Atom and Molecules
Atom and Molecules
Atom and Molecules
Atom
The total mass of an atom, including the protons, neutrons and electrons, is the
atomic mass or atomic weight.
Atoms having the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons,
represent the same element, but are known as different isotopes of that element.
The isotope for an element is specified by the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons. Examples of different isotopes of an element are carbon 12(the most
common, non-radioactive isotope of carbon) and carbon 14 (a less common,
radioactive isotope of carbon).
Protons and electrons have equal and opposite charge, and normally an atom
has equal numbers of both. Thus, atoms are usually neutral. An ion is an atom
with extra electrons or with a deficiency of electrons, resulting in its being
electrically charged. An ion with extra electrons is negatively charged and is
called an anion; an ion deficient in electrons is positively charged and is called a
cat ion.
Isotones- Nuclei of atoms with the same neutron number. Example: S-36, Cl-37,
Ar-38, K-39, Ca-40. These nuclei contain 20 neutrons each, but a different
number of protons: sulphur 16, chlorine 17, argon 18, potassium 19 and calcium
20 protons.
Isobars are nuclides having the same mass number; i.e. sum of protons plus
neutrons; Carbon-12 and Boron-12.
Dalton was the first scientist to use the symbols for elements in a very specific
sense.
Symbol for some elements
ATOMIC MASS
The most remarkable concept that Dalton’s atomic theory proposed was that of
the atomic mass. According to him, each element had a characteristic atomic
mass. One atomic mass unit is a mass unit equal to exactly one twelfth (1/12th)
the mass of one atom of carbon-12. The relative atomic masses of all elements
have been found with respect to an atom of carbon-12.
The relative atomic mass of the atom of an element is defined as the average
mass of the atom, as compared to 1/12th the mass of one carbon-12 atom.
Atoms of most elements are not able to exist independently. Atoms form
molecules and ions. These molecules or ions aggregate in large numbers to form
the matter that we can see, feel or touch.
Molecules
MOLECULES OF ELEMENTS
For example, a molecule of oxygen consists of two atoms of oxygen and hence it
is known as a diatomic molecule, O2. If 3 atoms of oxygen unite into a molecule,
instead of the usual 2, we get ozone. The number of atoms constituting a
molecule is known as its atomicity. Molecules of metals and some other
elements, such as carbon, do not have a simple structure but consist of a very
large and indefinite number of atoms bonded together.
MOLECULES OF COMPOUNDS
Chemical Formulae
For example:
calcium oxide (CaO), sodium chloride (NaCl), iron sulphide (FeS), copper oxide
(CuO) etc., where oxygen, chlorine, sulphur are non-metals and are written on
the right, whereas calcium, sodium, iron and copper are metals, and are written
on the left.
For example: calcium oxide (CaO), sodium chloride (NaCl), iron sulphide (FeS),
copper oxide (CuO) etc., where oxygen, chlorine, sulphur are non-metals and are
written on the right, whereas calcium, sodium, iron and copper are metals, and
are written on the left.
• In compounds formed with polyatomic ions, the ion is enclosed in a bracket
before writing the number to indicate the ratio.
The simplest compounds, which are made up of two different elements are called
binary compounds. While writing the chemical formulae for compounds, we write
the constituent elements and their valencies as shown below. Then we must
crossover the valencies of the combining atoms.
Examples
The formulae of ionic compounds are simply the whole number ratio of the
positive to negative ions in the structure. For magnesium chloride, we write the
symbol of cation (Mg2+) first followed by the symbol of anion (Cl-). Then their
charges are criss-crossed to get the formula.
4. Formula of magnesium chloride
Thus, in magnesium chloride, there are two chloride ions (Cl-) for each
magnesium ion (Mg2+). The positive and negative charges must balance each
other and the overall structure must be neutral.
Solution:
oxygen = 16 u
So the molecular mass of water, which contains two atoms of hydrogen and one
atom of oxygen is = 2 x1+ 1x16 = 18
= 1 + 14 + 48 = 63 u
The formula unit mass of a substance is a sum of the atomic masses of all atoms
in a formula unit of a compound. Formula unit mass is calculated in the same
manner as we calculate the molecular mass.
For example,
Sodium chloride has a formula unit NaCl. Its formula unit mass can be calculated
as–
1 x 23 + 1 x 35.5 = 58.5 u
Solution:
= 40 + 2 x 35.5 = 40 + 71 = 111 u
MOLE CONCEPT
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O.
(i) two molecules of hydrogen combine with one molecule of oxygen to form two
molecules of water, or
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
(i) What makes the atom of one element different from the atom of another
element? and
(ii) Are atoms really indivisible, or are there smaller constituents inside the atom?
One of the first indications that atoms are not indivisible, comes from studying
static electricity and the condition under which electricity is conducted by different
substances.
J.J. Thomson was the first one to propose a model for the structure of an atom.
(i) An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are
embedded in it.
(ii) The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. So, the atom as a
whole is electrically neutral. Although Thomson’s model explained that atoms are
electrically neutral, the results of experiments carried out by other scientists could
not be explained by this model.
RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF AN ATOM
Ernest Rutherford was interested in knowing how the electrons are arranged
within an atom. Rutherford designed an experiment for this. In this experiment,
fast moving alpha (α)-particles were made to fall on a thin gold foil.
• He selected a gold foil because he wanted as thin a layer as possible. This gold
foil was about 1000 atoms thick.
• α-particles are doubly-charged helium ions. Since they have a mass of 4 u, the
fast-moving α-particles have a considerable amount of energy.
(i) Most of the fast moving α-particles passed straight through the gold foil.
(ii) Some of the α-particles were deflected by the foil by small angles.
(i) Most of the space inside the atom is empty because most of the α-particles
passed through the gold foil without getting deflected.
(ii) Very few particles were deflected from their path, indicating that the positive
charge of the atom occupies very little space.
(iii) A very small fraction of α-particles were deflected by 1800, indicating that all
the positive charge and mass of the gold atom were concentrated in a very small
volume within the atom.
On the basis of his experiment, Rutherford put forward the nuclear model of an
atom, which had the following features:
(i) There is a positively charged centre in an atom called the nucleus. Nearly all
the mass of an atom resides in the nucleus.
(iii) The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.
The orbital revolution of the electron is not expected to be stable. Any particle in
a circular orbit would undergo acceleration. During acceleration, charged
particles would radiate energy. Thus, the revolving electron would lose energy
and finally fall into the nucleus. If this were so, the atom should be highly
unstable and hence matter would not exist in the form that we know. We know
that atoms are quite stable.
(i) Only certain special orbits known as discrete orbits of electrons, are allowed
inside the atom.
(ii) While revolving in discrete orbits the electrons do not radiate energy. These
orbits or shells are called energy levels.
These orbits or shells are represented by the letters K,L,M,N,… or the numbers,
n=1,2,3,4,….
NEUTRONS
The following rules are followed for writing the number of electrons in different
energy levels or shells:
(i) The maximum number of electrons present in a shell is given by the formula
2n2, where ‘n’ is the orbit number or energy level index, 1,2,3,…. Hence the
maximum number of electrons in different shells are as follows:
(iii) Electrons are not accommodated in a given shell, unless the inner shells are
filled. That is, the shells are filled in a step-wise manner.
Valency
The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are known as the
valence electrons. Valency or valency number, is a measure of the number of
chemical bonds formed by the atoms of a given element.
According to Bohr-Bury, outermost shell of an atom can have two electrons in its
outermost shell and all other elements have atoms with eight electrons in the
outermost shell. The combining capacity of the atoms of other elements, that is,
their tendency to react and form molecules with atoms of the same or different
elements was thus explained as an attempt to attain a fully-filled outermost shell.
An outermost-shell, which had eight electrons was said to possess an octet.
Atoms would thus react, so as to achieve an octet in the outermost shell. This
was done by sharing, gaining or losing electrons. The number of electrons
gained, lost or shared so as to make the octet of electrons in the outermost shell,
gives us directly the combining capacity of the element.