditis ranges
and normalization of CRP, ECG and from 15 to 30%,10,11 and may increase to 50% after a first recurrence
echocardiogram in patients not treated with colchicine,13 – 15 particularly if treated
For athletes, the duration of exercise with corticosteroids.
restriction should be considered until In developed countries, the aetiology is often not identified in
resolution of symptoms and
IIa C most immunocompetent patients, and it is generally presumed to
normalization of CRP, ECG and
echocardiogram—at least 3 months is be immune-mediated.60 – 62 A common cause of recurrence is inad-
recommended equate treatment of the first episode of pericarditis. In up to 20% of
Corticosteroids are not recommended cases, when additional virological studies have been conducted on
III C pericardial fluid and tissue, a viral aetiology is detected.63
as first-line therapy for acute pericarditis
CRP ¼ C-reactive protein; ECG ¼ electrocardiogram; NSAIDs ¼ non-steroidal 3.3.1 Therapy

anti-inflammatory drugs. Recurrent pericarditis therapy should be targeted at the underlying
a
b aetiology in patients with an identified cause. Aspirin or NSAIDs re-
Level of evidence.
c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations. main the mainstay of therapy (Table 6, Web Box, Web Table 1A). Col-
d
Added to colchicine. chicine is recommended on top of standard anti-inflammatory
therapy, without a loading dose and using weight-adjusted doses
(i.e. 0.5 mg once daily if body weight is ,70 kg or 0.5 mg twice daily
3.1.2 Prognosis if it is ≥70 kg, for ≥6 months) (Table 6, Web Table 1B) in order to
Most patients with acute pericarditis (generally those with pre- improve the response to medical therapy, improve remission rates
sumed viral or idiopathic pericarditis) have a good long-term prog- and prevent recurrences.13 – 15,58,59
nosis.36 Cardiac tamponade rarely occurs in patients with acute In cases of incomplete response to aspirin/NSAIDs and colchi-
idiopathic pericarditis, and is more common in patients with a spe- cine, corticosteroids may be used, but they should be added at
cific underlying aetiology such as malignancy, TB or purulent peri- low to moderate doses to aspirin/NSAIDs and colchicine as triple
carditis. Constrictive pericarditis may occur in ,1% of patients therapy, not replace these drugs, in order to achieve better control
with acute idiopathic pericarditis, and is also more common in pa- of symptoms. Corticosteroids at low to moderate doses (i.e. pred-
tients with a specific aetiology. The risk of developing constriction nisone 0.2 –0.5 mg/kg/day) should be avoided if infections, particu-
can be classified as low (,1%) for idiopathic and presumed viral larly bacterial and TB, cannot be excluded and should be
pericarditis; intermediate (2 – 5%) for autoimmune, immune- restricted to patients with specific indications (i.e. systemic inflam-
mediated and neoplastic aetiologies; and high (20–30%) for bacter- matory diseases, post-pericardiotomy syndromes, pregnancy) or
ial aetiologies, especially with TB and purulent pericarditis. 36 NSAID contraindications (true allergy, recent peptic ulcer or
Approximately 15–30% of patients with idiopathic acute pericardi- gastrointestinal bleeding, oral anticoagulant therapy when the
tis who are not treated with colchicine will develop either recurrent bleeding risk is considered high or unacceptable) or intolerance
or incessant disease, while colchicine may halve the recurrence or persistent disease despite appropriate doses.58 Although corti-
rate.10,11,13 – 15 costeroids provide rapid control of symptoms, they favour

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2930 ESC Guidelines
Table 6 Commonly prescribed anti-inflammatory therapies for recurrent pericarditis (for further details see Web
Tables 1A and 1B)
Drug Usual initial dosea Tx durationb Taperinga
Aspirin 500–1000 mg every 6–8 hours (range 1,5–4 g/day) weeks-months Decrease doses by 250–500 mg every 1–2 weeksb
Ibuprofen 600 mg every 8 hours (range 1200–2400 mg) weeks-months Decrease doses by 200–400 mg every 1–2 weeksb
Indomethacin 25–50 mg every 8 hours: start at lower end of weeks-months Decrease doses by 25 mg every 1–2 weeksb
dosing range and titrate upward to avoid headache
and dizziness.
Colchicine 0.5 mg twice or 0.5 mg daily for patients <70 kg or At least 6 months Not necessary, alternatively 0.5 mg every other day
intolerant to higher doses. (<70 kg) or 0.5 mg once (≥70 kg) in the last weeks
Tx ¼ treatment.
a
Tapering should be considered for aspirin and NSAIDs.
b
Longer tapering times for more difficult, resistant cases may be considered.
chronicity, more recurrences and side effects.35,55,61 If corticoster-

oids are used, their tapering should be particularly slow. A critical Table 7 Tapering of corticosteroids35 (dosage
threshold for recurrences is a 10 – 15 mg/day dose of prednisone information is provided for prednisone)
or equivalent. At this threshold, very slow decrements as small as
Starting dose 0.25–0.50 mg/kg/day a Tapering b
1.0 –2.5 mg at intervals of 2–6 weeks are useful. In cases of recur-
rence, every effort should be made not to increase the dose or to >50 mg 10 mg/day every 1–2 weeks
reinstate corticosteroids (Tables 6 and 7).5,6,35,61 50–25 mg 5–10 mg/day every 1–2 weeks
After obtaining a complete response, tapering should be done 25–15 mg 2.5 mg/day every 2–4 weeks
with a single class of drug at a time before colchicine is gradually dis- <15 mg 1.25–2.5 mg/day every
continued (over several months in the most difficult cases). Recur- 2–6 weeks
rences are possible after discontinuation of each drug. Each tapering
should be attempted only if symptoms are absent and CRP is a
Avoid higher doses except for special cases, and only for a few days, with rapid
normal.5,6,47,56 The Task Force does not recommend influenza vac- tapering to 25 mg/day. Prednisone 25 mg are equivalent to methylprednisolone 20
mg.
cine as a preventive measure for pericarditis in patients with recur- b
Every decrease in prednisone dose should be done only if the patient is
rent pericarditis, since the influenza virus is not a usual cause of asymptomatic and C-reactive protein is normal, particularly for doses ,25 mg/day.
pericarditis. The influenza vaccine should be administered according Calcium intake (supplement plus oral intake) 1,200 –1,500 mg/day and vitamin D
supplementation 800 –1000 IU/day should be offered to all patients receiving
to specific indications beyond pericarditis; moreover, recurrences glucocorticoids. Moreover, bisphosphonates are recommended to prevent bone
are generally immune mediated, and inappropriate or unwanted loss in all men ≥50 years and postmenopausal women in whom long-term
stimulation of the immune system may trigger or worsen an episode treatment with glucocorticoids is initiated at a dose ≥5.0– 7.5 mg/day of
prednisone or equivalent.
of pericarditis.
An alternative effective approach to minimize systemic side ef-
fects related to corticosteroids may be intrapericardial administra-
tion of non-absorbable corticosteroids,64,65 but this technique effective during the acute phase, though recurrences may occur
requires further investigation. For those patients who require un- after discontinuation.29 – 32 Drugs such as IVIG, anakinra and
acceptably high long-term doses of corticosteroids (e.g. prednisone azathioprine may be considered in cases of proven infection-
15 –25 mg/day) or who do not respond to anti-inflammatory ther- negative, corticosteroid-dependent, recurrent pericarditis not re-
apies, several drugs have been used, including azathioprine,28 IVIG sponsive to colchicine after careful assessment of the costs, risks
(immunomodulatory but also anti-viral)29,30 and anakinra, a recom- and eventually consultation by multidisciplinary experts, including
binant IL-1b receptor antagonist,31,32 but strong evidence-based immunologists and/or rheumatologists, in the absence of a specific
data are lacking (Web Table 2). Other immunosuppressive drugs expertise. It is also mandatory to educate the patient and his/her
[i.e. cyclophosphamide, cyclosporine, methotrexate, hydroxychlor- caregivers about the clinical risks related to immunomodulatory/im-
oquine, anti-tumour necrosis factor (TNF) agents] have been only munosuppressive drugs and the safety measures to adopt during the
anecdotally reported. Less toxic agents might be preferred, and treatment. As a last resort, pericardiectomy may be considered, but
eventually combined, with the therapy being tailored to the individ- only after a thorough trial of unsuccessful medical therapy, and with
ual patient and physician experience (Figure 2). Azathioprine is main- referral of the patient to a centre with specific expertise in this sur-
ly a slow-acting corticosteroid-sparing agent, useful to control the gery.33 The physical activity restrictions in acute pericarditis apply
disease for a long-term follow-up, while anakinra and IVIG are also to recurrences.53,54

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ESC Guidelines 2931
Diagnosis of acute pericarditis

(2 of 4 clinical criteria: pericardial chest pain, pericardial rubs, ECG changes; pericardial effusion)
First line Aspirin or NSAID + colchicine + exercise restriction
Low-dose corticosteroids
Second line
(in case of contraindications to aspirin/NSAID/colchicine and after exclusion of infectious cause)
Recurrent pericarditis
(after symptom-free interval 4–6 weeks)
First line Aspirin or NSAID + colchicine + exercise restriction
Low-dose corticosteroids
Second line
(in case of contraindications to aspirin/NSAID/colchicine and after exclusion of infectious cause)
Third line i.v. immunoglobulin or anakinra or azathioprinea
Fourth line Pericardiectomy
Low-dose corticosteroids are considered when there are contraindications to other drugs or when there is an incomplete response to aspirin/NSAIDs plus colchicine; in this case
(e.g. azathioprine) and resorting to more expensive options (e.g. IVIG and anakinra) for refractory cases.
Figure 2 Therapeutic algorithm for acute and recurrent pericarditis (see text for explanation).
Recommendations for the management of recurrent After CRP normalization, a gradual

pericarditis tapering of therapies should be
considered, tailored to symptoms and IIa C
CRP, stopping a single class of drugs at a
time
Drugs such as IVIG, anakinra and
Aspirin and NSAIDs are mainstays of
azathioprine may be considered in cases
treatment and are recommended at full
I A 55,56 of corticosteroid-dependent recurrent IIb C
doses, if tolerated, until complete
pericarditis in patients not responsive to
symptom resolution
colchicine
Colchicine (0.5 mg twice daily or 0.5 mg
Exercise restriction should be
daily for patients ,70 kg or intolerant to
13–15, considered for non-athletes with
higher doses); use for 6 months is I A
58,59 recurrent pericarditis until symptom
recommended as an adjunct to aspirin/ IIa C
resolution and CRP normalization,
NSAIDs
taking into account the previous history
Colchicine therapy of longer duration and clinical conditions
(.6 months) should be considered in
IIa C Exercise restriction for a minimum of
some cases, according to clinical
3 months should be considered
response
for athletes with recurrent pericarditis
IIa C
CRP dosage should be considered to until symptom resolution and
guide the treatment duration and assess IIa C normalization of CRP, ECG and
the response to therapy echocardiogram

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2932 ESC Guidelines
mechanisms are especially involved in cases associated with con-

If ischaemic heart disease is a concern or
antiplatelet therapy is required, aspirin
nective tissue diseases, inflammatory bowel diseases and
IIa C radiation-induced, drug-induced or vaccinia-associated myopericar-
should be considered, at medium high
doses (1– 2.4 g/day)* (Web box) dial involvement. Many cases of myopericarditis are subclinical. In
If symptoms recur during therapy other patients, cardiac symptoms and signs are masked by pro-
tapering, the management should nounced systemic manifestations of infection or inflammation.66 In
consider not increasing the dose of many cases, myopericarditis manifestations are preceded by or
corticosteroids to control symptoms, are sometimes concomitant with an acute respiratory illness (espe-
but increasing to the maximum dose of
IIa C cially acute tonsillitis, pneumonia) or gastroenteritis. The increased
aspirin or NSAIDs, well distributed,
generally every 8 hours, and sensitivity of troponin assays and contemporary widespread use
intravenously if necessary, adding of troponins has greatly increased the reported number of
colchicine and adding analgesics for pain cases.7,34,66 – 68
control
Corticosteroid therapy is not 13– 15, 3.4.1 Definition and diagnosis
recommended as a first line-approach III B 35,37, The diagnosis of predominant pericarditis with myocardial involve-
55
ment, or ‘myopericarditis’, can be clinically established if patients
with definite criteria for acute pericarditis show elevated biomar-
CRP ¼ C-reactive protein; ECG ¼ electrocardiogram; IVIG ¼ intravenous kers of myocardial injury (troponin I or T, CK-MB fraction) without
immunoglobulin; NSAIDs ¼ non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.
a
Class of recommendation. newly developed focal or diffuse impairment of left ventricular func-
b
Level of evidence. tion in echocardiography or CMR.34 The term myopericarditis indi-
c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations. cates a primarily pericarditic syndrome with minor myocardial
involvement, which describes the majority of combined pericarditis
and myocarditis cases encountered in clinical practice.7,9,34,68
3.3.2 Prognosis
On the other hand, evidence of new-onset focal or diffuse reduc-
Severe complications are uncommon in idiopathic recurrent peri-
tion of left ventricular function in patients with elevated myocardial
carditis.37,60,61 Cardiac tamponade is rare and generally occurs at
biomarkers and clinical criteria for acute pericarditis suggests pre-
the beginning of the disease. Constrictive pericarditis has never
dominant myocarditis with pericardial involvement (‘perimyocardi-
been reported in these patients, despite numerous recurrences,
tis’).34,66 Definite confirmation of the presence of myocarditis will
and the overall risk is lower than that recorded after a first episode
require endomyocardial biopsy according to the Myocardial and
of acute pericarditis (,1%).36,37,61 Thus it is important to reassure
Pericardial Diseases Working Group position statement.69 How-
patients about their prognosis, explaining the nature of the disease
ever, the benign prognosis of patients with suspected concomitant
and its likely course. The complication rates are related to the aeti-
myocardial involvement in predominant pericarditis (myopericardi-
ology and not to the number of recurrences. Drug treatment should
tis), with absent or mild left ventricular dysfunction, and no symp-
take into account this favourable outcome to avoid more toxic
toms of heart failure does not clinically require endomyocardial
agents. However, quality of life can be severely affected in patients
biopsy.6,34,66 – 68,70,71
with repeated recurrences, subacute or incessant pericarditis and
In cases of pericarditis with suspected associated myocarditis,
glucocorticoid dependence.
coronary angiography (according to clinical presentation and risk
factor assessment) is recommended in order to rule out acute cor-
onary syndromes. CMR is recommended for the confirmation of
3.4 Pericarditis associated with myocardial involvement and to rule out ischaemic myocardial ne-
myocardial involvement crosis in the absence of significant coronary disease; this has clinical
(myopericarditis) and therapeutic implications.34,66
Pericarditis and myocarditis share common aetiologies, and overlap-
ping forms may be encountered in clinical practice.34,66 Pericarditis 3.4.2 Management
with known or clinically suspected concomitant myocardial involve- Hospitalization is recommended for diagnosis and monitoring of
ment should be referred to as ‘myopericarditis’, while predominant patients with myocardial involvement and differential diagnosis,
myocarditis with pericardial involvement should be referred to as especially with acute coronary syndromes. In the setting of myoper-
‘perimyocarditis’, according to Task Force consensus. The classical icarditis, management is similar to that recommended for pericardi-
presentation is chest pain associated with other signs of pericarditis tis. Empirical anti-inflammatory therapies (i.e. aspirin 1500 – 3000
(pericardial rubs, ST-segment elevation and pericardial effusion) mg/day) or NSAIDs (ibuprofen 1200 – 2400 mg/day or indometh-
plus the elevation of markers of myocardial damage (i.e. troponins). acin 75 – 150 mg/day) are usually prescribed to control chest pain,
Limited clinical data on the causes of myopericarditis suggest that while corticosteroids are prescribed as a second choice in cases
viral infections are among the most common causes in developed of contraindication, intolerance or failure of aspirin/NSAIDs.66 In
countries, while other infectious causes are more common in devel- the setting of myopericarditis, some authors recommend reducing
oping countries (especially TB). Cardiotropic viruses can cause peri- dosages, as compared with pure pericarditis, because in animal mod-
cardial and myocardial inflammation via direct cytolytic or cytotoxic els of myocarditis, NSAIDs have been shown to be non-efficacious
effects and/or subsequent immune-mediated mechanisms. Such and may enhance inflammation, increasing mortality. 69,70,72,73

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ESC Guidelines 2933
However, the application of these findings from animal models to

humans may be questionable.66 In addition, there are insufficient Table 8 Classification of pericardial effusion
data to recommend the use of colchicine, which is a well-established
Onset Acute
adjunctive treatment for acute and recurrent pericarditis.58 Despite
Subacute
the lack of specific therapies for most cases, several non-specific re- Chronic (>3 months)
commendations are important. Rest and avoidance of physical activ- Size Mild <10 mm
ity beyond normal sedentary activities is recommended in all Moderate 10–20mm
patients with myopericarditis.53,54,66 Large >20 mm
Sudden cardiac death cases have been reported in military per- Distribution Circumferential
sonnel after strenuous exertion and also in male athletes without Loculated
prodromic symptoms [football (soccer) players, swimming].53,54,66 Composition Transudate
While in isolated pericarditis, return to exercise is permissible Exudate
when there is no further evidence of active disease in non-athletes,
or after 3 months in athletes, the presence or suspicion of myocar-
dial involvement leads to contraindication of physical exercise for at
least 6 months from the onset of the illness according to expert layers. Any pathological process usually causes an inflammation with
opinion and previous recommendations for participation in com- the possibility of increased production of pericardial fluid (exudate).
petitive sports.53,54,66 An alternative mechanism of accumulation of pericardial fluid may
be decreased reabsorption due to a general increase in systemic
3.4.3 Prognosis venous pressure as a result of congestive heart failure or pulmonary
Myocardial involvement in pericarditis has a good prognosis, hypertension (transudate).48 Pericardial effusion may be classified
and several observational series have demonstrated no according to its onset (acute or subacute vs. chronic when lasting
evolution to heart failure or mortality in patients with myo- .3 months), distribution (circumferential or loculated), haemo-
pericarditis.34,66 – 68,70,71 dynamic impact (none, cardiac tamponade, effusive-constrictive),
composition (exudate, transudate, blood, rarely air, or gas from bac-
Recommendations for the diagnosis and management terial infections) and, in particular, by its size (Table 8) based on a
of pericarditis associated with myocarditis simple semiquantitative echocardiographic assessment as mild
(,10 mm), moderate (10 – 20 mm) or large (.20 mm) (Web Fig-
ure 2).48 This semiquantitative assessment has also proven to be use-
Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref.c ful in estimating the risk of specific aetiology and complications
In cases of pericarditis with suspected during follow-up in the setting of pericarditis.9,48,51 In the last
associated myocarditis, coronary 20 years, five major surveys have been published on the character-
angiography (according to clinical
I C istics of moderate to large pericardial effusions (Web Table 3).74 – 78
presentation and risk factor assessment)
is recommended in order to rule out A significant proportion of patients with pericardial effusion are
acute coronary syndromes asymptomatic and pericardial effusion constitutes an incidental
Cardiac magnetic resonance is
and unexpected finding on X-ray or echocardiogram performed
recommended for the confirmation of I C for other reasons. According to these series, many cases remain
myocardial involvement idiopathic in developed countries (up to 50%), while other common
Hospitalization is recommended for causes include cancer (10 – 25%), infections (15 – 30%), iatrogenic
diagnosis and monitoring in patients with I C causes (15 –20%) and connective tissue diseases (5–15%), whereas
myocardial involvement TB is the dominant cause in developing countries (.60%), where
Rest and avoidance of physical activity TB is endemic.52,79 In the setting of pericarditis with pericardial ef-
beyond normal sedentary activities is fusion, the prevalence of malignant or infectious aetiologies ranges
recommended in non-athletes and I C from 15 to 50% depending on the published series.6,9
athletes with myopericarditis for a
period of 6 months
3.5.1 Clinical presentation and diagnosis
Empirical anti-inflammatory therapies
The clinical presentation of pericardial effusion varies according to
(lowest efficacious doses) should be IIa C
considered to control chest pain the speed of pericardial fluid accumulation. If pericardial fluid is rap-
idly accumulating, such as after wounds or iatrogenic perforations,
a the evolution is dramatic and even small amounts of blood may
b
Level of evidence. cause an increase in intrapericardial pressure within minutes and
c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations. overt cardiac tamponade. On the other hand, a slow accumulation
of pericardial fluid allows the collection of a large effusion in days to
weeks before a significant increase in pericardial pressure causes
3.5 Pericardial effusion symptoms and signs (Web Figure 3).48,80,81
The normal pericardial sac contains 10 –50 ml of pericardial fluid as Classic symptoms include dyspnoea on exertion progressing to
a plasma ultrafiltrate that acts as a lubricant between the pericardial orthopnoea, chest pain and/or fullness. Additional occasional

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2934 ESC Guidelines
symptoms due to local compression may include nausea (dia- or systemic diseases). Pericardial effusion is often associated with
phragm), dysphagia (oesophagus), hoarseness (recurrent laryngeal known or unknown (e.g. hypothyroidism) medical conditions (up
nerve) and hiccups (phrenic nerve). Non-specific symptoms include to 60% of cases).48,75,82 If inflammatory signs are present, the clinical
cough, weakness, fatigue, anorexia and palpitations, and reflect management should be that of pericarditis. Cardiac tamponade
the compressive effect of the pericardial fluid on contiguous without inflammatory signs is associated with a higher risk of a neo-
anatomic structures or reduced blood pressure and secondary sinus plastic aetiology (likelihood ratio 2.9), whereas a severe effusion
tachycardia.82 – 84 Fever is a non-specific sign that may be associated without cardiac tamponade and inflammatory signs is usually asso-
with pericarditis, either infectious or immune mediated (i.e. systemic ciated with a chronic idiopathic aetiology (likelihood ratio 20).75
inflammatory diseases).45 A practical routine evaluation for triage of pericardial effusion is
Physical examination may be absolutely normal in patients with- presented in Figure 3.48,82
out haemodynamic compromise. When tamponade develops, clas-
sic signs include neck vein distension with elevated jugular venous Recommendations for the initial management of
pressure at bedside examination, pulsus paradoxus and diminished pericardial effusion
heart sounds on cardiac auscultation in cases of moderate to large
effusions.82 – 84 Pericardial friction rubs are rarely heard; they can
usually be detected in patients with concomitant pericarditis.8 Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref.c
The diagnosis of pericardial effusion is generally performed by Admission is recommended for
echocardiography, which also enables semiquantitative assessment high-risk patients with pericardial I C
effusiond
of the pericardial effusion size and its haemodynamic effects. Al-
though echocardiography remains the primary diagnostic tool for A triage of patients with pericardial
the study of pericardial diseases because of its widespread availabil- effusion is recommended as in I C
Figure 3
ity, portability and limited costs, CT and CMR provide a larger field
of view, allowing the detection of loculated pericardial effusion and a
pericardial thickening and masses, as well as associated chest b
Level of evidence.
abnormalities.2,3,84 c
d
Similar risk criteria as for pericarditis (see Figure 1).
Recommendations for the diagnosis of pericardial

effusion
In chronic effusion with no definite aetiology, there are no data on
a b c
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), colchicine and
Recommendations Class Level Ref.
corticosteroids. If markers of inflammation are elevated, a trial
Transthoracic echocardiography is of NSAIDs and/or colchicine and/or low-dose corticosteroids
recommended in all patients with I C
may be tried.
suspected pericardial effusion
Chest X-ray is recommended in
patients with a suspicion of pericardial 3.5.3 Therapy
I C
effusion or pleuropulmonary
involvement
Therapy of pericardial effusion should be targeted at the aetiology as
much as possible. In about 60% of cases, the effusion is associated
Assessment of markers of
with a known disease and the essential treatment is that of the
inflammation (i.e. CRP) are
recommended in patients with
I C underlying disease.48,75,82 When pericardial effusion is associated
pericardial effusion with pericarditis, management should follow that of pericarditis.
CT or CMR should be considered in When a pericardial effusion becomes symptomatic without evi-
suspected cases of loculated pericardial dence of inflammation or when empiric anti-inflammatory drugs
effusion, pericardial thickening and IIa C are not successful, drainage of the effusion should be considered.
masses, as well as associated chest Pericardiocentesis with prolonged pericardial drainage of up to 30
abnormalities
ml/24 h may be considered in order to promote adherence of peri-
cardial layers and prevent further accumulation of fluid; however,
CMR ¼ cardiac magnetic resonance; CRP ¼ C-reactive protein; CT ¼
evidence to support this indication is based on case reports, retro-
computed tomography.
a
Class of recommendation. spective studies and expert opinion.48,82,84
b
Level of evidence. Unfortunately, there are no proven effective medical therapies to
c
reduce an isolated effusion. In the absence of inflammation, NSAIDs,
colchicine and corticosteroids are generally not effective.82,85 Peri-
cardiocentesis alone may be necessary for the resolution of large ef-
3.5.2 Triage and management fusions, but recurrences are also common, and pericardiectomy or
When a pericardial effusion is detected, the first step is to assess its less invasive options (i.e. pericardial window) should be considered
size, haemodynamic importance (especially the presence of cardiac whenever fluid reaccumulates, becomes loculated or biopsy mater-
tamponade) and possible associated diseases (either cardiovascular ial is required.48

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ESC Guidelines 2935
Cardiac tamponade or
suspected bacterial or
neoplastic aetiology?
Yes No
Pericardiocentesis and Elevated inflammatory

aetiology search markers?
Yes No
Empiric ant-inflammatory Known associated

therapy (treat as pericarditis) disease?
No
Follow-up
Yes No
Pericardial effusion
Large (>20 mm)
probably related.
pericardial effusion?
Treat the disease.
Consider pericardiocentesis
and drainage
Yes if chronic (>3 months)
Figure 3 A simplified algorithm for pericardial effusion triage and management.
3.5.4 Prognosis and follow-up

Recommendations for the therapy of pericardial The prognosis of pericardial effusion is essentially related to the aeti-
effusion ology.48,82,86 The size of the effusion is correlated with the progno-
sis, as moderate to large effusions are more common for specific
Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref.c aetiologies such as bacterial and neoplastic conditions.9,48 Idiopathic
pericardial effusion and pericarditis have an overall good prognosis
It is recommended to target the
therapy of pericardial effusion at the I C with a very low risk of complications, especially if the effusion is mild
aetiology to moderate. In contrast with these observations, a recently pub-
Aspirin/NSAIDs/colchicine and
lished prospective study has shown that even with mild pericardial
treatment of pericarditis is effusion the overall prognosis may be worse than in age- and sex-
I C
recommended when pericardial effusion matched controls.87
is associated with systemic inflammation Large idiopathic chronic effusions (.3 months) have a 30 –35%
Pericardiocentesis or cardiac surgery is risk of progression to cardiac tamponade.88 Also, subacute (4 – 6
indicated for cardiac tamponade or for weeks) large effusions not responsive to conventional therapy and
symptomatic moderate to large with echocardiographic signs of collapse of the right chambers
pericardial effusions not responsive to I C
may have an increased risk of progression according to some
medical therapy, and for suspicion of
unknown bacterial or neoplastic authors, who recommend preventive drainage in such cases.89
aetiology Documented idiopathic pericarditis has a very low risk of constrict-
ive pericarditis despite several recurrences: here the risk is related
NSAIDs ¼ non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. to the aetiology and not the number of recurrences.36 The follow-
a
Class of recommendation. up of pericardial effusion is mainly based on the evaluation of symp-
b
Level of evidence.
c toms and the echocardiographic size of the effusion, as well as
additional features such as inflammatory markers (i.e. CRP).48

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2936 ESC Guidelines
A mild idiopathic effusion (,10 mm) is usually asymptomatic, pressure–volume (strain–stress) curves: there is an initial slow as-
generally has a good prognosis and does not require specific mon- cent, followed by an almost vertical rise (Web Figure 3). This steep
itoring.48 Moderate to large effusions (.10 mm) may worsen, and rise makes tamponade a ‘last-drop’ phenomenon: the final incre-
especially severe effusions may evolve towards cardiac tamponade ment produces critical cardiac compression and the first decrement
in up to one-third of cases. For idiopathic moderate effusions, an during drainage produces the largest relative decompression.80 – 84
appropriate timing for echocardiographic follow-up may be an In a patient with clinical suspicion of cardiac tamponade, several
echocardiogram every 6 months. For a severe effusion, an echocar- diagnostic tools are required. An ECG may show signs of pericardi-
diographic follow-up may be every 3 –6 months. A tailored follow- tis, with especially low QRS voltages and electrical alternans. Both
up is also warranted considering the relative stability or evolution of ECG signs are generally considered to be an expression of the
the size.48 Specific considerations on pericardial effusion in the post- damping effect of pericardial fluid and swinging heart. Echocardiog-
operative setting are discussed in the section on post-cardiac injury raphy is the single most useful diagnostic tool to identify pericardial
syndromes (section 5.5). effusion and estimate its size, location and degree of haemodynamic
impact. Also, echocardiography is used to guide pericardiocentesis
with excellent safety and efficacy. Signs of tamponade can be iden-
3.6 Cardiac tamponade tified by echocardiography: swinging of the heart, early diastolic col-
Cardiac tamponade is a life-threatening, slow or rapid compression lapse of the right ventricle, late diastolic collapse of the right atrium,
of the heart due to the pericardial accumulation of fluid, pus, blood, abnormal ventricular septal motion, exaggerated respiratory vari-
clots or gas as a result of inflammation, trauma, rupture of the heart ability (.25%) in mitral inflow velocity, inspiratory decrease and ex-
or aortic dissection.81,84 Clinical signs in a patient with cardiac tam- piratory increase in pulmonary vein diastolic forward flow,
ponade include tachycardia, hypotension, pulsus paradoxus, raised respiratory variation in ventricular chamber size, aortic outflow vel-
jugular venous pressure, muffled heart sounds, decreased electro- ocity (echocardiographic pulsus paradoxus) and inferior vena cava
cardiographic voltage with electrical alternans and an enlarged plethora.2,3,82,84 CT and CMR are often less readily available and
cardiac silhouette on chest X-ray with slow-accumulating are generally unnecessary unless Doppler echocardiography is not
effusions.81 – 84 A key diagnostic finding is pulsus paradoxus (conven- feasible. Cardiac catheterization is rarely used to diagnose cardiac
tionally defined as an inspiratory decrease in systolic arterial pres- tamponade. It will show equilibration of average diastolic pressure
sure of .10 mmHg during normal breathing). Pulsus paradoxus is and characteristic respiratory reciprocation of cardiac pressures,
due to exaggerated ventricular interdependence occurring in i.e. an inspiratory increase on the right and a concomitant decrease
cardiac tamponade, when the overall volume of cardiac chambers on the left—the proximate cause of pulsus paradoxus. Except in
becomes fixed and any change in the volume of one side of the heart low-pressure tamponade, diastolic pressures throughout the heart
causes the opposite changes in the other side (i.e. inspiratory in- are usually in the range of 15–30 mmHg.
crease of venous return and right chambers with decreased volume The treatment of cardiac tamponade involves drainage of the peri-
of left chambers and reduced systemic blood pressure). The magni- cardial fluid, preferably by needle pericardiocentesis, with the use of
tude of clinical and haemodynamic abnormalities depends on the echocardiographic or fluoroscopic guidance, and should be per-
rate of accumulation and amount of pericardial contents, the disten- formed without delay in unstable patients. Alternatively, drainage is
sibility of the pericardium and the filling pressures and compliance of performed by a surgical approach, especially in some situations
the cardiac chambers (Web Figure 3). Various causes for cardiac tam- such as purulent pericarditis or in urgent situations with bleeding
ponade are listed in Table 9. into the pericardium. A triage system (Web Figure 4) has been pro-
The stiffness of the pericardium determines fluid increments pre- posed by the ESC Working Group on Myocardial and Pericardial Dis-
cipitating tamponade, as illustrated by characteristic pericardial eases in order to guide the timing of the intervention and the
possibility of transferring the patient to a referral centre.84 This triage
Table 9 Causes of cardiac tamponade system is essentially based on expert consensus and requires add-
itional validation in order to be recommended in clinical practice.
Common causes:
• Pericarditis Recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of
• Tuberculosis
cardiac tamponade
• Iatrogenic (invasive procedure-related, post-cardiac surgery)
• Trauma
• Neoplasm/malignancy
Uncommon causes:
• Collagen vascular diseases (systemic lupus erythematosus, In a patient with clinical suspicion of
rheumatoid arthritis, scleroderma) cardiac tamponade, echocardiography is
• Radiation induced recommended as the first imaging
I C
• Postmyocardial infarction technique to evaluate the size, location
• Uraemia and degree of haemodynamic impact of
• Aortic dissection the pericardial effusion
• Bacterial infection
• Pneumopericardium Urgent pericardiocentesis or cardiac
surgery is recommended to treat cardiac I C
tamponade

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ESC Guidelines 2937
cases.94 Pericardiectomy is equally successful in those with and with-

A judicious clinical evaluation including
echocardiographic findings is
out increased pericardial thickness.
I C
recommended to guide the timing of
pericardiocentesis 3.7.2 Diagnosis
A diagnosis of constrictive pericarditis is based on the association of
A triage system may be considered to
guide the timing of pericardiocentesis IIb C signs and symptoms of right heart failure and impaired diastolic filling
(Web Figure 4) due to pericardial constriction by one or more imaging methods, includ-
Vasodilators and diuretics are not ing echocardiography,95 CT, CMR, and cardiac catheterization.2,3,96 The
recommended in the presence of III C main differential diagnosis is with restrictive cardiomyopathy (Table 10).
cardiac tamponade
a
Recommendations for the diagnosis of constrictive
b
Level of evidence.
pericarditis
c

Transthoracic echocardiography is
3.7 Constrictive pericarditis recommended in all patients with I C
Constrictive pericarditis can occur after virtually any pericardial dis- suspected constrictive pericarditis
ease process, but only rarely follows recurrent pericarditis.37 The Chest X-ray (frontal and lateral views)
risk of progression is especially related to the aetiology: low with adequate technical characteristics is
I C
(,1%) in viral and idiopathic pericarditis, intermediate (2 – 5%) in recommended in all patients with
suspected constrictive pericarditis
immune-mediated pericarditis and neoplastic pericardial diseases
and high (20 –30%) in bacterial pericarditis, especially purulent peri- CT and/or CMR are indicated as
carditis.36 A few large historical series of patients with constrictive second-level imaging techniques to
assess calcifications (CT), pericardial I C
pericarditis have been described from tertiary referral centres thickness, degree and extension of
(Stanford, Mayo Clinic, Cleveland Clinic and Groote Schuur Hos- pericardial involvement
pital) reporting cases after pericardiectomy (Web Table 4).90 – 93
Cardiac catheterization is indicated
The most common reported causes in developed countries were when non-invasive diagnostic methods
I C
idiopathic or viral (42– 49%), post-cardiac surgery (11–37%), post- do not provide a definite diagnosis of
radiation therapy (9–31%) (mostly for Hodgkin’s disease or breast constriction
cancer), connective tissue disorder (3–7%), post-infectious causes
(TB or purulent pericarditis in 3 – 6%) and miscellaneous causes CMR ¼ cardiac magnetic resonance; CT ¼ computed tomography.
a
(malignancy, trauma, drug-induced, asbestosis, sarcoidosis, uraemic Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
pericarditis in ,10%). TB is now only a rare cause of constrictive c
pericarditis in developed countries, while it is a major cause in devel-
oping countries.93 However, this disorder may be increasing among
immigrants from underdeveloped nations and patients with HIV 3.7.3 Therapy
infection. Although the mainstay of treatment of chronic permanent cases is
surgery, medical therapy may have a role in at least three conditions.
3.7.1 Clinical presentation First, medical therapy of specific aetiologies (i.e. tuberculous peri-
Constrictive pericarditis is characterized by impaired diastolic carditis) may be useful to prevent the progression to constriction.
filling of the ventricles due to pericardial disease. The classic clin- Antituberculosis antibiotics may significantly reduce the risk of con-
ical picture is characterized by signs and symptoms of right heart striction from .80% to ,10%.79,97
failure with preserved right and left ventricular function in the ab- Second, medical therapy (generally based on anti-inflammatory
sence of previous or concomitant myocardial disease or advanced drugs) may solve the transient constriction occurring in 10 – 20%
forms. Patients complain about fatigue, peripheral oedema, breath- of cases within a few months, generally as a temporary phenomenon
lessness and abdominal swelling. The delay between the initial during the resolution of pericarditis.51,98,99 The detection of ele-
pericardial inflammation and the onset of constriction is variable vated CRP and imaging evidence of pericardial inflammation by con-
and is possibly a direct evolution from subacute/chronic pericardi- trast enhancement on CT and/or CMR may be helpful to identify
tis to constrictive pericarditis.36 Venous congestion, hepatomeg- patients with potentially reversible forms of constriction where em-
aly, pleural effusions and ascites may occur. Haemodynamic piric anti-inflammatory therapy should be considered and may pre-
impairment of the patient can be additionally aggravated by a sys- vent the need for pericardiectomy.100
tolic dysfunction due to myocardial fibrosis or atrophy in more ad- Third, medical therapy is supportive and aimed at controlling
vanced cases. symptoms of congestion in advanced cases and when surgery is con-
Although classic and advanced cases show prominent pericardial traindicated or at high risk. In these cases, medical therapy should
thickening and calcifications in chronic forms, constriction may also never delay surgery, if this option is feasible, because advanced cases
be present with normal pericardial thickness in up to 20% of the have a higher mortality and a worse prognosis if surgery is delayed.51

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2938 ESC Guidelines
Table 10 Constrictive pericarditis vs. restrictive cardiomyopathy: a brief overview of features for the differential
diagnosis (Modified from Imazio et al.51)
Diagnostic
Constrictive pericarditis Restrictive cardiomyopathy
evaluation
Regurgitant murmur, Kussmaul sign may be present, S3
(advanced).
ECG Low voltages, pseudoinfarction, possible widening of QRS,
Echocardiography • Septal bounce. • Small left ventricle with large atria, possible increased wall
•P thickness.
• Respiratory variation of the mitral peak E velocity of >25% • E/A ratio >2, short DT.
and variation in the pulmonar •
• w propagation velocity (Vp) >45 cm/sec. • w propagation velocity (Vp) <45 cm/sec.
• Tissue Doppler: peak e' >8.0 cm/s. • Tissue Doppler: peak e' <8.0 cm/s.
Cardiac ‘Dip and plateau’ or ‘square root’ sign, right ventricular diastolic, and left Marked right ventricular systolic hypertension
Catheterization ventricular diastolic pressures usually equal, ventricular interdependence (>50 mmHg) and left ventricular diastolic pressure exceeds
(i.e. assessed by the systolic area index >1.1).a right ventricular diastolic pressure (LVEDP >RVEDP)
at rest or during exercise by 5 mmHg or more
(RVEDP <1/3 RVSP).
CT/CMR Normal pericardial thickness (<3.0 mm), myocardial
interdependence (real-time cine CMR). involvement by morphology and functional study (CMR).
CMR ¼ cardiac magnetic resonance; CT ¼ computed tomography; DT¼ deceleration time; ECG ¼ electrocardiogram; LVEDP ¼ left ventricular end-diastolic pressure;
RVEDP¼ right ventricular end-diastolic pressure; RVSP ¼ right ventricular systolic pressure; S3 ¼ third sound. Kussmaul sign is a paradoxical rise in jugular venous pressure on
inspiration.
a
The systolic area index was defined as the ratio of the RV area (mmHg x s) to the LV area (mmHg x s) in inspiration versus expiration.96
Specific diagnostic echocardiographic criteria for the diagnosis of constrictive pericarditis has been recently proposed by the Mayo Clinic and include: septal bounce or ventricular
septal shift with either medial e′ .8 cm/s or hepatic vein expiratory diastolic reversal ratio .0.78 (sensitivity 87%, specificity 91%; specificity may increase to 97% if all criteria are
present with a correspondent decrease of sensitivity to 64%.95
Table 11 Definitions and therapy of main constrictive pericardial syndromes (adapted from Imazio et al.51)
Syndrome Therapy
Transient constriction (d.d. permanent constrictive Reversible pattern of constriction following
pericarditis, restrictive CMP). spontaneous recovery or medical therapy. medical therapy.
Effusive-constrictive pericarditis (d.d. cardiac Failure of the right atrial pressure to fall by 50% or Pericardiocentesis followed by medical therapy.
tamponade, constrictive pericarditis). to a level below 10 mmHg after pericardiocentesis. Surgery for persistent cases.
May be diagnosed also by non-invasive imaging.
Chronic constriction (d.d. transient constriction, Persistent constriction after 3–6 months. Pericardiectomy, medical therapy for advanced
restrictive CMP). cases or high risk of surgery or mixed forms with
myocardial involvement.
CMP ¼ cardiomyopathy; d.d. ¼ differential diagnosis.
3.7.4 Specific forms therapy within several weeks.98,99 The typical clinical course im-
The classic description of chronic permanent constrictive pericardi- plies the presence of acute inflammatory pericarditis with con-
tis has been challenged by specific forms of constrictive syndromes striction due to inflammation, which resolves once the
(i.e. transient constriction, effusive-constrictive forms). Definitions, inflammatory process is treated.98,99 Thus, in the absence of evi-
main differential diagnoses and treatment of the main constrictive dence that the condition is chronic (e.g. cachexia, atrial fibrillation,
pericardial syndromes are summarized in Table 11.51 hepatic dysfunction or pericardial calcification), patients with
newly diagnosed constrictive pericarditis who are haemodynam-
3.7.4.1 Transient constrictive pericarditis ically stable may be given a trial of conservative management
A temporary form of constriction usually develops with pericar- for 2 – 3 months before recommending pericardiectomy. Since
ditis and mild effusion and resolves with anti-inflammatory the inflamed pericardium is enhanced on CT and/or CMR,

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ESC Guidelines 2939
multimodality imaging with CT and CMR may be helpful to detect 3.7.4.3 Chronic constrictive pericarditis
pericardial inflammation.2,3,100 Pericardiectomy is the accepted standard of treatment in patients
with chronic constrictive pericarditis who have persistent and
prominent symptoms such as NYHA class III or IV. However, sur-
3.7.4.2 Effusive-constrictive pericarditis
gery should be considered cautiously in patients with either mild
The pericardial cavity is typically obliterated in patients with
or very advanced disease and in those with radiation-induced con-
constrictive pericarditis. Thus even the normal amount of peri-
striction, myocardial dysfunction or significant renal dysfunction.
cardial fluid is absent. However, pericardial effusion may be pre-
Surgical removal of the pericardium has a significant operative mor-
sent in some cases. In this setting, the scarred pericardium not
tality ranging from 6 to 12%.103 – 105 Pericardiectomy must be as
only constricts the cardiac volume, but can also put pericardial
complete as is technically feasible and should be performed by ex-
fluid under increased pressure, leading to signs suggestive of car-
perienced surgeons. Referral to a centre with a special interest in
diac tamponade. This combination is called effusive-constrictive
pericardial disease may be warranted in centres with limited experi-
pericarditis.101
ence in this surgery.
Effusive-constrictive pericarditis appears to be relatively uncom-
Patients with ‘end-stage’ constrictive pericarditis derive little or
mon in developing countries, with only limited published data.101
no benefit from pericardiectomy, and the operative risk is inordin-
Most cases of effusive-constrictive pericarditis in developed coun-
ately high. Manifestations of end-stage disease include cachexia, at-
tries are idiopathic, reflecting the frequency of idiopathic pericar-
rial fibrillation, a low cardiac output (cardiac index ,1.2 l/m2/min)
dial disease in general. However, TB is the most common cause in
at rest, hypoalbuminaemia due to protein-losing enteropathy and/or
developing countries.102 Other reported causes include radiation,
impaired hepatic function due to chronic congestion or cardiogenic
neoplasia, chemotherapy, infection (especially TB and purulent
cirrhosis.
forms) and post-surgical pericardial disease.102
Prior ionizing radiation is associated with a poor long-term out-
Patients with effusive-constrictive pericarditis usually have clin-
come, because it induces cardiomyopathy as well as pericardial dis-
ical features of pericardial effusion or constrictive pericarditis, or
ease. Predictors of poor overall survival are prior radiation, worse
both. The diagnosis of effusive-constrictive pericarditis often
renal function, higher pulmonary artery systolic pressure, abnormal
becomes apparent during pericardiocentesis in patients initially
left ventricular systolic function, lower serum sodium level and older
considered to have uncomplicated cardiac tamponade. 101 For
age. Pericardial calcification had no impact on survival.103 – 105 Sur-
these reasons, it is recommended that intrapericardial pressures,
vival after radical pericardiectomy in patients with Child – Pugh
right heart pressures and systemic arterial blood pressure are
(CP) B or C (CP score ≥7) was reported to be significantly worse
monitored during elective pericardiocentesis whenever possible.
than in patients with CP-A. In multivariable analysis, a CP score ≥7,
A persistently elevated right atrial pressure after efficient peri-
mediastinal irradiation, age and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) iden-
cardiocentesis may also be due to right heart failure or tricuspid
tified an increased risk of death after radical pericardiectomy.106 On
regurgitation.
this basis, it seems appropriate to apply the CP scoring system for
However, non-invasive imaging may be equally useful for the diag-
the prediction of mortality after radical pericardiectomy in patients
nosis of effusive-constrictive pericarditis.102 The epicardial layer of
with constrictive pericarditis.
pericardium, which is responsible for the constrictive component
of this process, is not typically thickened to a degree that is detect-
able on imaging studies. Nevertheless, careful detection of Doppler Recommendations for therapy of constrictive
findings of constriction can be reported following pericardiocen- pericarditis
tesis for cardiac tamponade, and effusive-constrictive pericarditis
can also be suspected in these cases without haemodynamic mon- Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref.c
itoring. Useful data may also be provided by CMR. The utility of
The mainstay of treatment of chronic
CMR in constrictive pericardial disease is well established, providing permanent constriction is I C
the opportunity not only to evaluate pericardial thickness, cardiac pericardiectomy
morphology and function, but also for imaging intrathoracic cavity Medical therapy of specific pericarditis (i.e.
structures, allowing the differentiation of constrictive pericarditis tuberculous pericarditis) is recommended I C
from restrictive cardiomyopathy. Assessment of ventricular coup- to prevent the progression of constriction
ling with real-time cine magnetic resonance during free breathing al- Empiric anti-inflammatory therapy may be
lows an accurate evaluation of ventricular interdependence and considered in cases with transient or new
diagnosis of constriction with concomitant
septal bounce.2,3 evidence of pericardial inflammation (i.e.
IIb C
Since it is the visceral layer of pericardium and not the parietal CRP elevation or pericardial enhancement
layer that constricts the heart, visceral pericardiectomy must be on CT/CMR)
performed. However, the visceral component of the pericardiect-
omy is often difficult, requiring sharp dissection of many small frag- CMR ¼ cardiac magnetic resonance; CRP ¼ C-reactive protein; CT ¼
ments until an improvement in ventricular motion is observed. Thus computed tomography.
a
pericardiectomy for effusive-constrictive pericarditis should be per- b
Level of evidence.
formed only at centres with experience in pericardiectomy for con- c
strictive pericarditis.101

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2940 ESC Guidelines
4. Multimodality cardiovascular CT’), although in patients with neoplastic, inflammatory or aortic

disease it may encompass the chest entirely and possibly also include
imaging and diagnostic work-up the abdomen and pelvis.108,109 Low-radiation cardiac CT is feasible
using prospective electrocardiographic triggering.108,109 Although
4.1 Multimodality imaging the functional consequences of pericardial disease on the heart
4.1.1 Chest X-ray can be evaluated by CT—at the expense of significantly higher radi-
Although chest X-ray can detect pericardial calcifications, presentation doses—echocardiography and CMR are more appropriate for
ing as a curvilinear density at the extreme margin of the silhouette, assessing this feature. Intravenous administration of iodinated con-
particularly on the lateral view,107 other techniques (i.e. echocardi- trast material is recommended to increase the density of blood
ography, CT) yield much greater accuracy in assessing the heart and and to depict pericardial inflammation. The normal pericardium is
lungs, providing information with regard to cardiac size and the pres- visible as a thin curvilinear structure surrounded by the hypodense
ence of pulmonary pathology (e.g., pulmonary congestion, pneumo- mediastinal and epicardial fat, and has a thickness ranging from 0.7 to
nia, TB, lung cancer), pleural effusion and hilar and mediastinal 2.0 mm. The pericardial sinuses and their respective recesses are
enlargement. visible, in particular when they contain small amounts of pericardial
fluid. The main CT findings in pericardial effusion and pericarditis are
4.1.2 Echocardiography
summarized in Table 12.41,108,109
Transthoracic echocardiography is the first-line imaging test in pa-
In patients with neoplastic disease, pericardial involvement may
tients with suspected pericardial disease, because it accurately de-
occur by direct tumour invasion or metastatic spread. CT is import-
tects pericardial effusion and cardiac tamponade, as well as
ant in treatment planning and patient follow-up. The diagnosis of
ventricular dysfunction due to myocardial involvement.2,3 Although
(congenital) pericardial cysts—presenting as well-defined, fluid-
patients with purely fibrinous acute pericarditis may have a normal
dense structures along the left or right heart border—as well as
echocardiogram, the presence of a pericardial effusion is consistent
the differential diagnosis with other cystic structures, such as bron-
with acute pericarditis and is one of the criteria for its diagno-
chogenic or duplication cysts, is usually straightforward. Finally, CT
sis.2,5,6,10,11 Echocardiography may help to differentiate acute peri-
can be helpful to establish the diagnosis in congenital absence of the
carditis from myocardial ischaemia by excluding wall motion
pericardium by showing displacement of cardiac structures through
abnormalities consistent with coronary flow distribution in the set-
the pericardial defect. CT is also essential in the preoperative work-
ting of patients with acute chest pain. However, 5% of patients
up of some patients with constrictive pericarditis, especially to de-
with acute pericarditis and myocardial involvement may demon-
pict the extension of calcifications and for those with a history of
strate wall motion abnormalities.
prior cardiothoracic surgery.109
Clinically, two-dimensional echocardiography with Doppler pro-
vides the most cost-effective way of diagnosing pericardial effusion
and assessing its haemodynamic significance.48 The size of pericar- 4.1.4 Cardiac magnetic resonance
dial effusion on two-dimensional echocardiography is qualitatively Over the years, CMR has shifted from a morphologic imaging mo-
assessed by the end-diastolic distance of the echo-free space be- dality towards a comprehensive one, allowing visualization and tis-
tween the epicardium and parietal pericardium: small (,10 mm), sue characterization of the pericardium (and heart) in patients
moderate (10–20 mm), large (.20 mm) (Web Figure 2).48 with pericardial disease and appraisal of the consequences of peri-
In order to allow follow-up studies, it is recommended that the cardial abnormalities on cardiac function and filling patterns.110,111
images be documented digitally and the effusion size described in As such, it is probably the preferred imaging modality to optimally
a detailed way in the echocardiographic report, including not only assess pericardial disease.112,113 Cardiac and pericardial morph-
the extent, but also the location of each measurement. However, ology are evaluated by dark-blood T1-weighted fast spin-echo and
the haemodynamic tolerance is more related to the rapidity of ap- bright-blood cine steady-state free-precession (SSFP) imaging.
pearance of the effusion than to its total volume.48,80 Cine SSFP imaging has become the reference sequence to assess
Loculated pericardial effusions or pericardial effusions that con- and quantify cardiac volumes, myocardial mass and ventricular func-
tain clots (e.g. after cardiac surgery) may be difficult to diagnose tion. When acquired in real-time, this sequence can be used to as-
using a transthoracic approach and may require transoesophageal sess ventricular coupling by assessing the changes in ventricular
echocardiography.3,4 Specific findings in pericardial syndromes are septal shape and motion over the respiratory cycle.109,110 Tissue
discussed in the pertinent paragraphs. characterization of the heart and pericardium is achieved by dark-
blood T1-weighted and dark-blood T2-weighted, short-tau
4.1.3 Computed tomography inversion-recovery (STIR) spin-echo imaging, cine SSFP imaging
CT should be regarded as a valuable complementary imaging modal- and T1-weighted contrast-enhanced and/or late contrast-enhanced
ity to echocardiography.3,4,41,108,109 CT is the most accurate tech- (LCE) imaging following intravenous administration of paramagnetic
nique to image calcified tissue.2,3 Current multidetector CT gadolinium chelates.3,4,114 The LCE sequence uses an inversion-
scanners combine acquisition speed, high contrast and spatial reso- recovery pre-pulse to increase image contrast and is well suited
lution with volumetric scanning to provide excellent anatomical de- to visualize pericardial inflammation.114,115
tail of the heart and pericardium. The anatomical region of interest Ventricular inflow and venous flow patterns can be evaluated
covered by CT can be limited to the heart and pericardium (‘cardiac using phase contrast imaging. 111 Similar to CT, the normal

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ESC Guidelines 2941
Table 12 Diagnostic contribution of the different imaging modalities in various pericardial diseases
Echocardiography Computerized tomography Cardiac magnetic resonance

Acute - veral patients - thickened pericardial layers enhancing after contrast - thickened pericardial layers
pericarditis - thick administration - strong pericardial LGE following contrast
- variable amount of pericar - abnormalities involving entire pericardium administration
- variable amount of pericar - variable amount of pericar
- wall motion abnormalities in myo-pericarditis
- (subepicardial/mid-wall) myocardial LGE
in cases of myopericarditis.
- inspirator
on real-time cine CMR, due to
decreased pericardial compliance
Recurrent - ditis - ditis - ditis
pericarditis - possibl - possibly heterogeneous distribution due
adhesions otic adhesions.
- ir - ir
deformation)
Constrictive - thick - thickened pericardial layers ± pericardial - thickened pericardial layers
pericarditis - pericar
- ± ascites - thickening may be mild to moderate - thickening may be mild to moderate
- dilated atria - abnormalities usually most pronounced at the - abnormalities usually most pronounced
- inspiratory ventricular septal motion toward left base of the ventricles (RV>LV), atrioventricular at the base of the ventricles (RV>LV),
ventricle (septal bounce) best documented with grooves and atria atrioventricular grooves and atria
M-mode - - pericar
- marked dilation and absent or diminished adjacent myocardium
collapse of the IVC and hepatic veins - compression of cardiac contents by rigid, - possibl
- premature opening of the pulmonary valve deformed pericardium adjacent myocardium
-r - abnormal shape of ventricular septum - compression of cardiac contents by rigid,
- dilated atria, caval/hepatic veins deformed pericardium
- w velocity and hepatic congestion - dilated atria, caval/hepatic veins
>40 % incr - contrast reversal in caval/hepatic veins
beat after inspiration; - ± ascites
- opposite changes during expiration; - ± ascites - increased ventricular coupling assessed
- normal or increased propagation velocity of - atypical presentations by real-time cine CMR and/or real-time
earl *focal constrictive forms phase-contrast imaging
M-mode *effusive-constrictive forms - otic adhesion of pericardial layers on
- decreased expiratory diastolic hepatic vein CMR tagging
velocities with large reversals - atypical presentations
- normal or increased mitral annular *focal constrictive forms
velocity (>7 cm/sec) at tissue Doppler *effusive-constrictive forms
- annulus reversus (e’ septal >e’ lateral)
Pericardial - ulation in pericardial sac and/or - ulation in pericardial sac and/or - ulation in pericardial sac and/
effusion pericardial sinuses pericardial sinuses or pericardial sinuses
- pericardial echolucent space throughout - pericardial width >4 mm regarded as abnormal - pericardial width >4 mm regarded as
cardiac cycle
- - advantageous to depict focal effusions and to - advantageous to depict focal effusions
- semi-quantitative assessment of effusion pr and to precisely quantitate the amount
severity - atten
yield inf - combination of sequences with different
*simple effusion: 0–20 HU ‘weighting’ yield information with regard
*proteinaceous/haemorrhagic: >20 HU to the nature of the effusion
*if very high HU, suspect intrapericardial leakage - pericardial layers have normal thickness,
of contrast (e.g. ruptured aortic dissection) *if thickened and enhancing suspect
*chylopericardium: negative HU values
*pneumopericar - advantageous to evaluate the remainder
center settings) of the heart:
- pericardial layers have normal thickness, *myocardial tissue characterisation
*if thickened and enhancing: suspect (oedema,
osis)
*if thick *myocardial/valvular function
pericarditis w patterns
- may be associated with pericardial tamponade - may be associated with pericardial
- CT of the heart may be part of a more extended tamponade
examination including the remainder of the chest
± abdomen
Cardiac - semi-quantitative assessment of effusion severity
tamponade -
- assessment of its haemodynamic impact
- guide and monitoring pericardiocentesis
- re-evaluation for timing catheter removal
CMR ¼ cardiac magnetic resonance; CT ¼ computed tomography; HU ¼ Hounsfield units; IVC ¼ inferior vena cava; LGE¼ late gadolinium enhancement; LV ¼ left ventricle;
RV ¼ right ventricle.

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2942 ESC Guidelines
pericardium appears on T1-weighted imaging as a thin hypointense In cardiac tamponade, the right atrial pressure waveform has an
(‘dark’) curvilinear structure surrounded by hyperintense (‘bright’) attenuated or an absent Y-descent. Absent Y-descent is secondary
mediastinal and epicardial fat. Normal pericardial thickness ranges to diastolic equalization of pressures in the right atrium and right
from 1.2 to 1.7 mm. The imaging characteristics of pericardial effu- ventricle and lack of effective flow across the tricuspid valve in early
sion and pericarditis at CMR are shown in Table 12. It should be em- ventricular diastole. Also, equalization of mean right atrial, right ven-
phasized that CMR can accurately distinguish between mixed tricular and pulmonary artery diastolic pressures and mean pulmon-
myopericardial diseases such as mixed inflammatory forms (e.g. ary capillary wedge pressures can be present. Other haemodynamic
myopericarditis or perimyocarditis) and post-myocardial infarction abnormalities include elevation of filling pressures in all four cardiac
pericardial injury.116,117 In patients with constrictive pericarditis, chambers, right ventricle and left ventricle peak systolic pressures
CMR is particularly important in the diagnosis of atypical presenta- out of phase, peak aortic pressure varying more than 10 – 12
tions, such as those with minimally thickened pericardium or mmHg and a decrease in cardiac output.126,127
effusive-constrictive pericarditis, and those with potentially revers- The differentiation of constrictive pericarditis from restrictive
ible or transient forms of constrictive pericarditis, showing enhance- cardiomyopathy remains difficult. Visualization of the pericardium
ment of the pericardial layers at LCE imaging.115,118,119 Compared by CT or CMR may help in detecting an abnormal pericardium.
with CT, CMR has the advantage of providing information with re- But these tests provide anatomical information and do not necessar-
gard to the haemodynamic consequences of the non-compliant ily reflect the pathophysiological abnormality present. Also, patients
pericardium on cardiac filling,109 – 111 and has the potential of show- with surgically proven constrictive pericarditis may have a normal-
ing fibrotic fusion of pericardial layers.120 appearing pericardium on imaging studies. Alternatively patients
In patients with congenital pericardial pathology and pericardial may have abnormal pericardial thickness in the absence of constric-
malignancy, CMR shares the advantages of CT, but allows better tis- tion, especially after radiation therapy or prior cardiac surgery. Clas-
sue characterization and the possibility of evaluating the functional sically, direct measurements of pressures show M- or W-shaped
consequences.121 Moreover, novel techniques, such as diffusion- atrial pressure waveforms and ‘square root’ or ‘dip-and-plateau’
weighted and dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance right ventricular pressure waveforms, reflecting impaired ventricular
imaging, open perspectives for improved tissue characterization in filling. End-diastolic pressure equalization (typically within 5 mmHg)
patients with pericardial tumours.122 occurs between these cardiac chambers in constrictive pericarditis
because of the fixed and limited space within the thickened and stiff
4.1.5 Nuclear medicine pericardium. Pulmonary artery systolic pressures are usually normal
In selected cases, positron emission tomography (PET) alone, or in pericardial constriction; higher pulmonary pressures suggest a re-
preferably in combination with CT (PET/CT), can be indicated to strictive cardiomyopathy.126
depict the metabolic activity of pericardial disease. Pericardial up- Recently a novel haemodynamic parameter has been tested to
take of 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) tracer in patients with solid differentiate both entities.96 Specifically, the ratio of the right ven-
cancers and lymphoma is indicative of (malignant) pericardial in- tricular to left ventricular systolic pressure–time area during inspir-
volvement, thus providing essential information on the diagnosis, ation versus expiration (systolic area index) was used as a
staging and assessment of the therapeutic response.123 The uptake measurement of enhanced ventricular interaction. In patients with
is usually intense and often associated with a focal soft tissue surgically documented constrictive pericarditis, during inspiration
mass.124 PET/CT is also of value in identifying the nature of inflam- there is an increase in the area of the right ventricular pressure curve
matory pericarditis. In particular, tuberculous pericarditis yields compared with expiration. The area of the left ventricular pressure
higher FDG uptakes than idiopathic forms.125 However, differenti- curve decreases during inspiration as compared with expiration. In
ation between benign and malignant pericardial disease, as well as contrast, patients with restrictive myocardial disease documented
differentiation between physiological and pathological cardiac by endomyocardial biopsy usually present a decrease in the area
FDG uptake by PET/CT, remains challenging.123 of the right ventricular pressure curve during inspiration as com-
pared with expiration. The area of the left ventricular pressure curve
4.1.6 Cardiac catheterization is unchanged during inspiration as compared with expiration. This
Cardiac catheterization is not routinely used for the diagnosis of systolic area index presented a 97% sensitivity and 100% predictive
pericardial disease, as current non-invasive techniques are usually accuracy for identifying patients with surgically proven constrictive
able to solve the differential diagnosis of a patient with the suspicion pericarditis.96
of heart disease involving the pericardium. However, right heart
catheterization may be useful in certain circumstances. Early recog- 4.1.7 Multimodality imaging
nition of abnormal haemodynamics related to cardiac tamponade Echocardiography, cardiac CT and CMR are often used as comple-
during invasive procedures (i.e. epicardial ablation, percutaneous mentary imaging modalities (Table 13). The choice of one or mul-
aortic valve implantation, complex angioplasty or complex proce- tiple imaging modalities is driven by the clinical context or
dures involving trans-septal punctures, among others) may help condition of the patient. A modern approach for the management
avoid serious consequences for the patient. In addition, the differen- of pericardial diseases should include the integration of different im-
tiation between constrictive pericarditis and restrictive cardiomyop- aging modalities in order to improve the diagnostic accuracy and
athy is sometimes difficult and may require an invasive test. clinical management of patients.2,3

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ESC Guidelines 2943
The epidemiological background is essential to develop a rational

Table 13 Comparison of non-invasive imaging cost-effective management programme and the clinician should es-
modalities to study the pericardium pecially identify causes that require targeted therapies.4,5,51,128 – 130
The approach may be different for research, when we attempt to
TTE CT CMR reduce the number of ‘idiopathic’ cases. The diagnosis of idiopathic
Technical aspects cases is essentially an exclusion diagnosis, supported by a typical
clinical course.
Availability +++ ++ +
On this basis, auscultation, ECG, echocardiography, chest X-ray,
Cost Low Moderate High routine blood tests, including markers of inflammation (i.e.,
Exam duration (minutes) 15–30 10 30–40 CRP and/or ESR) and myocardial lesions (CK, troponins), are
a
recommended in all cases of suspected pericarditis. Additional
Safety +++ + ++b
testing should be related to the suspected origin and clinical
Pt access and monitoring +++ ++ +/- presentation.5,6,128 – 130
Pericardium
The major specific causes to be ruled out are bacterial pericar-
ditis (especially TB), neoplastic pericarditis and pericarditis asso-
Pericardial thickness +/- +++ +++ ciated with a systemic disease (generally an autoimmune disease)
+ +++ - (Web Table 5). 9,77,129 – 131 Each of these specific causes has a
frequency of 5% of all unselected cases of pericarditis from
+/- ++ +++
developed countries (Web Table 5),9,77,129 – 131 while frequencies
Motion layers (adhesions) ++ + +++ increase in moderate to large pericardial effusions (Web
Effusion detection ++ +++ +++ Table 3). 8,74 – 78 Emerging additional causes include iatrogenic
ones (percutaneous coronary interventions, pacemaker insertion,
Effusion characterization + ++ ++
catheter ablation). 132 The aetiological spectrum is different in
Pericardial masses + +/++ ++/+++ developing countries with a high prevalence of TB (e.g. 70 – 80%
Guiding/monitoring of pericarditis in sub-Saharan Africa, and often associated with
+++ - - HIV infection).52,79
pericardiocentesis
Certain clinical features at presentation may be associated with
Cardiac morphology
an increased risk of specific aetiologies (non-viral or non-
(Including tissue idiopathic) and complications during follow-up (recurrences,
++ ++ +++
characterization)
tamponade, constriction) and are suggested as ‘high-risk features’
Cardiac function useful for the triage of pericarditis to establish the need for a full
Systolic +++ ++c +++
aetiological search and admission in a single patient (Figure 1, Web
Table 6).8,9 Factors indicated as ‘major’ have been validated by
Diastolic function +++ - ++ multivariate analysis, while factors indicated as ‘minor’ are based
Septal motion (coupling) +++ +/- +++ on expert opinion and literature review:9 they are essentially the-
oretical risk factors for complications and suggest the indication
Respiratory changes ++ +/- ++
for admission and close monitoring of the evolution. Major risk
factors include fever .388C [hazard ratio (HR) 3.56], subacute
CMR ¼ cardiac magnetic resonance magnetic resonance; CT ¼ computed
course (symptoms developing over several days or weeks; HR
tomography; ECG ¼ electrocardiogram; TTE ¼ transthoracic echocardiography.
(-) not possible or poor; (+) moderate; (+ +) good; (+ + +) excellent. 3.97), large pericardial effusion (diastolic echo-free space
a
Ionizing radiation, potential nephrotoxicity of contrast medium, allergic reactions .20 mm in width) or cardiac tamponade (HR 2.15) and failure
to contrast.
b of aspirin or NSAIDs (HR 2.50).9 Large effusion and tamponade
Patients with metallic implants, claustrophobia, potential nephrotoxicity of
contrast medium, allergic reactions to contrast, restricted only to (HR 2.51) and aspirin or NSAIDs failure (HR 5.50) also identify
haemodynamically stable patients. an increased risk of complications during follow-up (recurrences,
c
Use of ECG synchronized data acquisition.
tamponade, constriction).9 Minor risk factors are pericarditis as-
sociated with myocarditis, immunodepression, trauma and oral
anticoagulant therapy.
For patients with predictors of poor prognosis, major or min-
or (Figure 1), hospitalization and a full aetiological search are
4.2 Proposal for a general diagnostic warranted.5,6,8,9,128 In contrast, when these negative predictors
work-up are absent, patients are at low risk of specific causes and com-
In the management of pericardial syndromes, a major controversy plications, and outpatient management may be considered.8 This
is the role of an extensive aetiological search and admission for approach is safe without an excess of complications and new
all patients with pericarditis or pericardial effusion.1,4,6,51 unexpected diagnoses requiring a specific therapy. 8,9,128 The

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2944 ESC Guidelines
Table 14 First and second level investigations for Recommendations for the general diagnostic work-up
pericarditis of pericardial diseases
Level Investigation
1st level
(all cases) blood cell count). In all cases of suspected pericardial
Renal function and liver tests, thyroid function. disease a first diagnostic evaluation is
Markers of myocardial lesion (i.e. troponins, CK). recommended with
ECG – auscultation
Echocardiography – ECG
Chest X-ray – transthoracic echocardiography
2nd level CT and/or CMR – chest X-ray I C
(if 1st level – routine blood tests, including
not sufficient pericardiocentesis, or surgical drainage, for (i) markers of inflammation (i.e., CRP
for diagnostic cardiac tamponade or (ii) suspected bacterial, and/or ESR), white blood cell count
purposes) neoplastic pericarditis, or (iii) symptomatic with differential count, renal function
moderate to large effusions not responding to and liver tests and myocardial lesion
tests (CK, troponins)
aetiologies according to clinical presentation It is recommended to search for

(presence of high risk clinical criteria). independent predictors of an identifiable
and specifically treatable cause of
pericarditis (i.e. bacterial, neoplastic,
CK ¼ creatine kinase; CMR ¼ cardiac magnetic resonance; CRP ¼ C-reactive systemic inflammatory diseases). Major
protein; CT ¼ computed tomography; ECG ¼ electrocardiogram; ESR ¼ factors include
erythrocyte sedimentation rate.
– fever .388C
I B 8,9
– subacute course (symptoms
developing over several days or
weeks)
– large pericardial effusion (diastolic
echo-free space .20 mm in width)
– cardiac tamponade
– failure of aspirin or NSAIDs
Table 15 Main analyses to be performed on
CT and/or CMR are recommended as
pericardial fluid
second-level testing for diagnostic I C
workup in pericarditis
Analysis Test
Pericardiocentesis or surgical drainage
are indicated for cardiac tamponade or
I C
suspected bacterial and neoplastic
ratio >0.6a, blood cell count.
pericarditis
Cytology
Percutaneous or surgical pericardial
centrifugation, and rapid analysis improve
diagnostic yield). biopsy may be considered in selected
IIb C
cases of suspected neoplastic or
Polymerase chain PCR for TB. tuberculous pericarditis
reaction (PCR)
Further testing is indicated in high-risk
Microbiology Mycobacterium cultures, aerobic and
patients (defined as above) according to I C
anaerobic cultures.
the clinical conditions
LDH ¼ lactate dehydrogenase; TB ¼ tuberculosis.

a CK ¼ creatine kinase; CMR ¼ cardiac magnetic resonance; CRP ¼ C-reactive
High values of protein and LDH are commonly interpreted as an exudate, as in
protein; CT ¼ computed tomography; ECG ¼ electrocardiogram; ESR ¼
pleural fluid, but have not been validated for pericardial fluid.
erythrocyte sedimentation rate; NSAIDs ¼ non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.
a
b
Level of evidence.
c
same approach is also useful for patients with recurrences who

may generally be treated as outpatients, unless predictors of
poor prognosis are present or a specific cause can be ruled
5. Specific aetiologies of
out. With a clear diagnosis of idiopathic origin and a recurrence pericardial syndromes
course with complete symptom-free periods between the epi-
sodes, it is also unnecessary to repeat a new aetiological search 5.1 Viral pericarditis
at each recurrence unless new clinical features become evident. 5.1.2 Definition and clinical spectrum
First- and second-line general investigations are reported in the Most cases of acute pericarditis in developed countries are based on
recommendations and Tables 14 – 16. viral infections or are autoreactive.5,6,133 – 135 Acute viral pericarditis

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ESC Guidelines 2945
Table 16 Suggested diagnostic flowchart in some common conditions in high risk patients
a
Clinical condition Blood tests Imaging Others
Probable autoimmune - ANA, ENA, ANCA Consider PET if large vessel Specialist consultation may
condition (ACE and 24 h urinary arteritis (Horton or Takayasu) be useful. Hypereosinophilia
calcium or Sarcoidosis is suspected. (Churg Strauss), oral and
- if sarcoidosis is suspected) genital apthae (Behcet);
- Ferritin if Still disease is difference in blood
suspected. pressure between two
arms (Takayasu), dry eyes
(Sjögren, Sarcoidosis)
macroglossia (amyloidosis).
Probable TB IGRA test (i.e Quantiferon, Chest CT Scan - Acid-fast bacilli staining, - Culture and PCR in
ELISpot, etc). mycobacterium cultures, sputum and other
- PCR for genome.
Adenosine deaminase - Consider pericardial
>40 U/l, unstimulated biopsy.
IFN-gamma.
Probable neoplasm Chest and abdomen CT scan, Cytology (higher volumes of Consider pericardial biopsy.
consider PET.
analysis improve diagnostic
in the blood when serosal yield).Tumour markers
effusions are present). (e.g. CEA >5 ng/ml or
CYFRA 21–1 >100 ng/ml).
Probable viral infections - Genome search with PCR is Genome search with PCR Infectious specialist
now preferred to serology for consultation in case of
most virusesb. agents, e.g. enteroviruses, positivity.
- Consider serology for HCV adenoviruses, parvovirus
and HIV B19, HHV-6, CMV, EBVb.
Probable bacterial infections - Blood cultures before Chest CT scan - Aerobic and anaerobic Consider pericardial biopsy.
antibiotics. cultures.
- Serology for Coxiella burnetii - Glucose
if Q-fever is suspected.
- Serology for Borrelia spp. if
Lyme disease is suspected.
FMF and TRAPS mutations. Possible clues for TRAPS
conditions (periodic fevers) are familial forms and poor
response to colchicine.
Chronic pericardial effusion TSH. Renal function tests. Consider appropriate tests
for suspected neoplasms
and TB.
Probable constriction BNP (near-normal). Cardiac MR, chest CT scan, All the tests for suspected
biventricular catheterization. TB.
ACE ¼ angiotensin-converting enzyme; ANA ¼ anti-nuclear antibodies; ANCA ¼ anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibodies; BNP ¼ brain natriuretic peptide; CEA ¼
carcinoembryonic antigen; CMV ¼ cytomegalovirus; CT ¼ computed tomography; EBV ¼ Epstein-Barr virus; ENA ¼ anti-extractable nuclear antigens; FMF ¼ familial
Mediterranean fever; HCV ¼ hepatitis C virus; HHV ¼ human herpesvirus; HIV ¼ human immunodeficiency virus; IGRA ¼ interferon-gamma release assay; MR ¼ magnetic
resonance; PCR ¼ polymerase chain reaction; PET ¼ positron emission tomography; spp ¼ species; TB ¼ tuberculosis; TRAPS ¼ tumour necrosis factor receptor-associated
periodic syndrome; TSH ¼ thyroid stimulating hormone.
a
Consider storage of a sterile sample for further analyses.
b
See viral pericarditis section—at present, these investigations have no therapeutic or prognostic implications.
IGRAs are whole-blood tests that can aid in diagnosing Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. They do not help to differentiate latent TB infection from TB disease.
often presents as a self-limited disease, with most patients recover- herpesviruses). Persistence of viral nucleic acid without virus repli-
ing without complications.5,6,9,36 However, as a consequence of cation in the peri(myo)cardium is known to sustain ongoing inflam-
acute viral pericarditis, cardiac tamponade, recurrent pericarditis mation and effusions via (auto)immune processes directed against
and, more rarely, constrictive pericarditis may also develop.36 specific cardiac proteins by molecular mimicry.133
5.1.3 Pathogenesis 5.1.4 Diagnosis

Cardiotropic viruses can cause pericardial and myocardial inflamma- The definite diagnosis of viral pericarditis requires a comprehensive
tion via direct cytolytic or cytotoxic effects (e.g. enteroviruses) and/ workup of histological, cytological, immunohistological and molecu-
or via T and/or B cell – driven immune-mediated mechanisms (e.g. lar investigations in pericardial fluid and peri-/epicardial biopsies

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2946 ESC Guidelines
obtained in conjunction with pericardioscopy, permitting the evalu- oral valganciclovir in HHV-6 perimyocarditis, IFN-a for enteroviral
ation of possible algorithms for a causative therapy.133 In contrast, pericarditis).133 However, these treatments are still under evalu-
serological tests were found to be futile in the diagnosis of viral peri- ation and rarely used. Involvement of infectious disease specialists
carditis. Whereas no up-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokine is recommended. So far, no therapy is available to solve the problem
expression is noted in the serum, TNF-a, vascular endothelial of virus persistence and consecutive inflammation, particularly when
growth factor (VEGF), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), IL-6, induced by herpesviruses and parvovirus B19 infections.133 Import-
IL-8 and interferon-gamma (IFN-g) are increased in the pericardial antly, corticosteroids are generally not indicated in viral pericarditis,
effusions of patients with pericarditis, indicating the presence of lo- as they are known to reactivate many virus infections and thus lead
cal inflammatory reactions.134,135 Accordingly, there is no correl- to ongoing inflammation.133
ation of antiviral antibodies in the serum or virus isolation from
throat or rectal swabs with positive molecular polymerase chain re- Recommendations for the diagnosis and therapy of
action (PCR)/in situ hybridization analyses for the detection of car- viral pericarditis
diotropic viruses in pericardial tissue and fluid.136
5.1.5 Identification of viral nucleic acids Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref.c

Mainly by quantitative PCR techniques, nucleic acids of different For the definited diagnosis of viral
cardiotropic RNA and DNA viruses have been detected in pericarditis, a comprehensive workup of
epicardial and pericardial biopsies and the pericardial fluid of chil- histological, cytological,
immunohistological and molecular IIa C
dren and adults with acute pericarditis, but also in patients with re-
investigations in pericardial fluid and
curring and constrictive pericarditis. 133,137 Regarding RNA peri-/epicardial biopsies should be
viruses, various subtypes of enteroviruses including echoviruses considered
and coxsackieviruses of groups A (A4, A16) and B (CVB2, Routine viral serology is not
CVB3, CVB4) were identified in patients with acute and constrict- recommended, with the possible III C
ive pericarditis.137,138 Among the RNA viruses, influenza A viruses exception of HIV and HCV
(e.g. H1N1, H5N1, H3N2) and occasionally chikungunya virus, hu- Corticosteroid therapy is not
III C
man coronavirus NL-63, respiratory syncytial virus and dengue recommended in viral pericarditis
virus infections were suspected as aetiopathogenic agents in
pericarditis. HCV ¼ hepatitis C virus; HIV ¼ human immunodeficiency virus.
a
Compared with RNA viruses, nucleic acids of DNA viruses, in- Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
cluding parvovirus B19 and herpesviruses [Epstein – Barr virus c
(EBV) and human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6)], are present in pericardial d
In the absence of such an argument, the term ‘presumed viral pericarditis’
biopsies and pericardial fluid at greater frequencies and higher viral should be used.
DNA copy numbers.133 Whereas parvovirus B19, with up to 7 ×
106 GE/lg DNA was predominantly detected in epicardial tissue,
EBV was most frequently found in pericardial fluid.133 DNA of
varicella zoster virus, herpes simplex virus and adenoviruses is 5.2 Bacterial pericarditis
only rarely detected in pericarditis patients. Cytomegalovirus Bacterial pericarditis is relatively uncommon in clinical practice in
(CMV)-associated pericarditis is mainly found in immunocomprom- developed countries with a low prevalence of TB. Tuberculous peri-
ised and HIV patients.1 In developing countries with a delayed roll- carditis is the most common form all over the world and the most
out of antiretroviral therapy, HIV-associated inflammatory reactions common cause of pericardial diseases in developing countries. We
(often related to TB) of the pericardium and myocardium are com- will discuss this form and also purulent pericarditis, which is less
mon complications.139 However, at present these investigations are common.
usually not performed because of their complexity, cost, invasive na-
ture and low availability. 5.2.1 Tuberculous pericarditis
Tuberculous pericarditis accounts for ≤4% of pericardial disease in
5.1.6 Therapy the developed world.5,6,52. In contrast, TB is the cause of clinically
Acute viral pericarditis often presents as a self-limiting disease significant pericardial effusion in .90% of HIV-infected and 50 –
that responds well to a short course of treatment with NSAIDs, 70% of non-HIV-infected individuals who live in developing coun-
with the adjunct of colchicine, especially for prevention of tries where TB is endemic.77 The disease can occur at any age,
recurrences.4 – 6,50,58,59 The identification of specific viral signatures and men are affected more frequently than women.140 Clinical evi-
aids in understanding the pathogenetic mechanisms in pericarditis, dence of chronic cardiac compression mimicking congestive heart
and might enable an individualized aetiologically driven specific failure is the most common presentation.79,93 Clinical presentations
treatment approach to be established by distinguishing a viral aeti- are pericardial effusion, effusive-constrictive pericarditis and con-
ology from autoreactive inflammation.133 Some experts suggest strictive pericarditis. 79 Tuberculous pericarditis has a mortality
antiviral treatment similar to that for myocarditis (IVIG therapy in rate of 17– 40% at 6 months after diagnosis.141 It should be empha-
acute systemic enteroviral, CMV, EBV and parvovirus B19 infection, sized that the majority of the information on tuberculous

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ESC Guidelines 2947
pericarditis comes from endemic areas in underdeveloped coun- TB. Treatment for ≥9 months gives no better results and has the
tries and immunodepressed patients. The applicability of this infor- disadvantages of increased cost and increased risk of poor
mation to the Western world is questionable. compliance.143
The evolution towards constrictive pericarditis is a serious poten-
5.2.1.1 Diagnosis tial complication. Constriction generally develops within 6 months
A ‘definite’ diagnosis of tuberculous pericarditis is based on the of presentation with effusive pericarditis (effusive-constrictive peri-
presence of tubercle bacilli in the pericardial fluid or on histological carditis).79 Tuberculous pericardial constriction is almost always as-
section of the pericardium, by culture or by PCR (Xpert MTB/RIF) sociated with pericardial thickening. Prior to the introduction of
testing; a ‘probable’ diagnosis is made when there is proof of TB effective TB chemotherapy, up to 50% of patients with effusive tu-
elsewhere in a patient with unexplained pericarditis, a lymphocytic berculous pericarditis progressed to constriction. Rifampicin-based
pericardial exudate with elevated unstimulated interferon-gamma antituberculosis treatment reduced the incidence of constriction to
(uIFN-g), adenosine deaminase (ADA) or lysozyme levels and/or 17 –40%. Appropriate antibiotic therapy is essential to prevent this
an appropriate response to antituberculosis chemotherapy in en- progression.79,144 In addition, two interventions may reduce the in-
demic areas.79 uIFN-g offers superior accuracy for the diagnosis cidence of constriction: the first is intrapericardial urokinase145 and
of microbiologically confirmed tuberculous pericarditis compared second, the Investigation of the Management of Pericarditis (IMPI)
with the ADA assay and the Xpert MTB/RIF test.142 A protocol trial has shown that high-dose adjunctive prednisolone reduces
for the evaluation of suspected tuberculous pericardial effusion is the incidence of constrictive pericarditis by 46% regardless of HIV
proposed in Table 17. status.97
Adjunctive corticosteroid therapy with prednisolone for 6 weeks
5.2.1.2 Management had a neutral effect on the combined outcome of death from all
A regimen consisting of rifampicin, isoniazid, pyrazinamide and eth- causes, cardiac tamponade requiring pericardiocentesis or peri-
ambutol for at least 2 months followed by isoniazid and rifampicin cardial constriction; however, this therapy was associated with an
(total of 6 months of therapy) is effective in treating extrapulmonary increased risk of HIV-associated malignancies in the prednisolone-
Table 17 A step-wise protocol for the evaluation of suspected tuberculous pericarditis and pericardial effusion
Stage 1: Initial • Chest radiograph may reveal changes suggestive of pulmonary tuberculosis in 30% of cases.
non-invasive • Echocar
evaluation or a tuberculous aetiology.
• CT scan and/or MRI of the chest are alternative imaging modalities where available: look for evidence of pericardial effusion and
thickening (>3 mm), and typical mediastinal and tracheobronchial lymphadenopathy (>10 mm, hypodense centres, matting), with
sparing of hilar lymph nodes.
• Culture of sputum, gastric aspirate, and/or urine for Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) should be considered in all
patients.
• Scalene l
• Tuberculin skin test is not helpful in adults regardless of the background prevalence of tuberculosis.
• If pericar ≥6 based on the following criteria is highly suggestive of tuberculous
pericarditis in people living in endemic areas: fever (1), night sweats (1), weight loss (2), globulin level >40 g/L (3) and peripheral
leucocyte count <10x109 /L (3).
Stage 2: • Therapeutic pericardiocentesis is absolutely indicated in the presence of cardiac tamponade.

Pericardiocentesis • Diagnostic pericardiocentesis should be considered in all patients with suspected tuberculous pericarditis, and the following tests
perf
1. Dir
culture for M. tuberculosis.
2. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (Xpert MTB/RIF) testing for nucleic acids of M. tuberculosis.
3. Biochemical tests to distinguish betw
4. White cell analysis and count, and cytology: a lymphocytic exudate favours tuberculous pericarditis.
5. Indirect tests for tuberculous infection: interferon-gamma (IFN-y), adenosine deaminase (ADA), or lysozyme assay.
Stage 3: Pericardial • “Therapeutic” biopsy: as part of surgical drainage in patients with cardiac tamponade relapsing after pericardiocentesis or requiring
biopsy open drainage of pericar
medical therapy.
• Diagnostic biopsy: In areas where tuberculosis is endemic, a diagnostic biopsy is not required prior to commencing empiric
antituberculosis treatment. In areas where tuberculosis is not endemic, a diagnostic biopsy is recommended in patients with
>3 weeks of illness and without aetiologic diagnosis having been reached by other tests.
Stage 4: Empiric • Tuberculosis endemic in the population: trial of empiric antituberculosis chemotherapy is recommended for exudative pericardial
antituberculosis effusion, after excluding other causes such as malignancy, uraemia, trauma, purulent pericarditis, and auto-immune diseases.
chemotherapy • Tuberculosis not endemic in the population: when systematic investigation fails to yield a diagnosis of tuberculous pericarditis, there
or starting antituberculosis treatment empirically.
ADA ¼ adenosine deaminase; CT ¼ computed tomography; LDH ¼ lactate dehydrogenase; MRI ¼ magnetic resonance imaging; TB ¼ tuberculosis.

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2948 ESC Guidelines
treated group.97 Adjunctive steroid therapy was associated with a 5.2.2 Purulent pericarditis
reduced incidence of pericardial constriction and hospitalization. 5.2.2.1 Epidemiology
The beneficial effects of prednisolone on constriction and hospital- Purulent pericarditis is rare, accounting for ,1% of cases.5,6 In West-
ization were similar in HIV-positive and HIV-negative patients. On ern series, the most common organisms have been staphylococci,
this basis, it may be reasonable to use adjunctive corticosteroids streptococci and pneumococci, while the predominant associated le-
in patients with tuberculous pericarditis without HIV infection and sions were empyema (50%) or pneumonia (33%).146 In immunosup-
to avoid them in HIV-infected individuals because of the increased pressed patients or following thoracic surgery, Staphylococcus aureus
risk of malignancy.97 (30%) and fungi (20%) are more common.147 Also, anaerobes origin-
ating from the oropharynx have been reported.148 Seeding may be
haematogenous or by contiguous spread from the retropharyngeal
Recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of space, cardiac valves and below the diaphragm.149 Neisseria meningiti-
tuberculous pericarditis and effusion dis may involve the pericardium either through initiating an immune-
mediated sterile effusion or by direct infection and purulent reaction.
The modern era of iatrogenic and HIV-associated immunosuppres-
Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref.c sion has witnessed more unusual organisms.
Diagnostic pericardiocentesis should be
considered in all patients with suspected IIa C 5.2.2.2 Diagnosis
tuberculous pericarditis Purulent pericarditis is rare and generally manifested as a serious
Intrapericardial urokinase may be
febrile disease. The underlying sepsis may predominate the
considered to reduce the risk of illness.146 – 149 Suspicion of purulent pericarditis is an indication for
IIb C
constriction in tuberculous effusive urgent pericardiocentesis,1,5,12 which is diagnostic. The fluid may
pericarditis be frankly purulent. A low pericardial:serum glucose ratio (mean
In patients living in non-endemic areas, 0.3) and elevated pericardial fluid white cell count with a high pro-
empiric antituberculosis treatment is portion of neutrophils (mean cell count 2.8/ml, 92% neutrophils)
not recommended when systematic III C differentiate purulent from tuberculous (glucose ratio 0.7, count
investigation fails to yield a diagnosis
1.7/ml, 50% neutrophils) and neoplastic (glucose ratio 0.8, count
of tuberculous pericarditis
3.3/ml, 55% neutrophils) pericarditis.150 Fluid should be sent for bac-
In patients living in endemic areas,
terial, fungal and tuberculous studies, with blood for cultures and
empiric antituberculosis chemotherapy
is recommended for exudative I C other samples being taken as guided by the clinical presentation.12
pericardial effusion, after excluding
5.2.2.3 Management
other causes
Purulent pericarditis should be managed aggressively, as death is inev-
Adjunctive steroids may be considered
itable if untreated, whereas with comprehensive therapy 85% of cases
in HIV-negative cases of TB pericarditis
IIb C have been reported to survive the episode and have a good long-term
and avoided in HIV-associated TB
pericarditis outcome.50,146 Intravenous antimicrobial therapy should be started
empirically until microbiological results are available. Drainage is crucial.
HIV ¼ human immunodeficiency virus; TB ¼ tuberculosis. Purulent effusions are often heavily loculated and likely to rapidly re-
a
Class of recommendation. accumulate. Intrapericardial thrombolysis is a possible treatment for
b
Level of evidence. cases with loculated effusions in order to achieve adequate drainage be-
c
fore resorting to surgery.151 Subxiphoid pericardiostomy and rinsing of
the pericardial cavity should be considered.1 This allows more com-
plete drainage of the effusion, as loculations can be manually lysed.
Recommendations for the general management of
constrictive tuberculous pericarditis Recommendations for the diagnosis of purulent
pericarditis

Standard antituberculosis drugs for Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref.c
6 months is recommended for the Urgent pericardiocentesis is
I C
prevention of tuberculous pericardial recommended for the diagnosis of I C
constriction purulent pericarditis
Pericardiectomy is recommended if the It is recommended that pericardial fluid
patient’s condition is not improving or is be sent for bacterial, fungal and
I C I C
deteriorating after 4 –8 weeks of tuberculous studies and blood drawn for
antituberculosis therapy cultures
a a
Class of recommendation. Class of recommendation.
b b
Level of evidence. Level of evidence.
c c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations. Reference(s) supporting recommendations.

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Recommendations for the therapy of purulent Recommendations for the management of pericarditis
pericarditis in renal failure
Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref.c Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref.c

Effective pericardial drainage is Dialysis should be considered in uraemic
I C IIa C
recommended for purulent pericarditis pericarditis
Administration of intravenous When patients with adequate dialysis
antibiotics is indicated to treat purulent I C develop pericarditis, intensifying dialysis IIa C
pericarditis should be considered
Subxiphoid pericardiotomy and rinsing Pericardial aspiration and/or drainage
of the pericardial cavity should be IIa C may be considered in non-responsive IIb C
considered patients with dialysis
Intrapericardial thrombolysis should be NSAIDs and corticosteroids
IIa C
considered (systemic or intrapericardial) may be
IIb C
considered when intensive dialysis is
Pericardiectomy for dense adhesions,
ineffective
loculated or thick purulent effusion,
recurrence of tamponade, persistent IIa C Colchicine is contraindicated in
infection and progression to constriction patients with pericarditis and severe III C
should be considered renal impairment (see Web Table 1B)
a
Class of recommendation. NSAIDs ¼ non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.
b a
Level of evidence. Class of recommendation.
c b
Reference(s) supporting recommendations. Level of evidence.
c
5.3 Pericarditis in renal failure 5.4 Pericardial involvement in systemic

Renal disease and overall ESRD are associated with possible autoimmune and autoinflammatory
pericardial involvement.152 Three different pathologies are found diseases
in uraemic patients: uraemic pericarditis—before renal replace- Pericardial involvement in systemic autoimmune diseases may be
ment therapy or within 8 weeks of its initiation; dialysis pericardi- symptomatic (pericarditis and symptomatic pericardial effusion)
tis—after being stabilized on dialysis (usually ≥8 weeks after its or asymptomatic (usually pericardial effusion) and generally re-
initiation)153 and, very rarely, constrictive pericarditis. The global flects the degree of activity of the underlying disease.45 Approxi-
incidence of pericarditis in ESDR patients has declined to 5% mately 5 – 15% of patients with acute or recurrent pericarditis
in those patients starting dialysis.152 The reported frequency of may have a systemic autoimmune disease, either overt or under-
dialysis pericarditis ranges from 2 to 21%, but recent data are lying (Table 1, Web Table 5).9,77,129 – 131 Pericardial involvement is
lacking. common in systemic lupus erythematosus, Sjögren’s syndrome,
Pericardial involvement in ESRD is manifested most commonly as rheumatoid arthritis and scleroderma, but may also be present in
acute pericarditis and chronic pericardial effusion and infrequently systemic vasculitides, Behçet’s syndrome, sarcoidosis and inflam-
as chronic constrictive pericarditis. Typical features of this form of matory bowel diseases. Pericardial involvement rarely occurs as
pericarditis include a lower rate of pleuritic chest pain (up to 30% the first manifestation of these diseases. In most patients the
of patients are asymptomatic) and the absence of ECG abnormal- underlying disease has already been diagnosed by classical symp-
ities in most cases, probably due to the lack of myocardial inflamma- toms and signs. Concomitant myocardial inflammatory involve-
tion.152 – 154 Patients with ESRD are more likely to develop chronic ment may complicate the presentation and should be ruled out.
pericardial effusion due to continuous volume overload.152 Not all If clinical features suggest a possible systemic autoimmune disease,
pericardial effusions result from inflammation, and the normal vol- a targeted aetiological search is warranted in cooperation with
ume of pericardial fluid is larger in stable haemodialysis patients specialist consultation. The treatment is especially targeted at con-
than in normal controls.155 With the advent of advanced renal re- trol of the systemic underlying disease.45
placement therapy, the incidence of haemodynamically significant A specific subset of patients includes those with periodic fevers.
effusions has decreased.152,156,157 The most probable cause of ur- These are genetic disorders characterized by mutations of genes in-
aemic pericarditis is the retention of toxic metabolites.152,157 Since volved in the regulation of the inflammatory response, without in-
pericardial effusion is often bloody in uraemic patients, anticoagula- volvement of specific T cells or autoantibodies.158 – 161 These
tion should be carefully considered or avoided in patients starting disorders are usually detected in the paediatric population, although
dialysis.152,157 some patients experience disease onset during adulthood. The most

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2950 ESC Guidelines
common autoinflammatory syndromes include familial Mediterra- 5.5.2 Management

nean fever (FMF), in which serositis episodes last only 1 – 3 days, Treatment of PCIS is essentially based on empiric anti-inflammatory
and tumour necrosis factor receptor-associated periodic syndrome therapy, and may improve remission rates and reduce the risk of
(TRAPS), in which the episodes last for weeks. Mutations associated recurrences.171 The same therapeutic scheme adopted for peri-
with these disorders are rare in recurrent pericarditis.158 – 161 These carditis is efficacious for all these forms, including post-myocardial
conditions may be characterized by an exaggerated expression of infarction pericarditis (Table 3). Colchicine is not recommended
IL-1.161 A 10% rate of familial occurrence of pericarditis has been re- for postoperative effusions in the absence of systemic inflamma-
ported among the relatives of these patients.162 – 164 These data sug- tion.172 – 174 Similarly NSAIDs are generally not indicated in asymp-
gest a genetic predisposition in at least a subset of patients; tomatic post-surgical effusions, and this therapy may be associated
counselling may be warranted in these cases. A positive family his- with an increased risk of side effects related to NSAIDs.173,174
tory for pericarditis or periodic fevers, a poor response to colchi-
cine, as well as the need for immunosuppressive agents are clues 5.5.3 Prevention
to the possible presence of an auto-inflammatory disease;160 par- Different preventive strategies have been examined in a few studies
ticularly in these conditions, anti-IL-1 or anti-TNF agents may be regarding aspirin,175 methylprednisone,176 dexamethasone177 and
considered.31,32,160 colchicine.168,169,172 Four controlled clinical trials for primary pre-
vention of PPS were included in a systematic review on 894 patients;
three studies were double-blind RCTs. Treatment comparisons
5.5 Post-cardiac injury syndromes were colchicine vs. placebo (two RCTs enrolling 471 patients),
The term post-cardiac injury syndromes (PCIS) is an umbrella term methylprednisolone vs. placebo (one RCT involving 246 paediatric
indicating a group of inflammatory pericardial syndromes including patients) and aspirin vs. historical controls (one non-randomized
post-myocardial infarction pericarditis, post-pericardiotomy syn- study involving 177 paediatric patients). Meta-analytic pooling
drome (PPS) and post-traumatic pericarditis (either iatrogenic or showed that only colchicine was associated with decreased risk of
not).132 Such syndromes are presumed to have an autoimmune PPS [odds ratio (OR) 0.38]. Data on methylprednisolone (OR
pathogenesis triggered by initial damage to pericardial and/or pleural 1.13) and aspirin (OR 1.00) were negative.178 The Colchicine for
tissues caused by either myocardial necrosis (late post-myocardial Prevention of the Post-pericardiotomy Syndrome and Post-
infarction pericarditis or Dressler syndrome), surgical trauma operative Atrial Fibrillation (COPPS-2) trial confirmed the overall
(PPS), accidental thoracic trauma (traumatic pericarditis) or iatro- efficacy of perioperative use of colchicine, but it was also found to
genic trauma with or without bleeding (pericarditis after invasive be associated with an increased risk of gastrointestinal side effects172
cardiac interventions).131 The immune-mediated pathogenesis is compared with postoperative use of colchicine.169 Colchicine is not
supported by a latent period generally of a few weeks until the ap- recommended for the perioperative treatment and prevention of
pearance of the first manifestations and the response to anti- postoperative effusions in the absence of systemic inflammation.172
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs, corticosteroids, colchicine) with the In another trial,177 high-dose dexamethasone (1 mg/kg as a single in-
possibility of recurrences. Pericardial bleeding and pleura incision traoperative dose) was not efficacious in preventing PPS or compli-
are triggers for the syndrome.165,166 Some forms, such as Dressler cated PPS.
syndrome, have become rare with early reperfusion therapy of myo-
cardial infarction; however, it may occur especially in cases of even 5.5.4 Prognosis
minor bleeding into the pericardium.167 Despite limited published data, the prognosis of PPS is generally
good.178 There are very few available data on other forms of post-
5.5.1 Definition and diagnosis pericardial injury syndromes. In the largest published series on PPS
According to proposed diagnostic criteria for PPS,168 – 170 the diag- patients after cardiac surgery,166 complication rates were low: ,4%
nosis of PCIS may be reached after a cardiac injury following clinical for recurrences, ,2% for cardiac tamponade and no cases of con-
criteria: (i) fever without alternative causes, (ii) pericarditic or pleur- striction, although hospital stay may be prolonged in these patients.
itic chest pain, (iii) pericardial or pleural rubs, (iv) evidence of peri- However, the development of constrictive pericarditis has been re-
cardial effusion and/or (v) pleural effusion with elevated CRP. At ported in 3% of cases.36
least two of five criteria should be fulfilled. The rationale for propos-
ing specific criteria instead of adopting the same for pericarditis is 5.5.4.1 Post-myocardial infarction pericarditis
that these syndromes may have concomitant pleuropericardial in- Following an acute myocardial infarction (AMI), three major pericar-
volvement and possible pulmonary infiltrates, and are not simply dial complications may occur: (i) pericardial effusion, (ii) early
pericarditis.170 Moreover, it is sometimes difficult to differentiate infarct-associated pericarditis (often called early post-infarction
PCIS from the simple mechanical consequences of surgery (such pericarditis, typically a few days after AMI) and (iii) late pericarditis
as pericardial or pleural effusion). The demonstration of inflamma- or post-cardiac injury (Dressler) syndrome (typically 1 – 2 weeks
tory activity should be essential to establish the diagnosis. Basic diag- after AMI).
nostic evaluation of a patient with a suspected PCIS includes physical Early post-infarction pericarditis usually occurs soon after the
examination, ECG, echocardiogram, thoracic echography and/or AMI and is transient. This complication is rare in the primary percu-
chest X-ray.132,165 On this basis, echocardiography is recommended taneous coronary intervention era and is especially related to late
when an iatrogenic complication is suspected after a cardiovascular reperfusion or failed coronary reperfusion.167 Diagnostic criteria
intervention.2,3,132 do not differ from those for acute pericarditis. ECG changes are

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usually overshadowed by changes due to the myocardial infarction.

Colchicine added to aspirin or
However, ST segments may remain elevated, with persistence of up- NSAIDs should be considered for
right T waves, as T waves may become upright again after having IIa B 58
the therapy of PCIS, as in acute
been inverted. Echocardiography should be performed in patients pericarditis
suspected of having post-AMI to evaluate for the presence of a peri- Colchicine should be considered
cardial effusion. CMR can be used to show the presence of con- after cardiac surgery using
comitant pericardial inflammation. 179 Patients with a post-AMI weight-adjusted doses (i.e. 0.5 mg
pericardial effusion .10 mm in thickness should be investigated once for patients ≤70 kg and 0.5 mg
twice daily for patients .70 kg) and 168,
for a possible subacute rupture.180,181 The treatment is generally IIa A
without a loading dose for the 169
supportive, as most cases are self-limited. However, a minority of prevention of PPS if there are no
patients may have persistent symptoms that require more than sup- contraindications and it is tolerated.
portive care. For these patients, aspirin plus colchicine may be Preventive administration of colchicine is
considered. recommended for 1 month
Late post-AMI pericarditis (Dressler syndrome) is rare (,1%) Careful follow-up after PCIS
in the era of primary percutaneous coronary intervention and should be considered to exclude
possible evolution towards
may reflect a larger size of AMI and/or late reperfusion.167 Diagno-
constrictive pericarditis with IIa C
sis and treatment are similar to that generally recommended echocardiography every 6 –12 months
for PCIS. according to clinical features and
Although pericarditis is associated with a larger infarct size, in- symptoms
hospital and 1-year mortality and major adverse cardiac events
were similar in patients with and without pericarditis. Timely pri- NSAIDs ¼ non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; PCIS ¼ post-cardiac injury
mary percutaneous coronary intervention may reduce the occur- syndromes; PPS ¼ post-pericardiotomy syndrome.
a
rence of post-AMI pericarditis. Early post-AMI pericarditis remains b
Level of evidence.
a marker of larger infarct size, but without independent prognostic c
d
significance.167 Antiplatelet effects of aspirin have been demonstrated for doses up to 1.5 g/day.
There are no data for or against the use of higher doses in this setting.
5.5.4.2 Postoperative effusions

Postoperative pericardial effusions are relatively common after car-
diac surgery. They usually disappear in 7 – 10 days, but sometimes 5.6 Traumatic pericardial effusion and
they persist for longer and can be dangerous. Early post-cardiac sur- haemopericardium
gery pericardial collections must be interpreted in the clinical con- Any cardiac intervention (e.g. percutaneous coronary intervention,
text of the patient. They have been reported as asymptomatic in pacemaker lead insertion, radiofrequency ablation) may be respon-
22% of patients 2 weeks after cardiac surgery.182 The prognosis is sible for haemopericardium and cardiac tamponade due to coron-
good for mild effusions occurring in two of three cases, but moder- ary or cardiac chamber perforation. Pericardial effusion induced
ate to large effusions (one of three) may progress to cardiac tam- by trauma is included in the more expanded concept of PCIS.132
ponade in 10% of cases 1 month after cardiac surgery.182,183 However, in the event of overt chest trauma complicated by cardiac
Treatment of these asymptomatic effusions by diclofenac was tamponade, the magnitude of the trauma is the main cause of the
shown to be useless in the Post-Operative Pericardial Effusion syndrome. Diagnosis includes the presence of a prior history of
(POPE) trial and may be associated with an increased risk of side ef- chest trauma as a trigger for the syndrome plus the signs and symp-
fects related to NSAID use.173 In contrast, cardiac tamponade oc- toms of pericarditis (i.e. chest pain, pericardial rub, dyspnoea, low-
curring in the first hours after cardiac surgery is usually due to grade fever) and markers of inflammatory reaction (i.e. elevated
haemorrhage in the pericardial space, and surgical reintervention CRP, leucocytosis, ESR). ECG is normally used to rule out AMI as
is mandatory in this situation. a possible cause of pericarditis. Chest X-ray may help to detect car-
diomegaly and pleural effusions. Transthoracic echocardiography is
Recommendations for the management and used to detect the presence, size and haemodynamic importance of
prevention of post-cardiac injury syndromes the pericardial effusion. A recent randomized trial demonstrated
that the use of limited transthoracic echocardiography improved
the time from the trauma bay to the operating room and reduced
the mortality rate.184
Anti-inflammatory therapy is Therefore treatment differs according to the severity of the syn-
recommended in patients with PCIS to
I B 171 drome. For those with post-traumatic pericarditis with no haemo-
hasten symptom remission and reduce
recurrences dynamic compromise, treatment is essentially based on empirical
anti-inflammatory therapy and adjunctive colchicine, which has
Aspirind is recommended as a first
choice for anti-inflammatory therapy of
been shown to be safe and efficacious for the prevention of pericar-
post-myocardial infarction pericarditis I C ditis.57 For those life-threatening cases of penetrating trauma to the
and those patients already on heart and chest, emergency thoracotomy is recommended to im-
antiplatelet therapies prove survival as opposed to the classic strategy of initial

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2952 ESC Guidelines
pericardiocentesis as a bridge to surgery.185,186 This is usually done disease.190 The diagnosis is based on confirmation of the malig-
through left anterolateral thoracotomy that makes pericardiotomy nant infiltration within the pericardium.188,189 Of note, in almost
possible with effective relief of cardiac tamponade and direct cardiac two-thirds of patients with documented malignancy, pericardial
massage if needed. effusion is caused by non-malignant diseases, e.g. radiation peri-
In the setting of aortic dissection with haemopericardium and sus- carditis, other therapies or opportunistic infections. 189 Chest
picion of cardiac tamponade, emergency transthoracic echo- X-ray, CT, PET and CMR may reveal mediastinal widening, hilar
cardiography or a CT scan should be performed to confirm the masses and pleural effusion. Analyses of pericardial fluid and peri-
diagnosis. In such a scenario, controlled pericardial drainage of cardial or epicardial biopsies are essential for the confirmation of
very small amounts of the haemopericardium can be attempted to malignant pericardial disease.188 – 191
temporarily stabilize the patient in order to maintain blood pressure The diagnostic yield of the concentrations of tumour markers in
at 90 mmHg.187 pericardial fluid remains controversial: carcinoembryonic antigen
(CEA), CYFRA 21 – 1, neuron-specific enolase (NSE), CA-19 – 9,
Recommendations for the management of traumatic CA- 72–4, SCC, GATA3 and VEGF may be useful, but none of these
pericardial effusion and haemopericardium in aortic tumour markers has been proven to be accurate enough for distin-
dissection guishing malignant from benign effusions.192,193 Epidermal growth
factor receptor (EGFR) mutation should be evaluated and has
prognostic indications in patients with malignant pericardial effusion
Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref.c in the course of lung adenocarcinoma194 in order to tailor the
Urgent imaging technique (transthoracic treatment.
echocardiogram or CT) is indicated Treatment of cardiac tamponade is a class I indication for peri-
I B 184
in patients with a history of chest trauma
cardiocentesis. The following steps are recommended in large
and systemic arterial hypotension
suspected neoplastic pericardial effusion without tamponade:
Immediate thoracotomy is indicated in (i) systemic antineoplastic treatment as baseline therapy,189 (ii)
cardiac tamponade due to penetrating I B 185
trauma to the heart and chest
pericardiocentesis to relieve symptoms and establish a diagnosis
and (iii) intrapericardial instillation of cytostatic/sclerosing agents
In the setting of aortic dissection
to prevent recurrences. Pericardial drainage is recommended in
with haemopericardium, controlled
pericardial drainage of very small all patients with large effusions because of the high recurrence
amounts of the haemopericardium rate (40 – 70%).193 – 196 Prevention of recurrences may be achieved
IIa C
should be considered to temporarily by intrapericardial instillation of sclerosing and cytotoxic
stabilize the patient in order to agents.197 – 204 Intrapericardial treatment should be tailored to
maintain blood pressure at about
the type of tumour: cisplatin was most effective in pericardial in-
90 mmHg
volvement in the course of lung cancer200,204 and thiotepa was
Pericardiocentesis as a bridge to
more effective in breast cancer pericardial metastases.197,198 Tet-
thoracotomy may be considered in
IIb B 185 racyclines as sclerosing agents also control malignant pericardial
cardiac tamponade due to penetrating
trauma to the heart and chest effusion in 85% of cases, but side effects and complications are
quite frequent: fever (19%), chest pain (20%) and atrial arrhythmias
CT ¼ computed tomography. (10%).189,199 Radiation therapy is very effective (93%) in control-
a
Class of recommendation. ling malignant pericardial effusion in patients with radiosensitive
b
Level of evidence.
c
tumours such as lymphomas and leukaemias. However, radiother-
apy of the heart can cause myocarditis and pericarditis.189 Pericar-
diotomy is indicated when pericardiocentesis cannot be
performed.205 The procedure can be carried out under local an-
aesthesia, but complications include myocardial laceration,
5.7 Pericardial involvement in neoplastic pneumothorax and mortality. 189,205 Surgical pericardiotomy
disease does not improve clinical outcomes over pericardiocentesis
The differential diagnosis between malignant processes and other and is associated with a higher rate of complications.202 Pleuro-
causes of pericarditis is particularly relevant and generally is ac- pericardiotomy allows drainage of malignant pericardial fluid
complished by imaging, e.g. CT scan, cytology of pericardial fluid into the pleural space. It is associated with a higher complication
and eventually biopsies. Primary tumours of the pericardium, ei- rate and offers no advantage over pericardiocentesis or pericar-
ther benign (lipomas and fibromas) or malignant (mesotheliomas, diotomy. Pericardiectomy is rarely indicated, mainly for pericardial
angiosarcomas, fibrosarcomas), are very rare.188,189 Mesotheli- constriction or complications of previous procedures.189 Percu-
oma, the most common malignant tumour, is almost always incur- taneous balloon pericardiotomy creates a pleuropericardial direct
able. The most common secondary malignant tumours are lung communication, which allows fluid drainage into the pleural
cancer, breast cancer, malignant melanoma, lymphomas and leu- space: in large malignant pericardial effusions and recurrent
kaemias. Malignant pericardial effusions may be small, medium tamponade it seems to be effective (90 – 97%) and safe.204 Pericar-
or large, with an imminent tamponade (frequent recurrences) dial window creation via left minithoracotomy is a safe and effect-
or constriction; they may even be the initial sign of malignant ive approach in the surgical treatment of malignant cardiac

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tamponade.205 In clinical practice, management is often palliative at

Pericardial window creation via left
late stages with advanced disease; it is aimed only at the relief of minithoracotomy may be considered in
symptoms rather than treatment of the underlying disease, taking IIb B 207
the surgical treatment of malignant
into account prognosis and the overall quality of life of the cardiac tamponade
patients.206 Interventional techniques should
consider seeding of neoplastic cells,
IIa C
patient prognosis and the overall quality
Recommendations for the diagnosis and management of life of the patients
of neoplastic involvement of the pericardium
a
b
Level of evidence.
a b c c
Recommendations Class Level Ref. Reference(s) supporting recommendations.
Pericardiocentesis is recommended for

cardiac tamponade to relieve symptoms
I B
and establish the diagnosis of malignant
pericardial effusion 5.8 Other forms of pericardial disease
Cytological analyses of pericardial fluid are 5.8.1 Radiation pericarditis
recommended for the confirmation of I B 191 Prior chest radiation is an important cause of pericardial disease. Most
malignant pericardial disease cases are secondary to radiation therapy for Hodgkin’s lymphoma or
Pericardial or epicardial biopsy should breast or lung cancer. Serious radiation-induced pericardial disease
be considered for the confirmation of IIa B was most often due to radiation therapy of Hodgkin’s lymphoma, al-
malignant pericardial disease though the incidence of the condition has decreased with lower
Tumour marker testing should be doses and modern radiation therapy techniques (shielding and dose
considered for distinguishing calculation). As an example, the incidence of pericarditis decreased
IIa B 193
malignant from benign effusions in
from 20 to 2.5%.208 Less commonly, radiation exposure can cause
pericardial fluid
other conditions (e.g. oesophageal cancer) or can occur in association
Systemic antineoplastic treatment is
with nuclear accidents. Soon after radiation the patient may develop
recommended in confirmed cases of I B
neoplastic aetiology acute pericarditis with or without effusion.208 Late onset of pericar-
dial disease is common; it has been observed in up to 20% of patients
Extended pericardial drainage is
recommended in patients with
within 2 years following irradiation,209 with a latency of up to 15–20
suspected or definite neoplastic years, and is not necessarily preceded by acute pericarditis.210 Late
I B
pericardial effusion in order to prevent pericardial disease may consist of effusive-constrictive pericarditis
effusion recurrence and provide or classical constrictive pericarditis (4–20% of patients) and appears
intrapericardial therapy to be dose dependent and related to the presence of pericardial ef-
Intrapericardial instillation of cytostatic/ fusion in the delayed acute phase.209 Alternatively, radiation damage
sclerosing agents should be considered may result in a large pericardial effusion, with or without tamponade.
197–
since it may prevent recurrences in IIa B
204 The effusion may be serous or haemorrhagic and has a high probabil-
patients with malignant pericardial
effusion ity of developing fibrous adhesions. Therapies are similar to those em-
ployed in pericarditis and pericardial effusion. Therapeutic radiation
Intrapericardial cisplatin should be
considered in pericardial involvement in 197, may cause other types of cardiac injury as well. The most serious is
the course of lung cancer and 198, radiation-induced cardiomyopathy, but the coronary arteries and
IIa B
intrapericardial instillation of thiotepa 200, the cardiac valves may also be affected; this probably explains why
should be considered in breast cancer 204 pericardiectomy for radiation-induced disease is associated with a
pericardial metastases
worse outcome than when performed for constrictive pericarditis re-
Radiation therapy should be sulting from most other causes.
considered to control malignant
pericardial effusion in patients with IIa B
radiosensitive tumours such as Recommendations for the prevention and
lymphomas and leukaemias
management of radiation pericarditis
Pericardiotomy should be considered
when pericardiocentesis cannot be IIa B 205
performed Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref.c
Percutaneous balloon pericardiotomy Radiation therapy methods that reduce
may be considered for the prevention of both the volume and the dose of cardiac
IIb B I C
recurrences of neoplastic pericardial irradiation are recommended whenever
effusions possible

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2954 ESC Guidelines
Pericardiectomy should be considered Therapy with octreotide (100 mg

for radiation-induced constrictive s.c. × 3/day for 2 weeks) may be
91,92,
pericarditis, but with a worse outcome considered for chylopericardium (the IIb C
IIa B 103,
than when performed for constrictive mechanism of action is presumed to be
106
pericarditis of other causes, because of a reduction in chyle production)
co-existing myopathy
s.c. ¼ subcutaneous.
a a
Class of recommendation. Class of recommendation.
b b
Level of evidence. Level of evidence.
c c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations. Reference(s) supporting recommendations.
5.8.3 Drug-related pericarditis and pericardial effusion

5.8.2 Chylopericardium Pericardial reactions to drugs are rare (Table 1). Pericardial damage
Chylopericardium is a pericardial effusion composed of chyle, has also been associated with polymer fume inhalation, ‘serum sick-
the normal content of the lymphatic vessels. It is a rare disorder ness’ by blood products or foreign antisera, venoms (scorpion fish
that may be primary or, more often, secondary to injury to the sting), foreign substance reactions by direct pericardial application
thoracic duct, which carries chyle from the intestinal tract to the (e.g. talc, magnesium silicate), silicones, tetracyclines, sclerosants, as-
blood at the junction of the left internal jugular and left subclavian bestos and iron in b-thalassaemia.1 Management is based on discon-
veins.211 It is often associated with chylothorax. Cardiac complica- tinuation of the causative agent and symptomatic treatment.
tions are cardiac tamponade, acute pericarditis and chronic con- The use of heparin and anticoagulant therapies is often perceived
striction. Causes are trauma, surgery (especially for congenital as a possible risk factor for the development of a worsening or
heart disease), congenital lymphangiomatosis, radiotherapy, sub- haemorrhagic pericardial effusion that may result in cardiac tampon-
clavian vein thrombosis, infection (e.g. TB), mediastinal neoplasms ade, but a multivariable analysis of nearly 500 consecutive cases of
and acute pancreatitis. 212 – 214 Primary chylopericardium is less acute pericarditis did not show this to be the case.9 Similarly in an-
common and is a diagnosis by exclusion. CT with and without con- other study of 274 patients with acute pericarditis or myopericardi-
trast enhancement or combined with lymphangiography/lymphan- tis, the use of heparin or other anticoagulants was not associated
gioscintigraphy (rarely performed) can be used to identify injury with an increased risk of cardiac tamponade.7 On the other hand,
or blockage of the thoracic duct. in the setting of iatrogenic pericardial effusion, full anticoagulation
Chylopericardium should not be confused with cholesterol may be a risk factor for tamponade and complications.217
pericarditis, in which the fluid is clear and occurs in tuberculous
pericarditis, rheumatoid pericarditis and trauma. The con- 5.8.4 Pericardial effusion in metabolic and endocrine
centration of cholesterol equals or exceeds that of the blood. disorders
Pericardiocentesis is seldom effective and optimal therapy The main cause of pericardial diseases in this setting is represented
is radical pericardiectomy plus treatment of the underlying by hypothyroidism. Pericardial effusion may occur in 5 – 30% of
cause.215,216 patients with hypothyroidism, but recent data are lacking;218,219 it
may be quite large, but tamponade occurs rarely. It is diagnosed
Recommendations for the diagnosis and management by a high thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) level, and clinically is
of chylopericardium characterized by relative bradycardia and low QRS voltage in the
ECG.

5.8.5 Pericardial involvement in pulmonary arterial
Chylopericardium is diagnosed in the hypertension
presence of a milky opalescent
Pericardial effusion in the setting of pulmonary artery hypertension
pericardial effusion, with a triglyceride
level .500 mg/dl, (PAH) is common (25 – 30%) and typically small in size, but rarely
cholesterol:triglyceride ratio ,1, I C causes haemodynamic compromise. Pericardial effusion develop-
negative cultures and lymphocyte ment in PAH appears to relate to right ventricular failure and a sub-
predominance (lymphocyte count sequent increase in right-sided filling pressures along with right atrial
between a few hundred to several
hypertension and increased pressure in the thebesian veins and cor-
thousand per millilitre)
onary sinus. These processes result in increased filtration and
Pericardial drainage and parenteral lymphatic obstruction, resulting in pericardial effusion.220
nutrition should be considered in
IIa C Diagnosis of cardiac tamponade in a patient with severe PAH is
symptomatic or large uncontrolled
effusion due to chylopericardium challenging. Determining the haemodynamic significance of pericar-
dial effusions in PAH requires increased attention since high right-
Surgical therapy should be considered
for chylopericardium if conservative sided pressures can mask many of the typical right-sided clinical
therapy does not reduce pericardial IIa C and echocardiographic findings of tamponade. Because there is ele-
drainage and the course of the thoracic vation in right-sided intracardiac chamber pressures, right-sided
duct is identified chamber collapse is uncommon. In contrast, left atrial pressure is

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typically lower in PAH and therefore left atrial early diastolic col- No RCT has been done in children. NSAIDs remain the main-
lapse is more commonly seen. Exaggerated ventricular interdepend- stay, at high dosages (Web Table 7). Most paediatricians avoid as-
ence, such as a decrease in left ventricular filling with early pirin in children. Colchicine halved recurrences in children. 19
inspiration, may also be present. Corticosteroid use should be restricted in children even more
The presence of pericardial effusion has been associated with than in adults, given that their side effects (striae rubre and
connective tissue disease, shorter 6-minute walk distance and an growth impairment) are particularly deleterious in growing
elevated B-type natriuretic peptide level. Even a small quantity of ex- children; the minimal effective dose should be sought. Severe phys-
cess pericardial fluid in a patient with PAH portends a poor progno- ical restriction is bothersome in children and may further worsen
sis. Pericardial effusions in PAH appear to be a marker of their quality of life and that of their family. Anakinra (anti-IL-1
co-morbidity with either concomitant connective tissue disease receptor) is a new option for children, especially if they are
or high venous pressure; these two factors are recognized to confer corticosteroid-dependent.20 – 23
an adverse risk.220 The long-term prognosis in children is good; however, quality of
life can be severely affected with repeated recurrences, glucocortic-
5.8.6 Pericardial cysts oid dependence and severe physical restriction.19
Pericardial cysts are rare mediastinal masses with an incidence of 1 in
100,000 patients131,221 that have been described as diverticulae or
cystic formations when an abnormal chest X-ray was obtained. Recommendations for therapy of acute and recurrent
They represent 6% of mediastinal masses and 33% of mediastinal pericarditis in children
cysts. Other cysts in the mediastinum are bronchogenic (34%), en-
teric (12%), thymic and others (21%).131,221 They are often found in
either one of the cardiophrenic angles.131,206,221 Cysts do not com-
NSAIDs at high doses are recommended
municate with the pericardial space, whereas diverticulae do. They
as first-line therapy for acute pericarditis
may be uni- or multiloculated. Inflammatory cysts comprise pseudo- I C
in children until complete symptom
cyst as well as encapsulated or loculated pericardial effusions caused resolution (see Web Table 9 for dosages)
by rheumatic disorders, bacterial infection, trauma or cardiac sur- Colchicine should be considered as an
gery. Echinococcal cysts usually originate from ruptured hydatid adjunct to anti-inflammatory therapy for
cysts in the liver and the lungs. The differential diagnosis comprises acute recurrent pericarditis in children: IIa C
loculated pericardial effusions of unknown origin and malignant ,5 years, 0.5 mg/day; .5 years, 1.0– 1.5
mg/day in two to three divided doses
pericardial masses. The diagnostic workup includes echocardiog-
raphy, CT and eventually CMR to define the size, density and neigh- Anti-IL-1 drugs may be considered in
bouring structures.131,221 They are mostly asymptomatic and children with recurrent pericarditis and
IIb C
especially when they are corticosteroid
detected incidentally, but can also present with chest discomfort, dependent
dyspnoea or palpitations due to cardiac compression. The first
Aspirin is not recommended in children
treatment for symptomatic congenital and inflammatory cysts is
due to the associated risk of Reye’s III C
percutaneous aspiration,206,222 possibly associated with ethanol syndrome and hepatotoxicity
sclerosis.222 If the diagnosis is not completely established by imaging
Corticosteroids are not recommended
or the cyst recurs after drainage, surgical resection may be neces- due to the severity of their side effects in
sary. For echinococcal cysts, percutaneous aspiration and instillation growing children, unless there are III C
of ethanol or silver nitrate after pre-treatment with albendazole specific indications such as autoimmune
(800 mg/day for 4 weeks) has been proposed.1 diseases
IL ¼ interleukin; NSAIDs ¼ non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.

6. Age and gender issues in a
b
Level of evidence.
pericardial diseases c
6.1 Paediatric setting

Pericarditis accounts for 5% of all children who present with chest
pain to a paediatric emergency department.223 Children may be af- 6.2 Pregnancy, lactation and reproductive
fected by the same syndromes that affect adults.17 Diagnostic cri- issues
teria are the same and the risk of recurrence is similar (15 – 30%). The most common form of pericardial involvement in pregnancy is
The aetiology is similar to that in adults, with PPS more often de- hydropericardium, usually as a benign mild effusion by the third tri-
scribed, particularly after interatrial defect correction.18 Compared mester, which is found in up to 40% of women, often occasionally.
with adults, children often have a marked inflammatory clinical pat- The effusion is usually silent and clinical examination and ECG are
tern, with more commonly fever, pleuropulmonary involvement generally normal. In a few cases, slightly elevated blood pressure
and raised CRP and less commonly anti-nuclear antibody (ANA) and/or aspecific ST-T changes have been documented.24,25 The
positivity. This might imply activation of inflammatory pathways most common disease to require medical therapy is acute pericar-
with release of IL-1.19 ditis; diagnosis is made using the usual criteria. No specific aetiology

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2956 ESC Guidelines
is usually identified. Nowadays the general outcomes of pregnancies 7.1 Pericardiocentesis and pericardial
in these women when followed by dedicated multidisciplinary teams drainage
are similar to those expected in the general population.25
For pericardial drainage and biopsy, the surgical approach remains
A proposed treatment scheme for pericarditis during pregnancy
the gold standard. The classical approach is by subxiphoid incision,
is described in Web Table 8.25 – 27 Pregnancy in women with recur-
through which it is easy to take fluid samples and perform a pericar-
rent pericarditis should be planned during a phase of disease quies-
dial biopsy. The operation is completed by leaving a small drain in
cence.25 – 27 Classic NSAIDs (ibuprofen, indomethacin) may be
place to evacuate remaining effusion. This technique using a subxi-
considered during the first and second trimesters;25 – 27 most ex-
phoid approach is straightforward for a thoracic or cardiovascular
perts prefer high-dose aspirin, since it is regularly used in anti-
surgeon, if such a team is close to the cardiology team. In clinical
phospholipid syndrome in pregnancy and is moderately effective
practice, pericardial fluid is aspirated by pericardiocentesis.
in the prevention of pre-eclampsia in high-risk obstetric pa-
State-of-the-art pericardiocentesis must be guided either by
tients.224,225 After gestational week 20, all NSAIDs (except aspirin
fluoroscopy or echocardiography206 under local anaesthesia. Blind
≤100 mg/day) can cause constriction of the ductus arteriosus and
procedures must be not be used to avoid the risk of laceration of
impair foetal renal function, and they should be withdrawn in any
the heart or other organs, except in very rare situations that are im-
case at gestational week 32.224,225 The lowest effective doses of
mediately life threatening. An experienced operator and staff should
prednisone may be used throughout pregnancy and breastfeeding
perform pericardiocentesis in a facility equipped for radiographic,
(with supplementation with calcium and vitamin D).25 – 27 Paraceta-
echocardiographic, haemodynamic and ECG monitoring.
mol is allowed throughout pregnancy and breastfeeding, as are
For echo-guided pericardiocentesis, the ideal entry site is the
anti-histamine H2 blockers or proton pump inhibitors.226 During
point on the body surface where the effusion is closest to the trans-
pregnancy, tapering of therapies should be extremely cautious. Nor-
ducer and the fluid collection is maximal. The needle trajectory is
mal vaginal delivery is possible and should be considered in the
defined by the angulation of the handheld transducer and should
absence of contraindications.25 – 27 Ibuprofen, indomethacin, na-
avoid vital structures such as the liver, myocardium, lung, internal
proxen and prednisone may be considered in women who are breast-
mammary artery (3 – 5 cm away from the parasternal border) and
feeding. After discontinuation of breastfeeding, gradual tapering of
the vascular bundle at the inferior margin of each rib. The intended
prednisone should be considered, eventually resuming colchicine.
point of entry is marked on the skin and the direction of the ultra-
Colchicine is considered contraindicated during pregnancy and
sound beam is carefully noted (see Web supplemental material). An
breastfeeding, even though no adverse events during pregnancy and
additional technique is the echo-guided approach followed by echo-
foetal or child development have been reported in women with FMF
monitoring of the procedure.
treated with colchicine during pregnancy and breastfeeding.227 – 229
For fluoroscopic-guided pericardiocentesis, a polytef-sheathed
needle with an attached saline-filled syringe is advanced under mod-
6.3 The elderly erate suction until the pericardial sac is reached.206 When using the
Most guidelines have not discussed the applicability of their recom- more common subxiphoid route for pericardiocentesis, a Tuohy-17,
mendations to older patients with multiple co-morbidities.230 No blunt-tip introducer needle is advanced to the left shoulder at a
paper has specifically addressed pericardial diseases in the elderly, 30-degree angle to the skin, thus avoiding coronary, pericardial and
so only expert opinion exists. Therapy adherence and compliance internal mammary arteries. The lateral angiographic view provides
may be problematic in the elderly because of cognitive impairment, the best visualization of the puncturing needle and its relation to
poor vision or hearing and cost, but the strongest predictor of non- the diaphragm and pericardium. The needle is slowly advanced to-
adherence is the number of medications.230 Indomethacin is not in- wards the heart shadow and the epicardial halo phenomenon, under
dicated, the colchicine dose should be halved and particular care moderate suction and with injection of small amounts of diluted con-
should be taken to evaluate renal impairment and drug interactions. trast medium, until pericardial fluid is aspirated. If haemorrhagic fluid
is freely aspirated, a few millilitres of contrast medium may be injected
under fluoroscopic control to verify the position of the needle. A soft
7. Interventional techniques and J-tip guidewire is then introduced and after dilatation is exchanged for
a multihole pigtail catheter, through which the fluid is evacuated un-
surgery der the control of intrapericardial pressure.206
The aetiology of pericardial diseases remains unresolved in many Pericardiocentesis should be performed by experienced opera-
cases because the full spectrum of diagnostic methods is not used tors and carries a risk of complications ranging from 4 to 10% de-
in many institutions. The gold standard remains surgical by the sub- pending on the type of monitoring, the skill of the operator and
xiphoid approach, allowing collection of fluid samples and perform- the setting (emergency vs. urgent vs. elective).183,206 Most common
ing pericardial biopsy and pericardial drainage. Interventional complications include arrhythmias, coronary artery or cardiac
techniques206 include the combined use of imaging by pericardio- chamber puncture, haemothorax, pneumothorax, pneumopericar-
scopy first described in combination with diagnostic molecular, dium and hepatic injury (Web Table 9).
histological and immunohistological methods to assess the aetiology Pericardiocentesis may have additional limitations/dangers when
and pathogenesis of pericardial and epicardial disease manifesta- pericardial fluid is not free and when located in a lateral or posterior
tions133 and the option to intervene therapeutically by instillation position or ,10 mm. In these cases a surgical approach might be
of drugs into the pericardial sac.63,204 safer, depending on local expertise and availability.

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7.2 Pericardioscopy body surface) may be considered.64 Viral pericarditis may be ex-
Pericardioscopy permits visualization of the pericardial sac with its cluded by PCR in fluid and tissue specimens, but such investigations
epicardial and pericardial layers. Macroscopic views show a cluster- are not usually performed in uncomplicated cases in clinical practice.
ing of protrusions, haemorrhagic areas and neovascularization in In cases of uraemic pericardial effusion, intrapericardial therapy
malignant pericardial effusion, which are often haemorrhagic, in con- with triamcinolone may be considered, apart from intensified
trast to radiogenic or viral and autoimmune effusions.133,206 haemo- or peritoneal dialysis and fluid evacuation.64,65
Pericardioscopy enables the performing physician to take targeted In rare cases of recurrent effusion, balloon pericardiotomy is an
biopsy specimens from epicardial and pericardial layers, avoiding epi- option that allows a (transient) pericardio(-pleural-)abdominal win-
cardial vessels and increasing the probability of obtaining disease- dow for drainage. This approach should be avoided in neoplastic or
specific results. For safety reasons it is important to have a second purulent effusions.
wire in place. The safety wire allows a quick exchange with a pigtail
catheter and allows autotransfusion in the case of relevant bleeding.
7.5 Pericardial access for
By selecting the biopsy site, less informative white areas of fibrin can electrophysiology
be avoided and dark spots of inflammation, malignancy or haemor- First reported in 1996,231pericardial access has been used for the
rhagic imbibitions can be selected, which can be identified best in mapping and ablation of epicardial substrates of ventricular tachyar-
the blue-light mode. Pericardial biopsy can even be taken under rhythmias with improved success rates and avoidance of a surgical
radiologic control alone. The open jaws of the bioptome are ad- procedure232,233 (see supplemental Web material and Web Table 9
vanced gently until the silhouette of the pericardial sac is reached. for complications of the procedure).
Then the jaws are closed and the biopsy sample is taken. Seven to
10 samples should be taken to reduce sampling error. The most 7.6 Surgery for pericardial diseases
meaningful diagnostic yield from pericardial biopsies can be obtained 7.6.1 Pericardial window
by multiple pericardioscopically guided tissue acquisitions. A pericardial window is a cardiac surgical procedure to create a
This technique is quite demanding and can be performed in only a communication, or ‘window’, from the pericardial space to the
limited number of experienced tertiary referral centres. Pericardio- pleural cavity. The purpose of the window is to allow a pericardial
scopy may be considered as a diagnostic method for inspection of effusion (usually malignant) to drain from the space surrounding the
the pericardium and epicardium in experienced centres. It permits heart into the chest cavity in order to prevent a large pericardial ef-
safe tissue acquisition in pericardial diseases of unknown origin. fusion and cardiac tamponade.
The window is usually performed by a cardiac surgeon, but a peri-
7.3 Pericardial fluid analysis, pericardial cardial window may be created by video-assisted thoracoscopy or
balloon pericardiotomy by a percutaneous intervention. The main
and epicardial biopsy
indication is represented by recurrent large effusions or cardiac
Serosanguinous or haemorrhagic fluid can be found in malignant as
tamponade when a more complex operation such pericardiectomy
well as post-pericardiotomy, rheumatologic and traumatic effusions
is a high risk or the life expectancy of the patient is reduced (e.g.
or can be caused by iatrogenic lesions during pericardiocentesis, but
neoplastic pericardial disease) and the intervention is palliative.
also in idiopathic and viral forms. In cases of sepsis, TB or in HIV-
The results of a pericardial window are less definitive since the com-
positive patients, bacterial cultures can be diagnostic. Fluid cytology
munication may close and recurrent effusions, especially loculated,
can separate malignant from non-malignant effusions, which is im-
are common and may require additional interventions compared
portant for effusions in tumour patients after radiotherapy of the
with pericardiectomy, which is a more complex but complete
mediastinum. Discriminative signatures between malignant and
operation.105
autoreactive effusions are higher levels of tumour markers in neo-
plastic pericardial effusion.133,206 7.6.2 Pericardiectomy
Cytology and assessment of bacterial cultures of the fluid, histo- In constrictive pericarditis the treatment is pericardectomy. The
logical/immunohistological evaluation of biopsy specimens and mo- decortications should remove as much of the pericardium as pos-
lecular analysis (PCR for microbial agents of fluid and tissue) allow a sible with all constricting parietal and epicardial layers,103 – 105 but
definite aetiological diagnosis in many cases, which permits further taking care of perserving the phrenic nerves bilaterally. Only by
treatment.133 using sternotomy can all the constricting pericardial layers be
removed. Therefore, left anterolateral thoracotomy should be
7.4 Intrapericardial treatment avoided since it permits only a partial resection.
In patients with a larger effusion of unknown origin, prolonged peri- It is also necessary to liberate all of the right atrium, the superior
cardial drainage may allow subsequent intrapericardial treatment. vena cava and especially the inferior vena cava and the inferior part
In neoplastic pericardial effusion, most frequently due to bron- of the right ventricle adjacent to the diaphragm as far as pos-
chus carcinoma or breast cancer, intrapericardial cisplatin or thiote- sible. 103 – 105 Only when the constricting peel is adherent and
pa therapy have been proposed in combination with systemic calcified is it necessary to leave behind a few islands of the pericar-
antineoplastic treatment, which should be tailored in collaboration dium. To avoid bleeding, cardiopulmonary bypass should be
with the oncologist.204 employed only in cases of co-existent cardiac surgical lesions, but
In autoreactive and lymphocytic pericardial effusion disease- cardiopulmonary bypass may be needed in stand-by, in case of the
specific intrapericardial crystalloid triamcinolone (300 mg/m2 occurrence of haemorrhagic lesions during the procedure. By

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2958 ESC Guidelines
applying these principles, the controversy over the type of oper- 9. To do and not to do messages
ation (complete or radical or only anterior pericardiectomy) is
not an issue. In recurrent constrictive pericarditis, a repeated oper- from the pericardium guidelines
ation has to be done as soon as possible, ideally during the first post-
operative year. Rare patients with relapsing pericarditis can also
benefit from pericardiectomy.33
Management of acute and recurrent Classa Levelb

pericarditis
8. Perspective and unmet needs Hospital admission is recommended for high-risk

patients* with acute pericarditis
I B
Despite a large amount of new data and the first clinical trials Colchicine use (0.5 mg twice or once daily for
that allow clinical management to be on the road to evidence- patients ,70 kg or intolerant to higher doses) is
based medicine, there are several issues that require additional recommended as first-line therapy for acute
I A
research and clarification. The main issues and unsolved questions pericarditis as an adjunct to aspirin/NSAIDs
therapy (3 months) and is also recommended for
include
recurrent pericarditis (6 months)
(1) Pathophysiology and risk factors for recurrent pericarditis. Corticosteroids are not recommended as
III C
What is really ‘idiopathic recurrent pericarditis’? first-line therapy for acute pericarditis
(2) How is it possible to prevent pericarditis beyond colchicine? CRP should be considered to guide the
(3) Is drug tapering useful for patients with pericarditis? treatment duration and assess the response to IIa C
(4) What is the best treatment duration for patients with pericar- therapy
dial diseases? Recommendation for management and therapy of
(5) New and individualized therapies for refractory recurrent pericardial effusion
pericarditis. Are they really available and useful? Pericardiocentesis or cardiac surgery is indicated for
(6) Is exercise restriction really needed for patients with acute and cardiac tamponade or for symptomatic moderate
recurrent pericarditis? to large pericardial effusions not responsive to I C
(7) Given the high risk of constrictive pericarditis in infective peri- medical therapy and for suspicion of unknown
bacterial or neoplastic aetiology
carditis (i.e. tuberculous and purulent) and the promising ef-
fect of intrapericardial fibrinolysis in case reports and small A triage of patients with pericardial effusion is
I C
recommended (see Figure 3)
trials, is intrapericardial fibrinolysis in exudative pericarditis
really safe and efficacious? And when should it be considered It is recommended to target the therapy of
I C
pericardial effusion according to the aetiology
in the clinical management of patients?
(8) What interventions are required to reduce the high mortality Recommendation for diagnosis and therapy of constrictive
pericarditis
of tuberculous pericarditis treated with antituberculosis
medication? CT and/or CMR are indicated as second-level
(9) What actually is pericarditis with myocarditis? imaging techniques (after echocardiography and
chest X-ray) to assess calcifications (CT), I C
(10) What are the long-term outcomes of patients with myoperi- pericardial thickness, degree and extension of
carditis and perimyocarditis? pericardial involvement
(11) Aetiology and pathophysiology of isolated pericardial effusion.
Cardiac catheterization is indicated when
What is ‘idiopathic pericardial effusion’? non-invasive diagnostic methods do not provide a I C
(12) Is diagnosis and treatment necessary for all moderate to large definite diagnosis of constriction
pericardial effusions? The mainstay of treatment of chronic permanent
(13) What are the indications for invasive diagnostic techniques and I C
constriction is pericardiectomy
their diagnostic yield in clinical practice? Recommendation for diagnostic work-up of pericardial
(14) What is the role, value and application of intrapericardial diseases
therapies? In all cases of suspected pericardial disease
(15) Is pericardiectomy really useful and indicated in refractory re- first diagnostic evaluation is recommended,
current pericarditis? with auscultation, ECG, transthoracic
(16) What are the causes and risk factors for constrictive echocardiography, chest X-ray and routine blood
I C
pericarditis? tests, including markers of inflammation (i.e. CRP
and/or ESR), WBC count with differential, renal
(17) What is the best timing for surgical therapies in pericardial function, liver tests and myocardial damage
diseases? (creatine kinase, troponin)
Ongoing basic and clinical research is warranted and needed to ad- CT and/or CMR are second-level testing for
I C
dress all these issues and provide additional diagnostic and thera- diagnostic workup in pericarditis
peutic tools for individualized management of each patient and to Further testing is indicated in high-risk patients*
I C
improve the prognosis. according to the clinical conditions

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ESC Guidelines 2959
Gonzalo Barón-Esquivias (Spain), Helmut Baumgartner (Germany),

Management of tuberculous pericarditis and effusion
Jeroen J. Bax (The Netherlands), Héctor Bueno (Spain), Scipione
In patients living in endemic areas, empiric anti-TB Carerj (Italy), Veronica Dean (France), Çetin Erol (Turkey), Donna
chemotherapy is recommended for exudative I C
Fitzimons (UK), Oliver Gaemperli (Switzerland), Paulus Kirchhof
pericardial effusion, after excluding other causes
(UK/Germany), Philippe Kolh (Belgium), Patrizio Lancellotti
In patients living in non-endemic areas, empiric
(Belgium), Gregory Y.H. Lip (UK), Petros Nihoyannopoulos (UK),
anti-TB treatment is not recommended when
III C Massimo F. Piepoli (Italy), Piotr Ponikowski (Poland), Marco Roffi
systematic investigation fails to yield a diagnosis of
tuberculous pericarditis (Switzerland), Adam Torbicki (Poland), Antonio Vaz Carneiro
Standard anti-TB drugs for 6 months is (Portugal), Stephan Windecker (Switzerland).
recommended for the prevention of tuberculous I C ESC National Cardiac Societies actively involved in the review
pericardial constriction process of the 2015 ESC Guidelines on the diagnosis and manage-
Pericardiectomy is recommended if the patient’s ment of pericardial diseases:
condition is not improving or is deteriorating after I C Albania: Albanian Society of Cardiology, Naltin Shuka;
4–8 weeks of antituberculosis therapy Armenia: Armenian Cardiologists Association, Hamayak Sisakian;
Management of neoplastic pericardial disease Austria: Austrian Society of Cardiology, Julia Mascherbauer;
Cytological analyses of pericardial fluid are Azerbaijan: Azerbaijan Society of Cardiology, Elnur Isayev;
recommended for the confirmation of malignant I B Belarus: Belarusian Scientific Society of Cardiologists, Vadim Shu-
pericardial disease mavets; Belgium: Belgian Society of Cardiology, Guy Van Camp;
Pericardial or epicardial biopsy should be Bulgaria: Bulgarian Society of Cardiology, Plamen Gatzov;
considered for the confirmation of malignant IIa B Croatia: Croatian Cardiac Society, Jadranka Separovic Hanzevacki;
pericardial disease Cyprus: Cyprus Society of Cardiology, Hera Heracleous Moustra;
Tumour marker testing should be considered for Czech Republic: Czech Society of Cardiology, Ales Linhart;
distinguishing malignant from benign effusions in IIa B Denmark: Danish Society of Cardiology, Jacob Eifer Møller; Egypt:
pericardial fluid Egyptian Society of Cardiology, Mohamed Wafaie Aboleineen;
Systemic antineoplastic treatment is Estonia: Estonian Society of Cardiology, Pentti Põder; Finland:
recommended in confirmed cases of neoplastic I B Finnish Cardiac Society, Jukka Lehtonen; Former Yugoslav Re-
aetiology
public of Macedonia: Macedonian Society of Cardiology, Slobo-
Extended pericardial drainage is recommended in dan Antov; France: French Society of Cardiology, Thibaud Damy;
patients with suspected or definite neoplastic
I B Germany: German Cardiac Society, Bernhard Schieffer; Greece:
pericardial effusion in order to prevent effusion
recurrence and provide intrapericardial therapy Hellenic Cardiological Society, Kyriakos Dimitriadis; Hungary:
Hungarian Society of Cardiology, Robert Gabor Kiss; Iceland: Ice-
Intrapericardial instillation of cytostatic/sclerosing
agents should be considered since it may prevent landic Society of Cardiology, Arnar Rafnsson; Israel: Israel Heart
IIa B Society, Michael Arad; Italy: Italian Federation of Cardiology, Salva-
recurrences in patients with malignant pericardial
effusion tore Novo; Kyrgyzstan: Kyrgyz Society of Cardiology, Erkin Mirra-
khimov; Latvia: Latvian Society of Cardiology, Peteris Stradiņš;
CMR ¼ cardiac magnetic resonance; CRP ¼ C-reactive protein; CT ¼ Lithuania: Lithuanian Society of Cardiology, Ausra Kavoliuniene;
computed tomography; ECG ¼ electrocardiogram; ESR ¼ erythrocyte Luxembourg: Luxembourg Society of Cardiology, Andrei Co-
sedimentation rate; NSAID ¼ non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug; TB ¼
tuberculosis; WBC ¼ white blood cell.
dreanu; Malta: Maltese Cardiac Society, Philip Dingli ; Moldova:
*High risk when there is at least one risk factor among the following: high fever Moldavian Society of Cardiology, Eleonora Vataman; Morocco:
(.388C), subacute course without a clear-cut acute onset, large pericardial Moroccan Society of Cardiology, Mustapaha El Hattaoui; Norway:
effusion (i.e. diastolic echo-free space .20 mm), cardiac tamponade, failure to
respond to NSAID therapy, myopericarditis, immunodepression, trauma or oral
Norwegian Society of Cardiology, Stein Olav Samstad; Poland: Pol-
anticoagulant therapy. ish Cardiac Society, Piotr Hoffman; Portugal: Portuguese Society
a
Class of recommendation. of Cardiology, Luı́s Rocha Lopes; Romania: Romanian Society of
b
Level of evidence.
Cardiology, Doina Ruxandra Dimulescu; Russia: Russian Society
of Cardiology, Grigory P Arutyunov; Serbia: Cardiology Society
of Serbia, Milan Pavlovic; Slovakia: Slovak Society of Cardiology,
10. Web addenda Juraj Dúbrava; Spain: Spanish Society of Cardiology, Jaume Sagristà
All Web figures and Web tables are available in the online Sauleda; Sweden: Swedish Society of Cardiology, Bert Andersson;
addenda at: http://www.escardio.org/Guidelines-&-Education/ Switzerland: Swiss Society of Cardiology, Hajo Müller; The
Clinical-Practice-Guidelines/Pericardial-Diseases-Guidelines-on- Netherlands: Netherlands Society of Cardiology, Berto
the-Diagnosis-and-Management-of J. Bouma; Turkey: Turkish Society of Cardiology, Adnan Abaci ;
UK: British Cardiovascular Society, Andrew Archbold; Ukraine:
Ukrainian Association of Cardiology, Elena Nesukay.
11. Appendix †
Affiliation: Massimo Imazio, Coordinator, Cardiology Depart-
ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines (CPG): Jose Luis Zamorano ment, Maria Vittoria Hospital and Department of Public Health and
(Chairperson) (Spain), Victor Aboyans (France), Stephan Achen- Pediatrics, University of Torino, Torino, Italy. Email: massimo.
bach (Germany), Stefan Agewall (Norway), Lina Badimon (Spain), imazio@unito.it

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2960 ESC Guidelines
The CME text ‘2015 ESC Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of pericardial diseases’ is accredited by the European Board for Accreditation in Cardiology (EBAC). EBAC
works according to the quality standards of the European Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education (EACCME), which is an institution of the European Union of Medical
Specialists (UEMS). In compliance with EBAC/EACCME Guidelines, all authors participating in this programme have disclosed any potential conflicts of interest that might cause a bias in
the article. The Organizing Committee is responsible for ensuring that all potential conflicts of interest relevant to the programme are declared to the participants prior to the CME
activities.
CME questions for this article are available at: European Heart Journal http://www.oxforde-learning.com/eurheartj and European Society of Cardiology http://www.
escardio.org/guidelines
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European Heart Journal (2015) 36, 2921–2964 ESC GUIDELINES

2015 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and

Endorsed by: The European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery

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Online publish-ahead-of-print 29 August 2015

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Table 1 Classes of recommendations

Classes of Suggested wording to use

Class I Evidence and/or general Is recommended/is

Class II Conflicting evidence and/or a

Class IIa Weight of evidence/opinion is in Should be considered

Class IIb Usefulness/efficacy is less well May be considered

Class III Evidence or general agreement Is not recommended

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Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref.c

CK ¼ creatine kinase; CRP ¼ C-reactive protein; ECG ¼ electrocardiogram.

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Predictors of poor prognosis: HIGH RISK CASES NON-HIGH RISK CASES

CRP = C-reactive protein; ECG = electrocardiogram.

Figure 1 Proposed triage of pericarditis.

Table 5 Commonly prescribed anti-inflammatory therapy for acute pericarditis

Drug Usual dosinga Tx durationb Tapering a

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Recommendations for the treatment of acute

CRP ¼ C-reactive protein; ECG ¼ electrocardiogram; NSAIDs ¼ non-steroidal 3.3.1 Therapy

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Drug Usual initial dosea Tx durationb Taperinga

chronicity, more recurrences and side effects.35,55,61 If corticoster-

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Diagnosis of acute pericarditis

First line Aspirin or NSAID + colchicine + exercise restriction

First line Aspirin or NSAID + colchicine + exercise restriction

Third line i.v. immunoglobulin or anakinra or azathioprinea

Fourth line Pericardiectomy

Recommendations for the management of recurrent After CRP normalization, a gradual

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mechanisms are especially involved in cases associated with con-

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However, the application of these findings from animal models to

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Recommendations for the diagnosis of pericardial

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Pericardiocentesis and Elevated inflammatory

Empiric ant-inflammatory Known associated

Figure 3 A simplified algorithm for pericardial effusion triage and management.

3.5.4 Prognosis and follow-up

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cases.94 Pericardiectomy is equally successful in those with and with-

Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref.c

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CMP ¼ cardiomyopathy; d.d. ¼ differential diagnosis.

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4. Multimodality cardiovascular CT’), although in patients with neoplastic, inflammatory or aortic

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Echocardiography Computerized tomography Cardiac magnetic resonance