Journal Pre-proof

A novel strategy for improving drying efficiency and quality of

cream mushroom soup based on microwave pre-gelatinization and
infrared freeze-drying

Wenchao Liu, Min Zhang, Benu Adhikari, Jingjing Chen

PII: S1466-8564(20)30462-8
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2020.102516
Reference: INNFOO 102516

To appear in: Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies

Received date: 21 February 2020

Revised date: 30 June 2020
Accepted date: 4 September 2020

Please cite this article as: W. Liu, M. Zhang, B. Adhikari, et al., A novel strategy for
improving drying efficiency and quality of cream mushroom soup based on microwave
pre-gelatinization and infrared freeze-drying, Innovative Food Science and Emerging
Technologies (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2020.102516

This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such
as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is
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© 2020 Published by Elsevier.

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A novel strategy for improving drying efficiency and quality of cream

mushroom soup based on microwave pre-gelatinization and infrared

freeze-drying

Wenchao Liua,c, Min Zhanga,b*, Benu Adhikarid, Jingjing Chene

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State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 214122

Wuxi, Jiangsu, China

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International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Jiangnan
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University, 214122 Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
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c
Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Advanced Food Manufacturing Equipment and
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Technology, Jiangnan University, 214122 Wuxi, Jiangsu, China

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d
School of Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC3083, Australia

e
Haitong Food Group Company, 315300 Cixi, Zhejiang, China
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*Corresponding author: State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology,

Jiangnan University, 214122 Wuxi, Jiangsu, China

Tel./fax: +86 510 85877225

E-mail: min@jiangnan.edu.cn
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Abstract
The present study was carried out to achieve a more efficient dehydration process
along with low undesirable quality decrease for cream mushroom soup (CMS) by
combining microwave pre-gelatinization (MPG) with infrared freeze-drying (IRFD).
Wheat flour was gelatinized using a microwave heating unit for different times, and
was used in CMS formulations. Freeze drying (FD) was carried out using
conventional as well as IRFD and drying time, energy consumption and product
quality characteristics (flavor, viscosity of rehydrate juice; moisture absorption and
crystallinity of dried soup solid) of CMS were studied. Compared to FD, IRFD

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reduced the drying time and energy consumption by 23.81% and 28.43%, respectively.

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The microwave pre-gelatinization of wheat flour and subsequent use in IRFD, while
in comparing with single infrared freeze drying, did not affect drying time and energy
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consumption; however, it significantly improved the flavor and viscosity of soup upon
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rehydration, and reduced the tendency to retrogradation. The microwave
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pre-gelatinization time of 120 s at 8 W/g energy level was found to be the most
suitable condition for microwave pre-gelatinization of wheat flour.
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Industrial relevance: Undesirable decrease of viscosity in starch containing soup and

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high energy consumption of traditional freeze-drying limit the large-scale industrial

production of freeze-dried starch containing product. Therefore, inhibiting viscosity
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reduction and reducing production cost are the crucial steps for industrial production
of freeze-dried cream mushroom soup. Microwave pre-gelatinization and infrared
freeze-drying have made outstanding contributions on improving starch stability and
reducing drying energy consumption, respectively, which caters to the preferences of
industrial production and can be used in industrial production of freeze-dried instant
cream mushroom soup.

Keywords: Infrared freeze-drying; Microwave pre-gelatinization; Soup; Quality

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1. Introduction

Currently there are three types of instant soups commonly available on the market:

powder soup, liquid soup (sauce, seasoning oil), and semi-solid soup (sauce bag) (X.

Duan, Zhang, Mujumdar, & Wang, 2010). These soups are primarily used as

seasoning ingredients for instant noodles and are rarely consumed in their own. In

addition, the limited choice of flavor in commercial products, e.g. salty and/or umami,

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lack of richness of original food, and excessive oil content in traditional instant soup

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difficult accepted by modern consumers (R. Wang, Zhang, Mujumdar, & Sun, 2009).
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Therefore, it is necessary to find a processing technology that can produce instant
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soup with rich flavor and nutritional value.
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Freeze drying allows dehydration of materials by sublimation at low temperature

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and sub-atmospheric pressure and retains higher nutritional value, flavor, color and

creates a porous structure in dried product all of which desired attributes of dried
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products (K. Fan, Zhang, & Mujumdar, 2019). The freeze dried products also have
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better rehydration and dissolving properties (Raji, Akinoso, Aruna, & Raji, 2016).

Crapo, Oliveira, Nguyen, Bechtel, and Fong (2010) used freeze drying to produce

ready-to-eat fish soup cubes with good storages stability (water activity (aw) <0.1) and

rapid rehydrating ability. However, due to the need for deep freezing and low

operating pressure, freeze drying is a highly time- and energy-consuming process

(Zhang, Tang, Mujumdar, & Wang, 2006).

Efforts have continuously been made to reduce the time and energy consumption in
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freeze drying process. Combining microwave with freeze drying process can achieve

substantial energy and time saving as produces internal heat by exciting polar

molecules within food materials (Zhang, et al., 2006). Thus, traditional heating plates

can be potentially replaced by microwave generator to improve the efficiency of

freeze-drying process. By appropriately adjusting the microwave power level, Rui,

Min, Mujumdar, and Jin-Cai (2009) achieved complete freeze drying of vegetable

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soup within 5 h. However, due to the likelihood of low voltage discharge occurring

during microwave heating, microwave freeze drying has a serious problem of uneven

drying (Zhang, et al., 2006).

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Infrared radiation is a process of transmitting energy by electromagnetic waves in
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the wavelength length of 0.78–1000 μm (Dhanoa, Lister, Sanderson, & Barnes, 1994).
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If the frequency of the incident infrared ray resonates with the natural frequency of
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molecules in the targeted material, it will strongly absorb infrared energy (Sandu,

1986). This absorbed energy is converted into thermal energy results into an increase
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of temperature of the material (Sandu, 1986). Wu, Zhang, and Bhandari (2019)
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reported that, compared to traditional freeze drying, the drying time and energy

consumption of Cordyceps militaris during infrared freeze-drying was reduced by

7.21%-17.78% and 11.88%-18.37%, respectively. Moreover, the quality of Cordyceps

militaris produced from infrared freeze-drying and traditional freeze drying was

similar (Wu, et al., 2019). H. Wang, Zhang, and Mujumdar (2014) applied infrared-

convective drying, hot air- radio frequency drying and hot air- microwave drying to

produce dehydrated shiitake mushroom. They reported that the drying uniformity of
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infrared- convection drying was the best among these drying methods. Although the

publications that report the application of infrared freeze-drying of a number of food

products, there is no reported research on the production of instant dried soup using

infrared freeze-drying.

Retrogradation of starch during drying is one of the factors that causes

undesirable decrease of viscosity in starch containing soup when they are

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reconstituted (Deng, Wang, Wang, Zhou, & Xiao, 2012; Grant, 1998). Thus, it is

important to prevent the retrogradation of starch during production of dried soups that

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contain starch. Modification of starch is an effective way to overcome the undesired
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changes in quality of starch (e.g., retrogradation) during processing. Physical,
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chemical and enzymatic methods or their combinations can be used to introduce new
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functional groups on starch molecules or reduce the molecular size to improve the
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stability, viscosity, film formation and anti-retrogradation properties (Grant, 1998).

Microwave heating, due to its fast heating capability, is considered to be an efficient

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way for physical/thermal modification of starch (D. Fan, Li, Ma, Zhao, Zhang, &
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Chen, 2012). This microwave-assisted treatment is known as microwave

pre-gelatinization (MPG). Researches have shown that the effect of microwave on

thermal stability and crystal structure of starch upon gelatinization mainly depends on

the its rapid heating effect (Xu Duan, Han, Deng, & Wu, 2020). MPG has been found

successfully applied in corn starch for chemical modification (Kraus, Enke, Gaukel, &

Schuchmann, 2014), in wheat flour for noodle production (Xue, Fukuoka, & Sakai,

2010) and in rice starch for making instant rice (D. Fan, et al., 2013). Yet, there is no
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application of MPG in modifying starch in mushroom soup that would subsequently

converted into dried solid using infrared freeze-drying.

In the above context, the objective of this research was to effectiveness of infrared

freeze-drying and traditional freeze-drying in producing dried mushroom soup in

terms of product quality including minimizing reduction of viscosity of reconstituted

soup as well as process efficiency. We have aimed to determine the optimal condition

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to pre-gelatinize the starch component of the soup using microwave.

2. Materials and methods

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2.1 Materials
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The raw materials used in the experiment were: wheat flour (Wudeli Flour Group
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Co., Ltd., Handan, China); single strength cream with 35% fat content (Qingdao
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Nestle Co., Ltd., Qingdao, China); butter with 81% fat content (Hohhot Otter Dairy

Co., Ltd., Hohhot, China); bacon (Henan Shuanghui Investment Development Co.,
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Ltd., Luohe, China); button mushroom (bought at local supermarket, Wuxi, China);
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common salt (Zhongyan Shanghai Salt Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China).

2.2 Preparation of cream mushroom soup

2.2.1 Prepared using native wheat flour

The steps for preparing cream mushroom soup by using ungelatinized (native)

wheat flour were as follows:

Step 1: Bacon (100 g) and button mushroom (100 g) were first cut into small pieces
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with the dimensions of 5 mm (length) × 5 mm (width) and then stir-fried with 20 g of

butter in a stainless-steel pot on an electromagnetic oven (C21-RT2140, Midea Group,

Foshan, China) at 1300 W for 2 min. This bacon and mushroom formulation was then

transferred to a porcelain dish;

Step 2: Wheat flour (50 g) was stir-fried with 20 g of butter in a stainless-steel pot

on an electromagnetic oven at 800 W for 1.5 min;

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Step 3: Eight hundred mL distilled water was added to the stir-fried wheat flour

prepared under Step 2. The power of the electromagnetic oven was raised to 1800 W

and stirring continued for 3 min;

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Step 4: The bacon and mushroom prepared in Step 1 was mixed stir-fried wheat
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flour prepared in Step 3. Then, the power of the electromagnetic furnace was adjusted
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to 1000 W and stirring was continued for 2.5 min;

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Step 5: Twenty-five mL single strength cream and it was added to mixed

formulation obtained from Step 4, then stirring was continued for 10 min at 800 W;
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Step 6: Finally, 2 g of salt was added into the formulation obtained in Step 5, then
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stirred for 10 min at 800 W.

2.2.2 Prepared using pre-gelatinizatione wheat flour

The steps for preparing cream mushroom soup by using microwave pre-gelatinized

wheat flour were as follows:

Step 1: This step was exactly the same as the Step 1 of preparing soup using

ungelatinized wheat flour except 40 g of butter was used;

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Step 2: Fifty grams of microwave pre-gelatinized wheat flour was weighed and

transferred to a 100 mL beaker. Then 50 mL distilled water was added into it and

stirred for 3 min;

Step 3: Seven hundred- and 50-mL water was added into a stainless-steel pot and

heated for 3 min at 1800 W;

Step 4: Formulation produced under Step 1 was added to the hot water produced in

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Step 3, then oven power was adjusted to 1000 W and stirred for 2.5 min;

Step 5: Twenty-five mL of single strength cream was added in to the formulation

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prepared under Step 4. The oven power was adjusted to 800 W and stirred for 10 min.;
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Step 6: Two grams of salt and added to the formulation obtained from Step 5 and
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stirred for 6 min at the same power level.

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Step 7: The pregelatinized starch obtained from Step 2 was mixed with the
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formulation obtained from Step 6 and further stir-mixed for 4 min at 800 W.
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2.3 Structure and working principle of infrared freeze dryer

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The schematic diagram of freeze dryer and infrared freeze dryer is shown in Fig. 1.

It was designed by the authors and assembled by Changzhou Yibu drying equipment

Co., Ltd (Changzhou, China). Materials are placed in a single layer. The system

pressure was set at 80 Pa. The temperature of the sample was measured using a fiber

optic temperature sensor. The cold trap (cylinder with bottom radius of 0.5 m and

cylinder height of 2 m) temperature could be maintained within -40 °C and -45 °C.

The temperature inside the dryer was continuously adjusted between room
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temperature to 100 °C by turning off/on the electric heating plate. In the case of

infrared freeze dryer, the heating unit was made up of a 0.703 w/cm2 infrared lamp

array. The infrared lamp array is composed of ten cylindrical infrared lamp tubes (1 m

cylinder height and 0.005 m bottom radius) arranged in a uniform single layer at

intervals of 0.05 m. The temperature in this dryer could also adjusted/maintained

between room temperature to 100 °C by turning off/on the infrared lamp. The

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temperature was monitored and recorded using a K-type thermocouple at 5 mm below

the lamps.

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Laboratory-scale microwave dryer used in this experiment was provided by Su
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Enrui Experimental Apparatus Co., Ltd. (Nanjing, China). The microwave power
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level could also be readily adjusted.

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2.4 Drying and rehydration processes

2.4.1 Production of dried soup by freeze and infrared freeze-drying

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First the prepared soup samples (section 2.2) were poured into a cylindrical
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stainless-steel container with a height of 30 mm and a bottom radius of 25 mm. To

ensure the soup could not overflow from the container, its thickness was fixed at 25

mm. After that, the prepared soup samples were frozen in a refrigerator at - 50 °C for

10 hours. Cold trap temperature in the freeze-drying process was set at - 40 °C. The

mass of the sample used for freeze drying in each batch was 1±0.025 kg. The optimal

drying temperature for both freeze-drying and infrared freeze-drying was determined

to be 70 °C through comprehensively compared drying rate, viscosity and volatile

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flavor of rehydrated soup under different drying temperatures in preliminary

experiments and it was used throughout this work. The drying process was stopped

when the moisture content of the sample was lower than 5% (wet basis) (Ahmed &

Shafiur Rahman, 2012).

2.4.2. Rehydration behavior of freeze-dried soups

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The determination method of dried soup rehydration ratio refers to the report of

Felix da Silva, et al. (2020), and made some modifications. Twenty grams of dried

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soup was putted into a 250 ml beaker and added 180 g of 100 °C deionized distilled
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water. The mixed solution was placed in a 100°C water bath. Within the first 5
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minutes, samples were taken every 1 min to determine the rehydration rate, while
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between 5- and 30-min, samples were taken every 5 min. The rehydrated soup was
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filtered with three layers of filter paper for 15 min, and the filtrate was dehydrated to

constant weight in an oven at 105°C. The dried soup rehydration ratio (RR) was
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obtained from Eq. 1.

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RR 
180  (m1  m2 ) (1)
20
Where m1 and m2 are the initial weight (g) of filtrate and its weight (g) after

dehydration to constant weight at 105℃, respectively.

To determine the functional relationship between rehydration time and rehydration

characteristics of freeze-dried soups, three mathematical models in Table 1 were used

to fit the experimental data. The coefficient of determination (R2) and root mean

square error (RMSE) of each model were used to evaluate the fitting performance.
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2.4.3 Preparation of rehydrated cream mushroom soup

One hundred degrees Celsius deionized water was slowly added to the freeze-dried

soup until the total weight of dried soup and added water was same as the weight of

the corresponding liquid soup before freezing at - 50 °C. The mixture of dried soup

and 100 °C deionized water was first stirred with glass rod for 3min, then used for

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related quality indexes determination.

2.5 Microwave pre-gelatinization of wheat flour

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The microwave heat treatment wheat flour was carried out as proposed by D. Fan,
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et al. (2012) with some modification. In this process, 15 g of water and 100 g of wheat
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flour were mixed in a 250 mL glass beaker, and stirred continuously for 3 min. Then
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the beaker was sealed with a plastic wrap and left for 20 min at room temperature to

enable uniform distribution of water in the flour. The pre-gelatinized wheat flour
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samples with different degree of gelatinization were obtained by heating the samples
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in microwave oven at 8 W/g microwave power for 60 s, 120 s and 180 s. The

ungelatinized wheat flour was used as the control in experiments described in section

2.2.1.

2.6 Determination of moisture content

The moisture content of fresh soups (before drying) was determined gravimetrically

using an oven maintained at 105 °C. Weighing was done at every 2-h interval until the
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difference between two successive readings was less than 0.02 g (Ahmed, et al.,

2012).

2.7 Determination of energy consumption

The electric energy needed to remove 1 kg water was used as the energy

consumption (EC, KJ/Kg H2O) index, and it was calculated using Eq. (2). The total

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energy consumed (ECt, KJ) for the whole drying process of each test was measured

by electricity meter (DDS606, DELIXI ELECTRIC, Zhejiang, China).

EC 
ECt
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mE 0  mEf
(2)
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Where mE0 and mEf are the material weight (g) at the beginning and end of drying,
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respectively.

2.8 Measurement of viscosity

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Rehydrated soup (50 mL) was transferred to a 100 mL glass beaker, then viscosity
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was measured using a viscometer (NDJ-5S, Shanghai Weichuan Precision Instrument

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Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China) with No. 2 spindle (with a detection range of 200～2000

mPa·s) at 30 rpm rotational speed. The temperature of samples during measurements

was maintained at 70 °C (preliminary tests showed that the soup system was relatively

stable under this temperature condition, which was conducive to the determination of

various indicators) using a water bath.

2.9 Detection of volatile compounds

Five grams of rehydrated soup sample transferred to a 20 mL analytical bottle, and

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an electronic nose (Ruifen Trading Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China) was used to analyze

the volatile flavor compounds. The temperature of the samples during the

measurements was maintained at 70 °C using a water bath. The acquisition and

cleaning time, and sample flow rate were set at 100 s, 120 s, and 0.1 L/min,

respectively. The gas flow in e-nose gas collection tube brings volatile flavor

components into the detector to contact the sensors and triggers the change in signal

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values.

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2.10 Measurement of degree of gelatinization and glass transition temperature
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The degree of gelatinization (DG) of pre-gelatinized wheat flour and glass
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transition temperature of dried soup were determined using a differential scanning

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calorimeter (DSC) (METTLER TOLEDO, Switzerland). Five milligram samples

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(wheat flour and dried soup) were encapsulated into hermetically sealed aluminum

pan. Empty DSC pan was used as the reference. The temperature scanning program
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for determining DG was: temperature was first reduced to 10 °C and then raised to
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120 °C at the rate of 20 °C/min. The temperature scanning program for determining

glass transition temperature was: temperature was first reduced to -120 °C and then

raised to 100 °C at the rate of 20 °C/min. The DSC data were analyzed using STARe

Evaluation Software associated with the hardware. The DG of pre-gelatinized wheat

flour was obtained using Eq. (3), which was often used to quantitatively measure the

ripening degree of cereal foods (Xue, Sakai, & Fukuoka, 2008). While the mid-point

of the glass transition is reported as the glass transition temperature (Sablani, Kasapis,
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& Rahman, 2007).

H gn  Hg
DG (%)   100% (3)
Hgn

Where ΔHgn and ΔHg are the gelatinization enthalpy data of ungelatinized (native) and

gelatinized wheat flour, kJ/kg.

2.11 Determination of degree of starch retrogradation

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Storage modulus increases due to starch regeneration (Karim, Norziah, & Seow,

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2000). The change in storage modulus, which determined by using a rheometer
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(AR-1500 rheometer,TA Instruments Ltd, West Sussex, UK), was used as an
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indicator of starch retrogradation in rehydrated soup samples. About 5 mL rehydrated
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soup transferred onto the measuring plate. Low viscosity silicon oil was used at the

edge to prevent moisture evaporation. The temperature of the sample in these tests
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was kept at 70 °C. The strain rate was set at 2.0%, and the angular frequency was
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scanned from 0.1 to 100 rad/s (Karim, et al., 2000).

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2.12 Determination of moisture absorption characteristics

Since water activity is an important control parameter during food processing and

storage, and is one of the methods for evaluating the stability of food (Boquet, Chirife,

& Iglesias, 1978), we measured the dried soup water adsorption characteristics at

25 °C to obtain the adsorption isotherm and water activity of the freeze-dried soup.

The moisture absorption characteristics of freeze-dried soup samples was determined

by the ProUmid SPSx-1μ system (ProUmid GmbH & Co. KG, Ulm, Germany). This
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instrument controls the relative humidity (RH) of atmosphere by suitably mixing dry

nitrogen and water vapor and maintains the temperature by a Peltier element. It also

enables monitoring and recording the mass of the sample in real time during the

experiment. Complete dried soup sample was placed on the sample pan. The RH of

the headspace was changed 5% to 95% with a 10% step at 25 °C. The time between

weighting cycles, the minimum/maximum time per climate setting, the default weight

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limit and the equilibrium bandwidth dm/dt (dm: sample weight change rate, and was

calculated using Eq. (4); dt: time bandwidth) were set as 15 min, 50 min/6 h, 100%,

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0.01%/45 min, respectively. An empty pan was used as the reference.
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mAt  mA0
dm   100% (4)
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mAt
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Where mA0 and mAt are material weight (g) at the beginning and end of water

adsorption experiment, respectively.

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Monolayer moisture content is of great significance for food processing and

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preservation. Except for the redox reaction, all chemical reaction rates are kept in a
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minimum level at mono-layer moisture content (Lajolo & Lanfer Marquez, 1982) . In

this study Guggenheim-Amderson-de Boer (GAB) model was used to fit the

adsorption isotherms of freeze-dried soup. The monolayer moisture value of

freeze-dried soup could be obtained from the results of model fitting parameters.

GAB isotherm model is shown as follows (Boquet, et al., 1978):

m0 Ckaw
dm  (5)
1  a w 1  kaw  Ckaw 
Where dm (%) is the sample weight change rate under aw; m0 is monolayer
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moisture content; C and k are constants.

2.13 Determination of amorphous/crystalline characteristics of samples

The amorphous/crystalline characteristics of freeze-dried soup were determined by

using an X-ray diffraction instrument (D2 PHASER, AXS GmbH, Brooke, Germany).

The X-ray tube was ceramic type, Cu target, and the light tube power was 2.2kW. The

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output power of X-ray generator was 300 W and the goniometer was placed vertically.

Freeze-dried soup sample was first thoroughly ground into powder in a mortar, then

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uniformly filled in a sample holder specifically designed for X-ray diffraction
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experiments. The excess powder sample was removed with a scraper. The scanning
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was carried out in diffraction angle (2 theta) ranging from 4° to 40° with an increment
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of 0.05° increment (L. Li, Zhang, & Bhandari, 2019). The data were analyzed by MDI
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Jade 6 software.
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2.14 Statistical analysis

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Experiments were carried out in triplicate unless otherwise specified. The data

sets were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and are reported as

average value. Significance difference between any two mean values was established

using Duncan’s new multiple range tests at 95% confidence level (p<0.05). SPSS

Version 19.0 (IBM, USA) was used for all statistical analyses. MATLAB R2019a

software (The MathWorks Inc., Natick, MA, USA) was used for all model fitting.
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3. Results and discussion

3.1 Drying time and energy consumption

The drying time and energy consumption of cream mushroom soup under different

treatments are presented in Fig. 2. As can be observed, IRFD has reduced the drying

time of the soup by 23.81% which is significant. The data also showed that the

microwave pre-gelatinization of wheat flour did not (p > 0.05) affect the drying time

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of the sample as the drying time of soups produced using flour pregelatinized for 60 s

and 120s were very close to the soup produced using ungelatinized flour. Similar

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phenomenon was observed on energy consumption: the infrared freeze drying
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significantly reduced (28.43%) the energy consumption. The energy consumption of
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soup samples produced using microwave pregelatinized and ungelatinized was not
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significantly different. The results indicated that replacing heating plate used in
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traditional freeze-drying by infrared heating tube improved the drying efficiency and

reduced drying time. This was because, on one hand, the wave number of infrared
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heating tube used in this research ranged from 4348 cm-1 to 714 cm-1, which covered
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the maximum infrared absorption wave number of main components of cream

mushroom soup (lipid: 2926 cm−1; protein: 1646 cm−1; starch: 1247 cm−1; water: 3300

and 1630 cm−1) (Wu, et al., 2019), as a result, the infrared energy was directly

absorbed by the material and avoided heating the surrounding air and the holding tray,

due to which the energy consumption was significantly reduced; on the other hand,

the need for long-time maintaining the low-pressure environment of the drying

chamber and the low temperature state of cold trap are the most critical factors
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causing high energy consumption of freeze drying (Xu Duan, Yang, Ren, Pang, Liu,

& Liu, 2016), moreover, compared with the traditional ohmic heating,

electromagnetic heating methods including infrared have higher heat transfer

efficiency (Pawar & Pratape, 2017), hence the dying time of IRFD was lower than FD,

which lead to a shorter time spent on maintaining the low-pressure environment of the

drying chamber and the low temperature state of cold trap, and resulting in reducing

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energy consumption of IRFD. In this contest, Wu, et al. (2019) also reported that the

infrared freeze drying had a higher drying efficiency than traditional freeze drying

when used to dry Cordyceps militaris.

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3.2 Moisture absorption characteristics and rehydration behavior

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Fig. 3 illustrates the moisture absorption behavior and adsorption isotherm of dried
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cream mushroom soups. As can be observed, when the RH in the headspace was

higher than 55%, the freeze-dried soup started to absorb water rapidly. When the RH
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increased from 5% to 55% (corresponds to 36.6 h) the sample weight change rate (dm)
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of FD, IRFD, 60 s MPG, 120 s MPG and180 s MPG dried soup was 4.73 %, 4.93 %,

4.79 %, 5.01 % and 5.16 %, respectively. However, when the RH was increased from

55% to 95%, the dm of corresponding dried soup was increased to 42.16 %, 40.30 %,

43.06 %, 44.38 %, and 45.79 %, respectively. Fig. 3 also showed that the propensity

of these dried soups to absorb moisture followed the IRFD + 180 s MPG > IRFD +

120 s MPG > IRFD + 60 s MPG > FD > IRFD order. This may be due to the fact that

the microwave pre-gelatinized samples had higher proportion of amorphous starch

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component compared to IR dried samples, and thus, had higher water absorbing

capacity (D. Fan, et al., 2013).

Fig. 3(b)-Fig. 3(f) showed the isothermal adsorption curve of freeze-dried cream

mushroom soup. All of these isotherms exhibit type III moisture adsorption isotherm,

i.e., there is no obvious inflection point of the adsorption isotherm, and the curve is

concave downward along the coordinate direction of adsorption amount (Boquet, et

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al., 1978). As expected, the dm of the dried soups increased with aw increased.

Nevertheless, when the aw was higher than 0.55, the rate of increase of moisture

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content was much higher compared to when the aw was below 0.55. Furthermore,
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when the aw was higher than 0.55 the dried soup produced using IRFD and
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microwave gelatinized (180 s) wheat flour adsorbed the highest content of moisture,
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and follow by IRFD + 120 s MPG, IRFD + 60 s MPG, FD and IRFD.

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Monolayer water content is an important reference for choosing the moisture

content of products while storage (Boquet, et al., 1978). From Table 2, GAB model
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could well fitting dried soup isothermal adsorption curve, as the RMSE values well all
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in 10-2 level, and the R2 values were all higher than 0.99 (Boquet, et al., 1978). The

monolayer moisture contents of different dried soup were all in the range of

3.51%-4.99% (w.b.). Therefore, the moisture content of 5% (w.b.) was considered as

the highest moisture content for freeze-dried cream mushroom soup.

Critical water content and water activity are important references for the selection

of storage humidity of dried products (Roos, 2002). When the glass transition

temperature of the sample reaches room temperature, the corresponding water content
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and water activity are the critical water content and water activity (Roos, 2002). We

could find from Fig. 4 that, at 25 °C, the critical water contents (w.b.) of FD, IRFD,

IRFD + 60 s MPG, IRFD + 120 s MPG and IRFD + 180 s MPG dried soup were

2.61%, 2.75%, 2.49%, 2.31% and 2.23%, respectively, while the corresponding

critical water activity were 0.43, 0.45, 0.42, 0.39 and 0.35, respectively. Combined

with Fig. 3(a), the critical relative humidity of storage environment for FD, IRFD,

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IRFD + 60 s MPG, IRFD + 120 s MPG and IRFD + 180 s MPG dried soup were

23.17%, 25.52%, 16.73% 15.57% and 12.15%, respectively. This is because, as

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described above, the microwave-treated dried soup had a stronger water absorption
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property, and therefore requires a lower relative humidity of storage environment to
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maintain its stability.

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The rehydration curves of different dried soups were shown in Fig. 5. As observed,
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the equilibrium rehydration ratio of dried soups was also followed the IRFD + 180 s

MPG > IRFD + 120 s MPG > IRFD + 60 s MPG > FD > IRFD order, which was
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similar to the result of dried soups absorb moisture characteristics. Rehydration

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kinetic model can be used to clearly describe the rehydration behavior of freeze-dried

soup. We could find from Table 3 that, R2 of the three models were all higher than 0.9,

and RMSE were all at 10-1 level, which indicated that the three models were all good

correlation with the experimental data (Vegagalvez, Nottecuello, Lemusmondaca,

Zura, & Miranda, 2009). Nevertheless, compared with the other two models, Weibull

model had the highest R2 and the lowest RMSE, which could better fit the

experimental data and was more suitable for describing the rehydration behavior of
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freeze-dried soup.

3.3 Volatile flavor components

The main flavor compounds in fresh and freeze-dried cream mushroom soup were

determined by an e-nose instrument. The detector had 14 different sensors indicating

different flavor compounds (Ruifen Trading Co., 2010). The type and the intensity of

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volatile flavor compounds in cream mushroom soup are presented in Fig. 6. As can be

observed, signal strength of S1 (spices), S5 (flavor of lipids after baking), S10

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(hydrocarbons), S13 (alkanes/aromatic compounds/less polar compounds produced by
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cooking) was much higher than other sensors. These were the characteristic volatile
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flavor compounds of cream mushroom soup. Moreover, the volatile flavor of

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rehydrated freeze- and IRFD-dried soup was similar to that of fresh soup before
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drying. On the other hand, the flavor of dried soups produced using microwave

gelatinized flour as ingredients after upon rehydration was better than other soups.
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This observation meant that that microwave heat treatment enhances the flavor of
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freeze-dried soups, and was more attractive to consumers. It has been reported that the

thermal/non-thermal effect of microwave heating can stimulate the release of volatile

flavor substances in food materials, resulting in a stronger characteristic flavor of

products (Zhang, et al., 2006), this is the reason why the e-nose analysis result of

microwave treated rehydration soup is better than that of other samples.

3.4 Viscosity
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The viscosity of freeze-dried instant soup products upon reconstitution is much

lower than the original soup before drying and is a major problem that leads to the

rejection of freeze-dried instant soup products (Liu, Zhang, Devahastin, & Wang,

2020). The viscosity of fresh soups (without drying) that prepared by native wheat

meal (without MPG treatment), 60 s MPG wheat meal, 120 s MPG wheat meal and

180 s MPG wheat meal were 717.56, 735.21, 782.33 and 791.25 mP·s, respectively.

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The viscosity values of rehydrated soups yielded by different treatments were shown

in Fig. 7. Compared with fresh soup that prepared by the wheat meal without MPG

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treatment, the viscosity of FD rehydrated soup was reduced 51.00%; while for
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IRFD+120 s MPG rehydrated soup, the reduction rate was only 35.17%. In addition,
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in comparing with FD rehydrated soup, the IRFD, IRFD+60 s MPG, IRFD+120 s

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MPG and IRFD+180 s MPG rehydrated soups could increase 7.35%, 19.74%, 39.17%
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and 34.02% viscosity, respectively. The results revealed that MPG treatment had a

positive effect on the viscosity of dried soup products.

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Starch retrogradation during freeze drying is responsible for undesirable decrease

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of viscosity in rehydrated instant soups with high starch content (Liu, et al., 2020).

Therefore, the retrogradation behavior of cream mushroom soup during freeze-drying

was investigated in terms of storage modulus, and the results are shown in Fig. 8. It

has been reported that storage modulus increases during starch regeneration due to the

formation of three-dimensional network structure of amylose during starch

retrogradation (Karim, et al., 2000). The results (Fig. 8) show that MPG treatment

effectively inhibited starch regeneration during freezing and freeze-drying processes

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and the MPG treatment of 120 had the best inhibiting effect. The storage modulus of

rehydrated soup produces using IRFD + 120 s MPG had the lowest. Fig. 9 shows the

enthalpy of gelatinization of wheat flours obtained under different MPG treatment

conditions. The fact that the samples showed endothermic peaks within 60-80 °C

indicating that the sample gelatinization temperature fell within this temperature range.

The degree of gelatinization (DG) values of 60 s MPG wheat flour, 120 s MPG wheat

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flour and 180 s MPG wheat flour were 20.98 %, 43.42 % and 51.87 %, respectively.

Considering most of the parameters (moisture absorption characteristics, volatile

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flavor, viscosity), it appears that the DG of 43.42% of starch appears to be the
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optimum. This has also resulted into the highest viscosity in rehydrated cream soup.
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3.5 Semicrystaline nature of dried soups

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The effect of different treatments on crystallization characteristics of dried cream

mushroom soup is shown in Fig. 10. All dried soup products showed crystalline peak
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between 20° to 22° indicating that the dried cream mushroom soup had a typical
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A-type crystalline structure (Cheetham & Tao, 1998). The crystallinity results of FD,

IRFD, IRFD + 60 s MPG, IRFD + 120 s MPG and IRFD + 180 s MPG products were

15.12%, 17.44%, 19.38%, 20.50% and 22.35%. The thermal and non-thermal effects

of electromagnetic field have opposite influence on starch crystallinity. Jiang, Zhang,

Fang, Mujumdar, and Xu (2016) found that the radiation of microwave field would

cause amylopectin to be de-chained to short un-branched chains, resulting in the

increase of starch crystallinity. However, when the starch-water system is heated, the
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double helix three-dimensional structure of starch granules will be destroyed, which

will make the internal structure of starch granules loose and weaken the double helix

force between amylopectin in the crystallization area, as a result, the molecules in the

pregelatinized starch granules are arranged irregularly and the crystallinity of starch

will decrease (Cai & Shi, 2014). From Fig. 10 we could conclude that the microwave

and infrared electromagnetic field mainly affect the crystallinity of cream mushroom

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freeze-dried soup through non-thermal effect. On the other hand, the thermal effect of

microwave and infrared was the main reasons for improving the viscosity

characteristics of freeze-dried soup products.

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4. Conclusion
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The effect of microwave pre-gelatinization combined with infrared freeze-drying

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on drying efficiency and quality characteristics (moisture adsorption, viscosity upon

rehydration, crystallinity, propensity of retrogradation) of cream mushroom soup was

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investigated. Infrared freeze drying shortened drying time and saved energy
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consumption but could not improve the quality of freeze-dried products. Microwave

pregelatinization of starch component did not affect the drying time and energy

consumption in IRFD process; however, improved the flavor and viscosity of

freeze-dried soups. The combination of microwave pregelatinization and IRFD

improved the drying efficiency and also the quality of cream mushroom soup.

Although the freeze-dried soup produced using microwave pregelatinized wheat

flour had better quality characteristics than those of the soup produced using
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ungelatinized wheat flour; however, it was difficult to explain exactly what caused the

improvements in these characteristics due to complexity in current formulation.

Hence, future research should use model formulations such as microwave

pregelatinized pure starch- lipid, protein.

Acknowledgments

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We acknowledge the financial supports from the National Key R&D Program of

China (No. 2018YFD0400801), Jiangsu Province (China) “Collaborative Innovation

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Center for Food Safety and Quality Control “Industry Development Program, the 111
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Project(BP0719028), Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory Project of Advanced Food
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Manufacturing Equipment and Technology (No. FMZ202003), all of which enabled

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us to carry out this study.

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Conflicts of interest
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There are no conflicts to declare.

Credit Author Statement

Research and drafting performed by Wenchao Liu. Oversight of the project and field

experience were provided by Min Zhang, Benu Adhikari and Jingjing Chen. Critical

review of the manuscript was performed by Min Zhang, Benu Adhikari, and Jingjing

Chen.
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List of Tables

Table 1 Mathematical models for fitting dried soup rehydration curve.

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Table 2 Model fitting results of dried soup isothermal adsorption curves.
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Table 3 Model fitting results of dried soup rehydration curves.

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Table 1 Mathematical models for fitting dried soup rehydration curve.

No. Model name Equation

1 First-order dynamic equation R=Re-(Re-1)exp(-kt)

2 Peleg RR=(Re-1/k2)+t(k1+k2t)

3 Weibull R=Re+(1-Re)exp(-t/β)α

Note: R is rehydration ratio at time t; Re is the rehydration ratio at equilibrium time; t

is rehydration time; k1 is the kinetic rate constant; k2 is the characteristic constant of

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the model. α is a shape parameter, which measures the water absorption rate in the

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initial stage of rehydration. The value of α is lower when the capillary and cavity near
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the dried samples surface absorb water very quickly, while higher on the contrary. β is
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the proportional parameter (s), and the reciprocal of β is similar to the effective
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diffusion coefficient of diffusion model and represents the kinetic constant of Weibull

equation, so the difficulty of rehydration of substances can be measured by β (W. Li,

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Wang, Xiao, Zhang, & Yang, 2015).

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Table 2 Model fitting results of dried soup isothermal adsorption curves.

Drying process C k m0 RMSE R2

FD 0.6733 3.7725 0.0351 0.0019 0.9926

IRFD 0.6521 2.8167 0.0382 0.0027 0.9913

IRFD + 60 s MPG 0.5829 3.0618 0.0473 0.0052 0.9952

IRFD + 120 s MPG 0.6453 3.2773 0.0493 0.0037 0.9971

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IRFD + 180 s MPG 0.6072 3.7022 0.0499 0.0031 0.9941

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Table 3 Model fitting results of dried soup rehydration curves.

Model Drying process Model parameters RMSE R2

First-order FD k=0.01323 0.1125 0.9823

dynamic IRFD k=0.01129 0.1355 0.9884

equation IRFD + 60 s MPG k=0.01515 0.1511 0.9871

IRFD + 120 s MPG k=0.01581 0.1257 0.9921

IRFD + 180 s MPG k=0.01625 0.1535 0.9735

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Peleg FD k1=11.27; k2=0.4011 0.1651 0.9792

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IRFD k1=12.16; k2=0.4435
-p 0.1872 0.9651

IRFD + 60 s MPG k1=8.112; k2=0.3882 0.1518 0.9131

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IRFD + 120 s MPG k1=6.353; k2=0.3625 0.1115 0.9638
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IRFD + 180 s MPG k1=5.267; k2=0.3372 0.1272 0.9437

Weibull FD α=3.725; β=3.152 0.0085 0.9972

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IRFD α=4.554; β=4.735 0.0137 0.9903

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IRFD + 60 s MPG α=3.256; β=2.377 0.0075 0.9975

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IRFD + 120 s MPG α=2.322; β=1.734 0.0038 0.9963

IRFD + 180 s MPG α=1.715; β=1.052 0.0175 0.9921

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List of Figures

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the freeze dryer and infrared freeze dryer.

Fig. 2 The drying time and energy consumption of cream mushroom soup under

different drying process.

Fig. 3 Moisture absorption capacity (a) and isotherm (b)-(f) (at 25oC) of freeze-dried

cream mushroom soups.

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Fig. 4 The curves of water activity vs moisture content and glass transition

temperature vs moisture content of FD (a), IRFD (b), IRFD + 60 s MPG (C),

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IRFD + 120 s MPG (d) and IRFD + 180 s MPG (e) dried soups.
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Fig. 5 The rehydration curves of dried cream mushroom soups.
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Fig. 6 Flavor characteristics of cream mushroom soup produced using different

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freeze-drying method.
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Fig. 7 Viscosity results for dried cream mushroom soups.

Fig. 8 The variation of storage modulus of rehydrated cream mushroom soups.

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Fig. 9 Thermodynamic curves of microwave gelatinized wheat flours.

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Fig. 10 X-ray diffractograms of dried cream mushroom soup produced using different

treatment and freeze-drying method.

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Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the freeze dryer and infrared freeze dryer.
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Fig. 2 The drying time and energy consumption of cream mushroom soup under

different drying process. FD = freeze drying, IRFD= infrared freeze drying, MPG =
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microwave pregelatinization. Different lower letters (a, b) indicate significant

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difference (p < 0.05) in drying time, while different upper-case letters (A, B) indicate
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significant difference (p < 0.05) in energy consumption. The 0 s, 60 s, 120 s and 180 s

indicate time used for microwave gelatinization of wheat flour.

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(a) (b)

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(c) (d)
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(e) (f)
Fig. 3 Moisture absorption capacity (a) and isotherm (b)-(f) (at 25oC) of freeze-dried

cream mushroom soups. FD = freeze drying, IRFD = infrared freeze drying, MPG =

microwave pregelatinization, dm = weight change rate. The 60 s, 120 s and 180 s

indicate time used for microwave gelatinization of wheat flour.

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(a)

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(b) (c)
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(d) (e)
Fig. 4 The curves of water activity vs moisture content and glass transition

temperature vs moisture content of FD (a), IRFD (b), IRFD + 60 s MPG (C), IRFD +

120 s MPG (d) and IRFD + 180 s MPG (e) dried soups. FD = freeze drying, IRFD =

infrared freeze drying, MPG = microwave pregelatinization, dm = weight change rate.

The 60 s, 120 s and 180 s indicate time used for microwave gelatinization of wheat

flour.
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Fig. 5 The rehydration curves of dried cream mushroom soups.
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(a) (b)

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(c) (d)
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Fig. 6 E-nose analysis results of different cream mushroom soups. (a): E-nose

analysis result of fresh soups based on full sensors; (b) E-nose analysis result of fresh

soups based on characteristic sensors; (c): E-nose analysis result of rehydrated soups

based on full sensors; (d): E-nose analysis result of rehydrated soups based on

characteristic sensors. FD = freeze drying, IRFD = infrared freeze drying, MPG =

microwave pregelatinization. The 60 s, 120 s and 180 s indicate time used for

microwave gelatinization of wheat flour.

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Fig. 7 Viscosity results for fresh and dried cream mushroom soups. Note: Different

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lowercase letters mean significant differences (p < 0.05) in viscosity values. Different

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upper-case letters indicate significant difference (p < 0.05) in fresh soups viscosity
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value, while different lower letters (A, B) indicate significant difference (p < 0.05) in
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dried soups viscosity value. FD = freeze drying, IRFD = infrared freeze drying, MPG
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= microwave pregelatinization. The 0 s, 60 s, 120 s and 180 s indicate time used for

microwave gelatinization of wheat flour.

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Fig. 8 The variation of storage modulus of rehydrated cream mushroom soups. FD =

freeze drying, IRFD = infrared freeze drying, MPG = microwave pregelatinization.

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The 0 s, 60 s, 120 s and 180 s indicate time used for microwave gelatinization of
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wheat flour.
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Fig. 9 Thermodynamic curves of microwave gelatinized wheat flours. MPG =

microwave pregelatinization. The 0 s, 60 s, 120 s and 180 s indicate time used for
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microwave gelatinization of wheat flour.

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Fig. 10 X-ray diffractograms of dried cream mushroom soup produced using different

treatment and freeze-drying methods. FD = freeze drying, IRFD = infrared freeze

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drying, MPG = microwave pregelatinization. The 0 s, 60 s, 120 s and 180 s indicate

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time used for microwave gelatinization of wheat flour.

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Highlights:
 Drying for complex food system was studied
 Infrared freeze-drying improved the drying efficiency of creamy mushroom
soup
 Microwave pre-gelatinize improved the quality of dried creamy mushroom
soup