EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping

School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

CALCULUS OF ONE VARIABLE

Topic 1.1: FUNCTIONS

This note includes the concepts of functions:

• function notations and representations
• domain and codomain
• function or non-function
• classification and types of functions
• visualizing the transformed functions.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of this chapter, students shall be able to

• define the concept of calculus of one variable

• identify the functions’ domain and codomain
• represent functions and distinguish between a function or non-function
• represent functions and its transformations in visual graphs
• recognize different types of functions
• calculate the limits of functions
• distinguish between the limits and continuity
• apply the learnt outcomes to solve engineering related problems.

What is a Function?
A function is a fundamental concept to understand relations between measured quantities in
physics and engineering problems. Relation presents rules of dependence or independence
among variables. For instance, in physics problems, functions are used to specify processes or
tasks involved as well as to study the systems’ behavior.

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

Example 1
Damping system behaviour

i. Force, 𝐹 (N) related to the velocity, 𝑣 (m/s) concerning viscous damping

𝐹 = −𝑐𝑣 𝐹
c = viscous damping coefficient (Ns/m)
𝑣
𝑣 =velocity (m/s)
The force is an approximation to friction caused by drag.
➢ This is a function 𝐹 of 𝑣

ii. In mass spring damper system

𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
k = spring constant(N/m)
𝑥= distance (m)
➢ This is a function 𝐹 of 𝑥

Transfer function
iii. A system behavior (output) can be predicted based on given input.
For instance:

Output = car speed, acceleration, projectile motion, voltages or currents in circuits

Input = voltage, current, application of force, steering wheel

For any system, the output 𝑝(𝑡)equals to the input 𝑖(𝑡)multiplied by the systems’
transfer function 𝐹(𝑡).

Input Output
SYSTEM
i(t) F(t) p(t)

➢ This is a function 𝐹 of 𝑡

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

Definition
Function is a rule that corresponds between two sets: the domain and the codomain. This rule
assigns (maps) elements in the domain set to elements in the codomain set. To denote functions,
three main things are involved; the domain, the range, and the rule of assignment.

Notations and representations

Functions could be denoted in different ways.
• Word description
• Ordered pairing
• Mathematical formulation
• Arrow diagram
• Tabulation
• Visual graphing

Domain, codomain, image and range

Domain: A set of real numbers for which function is defined (input values)
Codomain: A target set of a function consisting of all the potential outputs of the function
Image: A part of function's codomain which is the output of the function
Range: A set of codomains of the function (output values)

The overall idea of the image, range and codomain:

Codomain

Range

Image

image ⊆ range ⊆ codomain

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

Example 2
A manufacturing company produces 𝑈 units of products on time delivery annually. In 2007, there
were 285 units of products manufactured. The company has expanded in the following year and
the number of products produced on time delivery increased 75% per year to date. For each tth
year, there is a corresponding value of 𝑈 (unit) as a function of 𝑡 (year). Represent this problem
as a function in a period of 5 years ever since the expansion.

Solutions

Word description: A manufacturing company produces 𝑈 units of products on time

delivery annually. For each tth year, there is a corresponding value
of 𝑈 (unit) as a function of 𝑡 (year). Therefore, 𝑈(𝑡) = 285(1.75)𝑡 ,
0≤𝑡≤5

Mathematical 𝑈: 𝑡 → 285(1.75)𝑡 or 𝑈(𝑡) = 285(1.75)𝑡 or

formulation: 𝑈: [0,5] → ℜ+ , 𝑈(𝑡) = 285(1.75)𝑡

Ordered pair: {(0, 285), (1, 498), (2, 872),(3, 1527), (4, 2672), {5,4677}}

• 285
• 498
Arrow diagram: • 0
• 872
• 1
• 1527
• 2
• 2672
• 3
• 4677
• 4
U(t)
• 5

Tabulations: Year, t Units of products, U

0 285
1 498
2 872
3 1527
4 2672
5 4677

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

Visual graphing: Units Units of Products Produced on Time Delivery from Year 2007-2012
5000

4500

4000

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Year

Consider the previous arrow diagram representation, if 𝑈: 𝑡 → 𝑧 or 𝑈(𝑡) = 𝑧

𝑡 (element of domain 𝑇) = object
𝑧 (element of codomain 𝑍) = image 𝑈(𝑡)
𝑍
𝑇

•z
•t

Similarly, the diagram can be presented like the machinery input and output system where
𝑡 (element of domain 𝑇) = input
𝑧 (element of codomain 𝑍) = output INPUT
𝑡
SYSTEM
𝑈(𝑡)

OUTPUT
𝑧

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

Example 3
Find the domain for the following functions.
i. 𝑔: ℜ+ → ℜ+ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 , {𝑥 > 0}
𝜋, 𝑥≤1
ii. ℎ(𝑥) = {−𝜋, 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3
𝜋, 𝑥 > 3

Solutions
Domain of 𝑔 is ℜ+
Domain of ℎ is (−∞, ∞)

Example 4
A mathematical model was constructed from a study on an average daily percentage of water
pollutant particles found in rural areas. The model is formulated as 𝑃(𝑡) = 66√𝑡 2 − 5𝑡 + 6
where 𝑃 is the percentage of particles and 𝑡 is the number of days. Determine the domain of this
function.

Solutions
For 𝑡 2 − 5𝑡 + 6 ≥ 0
−(−5) ± √(−5)2 − 4(1)(6)
𝑡≥
2(1)
𝑡 ≥ 2 𝑜𝑟 3

Domain is [0, 2] ∪ [3, ∞)

Example 5
Radioactive materials and some other substances decompose according to the patterns of
exponential decay. If the amount of radioactive material 𝑄 present at time 𝑡 is given by
𝑄(𝑡) = 𝑄0 𝑒 𝑘𝑡 , 𝑘 < 0.
Find the domain of the function.

Solutions
The domain is 𝑡 ≥ 0. 𝑄

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

Functions or non-functions?
Functions can involve the relation of either
(i) One-to-one (Injective) ‘or’
(ii) Many-to-one

Without these two properties, they are non-functions. Some one-to-one and many-to-one
relations are also onto. One-to-one function is also called the injective while the onto function
is called the surjective. A function is referred to as the bijective if it has both the properties of
one-to-one and onto. The one-to-one, onto and inverse functions are three special categories
of functions.

Note: Only functions have inverses denoted as 𝑓 −1 . x y

𝑓 −1
A ‘one-to-one’ relation
A function 𝑓: 𝑥 → 𝑦 is ‘one to one’ if 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏), then 𝑎 = 𝑏. This also implies the reverse
condition that if 𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 𝑓(𝑏), then 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏.

A ‘many-to-one’ relation
Also called multi-valued function where more than one objects (inputs) are related to an image
(output).

Example 6
The function 𝑈: [1,5] → ℜ+ , 𝑈(𝑡) = 285(1.75)𝑡 from previous example is a one-to-one relation.
• 285
• 498
• 0
• 872
• 1
• 1527
• 2
• 2672
• 3
• 4677
• 4
U(t)
• 5
Example 7
The function 𝑓(𝑥) = tan 𝑥 is a ‘many-to-one’ relation.

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

An ‘onto’ function (Surjective)

When range function of𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌, the set of all function values is called the range of 𝑓 denoted
by 𝐼𝑚(𝑓) where 𝐼𝑚(𝑓) = {𝑓(𝑥), 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋}. 𝑓 is said an ‘onto’ function if 𝐼𝑚(𝑓) = 𝑌. Meaning that
every element in the codomain is also a function value of 𝑓.

Vertical/ Horizontal Line Test

Another method to determine whether a relation is a function is by examining the graphical
representation.

• Vertical line test

A vertical line is drawn through a graph. If the graph is a function, the vertical line shall
cut the graph only once at a single intersection point.
y = f(x) is a function if it passes the vertical line test.

Vertical line if cuts the graph more than once showing more than one 𝑦 value for each
value of 𝑥 indicating 1-Many relation that is non-function.

• Horizontal line test

A horizontal line is drawn across the graph for identifying whether a function has 1-1 or
Many-1 relation. The horizontal line that intersects the graph only once shows a 1-1
relation. In other words, an object of x value yields different image of y value

Whereas if the horizontal line intersects the graph more than once, meaning that more
than a single x value is mapped to the same image indicating Many-1 relation.

Both the vertical and horizontal line tests give the alternative approaches to detect the 1-
1and many-1 relation. A 1-1 function passes both the vertical line test and horizontal line
tests (intersects once for both tests).

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

Example 8
(i)

All possible vertical lines on this graph will intersect only once. The graph is a function.
All possible horizontal lines on this graph will intersect only once. The function shows a 1-1
relation.

(ii)

All possible vertical lines on the graph intersect only once. The graph is a function.
All possible horizontal lines on this graph will intersect more than once.
Number of intersections are infinite. Therefore, the function shows a Many-1 relation.

Example 9
Consider whether 𝑘: [0,7] → [0,30] whereby 𝑘(𝑦) = 𝑦 2 is a function?
Reconsider if 𝑘: [0,7] → ℜ whereby (𝑦) = 𝑦 2 . Is 𝑘 a function now?

Solutions
Consider when 𝑦 = 7
𝑘(7) = 49 ∉ [0,30] range
Therefore, in the range of 𝑘: [0,7] → [0,30], 𝑘 is not a function. (neither 1-1 nor Many-1 relation)

But, for the range of : [0,7] → ℜ , 𝑘 is a function. (1-1 relation)

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

The 𝑘(𝑦) passes the vertical line tests. So 𝑘 is a function

Example 10
1
Given that 𝑔: ℜ → ℜ whereby 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 . Determine whether 𝑔(𝑥) is a function.

Solutions
Consider 𝑥 = −4 ∈ ℜ
1
But 𝑔(−4) = (−4)2 is a complex number ∉ ℜ
So 𝑔 not function.

Example 11
1
Reconsider the previous example with 𝑔: ℜ+ → ℜ whereby 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 . For this case is the 𝑔(𝑥)
a function?

Solutions

𝑔(𝑥)is not a function (1-many relation)

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

Classification and types of functions

Functions can be grouped as continuous or piecewise functions. These groups can be divided
further into either periodic or non-periodical functions. The common types of functions
encountered in applications are the algebraic and transcendental functions.

Functions

Continuous Discontinuous

Algebraic Transcendental Algebraic Transcendental

Periodical Non-periodical

Continuous function
A function in which some changes in the inputs results in changes in the outputs is called the
continuous function. This function when presented on graphs should show unbroken lines at
any interval throughout the domain such like the polynomial, power, exponential and
logarithmic functions. Whenever a function, 𝑓 is continuous at a point 𝑐 of the domain, its limit
must exist at point 𝑐 itself. This concept is further discussed under the limits and continuity
topic.

A function whose domain interval can be divided into continuous subintervals is called the
piecewise function. The relations are formulated differently for the subintervals of its domain.
Piecewise function has limits at the endpoints of each subinterval.

➢ Discontinuous function
Discontinuous function, whereas, that has a finite number of ‘breaks’ in it and therefore when
presented on graphs would show broken lines (gaps) at any interval throughout the domain.

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

Example 12
Identify whether the functions presented are continuous, piecewise continuous or
discontinuous.

(i) (ii)
2E+16

1.5E+16

1E+16

5E+15

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-5E+15 (iii) (iv)
6

3
y=|x|
2

0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
(v) (vi)

Solutions
Figure (ii), (iii) and (vi) are continuous functions (no broken lines throughout the domain)
Figure (i), (iv) and (v) are piecewise functions but discontinuous for whole domain (broken lines)

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

Algebraic functions
Functions that can be developed using algebraic operations (+, -, x, /) beginning from
polynomials. Algebraic functions include the polynomials, power functions, rational functions.
Polynomials 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 .
The polynomial functions can be written in terms of finite
series as discussed in section 1.5.
𝑛

𝑃(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
𝑛=0
Linear Straight line graph
P( x) = ax + a0 e.g. Ohm’s law, production vs. defect rate

Production
I(A)
0.8
0.6
I=V/R
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 V (V) 6 % defect

Quadratic The first non-linear equation encountered. Forms ‘U’ or ‘n’

P2 ( x) = a 2 x + ax + a0
2
curves (e.g. Figure 1.1.19).
Formula for its roots:
−b b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a

Cubic The formula for the roots of a general cubic is somewhat

P3 ( x) = a3 x 3 + a2 x 2 + ax + a0 more complicated. Therefore, in practice, we use the
numerical method to solve polynomial equations of degree
higher than two. Most fundamental cubic.
150 f(t)
100
f(t)=t3
50
0 t
-10 -5 -50 0 5 10
-100 f(t)=-t3
-150

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

nth order polynomial

𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0

Power function Written in the form of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑥 𝑛 where

𝑘= scaling factor
𝑛= power

If n is an even whole integer, the function will show

symmetrical behavior about the y-axis. This function is
called the even function.

If n is an odd whole integer, the function will show

symmetrical behavior about the origin. This function is
called the odd function.

𝑎
For 𝑛 = 𝑏 , fractional power,
𝑎
if > 0 and 𝑏 even: Power functions only defined for 𝑥 >
𝑏
0.

𝑎
if < 0 and 𝑏 odd: Power functions only defined for 𝑥 >
𝑏
0.

𝑎
if > 0 and 𝑏 odd: Power functions only defined for all 𝑥.
𝑏

𝑎
if 𝑏
< 0 and 𝑏 odd: Power functions only defined for all
non-zero 𝑥.

The power functions sum up to form polynomials.

Rational function 𝑃(𝑥)
Written in the form of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥) where

𝑃(𝑥), 𝑄(𝑥)= polynomials and 𝑄(𝑥) ≠0

Polynomial functions are made up of rational functions

when 𝑄(𝑥) = 1

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

Transcendental functions
Transcendental functions are functions that cannot be written as finite sequences of algebraic
operations of addition, multiplication and the root extraction. Transcendental functions are non-
polynomial and nonlinear functions. Examples of transcendental functions include trigonometric,
logarithmic and exponential functions. To find some or all of the roots of these
functions, solutions can be approximated using numerical methods. Another way is by the
construction of graphs and observes the point where it crosses the x-axis.

Trigonometric Functions related to angles. Basic trigonometric functions

are the sine, cosine and tangent. Many real-world
applications are related to angular measures and therefore
often be represented by trigonometric functions.

Example 13

In a study to investigate the effects of inclination angle, λ

on a surface roughness during machining processes, the
surface roughness parameter, R t is modeled as
𝑓2
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑟 cos 2 𝜆 − cos 𝜆 √𝑟 2 − 4
where
𝑟 = tool nose radius (fixed at 0.4 mm)
𝜆 = inclination angle (°)
𝑓 = feed rate (fixed at 0.3 mm)
𝑅𝑡

𝜆
Logarithmic Written in the form of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 which can also be
represented in the form of 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) . If 𝑎 = 𝑒, then
𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 and 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) is an exponential function.
e.g. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥 (Figure 1.1.22)

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

1 f(x)

0 x
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
-1

-2

-3

Exponential Functions that involve exponents, 𝑒. Among the commonly

encountered exponential functions are the population
growth and radioactive decay.

Example 14

The rate of natural increase in human population is

evaluated by
𝑘 = birth rate - death rate.

Therefore, the population growth over years is

determined by
𝑑𝑃
= 𝑘𝑃 , 𝑃(𝑡0 ) = 𝑃0
𝑑𝑡
whereby
𝑘 = rate of natural increase
𝑡 = time
𝑃 = number of individuals

The solution of this expression forms an exponential

function

𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑃0 𝑒 𝑘𝑡 𝑃

𝑃0
𝑡

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

Periodic Example 15
Periodic functions show(i) Consider at an angle 𝜃 on the unit
repeated patterns at circle,
constant intervals. sin (θ + 4π) = sin(𝜃 + 2𝜋)
= sin 𝜃
Two types of periodical cos (θ + 4π) = cos(𝜃 + 2𝜋)
functions: even function, = cos 𝜃
odd function.
Since the sine and cosine graphs
reflect similar patterns throughout
these domains. Sine is an odd
function while cosine is an even
function.

2𝜋 is called the period of

trigonometric function for sine
and cosine functions.
f(x) 1.5

0.5
x (rad)
0
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2
-0.5

sin x -1
cos x
-1.5

Even function
A function is even if 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥). Even functions can be identified from graphs that appear
symmetrical about the y-axis. Other examples are like 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑓(𝑥) = cos(𝑥).

Odd function
A function is odd if 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥). Odd functions can be identified from graphs that appear
symmetrical about the origin. Other examples are like 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 , 𝑓(𝑥) = sin (𝑥).

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

Example 16

Even functions Odd functions

Monotonic functions
Functions that are defined on subset of real numbers are called the monotonic functions.
Monotonic functions can be divided into

• Monotonically increasing: function increases as x increases

For instance, whenever b ≥ a, then f(b) ≥ f(a)
When the inequality sign ≥ is replaced by >, then the function is strictly increasing.

• Monotonically decreasing: function decreases as x increases

For instance, whenever b ≤ c, then f(b) ≥ f(c)
When the inequality sign ≥ is replaced by >, then the function is strictly decreasing.

Strictly increasing or decreasing functions are one-to-one related functions.

Temperature f(b)

f(a)
f(c)

Months

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

Visualizing transformed functions

New functions can be transformed from the old functions using processes like shifting, stretching
and reflecting.

Shifting: Also called the translation process whereby original graphs are moved vertically
(upward/downward) or horizontally (forward/backward) at several distances.
If 𝑘 > 0,
i. 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑘 (the 𝑓(𝑥) graph shifted 𝑘 units vertically)
ii. 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ± 𝑘) (the 𝑓(𝑥) graph shifted 𝑘 units horizontally)

Example 17
The upward velocity of a rocket is approximated as v(t ) = t 2 + 20.7t + 3.6 . Plot the graph of v (t ) ,
v(t ) + 100 , v(t ) − 150 for the range of 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 10 seconds.

Solutions

Example 18
Consider the function g(x) = sin x.
Plot the function of g(x). Visualize the transformed functions of g(x) for g(x + 5000) and
g(x − 30).

Solutions

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

Stretching: If 𝑘 > 1,
Vertical stretch
i. 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑓(𝑥) (the 𝑓(𝑥) graph stretched by factor of 𝑘 units)
1
ii. 𝑦 = (𝑘) 𝑓(𝑥) (the 𝑓(𝑥) graph compressed by factor of 𝑘 units)

Horizontal stretch:
i. 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑘𝑥) (the 𝑓(𝑥) graph compressed by factor of 𝑘)
𝑥
ii. 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑘) (the 𝑓(𝑥) graph stretched by factor of 𝑘)

Example 19
From some experimental studies, the velocity, 𝑣 of a pendulum bob tied to a string placed at
the bottom of a swing can be approximated from an equation modeled using a weight dropping
from a certain height (Figure 1.1.34). The approximated equation is formulated as:
𝑣 = √2𝑔𝐿[1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃] 𝜃
𝐿
where
𝑔 = gravity pull, 9.81 ms-1
𝐿 = length of a string fixed at 0.1 m
𝜃 = angle from the Normal line
Sketch and observe the behavior of the graph upon
𝑣(𝜃)
(i) vertical stretch of 5𝑣(𝜃) and .
5
𝜃
(ii) horizontal stretch of 𝑣(3𝜃) and 𝑣 (5 ).

Solutions
(i)

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 EUM113Lecture Notes 2021/2022
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Wei Ping
School of Mechanical Engineering, USM

(ii)

Reflecting:
i. 𝑦 = −𝑓(𝑥) (the f(x) graph reflect about x-axis)
ii. 𝑦 = 𝑓(−𝑥) (the f(x) graph reflect about y-axis)

Example 20
A piecewise step function is given by
0, 0  t  

h(t ) = 1,   t  2
0 2  t  


the function when reflects about (x-axis) and about (y-axis) on the same graph denoted as h1 (t )
and h2 (t ) respectively. Are the new h1 (t ) and h2 (t ) functions continuous?

Solutions h

h2(t) h(t)

−2𝜋 −𝜋 0 𝜋 2𝜋

−1
h1(t)

h1 (t ) and h2 (t ) functions piecewise continuous

21