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METAL ALLOY

Presentation · July 2018

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.20821.52961

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 METAL ALLOY
DR DEWI SURIYANI BT CHE HALIN
What is METALS?
 a material (an element, compound, or alloy) that is typically hard when
in solid state, opaque, shiny, and has good electrical and thermal conductivity.
 Metals are;
1. malleable— can be hammered or pressed permanently out of shape without
breaking or cracking
2. fusible- able to be fused or melted.
3. ductile- able to be drawn out into a thin wire.
 Around 90 of the 118 elements in the periodic table are metals; the others
are nonmetals or metalloids, though elements near the boundaries of each
category have been assigned variably to either (hence the lack of an exact count).
 Some elements appear in both metallic and non-metallic forms.
Most elements are metals

3
Structure and Bonding of Metals
 The atoms of metallic substances are typically arranged in one of three
common crystal structures;
1. Body-centered cubic (bcc)- each atom is positioned at the center of a cube of
eight others.
2. Face-centered cubic (fcc)- each atom is surrounded by twelve others, but the
stacking of the layers differs.
3. Hexagonal close-packed (hcp)- each atom is surrounded by twelve others,
but the stacking of the layers differs.
 Metals adopt different structures depending on the temperature.
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
Crystal structures for some metals
Crystal Atomic Atomic
Metal
Structure Number Radius (nm)
Aluminium FCC 13 0.1431
Cadmium HCP 48 0.1490
Chromium BCC 24 0.1249
Cobalt HCP 27 0.1253
Copper FCC 29 0.1278
Gold FCC 79 0.1442
Iron (α) BCC 26 0.1241
Lead FCC 82 0.1750
Molybdenum BCC 42 0.1363
Nickel FCC 28 0.1246
Platinum FCC 78 0.1387
Silver FCC 47 0.1445
Tantalum BCC 73 0.1430
Titanium (α) HCP 22 0.1445
Tungsten BCC 74 0.1371
Zinc HCP 30 0.1332
 BONDING
 The energy of a collection of atoms is often lower if they are close.
 The atoms stick together.
 In specific ways, depending on the nature of the atoms and their neighbours.
 This bonding can be classified as ;
1. Covalent- Covalent bonds are strong, getting stronger (and shorter) the more electrons that
are shared.
2. Ionic- The electrons are not shared and there is a concentration of charge density on the
more electronegative ion.
3. Mixed Covalent Ionic- The ionicity is weaker, due to the closer electro-negativity of the
atoms. The bond has both covalent and ionic character, and the bonding is directional
4. Metallic- The electrons are shared across the entire solid, and are delocalised: an extreme
version of covalent bonding. The more electrons shared, the stronger the metallic bonding.
5. Hydrogen- Weak directional bonds due to the electrostatic attraction of polar molecules
(or permanent dipoles within molecules). These permanent dipoles are due to differences
in electronegativity.
Properties of Metals
Chemical
 Metals are usually inclined to form cations through electron loss, reacting with
oxygen in the air to form oxides over various timescales;
1. Iron rusts over years. 4 Na + O2 → 2 Na2O (sooxide)
2 Ca + O2 → 2 CaO (calcium dium oxide)
4 Al + 3 O2 → 2 Al2O3 (aluminium oxide).
2. Potassium burns in seconds.
 Metals such as iron, copper, zinc, and nickel- slower to oxidize because they form
a passivating layer of oxide that protects the interior.
 Palladium, platinum and gold- do not react with the atmosphere at all.
 Some metals form a barrier layer of oxide on their surface which cannot be
penetrated by further oxygen molecules and thus retain their shiny appearance
and good conductivity for many decades (like aluminium, magnesium,
some steels, and titanium).
Physical
 Metals;
1. high electrical conductivity
2. high thermal conductivity
3. high density
 Typically metals are malleable and ductile, deforming under stress
without cleaving.
 In terms of optical properties, metals are shiny and lustrous.
 Sheets of metal beyond a few micrometres in thickness appear opaque, but gold
leaf transmits green light.
 The high density of most metals is due to the tightly packed crystal lattice of the
metallic structure
Electrical
 The electrical and thermal conductivities of metals originate from the fact that their
outer electrons are delocalized.
 The atomic structure of a metal as a collection of atoms embedded in a sea of
highly mobile electrons.
 The electrical conductivity, as well as the electrons' contribution to the heat
capacity and heat conductivity of metals can be calculated from the free electron
model.

Mechanical
 Mechanical properties of metals include ductility, i.e. their capacity for plastic
deformation.
 Reversible elastic deformation in metals can be described by Hooke's Law for
restoring forces, where the stress is linearly proportional to the strain.
 Forces larger than the elastic limit, or heat, may cause a permanent (irreversible)
deformation of the object, known as plastic deformation or plasticity.
 This irreversible change in atomic arrangement may occur as a result of:
1. The action of an applied force- may be tensile (pulling) force, compressive (pushing)
force, shear, bending or torsion (twisting)forces.
2. A change in temperature (heat)- may affect the mobility of the structural defects such as grain
boundaries, point vacancies, line and screw dislocations, stacking faults and twins in
both crystalline and non-crystalline solids.
 Metallic Materials

 Metallic materials are broadly of two kinds – ferrous and non-ferrous materials.
 This classification is primarily based on tonnage of materials used all around the
world.
 Ferrous materials are those in which iron (Fe) is the principle constituent.
 All other materials are categorized as non-ferrous materials.
Ferrous Metals
 Ferrous materials are produced in larger quantities than any other metallic material.
 Three factors account for it:
(a) availability of abundant raw materials combined with economical extraction
(b) ease of forming
(c) versatile mechanical and physical properties.

 One main drawback of ferrous alloys- environmental degradation i.e. poor corrosion resistance.
 Other disadvantages include:
1. relatively high density
2. comparatively low electrical
3. thermal conductivities
 Principle element is iron, cast iron, steel, wrought iron.
 Metals come from ore, "minerals" ore consists of metal and gangue (valueless extra)
 What is Metal Alloy??
 An alloy is a combination of metals or of a metal and another element.
 An alloy may be a solid solution of metal elements (a single phase) or a mixture of
metallic phases (two or more solutions).
 Intermetallic compounds are alloys with a defined stoichiometry and crystal
structure.
 The alloy constituents are usually measured by mass percentage for practical
applications, and in atomic fraction for basic science studies.
 Alloys are usually classified as substitutional or interstitial alloys, depending on
the atomic arrangement that forms the alloy.
 They can be further classified as homogeneous (consisting of a single phase), or
heterogeneous (consisting of two or more phases) or intermetallic.
 The mechanical properties of alloys will often be quite different from those of its
individual constituents.
 A metal that is normally very soft (malleable)- such as aluminium, can be altered
by alloying it with another soft metal, such as copper.
 Both metals are very soft and ductile- aluminium alloy will have much
greater strength.
 Steel- common alloys in modern use. Due to its very-high strength, its ability to be
greatly altered by heat treatment.
 By adding chromium to steel, its resistance to corrosion can be enhanced,
creating stainless steel,
 By adding silicon to steel- it can alter its electrical characteristics, producing silicon
steel.
Ordered metallic alloy
 TYPES OF ALLOY
Bronze and brass
 Native copper, however, was found worldwide, along with silver, gold, and platinum, which were
also used to make tools, jewelry, and other objects since Neolithic times.
 Copper was the hardest of these metals, and the most widely distributed.
 BRONZE- a combination of copper (metal) and tin (metal).
 BRASS- a mixture of copper (metal) and zinc (metal).

Amalgams
 Mercury has been smelted from cinnabar for thousands of years.
 Mercury dissolves many metals, such as gold, silver, and tin, to form amalgams (an alloy in a soft
paste or liquid form at ambient temperature).
 The amalgam was applied as a paste and then heated until the mercury vaporized, leaving the
gold, silver, or tin behind.
 Mercury was often used in mining, to extract precious metals like gold and silver from their ores.
Pewter
 The term pewter covers a variety of alloys consisting primarily of tin.
 As a pure metal, tin is much too soft to be used for any practical purpose.
 During the Bronze Age, tin was a rare metal in many parts of Europe and the Mediterranean; due
to this it was often valued higher than gold.
 To make jewellery, cutlery, or other objects from tin, it was usually alloyed with other metals to
increase its strength and hardness.
Ferrous Metal- Steel
 Steel is an Iron - Carbon alloy which is cast from a molten mass in a form which is malleable.
 Carbon steel is steel with less than 1.5% carbon.
 Alloy steel is steel which has properties controlled by elements other than carbon.
 Steel has the best structural properties of these materials.
 Alloying additions are necessary for many reasons including: improving properties, improving
corrosion resistance.
 Mechanical properties of steels are very sensitive to carbon content.
 Steels are basically three kinds:
1. Low Carbon Steels (% wt of C < 0.3)
2. Medium Carbon Steels (0.3 < % wt of C < 0.6)
3. High Carbon Steel (% wt of C > 0.6)
Low Carbon Steels
 Carbon present in these alloys is limited, and is not enough to strengthen these materials by heat
treatment; hence these alloys are strengthened by cold work.
 The microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite, and these alloys are thus relatively soft, ductile
combined with high toughness.
 These materials are easily machinable and weldable.
 Typical applications of these alloys include: structural shapes, tin cans, automobile body
components, buildings, etc.
Medium Carbon Steels:
 Stronger than low carbon steels. Less ductile than low carbon steels.
 These alloys can be heat treated to improve their strength.
 Usual heat treatment cycle consists of austenitizing, quenching, and tempering at suitable
conditions to acquire required hardness.
 As hardenability of these alloys is low, only thin sections can be heat treated using very high
quench rates. Ni, Cr and Mo alloying additions improve their hardenability.
 Typical applications include: railway tracks & wheels, gears, other machine parts which may
require good combination of strength and toughness.
High Carbon Steels
 These are strongest and hardest of carbon steels.
 These are heat treatable, and mostly used in hardened and tempered conditions.
 Very high wear resistance, and capable of holding sharp edges.
 Used for tool application such as knives, razors, hacksaw blades, etc.
 With addition of alloying element like Cr, V, Mo, W which forms hard carbides by reacting with
carbon present, wear resistance of high carbon steels can be improved considerably.
Stainless steels
 High resistance to corrosion i.e. they are rustless (stain-less).
 Steels are made highly corrosion resistant by addition of special alloying elements, especially a
minimum of 12% Cr along with Ni and Mo.
 Three kinds: ferritic & hardenable Cr steels, austenitic and precipitation hardenable (martensitic,
semi-austenitic) steels.
 Typical applications include cutlery, razor blades, surgical knives, etc.
1. Ferritic stainless steels
 Principally Fe-Cr-C alloys with 12-14% Cr.
 They also contain small additions of Mo, V, Nb, and Ni.

2. Austenitic stainless steels

 contain 18% Cr and 8% Ni in addition to other minor alloying elements.
 Ni stabilizes the austenitic phase assisted by C and N.
 Other alloying additions include Ti, Nb, Mo (prevent weld decay), Mn and Cu (helps in stabilizing
austenite).

3. Martensitic steels
 Made to be above the room temperature.
 These alloys are heat treatable.
 Major alloying elements are: Cr, Mn and Mo.
Pig Iron
 Iron ore is combined with coke, and limestone (fluxing agent).
 Blasts of hot air are forced through the material to ignite the coke and melt the
iron ore.
 The impurities in the iron are absorbed by the limestone and forms blast furnace
slag.
Wrought Iron
 A form of iron that contains slag, and virtually no carbon.
 Making it workable when it is hot but hardens very rapidly when cooled rapidly.
Cast Iron
 contain about 3.0-4.5% C along with some alloying additions.
 Alloys with this carbon content melt at lower temperatures than steels i.e. they are responsive to
casting.
 Casting is the most used fabrication technique for these alloys.
 Cast iron is pig iron is any other shape. Remelted and cast into desired shape.
 Tendency of cast irons to form graphite is usually controlled by their composition and cooling rate.
 Based on the form of carbon present, cast irons are categorized as gray, white, nodular and
malleable cast irons.
 Types of cast iron;
1. Gray cast iron: consists carbon in form graphite flakes, which are surrounded by either ferrite or
pearlite. Because of presence of graphite, fractured surface of these alloys look grayish.
2. White cast iron: When Si content is low (< 1%) in combination with faster cooling rates, there is
no time left for cementite to get decomposed, thus most of the brittle cementite retains.
Because of presence of cementite, fractured surface appear white.
3. Nodular (or ductile) cast iron: Small additions of Mg / Ce to the gray cast iron melt before
casting can result in graphite to form nodules or sphere-like particles.
4. Malleable cast iron: Formed after heat treating white cast iron. Heat treatments involve heating the
material up to 800-900 ºC, and keep it for long hours, before cooling it to room temperature.
Non-Ferrous Metals
 Non-ferrous materials have specific advantages over ferrous materials.
 They can be fabricated with ease, high relatively low density, and high electrical and thermal
conductivities.
 There are few type of non-ferrous metals;
1. Aluminium alloys:
 characterized by low density, high thermal & electrical conductivities, and good corrosion resistant
characteristics.
 As Al has FCC crystal structure, these alloys are ductile even at low temperatures and can be
formed easily.
 Limitation of these alloys is their low melting point (660 ºC), which restricts their use at elevated
temperatures.
 Strength of these alloys can be increased by both cold and heat treatment – based on these
alloys are designated in to two groups, cast and wrought.
 Common applications of Al alloys include: beverage cans, automotive parts, bus bodies, aircraft
structures, etc.
2. Copper alloys:
 Bronze has been used for thousands of years.
 It is actually an alloy of Cu and Sn.
 Unalloyed Cu is soft, ductile thus hard to machine, and has virtually unlimited capacity for cold work.
 One special feature of most of these alloys is their corrosion resistant in diverse atmospheres. Most of these
alloys are strengthened by either cold work or solid solution method.
 Applications of Cu alloys include: costume jewelry, coins, musical instruments, electronics, springs, bushes,
surgical and dental instruments, radiators, etc.

3. Magnesium alloys:
 low density among all structural metals.
 Mg has HCP structure- Mg alloys are difficult to form at room temperatures.
 Fabricated by casting or hot working.
 As in case of Al, alloys are cast or wrought type, and some of them are heat treatable.
 Major alloying additions are: Al, Zn, Mn and rare earths.
 Common applications of Mg alloys include: hand-held devices like saws, tools, automotive parts like steering
wheels, seat frames, electronics like casing for laptops, camcoders, cell phones etc.
Titanium alloys:
 Ti and its alloys are of relatively low density, high strength and have very high melting point.
 Easy to machine and forge.
 Major limitation is Ti’s chemical reactivity at high temperatures.
 These alloys are expensive. They also possess excellent corrosion resistance in diverse atmospheres, and
wear properties.
 Common applications include: space vehicles, airplane structures, surgical implants, and petroleum &
chemical industries.

Refractory metals:
 Very high melting points.
 For example: Nb, Mo, W and Ta.
 They also possess high strength and high elastic modulus.
 Common applications include: space vehicles, x-ray tubes, welding electrodes, and where there is a need for
corrosion resistance.
Noble metals:
 These are eight all together: Ag, Au, Pt, Pa, Rh, Ru, Ir and Os.
 All these possess some common properties such as: expensive, soft and ductile, oxidation resistant.
 Ag, Au and Pt are used extensively in jewellery.
 Ag and Au are employed as dental restoration materials.
 Pt is used in chemical reactions as a catalyst and in thermo couples.
 THANK YOU

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