Prehistory - no script , language present but we aren’t aware

Proto history – script present we are aware of the script but we aren’t able to read the script

History – from where language which is aware to us started

Human ancestors are likely to have first evolved in Africa and later migrated to different parts of the world

earliest human ancestor species to migrate out of Africa was the Homo erectus.

BCE – before common era or BP – before present

CE – common era or AD – anno domini

500000 bce to 10000 bce - Paleolthic (old stone)

9000 bce to 7000 bce – Mesolithic

7000 to 3000 bce – Neolithic

3500 to 1300 bce – indus valley civilization (bronze)

1700 bce to 1100 bce – early vedic

1100 to 500 bce – later vedic

The classification of these cultures is done on the basis of stratigraphic, chronological and lithic (stone tool) evidence

Sources

archaeological sites

geological sediments

animal bones and fossils

stone tools , bone tools

rock paintings and artefacts.

human genes – to understand migration

Language

Paleolithic age (Old Stone Age)

Lower paleolithc – 5.00.000 to 50.000 bce – big tools , pebbles , core tools and hand axe (bulky tools )

Middle Paleolithic – 50.000 to 40.000 bce – flake tools

Upper paleoliithic – 40.000 to 10.000 bce

Lower Paleolithic

Homo erectus

First tool - first Palaeolithic tools were identified at the site of Pallavaram near Chennai by Robert Bruce Foote

Hunter and gatherer

Tools used chopper , hand axes

Man in bend condition

Size of brain is very small

Big jaw because ate raw food

Earliest site – bori Maharashtra

Limeston used to make tools

Rock shelter

Important site – bhibetka

Lithic Tools

made large stone blocks and pebbles

chipped tools out of them using other stone

Hand axes, cleavers, choppers

Tools vary large

used the tools for hunting, butchering and skinning the animals, breaking the bones for bone marrow and to recover
tubers and plant foods, and for processing food

industries of Palaeolithic cultures are divided into the Early, Middle and Late Acheulian Industries

Acheulian tools include polyhedrons, spheroids, hand axes, cleavers and flake tools.

Distribution

Athirampakkam, Pallavaram and Gudiyam

Hunsgi valley and Isampur in Karnataka, and Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh

Way of Life

hunted animals and gathered roots, nuts and fruits.

Food - flesh and bones of animals killed by predators

Settlement -- open air, river valleys, caves and rock shelters,

Language - not have a complex language

were intelligent enough to select stones as raw material and used the hammer stones to carefully flake the rocks and
design tools.
Middle palelithic (4,00,000 years BP (Before Present))

Flake tool made – they are sharp

species of human ancestors diverged.

Middle Palaeolithic tools are attributed to behavioural modernity

Anatomically modern humans are said to have emerged around 3,00,000 years ago

phase was first identified by H.D. Sankalia on the Pravara River at Nevasa.

Industries and Tool Types

hand axes, cleavers, choppers, chopping tools, scrapers, borers and points, projectile points or shouldered points,
and knives on flakes

scrapers, points and borers were made.

Scrapers were used for wood and skin working

Distribution

The Middle Palaeolithic sites are found in Narmada, Godavari, Krishna, Yamuna and other river valleys.

Ways of Life and Main Characteristics

Shelter - open-air, cave and rock shelter sites.

hunter-gatherers.

The tools became smaller.  

The decrease in the use of hand axes in relation to other tools.  

Use of core preparation techniques in stone tool production.  

Use of chert, jasper, chalcedony and quartz as raw materials.

Upper Palaeolithic Culture

innovation in tool technology and increased cognitive capability of humans.

Lithic Tools and Industries

blade and bone tool technologies.

Microliths (tiny stone tools) were introduced in the Upper Palaeolithic Period and these tools were made using
different varieties of silica-rich raw materials.

Bone tools and faunal remains have been found in Kurnool caves in Andhra Pradesh.
Distriution –

Meralbhavi in Karnataka, Kurnool caves in Andhra Pradesh, Godavarikhani in Telangana, Baghor I and Baghor III of
Son Valley in Madhya Pradesh and Patne in Maharashtra

Ways of Life and Main Characteristics-

appears in the form of paintings.

Beads and ornaments of this period have also been found.

blade industry advanced in this period.

green colour paintings of Bhimbetka are dated to Upper Palaeolithic period

Feature of Paleolithic

Society – no social etiquette, small number, band society, no customs, mobile

Art – rock painting petro glyph – Bhimbetka

Living – need based society, natural living society, rock shelter, open living,

Material culture – need based and material desire limited

Site –

Tools -

Meso lithic

 Site - found in Paisra (Bihar), Langhnaj (Gujarat), Baghor II, Chopani Mando, Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahadaha and
Damdama (all in Uttar Pradesh), Sankanakallu (Andhra) and Kibbanahalli (Karnataka) , Mumbai, teri sites in
Thoothukudy district (Tamil Nadu) and Vishakapatnam (Andhra Pradesh)
 Mesolithic cultures appeared around 10,000 BCE. In certain parts of India including Kerala and Tamil Nadu, it
continued up to 1000 BCE,

Economy –

 Hunting wild animals and gathering plant food and fishing were people’s main occupation
 At the end of the Mesolithic period, humans domesticated animals and paved the way for the Neolithic way
of life.
 people belonging to this period hunted cattle, gaur, buffalo, barasingha, porcupines, sambar, chital, gazelle,
hog deer, nilgai, jackal, turtle, fish, wild hare, lizard fox and monitor lizard.

Camps and Houses

 highly mobile
 moved in search of animals and plant foods.
 made temporary huts
 Circular huts with postholes and burnt clay lumps bearing reed
 The temporary huts were built using perishable materials.
 Circular huts

Burials

 buried the dead,

  . One burial had an ivory pendant as the grave good.

Art

 chert stone used as a core had geometric engravings

 bone objects from Bhimbetka and human tooth engraved with geometric design
 Rock paintings are found in the rock shelters of Madhya Pradesh

Characteristics of the Mesolithic Cultures

   The Mesolithic people lived in semi permanent and temporary settlements.  

 They occupied caves and open grounds.
  They buried the dead.
 They had artistic skill.
 They were spread over wider geographical regions.
 Cultural continuity is noticed in many parts of India from this period.
 Their microlithic tools enabled them to hunt smaller animals and birds
 Micro liths (small tools)
 Warm climate and more humid
 Brain size increasing
 Dog – pet
 Still no settlement

Neolithic

beginning of agriculture and animal domestication

. Between 10,000 BCE to 5000 BCE, agriculture emerged in these regions, which led to several cultural
developments.

introduction of domestication of animals and plants resulted in the production and supply of a large quantity of
grains and animal food.

Neolithic Culture of North-Western India

 north-western India is the earliest to have evidence of plant and animal domestication in India.
 Mehrgarh, Rana Ghundai, Sarai Kala and Jalilpur are some of the Neolithic sites
 site of Mehrgarh has produced evidence of early Neolithic times, dating to c. 7000 BCE.
 Wheat and barley were cultivated and sheep, goat and cattle were domesticated.
 This culture preceded the Indus Civilisation
 did not use pottery, but
 cultivated six row barley, emmer and einkorn wheat, jujube and dates,
 also domesticated sheep, goat and cattle.

Neolithic Culture of Kashmir

 contemporary to the Harappan civilisation.

 Burzahom, an important site of this culture,
 , people lived in pit houses (about four metres in depth) in order to escape the cold weather
 houses were oval in shape, wide at the bottom and narrow on the top
 domestic sheep, goat and cultivated plants.
  traded with the people of the Harappan Civilisation
 Two phases of Neolithic culture have been identified. They are termed aceramic and ceramic phases.

The Neolithic Culture of Ganges Valley and Central India

 Ganges Valley, and in Central India Neolithic sites are found at Lehuradeva, and Chopani Munda.
 cordmarked pottery.
 Koldiwa, Chirand, Senuwar and Mahagara are important Neolithic sites in this region.
 pottery and plant and animal domestication.
 six-rowed barley, several types of wheat, rice, pea, green gram, and gram/chicken pea, mustard, flax/linseed
and jackfruit have been found at the sites of Central India.

The Neolithic Culture of Eastern India

 Neolithic sites are found at many sites in Bihar and West Bengal

Neolithic Culture of South India

 found mainly in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka and the north-western part of Tamil Nadu
 More than 200 Neolithic sites have been identified as part of the Neolithic complex.
 river valleys of Godavari, Krishna, Pennaru, Tungabhadra and Kaveri. Sanganakallu, Tekkalakota, Brahmagiri,
Maski, Piklihal, Watkal, Hemmige and Hallur in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda, Ramapuram and Veerapuram in
Andhra Pradesh and Paiyyampalli in Tamil Nadu

Setteling

 Agriculture
 Domestication
 Pottery
 Surplus food supply
 Small mud houses built
 No metal used
 Started cooking food
 Wheel discovered
 First intentional disposal of dead
 Art – cave painting
 Ragi wheat gram were cultivated
 Site – mehrgarh, inamgaon , burzahom. Hallur , chirard

Art of old stone age

Bhimbetka

Chalcolithic –

Neolithic – 7000 to 3000

Kayath culture
Cooper used

Tools made of copper and stone

Society – domestication of animal , mother goddess worship , burial , painted pottery used

Art – painting, dancing and singing

Living – mud houses

Material – pottery – black and red ware , NBPW , PGW , wheel based pottery

Negative – absence of script , not knew art of mixing copper , burial of many children (infant mortality high) , animal
slaughtered for food dairy product not used , jhum cultivation

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

 first phase of urbanisation in India
 The civilisation that appeared in the northwestern part of India and Pakistan in third millennium BCE
 Harappa was the first site to be identified in this civilisation
 Harappan culture is divided into various phases:
1.  Early Harappan 3000–2600 BCE
2.  Mature Harappan 2600–1900 BCE
3.  Late Harappan 1900–1700 BCE

 first visited by Charles Mason in 1826 CE (AD), and Amri by Alexander Burnes in 1831.
 was destroyed for laying the railway line from Lahore to Multan.
 the importance of the site and the associated civilisation were not realised until Sir John Marshal
 1940s, Mortimer Wheeler excavated the Harappan sites.
 many of the Harappan sites went to Pakistan and thus archaeologists were keen to trace the Harappan sites
on the Indian side

Geographical Area and the Settlements

 1.5 million sq. km area in India and Pakistan.

 Sutkagen-dor in the west on the Pakistan–Iran border; Shortugai (Afghanistan) in the north; Alamgirpur
(Uttar Pradesh, India) in the east and Daimabad (Maharashtra, India) in the south are the boundaries of this
civilisation.
 core area was in the regions of Pakistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Haryana.

Early Beginnings

 Indus region (Mehrgarh) is one of the areas of the world where agriculture and animal domestication began
very early
 The early Harappan phase saw the development of villages and towns in the entire region
 Mature Harappan phase, urban centres developed.

Planned Towns

 Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan), MohenjoDaro (Sindh, Pakistan), Dholavira, Lothal, and Surkotada (Gujarat,
India), Kalibangan (Rajasthan, India), Banawali and Rakhigarhi (Haryana, India)
 Fortification, well-planned streets and lanes and drainages
  civic authority perhaps controlled the planning of the towns
 baked and unbaked bricks, and stones for construction.
 towns had a grid pattern
 drainages were systematically built
 houses were built of mud bricks while the drainages were built with burnt bricks.
 Houses had more than one floor
 The houses had multiple rooms.
 Many of the houses had a central courtyard with rooms all around.
 Mohenjo-Daro - citadel and another as the lower town
 citadel area had important residential structures that were either used by the public or select residents.
 Had warehouse
 Great Bath- The corridors were present on all four sides and stairs are seen on the northern and southern
sides , adjacent room ,
 Granary- The bricks were laid watertight with gypsum mortar.
 It had drainage.

Subsistence and Economic Production

 Agriculture was an important source

 cultivated diverse crops such as wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, sesame and various millets.
 Agricultural surplus was an important stimulus for a number of developments.
 They adopted a double cropping system.
 used ploughs - ploughed the land and then sowed the seeds.
 Ploughed fields have been found at Kalibangan.
 Irrigation – canal and well irrigation

Animal Domestication

 sheep, goat and fowl.

 had knowledge of various other animals including buffalo, pig and elephant
 horse was not known to them.
 They also ate fish and birds.

Craft Production

 Bead and ornament making, shell bangle making and metalworking were the major crafts
 The beads were made in innumerable designs and decorations
 They were exported to Mesopotamia

Pottery

 well-fired pottery
 potteries have a deep red slip and black paintings
 shaped like dish-on-stands, storage jars, perforated jars, goblets, S-shaped jars, plates, dishes, bowls and
pots
 intersecting circles, zigzag lines, horizontal bands and geometrical motifs with floral and faunal patterns
Metals, Tools and Weapons

 s knew how to make copper and bronze tools

 The Harappans used chert blades, copper objects, and bone and ivory tools
 tools of points, chisels, needles, fishhooks, razors, weighing pans, mirror and antimony rods were made of
copper.
 Bronze age – copper + tin
 chert blades made out of Rohrichert was used by the Harappans

Textiles and Ornaments

 s wore clothes and used metal and stone ornaments

 . They had knowledge of cotton and silk.
 . The image identified as a priest is depicted wearing a shawl-like cloth with flower decorations.
 e terracotta images of women are shown wearing different types of ornaments.
 They made carnelian, copper and gold ornaments

Trade and Exchange

 One of the sources of Harappan economy was trade and exchange activities
 Harappans had close trade contacts with the Mesopotamians and also with various cultures of India
 n Oman, Bahrain, and Iraq and Iran.
 Harappan jar has been found in Oman.
 Harappan seals, weights, dice and beads are found in Mesopotamia.

Weights and Measures

 had developed proper weights and measures.

 Cubical chert weights
 ratio of weight is doubled as 1:2:4:8:16:32.

Seals, Sealing and Scripts

 seals from various media such as steatite, copper, terracotta and ivory are frequently found in the Harappan
sites.
 About 5,000 texts have been documented from the Harappan sites.

Arts and Amusement

  terracotta figurines,
 the paintings on the pottery,
 and the bronze images
 Priest king” of steatite, dancing girl of copper (both from Mohenjo-Daro), and stone sculptures from
Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Dholavira are the important objects of art.
 Toy carts, rattles, wheels, tops, marbles and hop scotches exhibit the amusement of the Harappan people

Faith and Belief System

 worshipped the pipal tree.

 mother goddess.
 Worshiped fire
 buried the dead with e pottery, ornaments, jewellery, copper mirrors and beads
 belived in afterlife

Polity

 Uniformity in pottery, seals, weights and bricks reveals the existence of a polity
 uniformity in the cultural materials and measurement units point to a central authority during the Harappan
times.

Authorship and the Making of Indian Culture

 archaeological evidence shows movement of the Harappans to the east and the south after the decline of
their civilisation.

Decline

 The Indus Valley Civilisation declined from about 1900 BCE.

 Changes in climate, decline of the trade with the Mesopotamia, and the drying of the river and water
resources due to continuous drought are some of the reasons attributed by historians for the decline.
 Invasions, floods and shifting of the river course are also cited as reasons for the ruin of Indus civilisation.

Early Harappa , mature Harappa , latter Harappa

State – Maharashtra , Punjab , guj , jk , up ,mp , Haryana

Why emergence

Ideological unification –

Efficient technology

Irrigation – flood irrigation , cannal irrigation absent , well irrigation , concentric circle irrigation