Edchad All

Basic Concepts and
Issues on Human
Development
EDCHAD130
Human Development
• Human development is the pattern
of movement or change that
begins at conception and
continues through the life span.
• It includes growth and decline.
• Development can be positive
or negative.
Some Major
Principles of
Human
Development
Principle 1
Development is relatively
orderly.
• A child will learn to sit,
crawl, walk and later on
run
• Development is in order
and progress can be
predictable
Proximodistal pattern
• The muscular growth of the
trunk and the arms comes
earlier as compared to the
hands and fingers.
Cephalocaudal pattern
• During infancy, the greatest growth always occurs at the top
– the head – with physical growth in size, weight and future
differentiation gradually working its way down from top to
bottom.
• Example: neck--- shoulders----middle trunk and so on
• By understanding how characteristics develop, we can make

accurate and useful predictions about children and design
effective instructional strategies based on what we know
about development (Santrock,2002)
Principle 2
• While the pattern of
development is likely to be
similar, the outcome of
developmental process and
the rate of development are
likely to vary among
individuals.
• Heredity and environment
play a role in the rate of
development and progress of
Principle 3
• Development takes place

gradually.
• They don’t grow overnight nor can

you speed up their growth and
that’s how nature works
• The flower doesn’t bloom
overnight, the seed does not
germinate in one night
Principle 4
Development as a process
is complex because it is the
product of biological,
cognitive and socio-
emotional
process.
Biological
Involves changes in
the individual’s physical
nature.
Cognitive
Involves changes in the

individual’s thought,
intelligence, and
language.
Socio-emotional
Includes changes in the individual’s relationship with

other people, changes in emotions, and changes in
personality.
• These biological, cognitive and socioemotional processes are inextricably
intertwined. One affects the other
• Biological can affect the cognitive process and will eventually affect the socio
emotional
• Ex: nutrition----brain development-----self confidence
physical disability----------- skills in life
Approaches to Human
Development
1. Traditional
Human development shows extensive change from birth to
adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in
the late old age.
2. Life-span
Human development occurs al throughout the life-span of
an individual.
Characteristics
of Life-span
Development
1.Life- long
It does not end

by adulthood and
no development
stage dominates
the development.
2. Multi-dimensional
Development consists
of biological, cognitive, and
socioemotional dimensions.
3. Plastic
• Development is
possible throughout
the life-span.
• Biological growth-
cells continue to
grow
(developmental
plasticity)
• Growth can be
malleable and
changeable
4. Contextual
Individuals are changing beings in a changing
world.
5. Growth, maintenance and regulation
• These are considered
goals in that varies in
every developmental
change.
• Infancy---needs
• Early childhood- needs
• Adulthood- needs
• All these needs
maintenance and
regulation
Principles of Child Development
and Learning that Inform
Practice
All the domains of development and learning (physical,
social, emotional and cognitive) are important and
closely-related.
Many aspects of children’s
learning and development
follow well documented
sequences, with later abilities,
skills, and knowledge building
on those already acquired.
Development and
learning proceed at
varying rates from
child to child, as well
as at uneven areas
across different
areas of a child’s
individual
functioning.
Development and
learning result from a
dynamic and
continuous interaction
of biological
maturation and
experience.
Early experiences
have profound
effects (cumulative
and
delayed) on a child’s
development and
learning; and optimal
periods exist for
certain types of
development and
learning to occur.
Development proceeds toward
greater complexity, self
regulation, and symbolic or
representational capacities.
Children develop best when they have secure,
consistent relationships with responsive adults and
opportunities for positive relationship with peers.
Development and
learning occur in and are
influenced by multiple
social and cultural
contexts.
Always mentally active in
seeking to understand the world
around them, children learn in a
variety of ways; a wide range of
teaching strategies and
interactions are effective in
supporting all these kinds of
learning.
Play is an important vehicle for
developing self-regulation as well
as promoting language, cognition
and social competence.
Development and
learning advance when
children are challenged
to achieve at a level just
beyond their current
mastery, and also when
they have many
opportunities to practice,
newly acquired skills.
Children’s experiences shape their
motivation and approaches to
learning such as persistence,
initiative, and flexibility; in turn,
these dispositions and behaviors
affect their learning and
development.
MODULE 2
The Stages of Development

and Developmental Tasks
For every developmental stage, there
is an expected developmental task.
What happens when the expected
developmental task are not achieved
at the corresponding developmental
stage? How can you help children
achieve these developmental tasks?
• John Santrock's research focuses on family
processes and children's socioemotional
development. He conducted the first major
research study on comparisons of children in
mother and father custody families.
ACTIVITY
Study the pictures and
the descriptions below
each set of pictures,
then answer the
following questions
1. Do the pictures suggest the respective
developmental stages?
2. Symbolize each developmental stage.
Give a symbol that stands for the
developmental task for each stage.
3. If you were given a chance, which
developmental stage would you like to be
in? Why? Share your answers with your
small group?
Prenatal Period
Infancy ( birth – 2 years)
• Feeling properly our own/
come from us
• We are more ready to learn at
the end of early childhood
period and have expansive
imagination
• Thirsty to know and
understand
• A time for work and a time for love
• Finding our place in the society and wanting a stable life
• Sex and love are powerful passions in this stage of our lives
Analysis:
1. How many developmental stages were

described? How do these stages
compare to Havighurst’s developmental
stages given below?
2.What
2. Whatisisan
anoutstanding
outstandingtrait
traitor
orbehavior
behaviorof
of
each stage?
3.What task/s is/are expected to each
developmental stage?
4.Does
4. Doesaadevelopmental
developmentaltask
taskininaahigher
higher
level require accomplishment of the lower
level developmental tasks?
5.Refer to Havighurt’s
5. Refer to Havighurt’s Developmental
Tasks given in the Table on the next page.
Match the descriptions given by Santrock.
Are Havighurst and Santrock saying the
same things?
What is an outstanding behavior/trait of each
stage?
a. Infancy and early childhood(birth till 6 years old)
-in this stage, the child begins to learn different physical
activities like walking, crawling as well as starting to read
and forming concepts.
b. Middle childhood (6-12 years old)
-middle childhood is then where the child learns different
physical skills for simple games; as well as developing
concepts for everyday living.
c. Adolescence (13-18 years old)
-during the adolescence period, the child achieves more
mature relations with others. The child gets to knows
oneself and prepares himself for the coming years.
d. Early adulthood (18-30 years old)
-here one is now ready to settle down and begin a family
as well as a new life. One looks for a career to help in
raising himself and his family; practicing as well socially.
e. Middle age (30-60 years old)
-the middle age, is where one can see clearly to his
future, here one is then able to help his children
as well as other teenagers to become more
responsible.
Here one also can adapt to everything that
is happening to him physically, emotionally even
socially.
f. Later maturity (60 years old and over)
-in this stage, one is adjusting to the happenings of
his life. Here, one needs to adjust to understand
everything especially in death
Infancy & early Middle Adolescence Early Adulthood Middle Later Maturity
childhood Childhood (13-18) (19-29) adulthood (30- (61-and over)
(0-5) (6-12) 60)
1.Learning to 1.Learning 1.Achieving 1.Selecting a 1.Helping 1.Adjusting to

walk physical skills mature relations mate teenage children decreasing
necessary for with both sexes to become strength and
ordinary games happy and health
responsible
adults
2.Learning to 2.Building a 2.Achieving a 2.Learning to 2.Achieving 2.Adjusting to
take solid foods wholesome masculine or live with a adult social and retirement and
attitude toward feminine social partner civic reduced income
oneself role responsibility
3.Learning to 3.Learning to 3.Accepting 3.Starting a 3.Satisfactory 3.Adjusting to

talk get along with one’s physique family career death of spouse
agemates achievement
4.Learning to 4.Learning an 4.Achieving 4.Rearing 4.Developing 4.Establishing

control the appropriate sex emotional children adult leisure relations with
elimination of role independence of time activities one’s own age
body wastes adults group
5.Learning sex 5.Developing 5.Preparing for 5.Managing a 5.Relating to 5.Meeting social

differences and fundamental marriage and home one’s spouse as and civic
sexual modesty skills in reading, family life a person obligations
writing and
calculating
6.Acquiring 6.Developing 6.Preparing for Starting a 6.Accepting 6.Establishing
concepts and concepts an economic occupation the satisfactory
language to necessary for career physiological living quarters
describe social everyday living changes of
and physical middle age
reality
7.Readiness 7.Developing 7.Acquiring 7.Assuming 7.Adjusting to

for reading conscience,m values and an civic aging parent
orality, and a ethical system responsibility
scale of values to guide
behavior
8.Learning to 8. Achieving 8. Desiring

distinguish personal and achieving
right from independence socially
wrong and responsible
developing a behavior
conscience
9.Developing
acceptable
attitudes
toward society
Robert Havighurst defines
developmental task as one that “ arises at
certain period in our life, the successful
achievement of which leads to happiness
and success with later tasks while failure
leads to unhappiness, social
disapproval, and difficulty with later
tasks”.(Havighurst,1972).
Developmental tasks (Santrock, 2002)
1.Prenatal period (from conception to

birth)- it involves tremendous growth from a
single cell to an organism complete with brain
and behavioural capabilities.
2.Infancy(from birth to 18-24 months)- a
time of extreme dependence on adults. Many
Psychological activities are just
beginning – language , symbolic
thought , sensorimotor coordination and
social learning.
3. Early Childhood (end of infancy to 5-6
years ( grade 1) – these are the
preschool years. Young children learn to
become more self- sufficient and to care
for themselves, develop school readiness
skills and spend many hours in play with
peers.
4. Middle and late childhood (6-11 years
of age, the elementary school years)-
the fundamental skills of reading, writing
and arithmetic are mastered.
The Child is formally exposed to the larger
world and its culture. Achievement
becomes a more central theme of the
child’s world and self-control increases.
5.Adolescence (10-12 years of age
ending up to 18-22 years of age)-
Begins with rapid physical changes-
dramatic gains in height and weight,
changes in body contour, and the
development of sexual characteristics
such as enlargement of the breasts,
development of pubic and facial hair, and
deepening of the voice.
Pursuit of independence and identity are
prominent. Thought is more logical,
abstract and idealistic. More time is spent
outside of the family.
6.Early adulthood(from late teens or early
20s lasting through the 30’s – it is a time
of establishing personal and economic
independence, career development,
selecting a mate, learning to live with
someone in an intimate way, starting a
family and rearing children.
7.Middle adulhood (40-60 years of age) –
It is a time of expanding personal and
social involvement and responsibility; of
assisting the next generation in becoming
competent and mature individuals; and of
reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a
career.
8.Late Adulthood (60s and above)- It is
time for adjustment to decreasing strength
and health. Life review, retirement, and
adjustment to new social roles.
1. Answer this questions with a learning
partner. What are the implication of these
developmental tasks to your role as a
facilitator of learning? Let’s play particular
attention to the stages that correspond to
schooling – early childhood, middle and
late childhood and adolescence
Lets do no.1 Early childhood – what
are preschool teachers supposed to
do with pre schoolers? Help them develop
Readiness for school and not to be too
academic in teaching approach. They
ought to give much time for preschoolers
to play. Or perhaps help preschoolers
develop school readiness by integrating
children’s games in school activities.
no.2- Middle and Late Childhood

Elementary school teachers ought to help
their pupils by
No.3 – Adolescence
High-school teachers ought to help their
students by
2. Allow small groups to do
each of the following:
a. Cover up with an object to symbolize
each period or stage of development
b. Do a multimedia presentation of
outstanding characteristics and
developmental tasks each developmental
stage. You may use the text of Santrock
foud under each collage of pictures in the
activity phase of this lesson
c. sing and appropriate song of each
developmental stage.
3. Discuss the meaning of the quotation
beneath the title of the lesson. Relate it to
the stages of development.
BIG IDEAS:
1. Complete this unfinished sentence.
Developmental are .
2. Show the developmental stages by
means of a diagram inclusive of the ages.
Write also the outstanding characteristics
trait and developmental task of each
developmental stage.
1. Put a check (√) beside those statements
that are correct and an (×) beside those
that are wrong. If your answer is an x.
Explain why.
1.Developmental tasks are only for
the first 3 stages of human development.
2.Failure of achieving
developmental tasks in an earlier stage
also means failure for the learner to
Master the developmental task in the next
stage.
3.Preschool age corresponds to early

childhood stage.
4.Adolscence is middle and the late
childhood stage.
5.Teenage is middle childhood.
6.Mastery of fundamental skills is a
major concern during earl childhood.
7.Play is a great need of children in

middle childhood
8. Preparing children for school

readiness is the major concern of
middle childhood.
REFLECTION:
1. Reflect on your early childhood, middle

and late childhood days. Were you able
to acquire the developmental tasks
expected of early,middle, late childhood
and adolescence. What facilitated your
acquisitions of the ability to perform such
tasks? Write our reflection.
2.Having mastered the developmental tasks
of early childhood middle and late
childhood and adolescence, reflect on
what you should do as a teacher to
facilitate our students acquisition of these
developmental tasks. Write down
reflections?
Issues on
Human
Development
MODULE 3
INTRODUCTION
• Each of us has his/her own way of
looking at our own and other people’s
development.
• These paradigms of human
development while obviously lacking in
scholastic vigor, provide us with a
conceptual framework for
understanding ourselves and others.
• Scholars have come up with their own
models of human development. Back
up by solid research, they take stand
on issues on human development.
THREE ISSUES IN
DEVELOPMENT
 Nature versus Nurture

 Continuity versus
Discontinuity
 Stability versus Change
1.Nature versus
Nurture
The degree to which human behavior is
determined by genetics/biology (nature)
or learned through interacting with the
environment (nurture)
http://www.slideshare.net/ruthhewitt125/nature-nurture-powerpoint-
Nature
 Behavior is caused by innate
characteristics :The
physiological/biological characteristics
we are born with.
 Behavior is therefore determined by
biology.
 Also a Determinist view- suggests all
behavior is determined by hereditary
factors: Inherited characteristics, or
genetic make-up we are born with.
 All possible behaviors are said to be
present from conception.
 Genes provide the blueprint for all
behaviors; some present from birth,
others pre-programmed to emerge
with age.
 Is a developmental approach:
E.g. Piaget: children’s thought processes
change at predetermined age-related
stages changes in age are related to
changes in behavior.
Nurture
 An individuals behavior is determined
by the environment- the things people
teach them, the things they observe,
and because of the different situations
they are in.
 Also a determinist view- proposes all
human behavior is the result of
interactions with the environment.
Nurture
 Behaviorist theories are nurture theories:
- Behavior is shaped by interactions with the
environment.
• Born an empty vessel- waiting to be filled
up by experiences gained from
environmental interaction.
 No limit to what they can achieve:
-Depends on quality of external influences and
NOT genes.
 The quality of the environment is KEY
-You can become anything provided the
environment is right.
Nature Nurture Interaction
 Behavior is often a result of the interaction
between nature AND nurture.
 An individuals characteristics may elicit
particular responses in other people e.g.
Temprament: how active, responsive or
emotional an infant is influences in part
determines their caregivers responses.
Gender: people tend to react differently to
boys and girls due to expectations of
masculine and feminine characteristics.
 Aggression: Displaying aggressive
behavior create particular responses from
other people. http://www.slideshare.net/ruthhewitt125/nature-nurture-powerpoint-
SUPPORTING APPROACHES &
PERSPECTIVE
Supporting Nature Supporting
Nurture
-Physiological - Social (e.g.
Helping Behavior)
- Individual Differences - Behavioral
- Developmental
2. Continuity versus Discontinuity
Continuity and discontinuity are two
competing theories in developmental
psychology that attempt to explain how people
change through the course of their lives,
where the continuity theory says that
someone changes throughout their life along a
smooth course while the discontinuity theory
instead contends that people change abruptly.
These changes can be described as a wide
variety of someone's social and behavioral
makeup, like their emotions, traditions, beliefs,
https://www.reference.com/education/continuity-versus-discontinuity-developmental-psychology-
⚫ Furthermore, continuity and discontinuity disagree
with one another in how they assess the changes that
someone undergoes throughout the course of their
life. The continuity theory examines the way someone
changes in a quantitative and continuous respect.
Discontinuity theory, on the other hand, looks at these
changes through the lens of a qualitative analysis
with an emphasis on the discontinuous nature of how
Click to add text
someone changes.
⚫ Developmental psychology encompasses a very wide
array of observations related to how people think,
behave and interact with their environment as well as
other people. This field, at first, was focused on how
young children develop but, in recent years, it has
expanded past the pediatric setting to encompass
studies of how people change throughout the course
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Is Child Development continuous or
discontinuous?
Not all psychologists, however, agree that
development is a continuous process.
Some view development as a
discontinuous process. They believe
development involves distinct and separate
stages with different kinds of behavior
occurring in each stage.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_stage_theori
What is the theory of
development?
Developmental stage theories are
theories that divide child development
into distinct stages which are
characterized by qualitative differences
in behaviour. There are a number of
different views about the way in which
psychological and physical
development proceed throughout the
life span.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_stage_theori
3. Stability versus
Discontinuity
 deals with the issue of whether or not
personality traits present during
infancy endure throughout the
lifespan.
⚫ The stability-change debate describes the
developmental psychology discussion about
whether personality traits that are present in
an individual at birth remain constant or
change throughout the life span.
⚫ For example, does a naturally extroverted and

talkative baby remain that way for their entire
life? The stability vs. change debate is one of
the fundamental questions in developmental
psychology along with nature vs. nurture.
Typically cross-sectional and longitudinal
studies are used in research concerning
stability vs. change.
www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stability-
Change
Change Theorists- argue that personalities
are modified by interactions with family,
experiences at school, and acculturation.
 Studies of children have often revealed
impressive stability over time in aspects of
development such as the attachment to
their parents or in personality.
However, there is evidence which suggests
a contrary view, that change is both
possible and indeed, is likely under
appropriate conditions.
https://prezi.com/nuahqipogaau/stability-vs-
 Freud was one of the first psychologist to
emphasize the critical nature of our early
experiences for our later development. He
believed that how we resolve our sexual and
aggressive urges is strongly tied to the
nature of our personality as adults.
Psychoanalysts believe that personality
traits developed in the first 5 years predict
adult personality.
https://prezi.com/nuahqipogaau/stability-vs-
How the First Nine Months
Shape the Rest of Your Life
⚫ What makes us the way we are? Why are some
people predisposed to be anxious, overweight
or asthmatic? How is it that some of us are
prone to heart attacks, diabetes or high blood
pressure?
⚫ There's a list of conventional answers to these
questions. We are the way we are because it's
in our genes. We turn out the way we do
because of our childhood experiences. Or our
health and well-being stem from the lifestyle
choices we make as adults.
⚫ But there's another powerful source of influence
you may not have considered: your life as a
fetus. The nutrition you received in the womb;
the pollutants, drugs and infections you were
exposed to during gestation; your mother's
health and state of mind while she was pregnant
with you — all these factors shaped you as a
This is the provocative contention of a field known as fetal
origins, whose pioneers assert that the nine months of
gestation constitute the most consequential period of our
lives, permanently influencing the wiring of the brain and
the functioning of organs such as the heart, liver and
pancreas. In the literature on the subject, which has
exploded over the past 10 years, you can find references to
the fetal origins of cancer, cardiovascular disease,
allergies, asthma, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, mental
illness. At the farthest edge of fetal-origins research,
scientists are exploring the possibility that intrauterine
conditions influence not only our physical health but also
our intelligence, temperament, even our sanity.
As a journalist who covers science, I was intrigued when I

first heard about fetal origins. But two years ago, when I
began to delve more deeply into the field, I had a more
personal motivation: I was newly pregnant. If it was true
that my actions over the next nine months would affect my
offspring for the rest of his life, I needed to know more.
Of course, no woman who is pregnant today
can escape hearing the message that what
she does affects her fetus. She hears it at
doctor's appointments, sees it in the
pregnancy guidebooks: Do eat this, don't drink
that, be vigilant but never stressed. Expectant
mothers could be forgiven for feeling that
pregnancy is just a nine-month slog, full of
guilt and devoid of pleasure, and this research
threatened to add to the burden.
But the scientists I met weren't full of dire
warnings but of the excitement of discovery
— and the hope that their discoveries would
make a positive difference. Research on fetal
origins is prompting a revolutionary shift in
thinking about where human qualities come
from and when they begin to develop. It's
turning pregnancy into a scientific frontier: the
National Institutes of Health embarked last
year on a multidecade study that will examine
its subjects before they're born. And it makes
the womb a promising target for prevention,
raising hopes of conquering public-health
scourges like obesity and heart disease
through interventions before birth.
♥ Involves decisions related to educational
policies, curriculum, effective teaching-
learning processes, and even those
involving research.
“Research is to see what everybody else has seen and to think what nobody else has
thought.”
– Albert Szernt
- Gyorgi, Hungarian Biochemist
♥ Conducts of research does not only belong
to thesis dissertation writers. It is for
students and teachers too.
The Scientific Method
One important principle of research is adherence to the
scientific method, since research is a systematic and logical
process.
5 Steps of the Scientific Method. (John Dewey)

1. Identify and define the problem
2. Determine the hypothesis
3. Collect and analyze data

4. Formulate conclusions
5. Apply conclusions to the original hypothesis
Researches that are done with high level of
quality and integrity provide us with valuable
information about child and adolescent
development.
FRESEARCH DESCRIPTION STRENGTHS WEAKNESS
DESIGN
1. CASE STUDY An in-depth look at It provides Need to exercise
an individual. information about caution when
an individual`s generalizing from
fears, fantasies, the information; the
traumatic subject of a case
experiences, study is unique,
upbringing, family with a genetic
relationship, health, make-up and
and anything that experiences no one
helps a else shares;
psychologist involves judgments
understand that of unknown
person`s reliability, in that
development usually no check is
(Santrock, 2002) made to see if other
psychologists agree
with other
observation
(Santrock, 2002)
RESEARCH DESCRIPTION STRENGTHS WEAKNESS
DESIGN
2. A research design Useful because the Because to exercise
CORRELATIONAL that determines more strongly two correlation research
STUDY associations events are does not involve
corrected, the more the manipulation of
we can predict one factors, it is not a
from the other dependable way to
isolate cause
(Kantowitz, et al
2001 cited by
Santrock, 2002)
DESIGN
3. A research design The only true Experimental
EXPERIMENTAL that determines reliable method of research is limited
cause-and-effect establishing cause to what is
relationships. The and effect. observable, testable
experimental and manipulable.
method involves
manipulating one Failure to achieve
variable cause randomization may
changes in another limit the extent to
variable. This which the study
method relies on sample is
controlled methods, representative of
random assignment the parent
and the population and,
manipulation of with it,
variables to test a generalizability of
hypothesis. the findings of the
study.
DESIGN
Experimentation with
humans is subject to a
number of external
influences that may
dilute the study results
(Donnan, 2000)
A further limitation of
experimental research is
that subjects may change
their behaviour or
respond in a specific
manner simply because
of awareness of being
observed Hawthorne
effect (Haughey, 1994,
Clifford,1997)
DESIGN
4. A research design focuses One of the The disadvantages
NATURALISTIC on children`s experiences advantages of of naturalistic
OBSERVATION in natural settings. this type of observation
research is that include the fact
This does not involve any it allows the that it can be
intervention or research to difficult to
manipulation on the part directly determine the
of the researcher. This observe the exact cause of a
technique involves subject in a behavior and the
observing subjects in their natural setting. experimenter
natural environment. This cannot outside
type of research in often variables.
utilized in situation where
conducting lab research is
unrealistic, cost-
prohibitive or would
unduly affect the
subject`s behavior.
DESIGN
5. This research Allows them to They are expensive
LONGITUDINAL design studies and record and and time-consuming.
follows through a monitor
single group over a developmental The longer the study
period of time. The trends. lasts, the more
same individuals subjects drop out –
they move, get sick,
lose interest, etc.
Subjects can bias the
outcome of a study,
because those who
remain may be
dissimilar to those
who drop out.
DESIGN
6. CROSS- A research strategy Allows them to It gives no
SECTIONAL in which individuals record and monitor information about
of different ages are developmental how individuals
compared at one trends. The re change or about the
time. searcher does not stability of their
have to wait for the characteristics
individuals to grow (Santrock, 2002)
up or become
older.
DESIGN
7. Sequential This is the It provides It is complex,
combined cross- information to expensive, and time
sectional and obtain from cross- consuming.
longitudinal sectional or
approaches to learn longitudinal
about lifespan approaches.
development.
(Schaie, 1993 cited
by Santrock, 2002).
DESIGN
8. Action Research Action research is a Appropriate in Typically take
reflective process of a particular place in one
progressive problem- setting when organization only
solving led by the purpose of at a particular time
individuals working with study is to “to and could not be
others in teams or as part create changes interpreted within
of a “ community of and gain different
practice” to improve the information on organizations in
way they address issues processes and the same way.
and solve problems. outcome of the Therefore,
strategies used” research findings
In the context of (Hunt 1987) are hard to
teaching, action generalize.
researches of teachers
stem from their own
questions about and
reflections on their
everyday classroom
practice.
Data-Gathering Technique Definition/Description
1. Observation - Observations can be made in either
laboratories or materialistic settings. In
naturalistic observation, behavior is
observed in the real world like
classrooms, home in neighborhood.
2. Physiological Measures - Certain indicators of children`s
development such as, among others,
heart rate, hormonal levels, bone growth,
both weight, and brain activity are
measured.
3. Standardized Tests - These are prepared tests that assess
individuals` performance in different
domains. These tests are administered in
a consistent manner.
Data-Gathering Definition/Description
Technique
4. Interviews and - Involves asking the participants to provide information
Questionnaires about themselves based on the interview or questionnaire
given by the researchers.
-Gathering of data may be conducted through a printed

questionnaire, over the telephone, by mail, in person, or
on-line.
-Information is obtained by utilizing standardized

procedures so that every participant is asked the same
questions in the same manner. It entails asking participants
for information in some structured format.
5. Life-History Records - These are records of information about a lifetime
chronology of events and activities. They often involve a
combination of data records on education, work, family,
and residence. These include public records or historical
documents or interviews with respondent.
The following consideration for researches conducted with young
children and other vulnerable population - National Association for
the Education of Young Children (NAEYC).
Some key points are:

1. Research procedures must never harm children, physically or
psychologically.
2. Children and their families have the right to full information about
the research in which they may participate, including possible risks
and benefits. Their decision to participate must be based on what is
called “informed consent”.
3. Children’s questions about the research should be answered in a
truthful manner and in ways that children can understand.
4. There should be respect for privacy. Information obtained through
research with children should remain confidential.
Impact of Teachers’ Research
Involvement on Teachers
1. Teachers who have been involved in research may become
more reflective, more critical and analytical in their teaching,
and more open and committed to professional development
(Oja & Pine 1989; Herson 1996; Keyes 2000; Rust 2007).
2. Participating in teacher research also helps teachers become

more deliberate in their decision-making and actions in the
classroom.
3. Teacher research develops the professional dispositions of
lifelong learning, reflective and mindful teaching, and self-
transformation (Mills 2000; Stringer 2007).
4. Engaging in teaching research at any level may lead to

rethinking and reconstructing what it means to be a teacher or
teacher educator and, consequently, the way teachers relate to
children and students.
5. Teacher research has the potential to demonstrate to teachers

and prospective teachers that learning to teach is inherently
connected to learning to inquire (Borko, Liston and Whitcomb
2007)
Credits to the creator of this PowerPoint presentation
Unit II
M
o
D
U
L
E
5
⦿ Freud’sviews about human development are
more than a century old. He can be
considered the most well known pyschologist
because of his very interesting theory about
the unconcious and also about sexual
development. Freud’s theory remains to be
one of the most influential in pyschology. His
theory sparked the ideas in the brilliant
minds of other theorist and thus became the
starting point of many other theories,
notable of which is Erikson’s Pyschosocial
theory in Module 7.
⦿ Picture ni freud
Sigmund Freud (May 6, 1856 to Sept. 23, 1939) founded

psychoanalysis.
⦿Freud is the most popular pyschologist that
studied the development of personality.
⦿ Founder of Pyschosexual development
theory which has 5 distinct stages.
⦿ Freud said everyone goes through each
stage and the needs for each stage has to
be met
Introduction
⦿Wether these needs are met or not, determines

whether the person will develop a healthy
personality or not.
⦿Freud identified specific erogenous
zones for each stage of development.
⦿ Erogenous zone or “pleasure area”
become a focal points for the
particular stage.
⦿ Fixation occurs when needs are not
met along the area.
⦿ As an adult, the person will now
manifest behaviors related to this
erogenous zone.
Erogenous zone –
⦿especially sensitive to sexual stimulation,
as certain areas of the body:erogenous
zones.
⦿ arousing or tending to arouse sexual
desire; sexually stimulating.
⦿ Pleasure Area
Fixation
⦿ is a concept in human psychology that
was originated by Sigmund Freud
(1905) to denote the persistence of
anachronistic(old) sexual traits.
• The term subsequently came to
denote object relationships with and
attachments to people or things in
general persisting from childhood
into adult life
The Psychosexual Stages
⦿ 1Oral Stage (birth to 18 months) The erogenous zone is
the mouth. During this stage the child is fucosed on
oral pleasures (sucking) (such as thumb sucking,
Breastfeeding, etc.).
• Too much or too little satisfaction can lead to an Oral
Receptive that is to have a stronger tendency to
smoke, drink alchohol, overeat or
• Oral Aggressive, strong tendency to bite his/her nails,
or use curse words or even gossip.
• As a result, these persons may became too dependent
on others, easily fooled and lack leadership traits.
• On the other hand, they may also fight these
tendencies and become pessimistic and aggressive in
relating with people.
⦿ 2 Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years).
• The child’s focus of pleasure is the anus. The child finds
satisfaction in eliminating and retaining feces. Through
society’s expectations, particularly the parents, the
child needs to work on toilet training.
• 1 year and half up to three years child’s favorite word
might be “NO”. Therefore a struggle might exist in the
toilet training process when the child retains feces when
asked to eliminate or may choose to defecate when
asked to hold feces for some reason.
• In terms of personality fixation during this stage in being
Anal Retentive an obsession with cleanliness ,
perfection, and control or Anal Expulsive where the
person may become messy and disorganized.
• ⦿ 3 Phallic Stage (ages 3-6) The pleasure or erogenous
zone is genitals. During the preschoolers will
sometimes become interested in what makes boys and
girls different.
Preschoolers will sometimes be seen fondling their
genitals. Freud’s studies led him to believes that this
stage, boys develops unconscious sexual desire for their
mother. And see their father as a rival for her mother’s
affection.
⦿Castration Anxiety – Fear of punishment for
affectionate unconscious sexual feelings for parent
with opposite sex.
◾ Oedipus Complex- son desires for mother
◾ Electra Complex- daughter desires for father
Oedipus Complex - According to
Freud, in the phallic stage the
desire or libido of children is
centered upon the genitalia.
While in this stage, children
become aware of their genitals
and gender differences as well
as the difference between male
and females. Freud also stated
that, this awareness alters the
parent-child relationship. During
the phallic stage, the male child
begins to desire his mother
sexually and treats the father as
a rival. (Mama’s Boy)
Freud’s stages of pyschosexual Development
Electra Complex – female child

develops unconcious sexual
attraction towards their father.
And treat their mother as a
rival. (Papa’s Girl)
According to Freud, boys

eventually identify their father
and develops masculine
characteristics and repress
their sexual feelings towards
their mother. A fixation at this
stage could result in sexual
deviancies and weak or
confused sexual identity.
⦿ 4 Latency Stage (age 6-

puberty) – This stage
remains sexual repressed.
The child’s focus is the
acquisition(developing of
skills, habit or quality) of
physical and academic
skills. Boys usually relate
more with the boys and girls
with girls during this stage.
⦿ 5 Genital Stage – (Puberty

onwards). The fifth stage of
psychosexual development
begins at the start of
puberty when sexual urges
are once again awakened.
In the earlier stages,
adolescents focus their
sexual urges towards the
opposite sex peers, with the
pleasure centered on the
genitals.
Freud’s Personality
Components
Freud’s Personality Components
⦿Freud described the personality structures as

having three components.
◾ id 1st
◾ Ego 2nd
◾ Superego Last
⦿ The id – Freud says that a child is born with

the id . The id plays a vital role in one’s
personality because as a baby, it works so
that the baby’s essential needs are met. The
id operates on the pleasure needs. It
focuses on immediate gratification or
satisfaction of its
needs.
⦿The ego – As the baby turns

into a toddler and then into a
preschooler he/she relates
more with the environment
the ego slowly begins to
emerge. ego
It refer to help id meet its
needs.
The ego operates using the id
reality.
It is practical because it knows
that being impulsive or selfish
can result to negative
consequences.
⦿ The super ego – Near the

end of the preschool years,
or the end of the phallic
stage, the superego
develops. The superego
embodies a person’s moral
aspect. This develops from
what the parents, teachers
and other persons who exert
influence impart to be good
or moral.
⦿The superego is likened to
conscience because it exerts
influence on what one Be Good!
considers right and wrong. 
⦿ Freud said that a well adjusted
person is one who has strong ego,
who can help satisfy the needs of
id without going against the
superego.
⦿ ego serves as balance.
⦿If the id exerts too much power
over the ego, the person becomes
too impulsive and pleasure-
seeking behavior takes over one’s
life.
⦿ If the superego is higher than
ego, the persons becomes to
harsh and judgmental to himself
and others action. The person’s
best effort to be good may still
fall short of the superego’s
expectation
⦿The Unconscious. Freud said
that most what we go
through in our lives,
emotions, beliefs, feelings
and impulses deep within are
not available to us at a
conscious level. He believe
that the most influence us is
our unconscious. The
Oedipus and Electra Complex
mentioned earlier were both
buried down into the
unconscious out of our
awareness due to the
extreme anxiety they
caused. This complexes
influence our thinking,
feeling and dramatic feeling.
Topographical Model
⦿ The conscious – Freud also

said that all that we are
aware of is stored in our
Hello, im
conscious mind. Our Good,
conscious mind only Sometimes
comprises a very small part
of who we are so that in
our everyday life, we are
only aware of a very small
part of what makes up our
personality most of what
we are is hidden and out of
reach.
Topographical Model
⦿ The subconscious/ preconscious. – this is the part of

us that we can reach if prompted, but is not In our
active conscious. Its right below the surface, but still
hidden somewhat unless we search for it. Information
such as our telephone number, some childhood
memories or the name of your best childhood friend
is stored in the preconscious. Because the
unconscious is so huge, and because we are only
aware of the very small conscious at any given time.
A big part of the iceberg is hidden beneath the
waters surface.
⦿ The water may represent all that we are not aware
of have not experienced, and that has not been
made part of our personalities, referred to as the
nonconscious.
Topographical Model
End of Module 5
Thanks For listening
“The ego is not master in its own house”

-Sigmund Freud
Jean Piaget
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Cognition
The term cognition is derived from the Latin word
“cognoscere” which means “to know” or “to
recognise” or “to conceptualise”.
It refers to the mental processes by an organism learns,

remembers, understands, perceives, solves problems
and thinks about a body of information.
Cognition progresses in stages with increasing levels of
complexity and hence the phrase “cognitive
development” which is the stages a child goes through
conceptualizing the world at different age levels.
Cognition refers to all activity, processes, and products of
the mind.
Cognitive Development
The term cognitive development refers to the
process of growth and change in
intellectual/mental abilities such as thinking,
reasoning and understanding.
Cognitive development is a field of study in
neuroscience and psychology focusing on a
child's development in terms of information
processing, conceptual resources, perceptual
skill, language learning, and other aspects of
brain development
It includes the acquisition and consolidation of
knowledge. Infants draw on social-emotional,
language, motor, and perceptual experiences and
abilities for cognitive development.
Piaget’s Developmental Psychology
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the

most influential researchers in the area of
developmental psychology during the 20th century.
Piaget was the first psychologist to make a
systematic study of cognitive development.
Piaget originally trained in the areas of biology and

philosophy and considered himself a "genetic
epistemologist." (genetic= development,
epistemology = study of knowledge)
His research involved observing a
number of individuals who responded
in cognitive tasks which he also
designed. These tasks were known as
Piagetian Tasks.
This theory has now been applied

widely to teaching and curriculum
design specifically in preschool and
elementary curricula..
Piaget designed a proper framework to understand the
structure , functioning and development of the
cognitive network of the human mind. He pointed
that there are two aspects of human mind :
cognitive structure and cognitive functioning
The development of human intellectual abilities take
place as a result of the organization and
reorganization of certain pattern of behaviour called
schema . Schemas constitute the structural units of
human mind i.e., cognitive structure
The process of organisation of theses structural units
take place by three different activities –assimilation ,
accommodation and equilibration. These activities
constitute the functional aspects of human mind.
• Piaget studied cognitive development by
observing children in particular, to examine how
their thought processes change with age.
• He pioneered a way of thinking about how
children grow psychologically.
• It is the growing apprehension and adaptation
to the physical and social environment.
• Piaget rejected the idea that learning was the
passive assimilation of the knowledge.
• He proposed that learning is dynamic process
comprising successive stages of adaptation to
reality.
The essential development of cognition is the
establishment of new schemes. Assimilation and
accommodation are both processing of the ways
of cognitive development. The equilibration is
the symbol of a new stage of the cognitive
development.
Basic assumptions of Development
• A person has hereditary organic reactions
• He is naturally active
• He is born without mind
• He Needs to adapt to environment
• To adapt, he organizes thinking into
Structures (schemas)
Schemas
• Schemas are the basic structural units of human
mind . They constitute patterns of behaviour that an
individual use in dealing with objects in his
environment . Piaget called the schema the basic
building block of intelligent behavior – a way of
organizing knowledge.
• A schema can be defined as a set of linked mental
representations of the world, which we use both to
understand and to respond to situations.
• Schemas are mental or cognitive structures which
enables a person to adapt and to organise the
environment.
• Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us
to interpret and understand the world.
• For example, at birth the schema of a baby is
reflexive in nature such as sucking and grasping.
The sucking reflex is a schema and the infant will
suck on whatever is put in its mouth such as a
nipple or a finger.
• The infant is unable to differentiate because it has
only a single sucking schema. Slowly, the infant
learns to differentiate where milk- producing
objects are accepted while non-milk objects are
rejected.
• At this point, the infant has two sucking
schemas, one for milk-producing objects and one
for non-milk producing objects.
Assimilation
• Assimilation is using an existing schema to deal with a new object
or situation. The process of taking in new information into our
previously existing schema’s is known as assimilation. Assimilation
which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or
situation.
• It is the process of taking in new information into our already
existing schemas is known as assimilation. The process is
somewhat subjective because we tend to modify experiences and
information slightly to fit in with our preexisting beliefs
It’s a kind of matching between the already existing cognitive
structure and the environmental needs as they arise.
• Eg: A child sees a Donkey for the first time and immediately calls it a
Horse. Thus, the child has assimilated into his schema that this
animal is a Horse.
• Another example of assimilation would be when an infant uses a
sucking schema that was developed by sucking on a small bottle
when attempting to suck on a larger bottle.
Accommodation
Accommodation involves modifying existing
schemas, or ideas, as a result of new
information or new experiences. New
schemas may also be developed during this
process. It is creating new schema in order to
understand it better
• The boy who had assimilated the Donkey as a
Horse will eventually accommodate more
information and thus realize the different
characteristics between a Horse and a Donkey.
The child will learn that the Donkey is not a
Donkey but a Horse, an accommodated ability.
Equilibration
According to Piaget’s theory , optimal level of
intellectual functioning take s place when there is
a balance between assimilation and
accommodation. This process of maintaining this
balance is termed as Equilibration. The cognitive
structure change from one stage to another by
the process of equilibration, maintaining child
and his changing environment.
As children progress through the stages of cognitive
development, it is important to maintain a
balance between applying previous knowledge
(assimilation) and changing behavior to account
for new knowledge (accommodation).
Equilibration helps explain how children can
move from one stage of thought into the next
Cognitive Disequilibrium – opposite of equilibration
Child development , Principles & Perspectives s a m p l e c h a p t e r, Joan Littlefield Cook & Greg Cook © 2005
Visit www.ablongman.com/ 0-205-40028-0 Exam Copy ISBN 0-205-31411-2 Bookstore ISBN
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
• 1.Sensorimotor Stage
• 2.Preoperational Stage
• 3.Concrete Operational Stage
• 4.Formal Operational Stage
Stage 1: Sensorimotor Thought (Birth to 2 Years)
The first stage of Piaget’s theory starts from birth
to approximately age 2 and is centered on the
infant trying to make sense of the world. During
this stage, the child's knowledge is limited to
sensory perceptions and simple motor activities.
e.g. looking, sucking, grasping.
Sub-stages of the Sensorimotor Stage:
It can be divided into 6 separate sub-stages.
According to Piaget, infants can engage only in
sensorimotor thought. That is, they know the world
only in terms of their own sensory input (what they
can see, smell, taste, touch, and hear) and their
physical or motor actions on it (e.g., sucking,
reaching, and grasping). They do not have internal
mental representations of the objects and events
that exist outside their own body.
• Representational, symbolic thought gradually
emerges as the stage progresses.
Object permanence develops as the
stage progresses.
Another acquisition at this sub-stage is
object permanence, means knowing
that an object still exists, even if it is
hidden. According to Piaget, Object
Permanence is a child's awareness or
understanding that objects continue to
exist even though they cannot be seen
or heard.
Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 yrs) (Toddler and
Early Childhood)
• Piaget’s second stage, preoperational thought,
features the flourishing use of mental
representations and the beginnings of logic
(intuitive thought).
• This stage begins when the child starts to use
symbols and language. This is a period of
developing language and concepts. So, the child
is capable of more complex mental
representations i.e. words and images. He is still
unable to use ‘operations’, i.e. logical mental
rules, such as the rules of arithmetic.
• Curriculum should provide specific educational experience
based on children’s developmental level.
• Arrange classroom activities so that they assist and encourage
self-learning.
• Do not treat children as miniature adults; they think and learn
differently from adults.
• Practical learning situations.
• Simple to Complex and Project method of teaching.
• Co-curricular activities have equal importance as that of
curricular experiences in the cognitive development of
children.
• Major goals of education are equal to the creative and critical
thinking.
Symbolic Function- abitliy to represent objects
and events. A symbol is thing that represents
the world
The following are the key features of this stage:
• 1. Egocentrism: The child’s thoughts and communications
are typically egocentric i.e. about themselves or his/her
point of view. It is the inability to see the world through
anyone else’s eyes except on his own. According to Piaget,
the egocentric child assumes that other people see, hear,
and feel exactly the same as the child does.
• 2. Animism: Treating inanimate objects as living ones. E.g.:
Children bathing, dressing and feeding their dolls as if they
are alive.
• 3. Centration: It refers to the tendency to focus on only
one aspect of a situation, problem or object, and so
cannot see the big picture. Centration is noticed in
conservation: the awareness that altering a substance's
appearance does not change its basic properties. Children
at this stage are unaware of conservation.
6. Symbolic Function
• Toddlers often pretend to be people they are not (e.g.
superheroes, policeman), and may play these roles with
props that symbolize real life objects. Children may also
invent an imaginary playmate.
• Watch children engaged in play, and you will soon see
clear evidence of symbol use. In symbolic play children
use one object to stand for another, such as when they
pretend that a blanket is a magic carpet or a banana is a
telephone.
5. Irreversibility
• This is the inability the reverse the direction of a
sequence of events to their starting point.
5+7= 12 12-5= ????
6. Transductive Reasoning
• neither deductive nor inductive( particular to particular)
If A causes B then B causes B. ..give a simple example
3. Concrete Operational Stage
(7 to 12 yrs of age) (Childhood and early Adolescence)
The Concrete Operational stage is characterized by the appropriate

use of logic. This stage when capacity for logical thought first
emerge. During this stage, the child begins to develop:
• 1. Serialization/Classification: The ability to name and identify
sets of objects according to appearance, size or other
characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects can
include another Seriation
• 2. Transitivity: The ability to recognize logical relationships among
elements in a serial order. Eg.: if A is taller than B and B is taller
than C, then A must be taller than C.
• 3. Decentering: where the child takes into account multiple
aspects of a problem to solve it. For example, the child will no
longer perceive an exceptionally wide but short cup to contain
less than a normally-wide, taller cup.
3. Concrete Operational Stage
(7 to 12 yrs of age) (Childhood and early Adolescence)
• 4. Reversibility: The child understands that numbers or objects

can be changed, then returned to their original state.
• 5. Elimination of Egocentrism: The child’s egocentrism waves and
develop the ability to view things from another's perspective.
• 6. Inductive- Deductive reasoning : The child begins to think in
terms of a set of interrelated principle rather than single bits of
knowledge. He use inductive-deductive approaches in terms of
reasoning and arriving at conclusion.
• 7.Understanding of conservation : The child began to understand
that physical quantities do not change based on the arrangement
and/or appearance of the object
• Conservation: understanding that quantity, length or
number of items is unrelated to the arrangement or
appearance of the object or items
Conservation refers to the idea that a quantity remains the same despite changes in
appearance. At this stage, capabilities for logical reasoning are limited and the child’s
thought processes are dominated by the immediate sensory impressions. This
characteristic can be illustrated by asking the child to solve a liquid conservation
problem
4 Formal Operational Stage
(from 12 yrs and up) (Adolescence and
Adulthood)
This is the most complete stage of development.
Ability to deal with abstract concepts and
abstract reasoning develops by about age 11.
Intellectually the child can and should be treated
as an adult. The high order intellectual
development/functioning is occurred in this
stage . According Piaget , after the expiry of the
formal operation stage the child may reach full
intellectual potential.
•Thinking becomes logical and can now solve
problems and hypothesize.
In this stage, the individual’s
• At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think
abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems.
• Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical,
ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical
and abstract reasoning.
• Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general
principle to specific information.
• thought becomes increasingly flexible and abstract, i.e., can
carry out systematic experiments.
• ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and
methodical way.
• Understand that nothing is absolute; everything is relative.
• Understand that the rules of any games or social system are
developed by man by mutual agreement and hence could
be changed or modified.
Tasks at this stage (Formal Operational):
1. Hypothetical Reasoning – formulate
hypothesis : intellectual guess after
gathering data. Weigh info and come
up with a judgement/ conclusion
2. Analogical Reasoning – perceive
relationship of 2 things (UK is to
Europe : Philippines is to Asia)
3. Deducting Reasoning- general to
specific thinking
Educational Implications:
• Piaget’s theory provides valuable information and advice on

curriculum planning and structuring the schemas.
• Learning and development are the net result of interaction
between a persons cognitive structure and functioning of
their children. This type of knowledge may prove quite
beneficial to them in dealing with the children and planning
their training and education
• It focus on child centered education by giving educational
experience suitable to learners cognitive structure
• Useful in providing learning experiences in tune with the
mental abilities of the child.
• Emphasis on discovery approach in learning.
Erik Erikson:
Psychosocial Development
Module 7
• Erikson’s term is from 2 source words ,
psychological (psycho relating to mind,
brain and personality ) and social (
relationships and environment(
• This is the heart of his theory-
PSYCHOSOCIAL
• His theory was largely influenced by
Freud but he incorporated cultural and
social aspects into Freud’s sexually –
oriented theory
• Erikson has a total of 8 stages. Each
stage involves 2 opposing emotional
forces.
• Syntonic refers to the positive
disposition (Trust) and Dystonic refers
to negative disposition (Mistrust). It
has to be a balance between the two
under each stage
• If it s managed well, a person
develops a virtue or the psychoscial
strength which will help us in life.
• Successfully passing through each
stage involves a crisis we need to
encounter and the 2 forces are used
to get through it.
• Malignancy- if there is too little of
the positive and too much negative
(not trusting others)
• Maladaptation – if there is too much
positive and too little of negative (
trust others too much)
Maladaptation is not as bad as
malignancy
Think of Theories as Windows
Background on beliefs
Erik Erikson believed…..
Development is social in nature
and a result of a desire to
affiliate with other people.
A person encounters 8
developmental stages in life.
Each stage presents individuals
with a crisis that must be
faced.
“The more successfully an
individual resolves the crisis,
the healthier development will
be” (Santrock, 2008, p. 18).
Psychosocial Development
Theory
• Psychosocial development theory is
based on eight stages of development
• Erikson’s theory is based on the idea that
development through life is a series of
stages which are each defined by a
crisis or challenge
• The early stages provide the foundations
for later stages so Erikson says that if a
child does not resolve a crisis in a
particular stage, they will have problems
in later stages
• For example, if an adolescent does not
establish their own identity, they will have
difficulty in relationships as an adult
• The transition between 2
stages is overlapping. The
crisis connects both stages
like interlaced fingers
• People don’t wake up one
morning a new person
The stages are as follows:
• Stage 1 – Oral Sensory

• Stage 2 – Muscular-Anal
• Stage 3 – Locomotor
• Stage 4 – Latency
• Stage 5 – Adolescence
• Stage 6 – Young Adulthood
• Stage 7 – Middle Adulthood
• Stage 8 – Maturity
Stage 1 – Oral Sensory
Trust vs. Mistrust
• birth to 1 year (infancy)
• basic conflict is trust vs.
mistrust
• the important event is
feeding and the important
relationship is with the
mother
• the infant must develop a
loving, trusting
relationship with the
mother/caregiver through
feeding, teething and
comforting
• failure to resolve this
conflict can lead to
sensory distortion, and
withdrawal
Trust vs. Mistrust
• Stage 1- Infancy
• Maladaptation- Snesory Maladjustment
• Malignancy- withdrawal
• Virtue- HOPE
Trust vs. Mistrust
This stage is all about fulfilling
needs. The baby needs to trust
the world around them to take
care of their needs. If they are
hungry, they need to develop
trust that they will be fed. If they
are not fed, or their diaper is left
dirty, they may develop a mistrust
in the outside world. This sense of
trust of mistrust can effect us
throughout the rest of our lives.
Stage 2 – Muscular-Anal
Autonomy versus Shame and
Doubt
• age 1 to 3 years (toddler)
• Basic conflict is autonomy
vs. shame/doubt
• The important event is
toilet training and the
important relationship is
with the parents
• The child’s energy is
directed towards mastering
physical skills such as
walking, grasping and
muscular control
• The child learns self control
but may develop shame,
doubt, impulsivity or
compulsion if not handled
well
Autonomy vs. Shame &
Doubt
Autonomy means being your own
boss. Here a toddler tries to control
their own bodies by toilet training and
their environment, by always saying
"NO!!!!". Sometimes they do poopy in
their pants or get yelled at by their
parents, causing shame and doubt in
their own abilities. If we learn how to
control ourselves in reasonable ways,
we develop a healthy will. We are
then able to face the later challenges
of life.
Autonomy vs. Shame and
Doubt
• Maladaptation: Impulsiveness
• Malignancy: Compulsiveness
• Virtue: Will Power and
Determination
Stage 3 – Locomotor
Initiative versus guilt
• age 3 to 6 years (preschool)
• basic conflict is initiative vs.
guilt
independence and the
important relationship is
family
• the child continues to
become more assertive in
exploration, discovery,
adventure and play
• the child may show too much
force in this stage causing
feelings of guilt
• failure to resolve this conflict
can lead to ruthlessness and
inhibition
Initiative vs. Guilt
Here the key word in a child's life changes
from "No!" to why?". In this stage children
want to understand the world and they
ask too many darn questions!!!! If their
initiative in questioning the world is
encouraged, then they will feel
comfortable with expressing their curiosity
throughout the rest of their life. If we
discourage them and tell them to shut up,
then they will feel guilty about their
questioning and avoid being inquisitive
later.
• Initiative- doing things on your
own, purposeful (adults let them do
it)
• They are capable to do things on
their own
• Guilty- afraid to do things wrong/
feel like they did something wrong
Initiative vs Guilt
• Maladaptation- ruthlessness (
no guilt, heartless)
• Malignancy- inhibition
(passive, not take risks wont
feel guilty)
• Virtue- courage
Stage 4 – Latency
Industry vs. Inferiority
• age 6 to 12 years (school
age)
• the basic conflict in this
stage is industry vs.
inferiority
school and the important
relationships are teachers,
friends and neighbourhood
• the child must learn to deal
with new skills and develop
a sense of achievement and
accomplishment
• failure to do so can create a
sense of inferiority, failure
and incompetence
This is where most children begin
formal education (what we call
school). For the first time children are
being formally evaluated. If a child
raises their hand in class and answers
a question correctly, then he/she will
feel industrious (competent). If
he/she tries to answer a question but
stutters to get out the wrong answer,
and other students all start making
fun of his/her speech impediment,
then the child will feel inferior.
• Maladaptation- virtuosity
• Malignancy- inertia (inferiority
complex “if you don’t succeed
don’t try again)
• Virtue- competency
Stage 5 – Adolescence
Identity vs. Role Confusion
• age 12 to 20 years (adolescent)
• the basic conflict is identity vs. role
confusion
• the important event is development
of peer relationships and the
important relationships are peers,
groups and social influences
• The teenager must achieve a sense
of identity in occupation, sex roles,
politics and religion. In addition,
they must resolve their identity and
direction.
• Failure to make these resolutions
can lead to the repression of
aspects of the individual for the
sake of others (fanaticism)
Identity vs. Role Confusion
In adolescence, Erikson believed that
a teenager’s main social need is to
discover his or her social identity.
While searching for your identity, you
may try out different roles, like trying
to fit into various social groups,
experimenting with drugs or sex, or
just changing your wardrobe. You
should be trying to find a stable sense
of self now, or Erikson believed you
may have an identity crisis later.
Identity vs Role Confusion
• Maladaptation: Fanaticism -
idealism
• Malignancy: Repudiation –
rejecting, reject their need to
have an identity
• Virtue: Identity
Stage 6 – Young Adulthood
Intimacy vs. Isolation
• age 20 to 40 years
• the basic conflict in young
adulthood is intimacy vs.
isolation
parenting and the
important relationships are
lovers, friends and work
connections
• in this stage, the
individual must develop
intimate relationships
through work and social
life
• failure to make such
connections can lead to
promiscuity, exclusivity
and isolation
Young adults (early 20s into early
30s) are trying to balance their
career efforts (work, school or self-
improvement) with the need to be
in an intimate relationship with
another person. How much time
should I spend looking for a
relationship? What if I don't find
anybody? What if I am all alone
for the rest of my life?
• Maladaptation- promiscuity
• Malignancy- exclusion
• Virtue- love
Stage 7 – Middle Adulthood
Generativity vs. Stagnation
• age 40 to 65 years
• the basic conflict is
generativity vs. stagnation
parenting and the
important relationships are
with children and the
community
• this stage is based on the
idea that each adult must
find a way to satisfy,
support and contribute to
the next generation; it is
often thought of as giving
back
• failure to resolve this stage
can lead to overextension
or rejectivity
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Erikson believed that by the time
we reach our mid 30s to mid 50s
we start to really examine our lives
and see if it is going the way we
planned it or did it take a drastic
turn. This is where some people
take drastic steps and change their
lives. You could see a lot of late
divorces or extreme changes in
clothes or cars- we call this
experience a mid life crisis.
• Generativity- extension of love,
concern for next and previous
generation, less selfish, think of love
for others
• Stagnation- not moving, self
absorbed person, caring for no one,
stagnant person stops being
productive member of the society or
for others
• Maladaptation- over extension
• Malignancy- rejectivity, selfish
• Virtue- care
Stage 8 – Maturity
Integrity vs. Despair
• age 65 to death
• the basic conflict is
ego integrity vs.
despair
reflection on and
acceptance of the
individual’s life
• the individual is
creating meaning and
purpose of one’s life
and reflecting on life
achievements
• failure to resolve this
conflict can create
feelings of disdain &
despair.
Integrity vs. Despair
Towards the end of our lives we
look back and evaluate ourselves.
Did we live a good life? Leave
behind a legacy of friends or
family? Or did we waste our time
playing Madden 2023 on Playstation
7? If we feel like there were many
lost opportunities along the way we
may fall into despair. I like to use
this stage to try to shape my life
now- you should too.
Integrity vs Despair
• Maladaptation – presumption
(ego integrity- he assumes he
alone is right
• Malignancy – disdain
(contempt in one’s life or
anyone)
• Virtue- wisdom
LET’S REVIEW
1. Can feel despair if conflict isn’t resolved
in this stage.
2. Stage when parents are the important
relationship and independence is the
event.
3. Stage when event is potty training.
4. Stage when identity is rooted in
occupation and peers are important.
5. Stage when the mother or caregiver is
important.
6. Conflict is industry vs. inferiority.
7. Giving back is important during this
stage.
Answers to Review
• 1. Stage 8; Maturity (integrity vs despair)
• 2. Stage 3; Locomotor (initiative vs guilt)
• 3. Stage 2; Muscular-Anal (autonomy vs
shame & doubt)
• 4. Stage 5; Adolescence (identity vs role
confusion)
• 5. Stage 1; Oral Sensory (trust vs
mistrust)
• 6. Stage 4; Latency (industry vs inferiority)
• 7. Stage 7; Middle Adulthood (generativity
vs stagnation)
• Lawrence Kohlberg was interested in studying the
development of moral reasoning.
.• He based his theory on the findings of Piaget in
studying cognitive development
• Our ability to choose right from wrong is tied with our
ability to understand and reason logically.
• He believed that children form ways of thinking
through their experieces which include understanding
of moral concepts such as justice, rights, equality and
human welfare.
• He extended the ages covered (from cognitive dev
theory) and found out that the process of attaining
moral maturity takes longer and slower
Lawrence Kohlberg’s
Theory of
Moral Development
Words to remember:
• Moral is a lesson that
is learn from
something.
• Dilemma is a
situation that
requires a choice
between two equal
alternatives.
Words to remember:
• Moral dilemma can therefore be defined as a
situation that will often involve an apparent
mental conflict in which each in possible
course of action will breach some binding
moral principle.
• Moral reasoning is a study in psychology that
overlaps with moral philosophy. It is also
called Moral development.
Who was Lawrence Kohlberg?
1927 - 1983
• Born in New York City in
1927.
• Kohlberg began studying
psychology as an
undergraduate at the
University of Chicago. In
one year, Kohlberg had
earned his B.A. in
psychology and continued
his education as a graduate
student at the University of
Chicago. In 1958, Kohlberg
earned his Ph.D
• Became fascinated by moral
development in children.
1927 - 1983
• Kohlberg studied moral reasoning & development with much
of his work based on that of Jean Piaget and John Dewey. He
had a brief teaching position at Yale University before moving
onto Harvard in 1967.
• While in Central America in 1973, Kohlberg developed a rare

and unknown tropical disease which disabled him in many
ways and caused him to be severely depressed. In January of
1987, Kohlberg disappeared, his body was later found in a
swamp area.
• There is some suspicion that Kohlberg took his own life.

1927 - 1983
• He was adopted and built on Piaget’s work, and set the
groundwork for the present debate within psychology and
moral development.
• Like Piaget, He believed that the children form ways of

thinking through their experiences which include
understandings of moral concepts such as justice, rights,
equality, and human welfare.
• Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgment and

extended the ages covered by Piaget, and found out the process
of attaining moral maturity took longer and occurred slower
that Piaget had thought.
1927 - 1983
• While in Central America in 1973, Kohlberg developed a rare
and unknown tropical disease which disabled him in many
ways and caused him to be severely depressed. In January of
1987, Kohlberg disappeared, his body was later found in a
swamp area.
• If Piaget designed specific tasks (Piagetian tasks) to learn about

the cognitive development of children. Kohlberg utilized moral
dilemmas (Kohlberg Dilemmas).The case you read in the
activity part of this module was written for this module but
based on how Kohlberg wrote his dilemmas. Like Piaget, he
presented these dilemmas to the individuals in his research and
asked for their responses. He did not aim to judge whether the
responses were right and wrong. He was interested in analyzing
the moral reasoning behind the responses.
Kohlberg's Stages
1. Pre-conventional level
• Stage 1: The punishment and obedience orientation
• Stage 2: The Mutual Benefit
2. Conventional level
• Stage 3: The "good boy-good girl" orientation/ social
approval
• Stage 4: The social-order-maintaining orientation/ law and
order
3. Post-conventional level
• Stage 5: The social-contract orientation
Levels of Moral Reasoning
• 1.Preconventional—moral reasoning
is based on external rewards and
punishments
• 2. Conventional—laws and rules are
upheld simply because they are laws
and rules
• 3.Postconventional—reasoning
based on personal moral standards
PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL
• Moral reasoning is FOCUS: Self
based on the AGES:4 – 10 yrs. old
consequence/result of Behavior motivated by

anticipation of pleasure or pain.
the act, not on the
whether the act itself
is good or bad.
• Punishments and
rewards dominate
the sense of right &
wrong
Stage #1:Obedience and Punishment
Orientation
• One is motivated by fear of

punishment.
• He will act in order to avoid
punishment.
EX: The child won’t grab

the candy at the supermarket
for fear of being slapped
Possible answers for Kohlberg’s dilemma by
children of Stage 1
For stealing: If you let your wife die, you will

get into trouble. You’ll be blamed for not
spending your money to save her and there
will be an investigation of you and the druggist
for your wife’s death.
Against stealing: You should not steal the drug

because you’ll be caught and sent to jail if you
do. If you do get away, your conscience would
bother you thinking how the police would
catch you at any minute.
Stage #2:Mutual Benefit..
• One is motivated to act by

the benefit that one may
obtain later.
• You scratch my back, I’ll
scratch yours.
EX: A mother tells her child:

“If you are quiet at the
mall, I will buy you an ice
cream.”
Possible answers for Kohlberg’s dilemma by
children of Stage 2
• For stealing: If you do happen to get caught

you could give the drug back and you
wouldn’t get much of a sentence. It wouldn’t
bother you much to serve a little jail term if
you have your wife when you get out.
• Against stealing : He may not get much of a

jail term if steals the drug, but his wife will
probably die before he gets out so it won’t
do him much good. If his wife dies, he
shouldn’t blame himself. It wasn’t his fault
that she has cancer.
CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
FOCUS: Significant Others, "Tyranny of
• Moral reasoning is the They" (They say….
AGES:10 – 13 yrs. old
based on the
conventions or Acceptance of the rules and standards of
“norms” of society. one's group.
• This may include

approval of others,
• law and order.
Stage #3:Social Approval
• One is motivated by what
others expect in behavior -
good boy, good girl. The
person acts because he/she
values how he/she appear to
others.
• He/she gives importance on
what people will think or
say.
EX: Volunteering at a
nursing home is the right
thing to do.
Possible answers for Kohlberg’s dilemma by children of
Stage 3
• For stealing: Nobody will think you’re bad if you steal

the drug but your family will think you’re an inhuman
husband if you don’t. If you let your wife die, you’ll
never be able to look anybody in the face again.
• Against stealing: It isn’t just the druggist who will
think you are a criminal, everyone else will, too. After
you steal it, you’ll feel bad thinking about how you’ve
brought dishonor on your family and yourself. You
won’t be able to face anyone again.
Stage #4: Law and Order
One is motivated to act in order
to uphold law and order.
The person will follow the law
because it is the law.
EX: If you drink and drive

your endangering the lives
of others on the road, not
just yourself.
Stage 4
• For stealing: If you have any sense of honor, you won’t let
your wife die because you’re afraid to do the only thing
that will save her. You’ll always feel guilty that you caused
her death if you don’t do your duty to her.
• Against stealing: You’re desperate and you may not know

you’re doing wrong when you steal the drug. But you’ll
know you did wrong after you’re punished and sent to jail.
You’ll always feel guilty for your dishonesty and
lawbreaking
THE POSTCONVENTIONAL
LEVEL
• Moral reasoning is based on enduring or

consistent principles. It is not just
recognizing the law, but the principles
behind the law.
Stage #5: Social Contract
Laws that are wrong can be
changed.
One will act based on social
justice and the common good.
At stage 5, people begin to ask,

"What makes for a good
society?" They begin to think
about society considering the
rights and values that a
society ought to uphold.
Stage 5
• For stealing: The law wasn’t set up for these

circumstances. Taking the drug in this situation isn’t really
right, but it’s justified to do it.
• Against stealing: You can’t completely blame someone for

stealing but extreme circumstances don’t really justify
taking the law in your own hands. You can’t have everyone
stealing whenever they get desperate. The end may be
good, but the ends don’t justify the means
Stage #6: Universal Ethical Principle
Orientation
This is associated with the
development od one’s
conscience.
Having a set of standards that
drives one to posses moral
responsibility to make societal
changes regardless of
consequences to oneself.
EX: Rosa Parks refused to sit in

the back of the bus because it
was an unjust law
discriminating against
African Americans.
Stage 6
• For stealing: This is a situation which forces him to

choose between stealing and letting his wife die. In a
situation where the choice must be made, it is morally
right to steal. He has to act in terms if the principle of
preserving and respecting life.
• Against stealing: Heinz is faced with the decision of

whether to consider the other people who need the drug
just as badly as his wife. Heinz ought to act not
according to his particular feelings toward his wife, but
considering the value of all the loves involved.
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory
• Research has not supported Kohlberg’s belief that the
development of abstract thinking in adolescence
invariably leads people to the formation of idealistic
moral principles
• Some cross-cultural psychologists argue that
Kohlberg’s stories and scoring system reflect a
Western emphasis on individual rights, harm, and
justice that is not shared in many cultures.
• Kohlberg’s early research was conducted entirely
with male subjects, yet it became the basis for a
theory applied to both males and females.
1. Heinz should NOT steal the drug because he would be put
to prison for his crime.
2. Heinz should steal the drug because he would feel gratified

and happier.
3. Heinz should steal the drug because he’s a good husband

and its expected of him to do so by his wife.
4. Heinz should steal the drug but be incarcerated because he
broke the law.
5. Heinz should steal the drug because saving a life is more

important than breaking the law.
6. Heinz should steal the drug but NOT be incarcerated

because the law would be unjust if it penalized an individual
for saving a life.
He was born in Russia on
November 17, 1896 and
died on June 11, 1934 at
the age of 37.
His work began when he

was studying learning and
development to improve
his own teaching.
He wrote on
language, thought, psych
ology of art, learning and
development and
educating students with
special needs.
His experience, together
with his interest in literature
and his work as a
teacher, led him to
recognize social
interaction and language
as two central factors in
cognitive development.
His theory became known

as Socio-Cultural Theory of
Development.
Social Cognitive
Interactions Language
Development
Cultural Context
Sociocultural theory of development: emphasizes the

crucial influence that social interactions and
language, embedded within a cultural context, have
on cognitive development.
PIAGET VYGOTKSY
• More individual in • More social in
focus focus
• Believed that • Did not propose
there are stages but
universal stages emphasized on
of cognitive cultural factors in
development cognitive
• Did not give much development
emphasis on • Stressed the role
language of language in
cognitive
Vygotsky emphasized that effective
learning happens through participation in
social activities.
Parents , teachers and other adults in the

learner’s environment all contribute to the
process. They explain, model, assist, give
directions and provide feed back.
Peers, on the other hand, cooperate and

collaborate and enrich the learning
experience.
This child is learning
to walk with the
help of a parent.
The parent holds
both hands so the
child doesn’t have
to focus on both
balance and Soon, this child
moving her feet. will be able to
walk and run by
herself.
What are you I’m writing a
writing? letter
Father’s knowledge
of letters:
Structure Child’s knowledge
(date, salutation, bo of letters:
dy, etc.) Mom and dad write
Purpose and receive letters.
(friendly, formal, etc.
)
Conventional
spelling and
grammar
The Cultural Factors
• Believed in the crucial role that
culture played on the cognitive
development of children
• He looked into the wide range of
experiences that a culture would give
to a child
Language can be viewed as a verbal expression of
culture.
Every culture has the words it needs for its lifestyle.
It opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge

that others already have.
It is use to know and understand the world and solve

problems.
It serves a social function but it also has an important

individual function. It helps the learner to regulate
and reflect on his own thinking.
I gotta go S is like a
down, then sssssssnake.
up, then
down. There.
N.
Zone of Actual Development refer in
which the child may perform at a
certain level of competency and
she/he may not immediately
proficient at it.
Zone of Proximal Development refer to

the difference between what the child
accomplish alone and what he/she can
accomplish with guidance of another.
- child needs the help of a MORE
KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER (MKO)
-ZPD represents a learning opportunity
which the MKO assists the child’s dev.
The Known: The Unknown:
What Ican do by myself Zone of Proximal Development: What Icannot do at
What Ican do with the help all
of someone else.
THE LEARNING SPACE
refers to the support or assistance that lets the
child accomplish a task he/she cannot
accomplish independently.
It is not about doing the task for the child while

he/she watches.
It is not about doing short cuts for the child.
It should involve the judicious assistance given

by the adult or peer so that the child can
move from the zone of actual to the zone of
proximal development.
Scaffold and Fade Away Technique- child
is able to do more things independently
as he becomes more proficient at the
task and help can be slowly withdrawn
Unzipping the lunch bag, opening the food
container and putting straw in the child’s
juice tetra pack for her / him is NOT
SCAFFOLDING.
When the adult unzips the zipper an inch or
two and then holds the lunch bag still so
that the child can continue to unzip the
lunch bag is SCAFFOLDING.
Loosening the food container lid just a bit

and letting the child open the lid himself is
SCAFFOLDING.
Leading the straw to the hole and letting

the child put the straw through the tetra
pack is SCAFFOLDING.
Adults and peers are critical to the learning
process through scaffolding .
Assisted learning: providing strategic help

in the initial stages of learning, gradually
diminishing as students gain independence.
Teaching in the Zone—not too hard, not too

easy, but JUST RIGHT.
MODULE 10
BRONFENBRENNER
ECOLOGICAL
THEORY
C
Urie Bronfenbrenner
was a Russian born
American
developmental
psychologist who is
most known for his
ecological systems
theory of child
development
CLM
“ CHILDREN NEED PEOPLE IN ORDER TO
BECOME A HUMAN”
LAYERS OF BRONFENBRENNER’S
BIOECOLOGICAL MODEL
BRONFENBRENNER’S MODEL IS ALSO
KNOWN AS
BIOECOLOGICAL SYSTEM
this theory present the child development within the

context of relationship system that comprise the child
environment.
BRONFENBRENNER’S BIOECOLOGICAL MODEL
EXPLANATION
The Microsystems
Is the layer nearest the child. It comprises
structure which the child directly interacts with.
They are called immediate environment
Example: one’s family, school and neighborhood
Question: Does the child have strong and
nurturing relationships with the parents and the
family?
Question: Are his/her needs met?
EXPLANATION
The Mesosystem
This layer serve as the relationships
between two or more microsystems such as what
is learned at home culturally. Connection between
structures of the child’s microsystem
They are called connections.
Example: Interactions between the parents and
teachers
The parents and health services
The community and the church
EXPLANATION
The Exosystem
Environment that effect how one
develops that is out of their control.
They are called indirect environment.
Example: workplace, mass media,
city government
EXPLANATION
The Macrosystem
Is a large cultural and social structural
elements of the environment that shape human
development.
They are called social and cultural values,
customs and laws.
Example: marriage ceremonies, outbreak of
Mers-Cov or Aids
The Chronosystem
Big events in the world that help
psychologist understand the affect it will impact
in a person’s development through
time.Patterns of stability and change in a
child’s life.
They are called Changes Over Time.
Example: A family through a divorce
/ another sibling coming/ A
nation going to war
-This could affect changes internally
in a chld.
THE ROLE OF SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS
“The instability and unpredictability of family

life is the most destructive force to a child’s
development”
Researchers tell us that the absence or lack of

children constant mutual interaction with important
adults has negative effects on their development.
Bronfenbrenner’s Theory reminds the school and
teachers of their very important role.
• If the relationship in the immediate
microsystem break down, the child will nt
have the tools to explore other parts of his
environment
• There should be affirmation s present in
child/ parent relationship
• If there is deficiency, there is anti social
behvavior, lack of self discipline and
inability to provde self direction.
WHAT IF….
- If there is lack of support, care and affection

from the home?
- If there is a serious breakdown of the basic’s
relationships in a child’s life?
- What can the school, the teachers in
particular do?
THIS THEORY HELPS…
This theory helps teacher look into a very

child’s environmental systems in order to
understand more about the characteristics and
needs of each child, each learner. The school
and the teachers can contribute stability and
long term relationships in the home.
A REMARKABLE QUOTE……..
THANK YOU…..
฀ 1. The Micro System
฀ The micro system's setting is the direct environment we have in our lives. Your family, friends, classmates, teachers, neighbors and other people
who have a direct contact with you are included in your micro system. The micro system is the setting in which we have direct social interactions
with these social agents. The theory states that we are not mere recipients of the experiences we have when socializing with these people in the
micro system environment, but we are contributing to the construction of such environment.
฀ 2. The Mesosystem
฀ The mesosytem involves the relationships between the microsystems in one's life. This means that your family experience may be related to your
school experience. For example, if a child is neglected by his parents, he may have a low chance of developing positive attitude towards his
teachers. Also, this child may feel awkward in the presence of peers and may resort to withdrawal from a group of classmates.
฀ 3. The Exosystem
฀ The exosystem is the setting in which there is a link between the context where in the person does not have any active role, and the context
where in is actively participating. Suppose a child is more attached to his father than his mother. If the father goes abroad to work for several
months, there may be a conflict between the mother and the child's social relationship, or on the other hand, this event may result to a tighter bond
between the mother and the child.
฀ 4. The Macrosystem
฀ The macrosystem setting is the actual culture of an individual. The cultural contexts involve the socioeconomic status of the person and/or his
family, his ethnicity or race and living in a still developing or a third world country. For example, being born to a poor family makes a person work
harder every day.
฀ 5. The Chronosystem
฀ The chronosystem includes the transitions and shifts in one's lifespan. This may also involve the socio-historical contexts that may influence a
person. One classic example of this is how divorce, as a major life transition, may affect not only the couple's relationship but also their children's
behavior. According to a majority of research, children are negatively affected on the first year after the divorce. The next years after it would
reveal that the interaction within the family becomes more stable and agreeable.
Pre Natal
Development
Module 11
Human Life begins at
Conception
The 3 Stages of Pre Natal
Development :
1. Germinal Period
2. Embryonic Period
3. Fetal Period
Conception
• The union of a male

sperm cell and a
female egg cell to
form a new
organism.
Stages of Pre-Natal Development
Divided into three periods:
– germinal period
– embryonic period
– fetal period
Germinal Period
1. Germinal Period
• Happens 2 weeks after conception
Includes:
• creation of the zygote
• continued cell division; and
• the attachment of the zygote to the uterine
wall
Germinal Period
• Rapid cell division
• By the end of the stage, the fertilized egg becomes a
blastocyst and plants itself in the wall of the uterus.
• Blastocyst is the inner layer of cells that develops
during germinal prd. Trophoblast is the outer layer of
cells and later provides nutrition and support for the
embryo
Germinal period
Germinal Period
a.) 24 to 30 hours
after fertilization-
sperm and egg cell
chromosome unite
Germinal Period
b. 36 hours- the
fertilized ovum,
zygote divides
into 2 cells
Germinal Period
c. 48 hours after
fertilization
(2 days) 2 cells
become 4 cells
Germinal Period
d.) 72hours –
the 4 cells
become a small
compact ball of
16-32 cells
Germinal Period
e.) 96 hours
(4 days)-
hollow ball of
64-128 cells
Germinal Period
f.) 4 to 5 days- inner
cell mass
(blastocyst) still free
in the uterus
Germinal Period
g.) 6 to 7
days-
blastocyst
attaches to
the wall of
uterus
Germinal Period
h.) 11 to 15
days-
blastocyst
invades the
uterine wall
and becomes
implanted in
it
(implantation)
2. Embryonic
Period
Embryonic Period
• Happens 2 to 8 weeks after conception
• Zygote becomes Embryo
What takes place:
• cell differentiation
intensifies
• life-support
systems for the
embryo develop
• organs appear
• Zygote is attached to the wall of the uterus and 2
layers are formed
• Endoderm- inner layer of cells develops into
digestive and respiratory system
• Outer layer becomes 2 – ectoderm and
mesoderm
• Ectoderm- outer most layer becomes nervous
system and sensory receptors ( eyes ears nose)
and skin parts (nails hair)
• Mesoderm- middle layer becomes the circulatory,
skeletal, muscular, excretory and reproductive
systems.
• organogenesis- process of organ formation
…Embryonic Period
• At the end of four weeks:

– Embryo is 1/4 inch in length
– Heart, digestive system, backbone and
spinal cord begin to form
– Placenta (sometimes called
"afterbirth") begins developing
– The single fertilized egg is now 10,000
times larger than size at conception
Embryonic Period
6 Weeks 7 Weeks 8 Weeks

Embryonic Period
• At the end of 8 weeks:
– Embryo is 1 1/8 inches in length
– Eyes, nose, lips, tongue, ears and teeth are
forming
–Embryo is moving, although the
mother can not yet feel movement
–Heart is functioning
• As these three layers form (endoderm,
ectoderm, mesoderm), the life support
system for the embryo develop rapidly
which are the:
– Placenta- life support that consists
of disk shaped grp of tissues in
which small blood vessels from
mother and offspring intertwine but
don’t join
– umbilical cord- contains 2 arteries
and 1 vein that connects baby to the
placenta
– Amnion- bag or an envelope that
contains a clear fuid in which
embryo floats
Embryonic Period
Embryonic Period
Embryonic
Period
3. Fetal Period
Fetal Period
• 2 to 7 months after
conception
• Growth and
development continue
dramatically during this
period.
• Development process :
Fetal Period
a. 3 months
after
conception
• fetus is about 3 inches long
• it has become more active by moving
its arms and legs, opens and closes
its mouth, and move its head
• Face forehead, eyelids, nose, chin
are distinguished
• the genitals can now be identified
as male or female
Fetal Period
• the following are distinguished:
– face
– forehead
– eyelids
– nose
– chin
– upper and lower arms
– hands
– lower limbs
b.) 4 months after
conception (16
weeks)
• fetus is about 6 inches long
• Growth spurt in lower parts
of the body
• stronger pre-natal reflexes
• first arm and feet movement
are felt by the mother
c.) 5 months
after conception
Fetal Development
• fetus is about 12 inches

long
• structures of the skin have
formed (also nails)
• fetus is more active
d.) 6 months after conception
Fetal Period
• Fetus is about 14 inches long
• eyes and eyelids are completely
formed
• fine layer of hair covers the head
• grasping reflex present and
irregular movements occur
e.) 7 months after conception
Fetal Development
• Fetus is 16 inches long
• Taste buds have developed
• Fat layers are forming
• Organs are maturing
• Skin is still wrinkled and red
• If born at this time, he/she will be
considered a premature baby and
require special care
f.) 8-9 months after conception
Fetal Development
• Fetus is 19 to 20 inches long
• The lungs are mature
• Baby is now fully developed and can
survive outside the mother's body
• Skin is pink and smooth
• He/she settles down lower in the
abdomen in preparation for birth and
may seem less active
• TERATOLOGY- field that investigates the causes of congenital
birth defects.
A teratogen causes birth defects . Tera from Greek means
“monster”
HAZARDS to PRE NATAL DEVELOPMENT
• 1.) Prescription and Non Prescription Drugs- antibiotic, diet
pills, aspirin, coffee,
Thalidomide- tragedy 1960
• 2.) Psychoactive Drugs- nicotine, caffeine, illegal drugs ,
marijuana (research – pregnant women who drank more coffee
have preterm babies
• Fetal alcohol syndrome- facial deformities, limbs, heart, below
average IQ, some are ID
• 3.) Environmental Hazards- pollution, radiation, jobsites,
x-rays, toxic wastes, cleaners, prolonged exposure to
heat/ saunas, mercury, lead
• Accdg to research- birth defects from fathers who are
exposed to radiation,
• 4.) Maternal Factors
• * folic acid- can reduce risk of having baby with serious
birth defect of the brain and spinal cord called “neural
tube”. Spina bifida most common neural tube defect with
a spine not closed
• *Rubella (German Measles ), nutrition of mom, AIDS,
herpes, STD, anxiety and stress, age of mom (too early or
too old)
SPINA BIFIDA
Thalidomide Babies
PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT OF
INFANTS AND
TODDLERS
MODULE 12
TODDLERS
 Youngchild: a young child
who is learning to walk.
CEPHALOCAUDAL
The postnatal growth from conception to 5

months when the head grows more than
the body.
The greatest growth always occurs at the
top –the head.
CEPHALOCAUDAL
The infants learns to use their ‘’UPPER
LIMBS ‘’before heir
‘’LOWER LIMBS ‘’.
 The same pattern occurs in the head area.
 The top parts of the head= the eyes and
the brain- grow faster than the lower parts
such as the jaw.
PROXIMODISTAL
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Refers to the development of
motor skills from the center of
the body outward.
PROXIMODISTAL
The pre-natal growth from 5 months to

birth when the fetus grows from the
inside of the body outwards.
The muscular control of the

trunk and the arms comes
earlier as compared to the
hands and fingers.
HEIGHT & WEIGHT
PHYSICAL  Its normal for new born babies to
DEVELOPMENTS drop 5 to 10 percent of their body
weight within a
couple of weeks of birth.(Due to
the baby’s adjustment to neonatal
feeding/ once they adjust to
sucking, swallowing and digesting,
they grow rapidly).
 Breastfed babies are typically
heavier than the bottle-fed babies
through the first 6 months.(After 6
months, breastfed babies usually
weigh less than bottle-fed babies.
HEIGHT & WEIGHT
PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENTS
In general, an infant’s length
increases by about 30% in
the first 5 months.
A baby’s weight usually
triples during the first year
but slows down in the
second year of life.
Low percentages are not a
cause for alarm as long as
infants progress along a
natural curve of steady
development.
Brain Development
Among the most dramatic changes in the brain in
the first 2 years of life are the spreading connections
of dendrites to each other. (Remember neurons,
dendrites, axon, synapses).
Myelination or myelinization
=The process by which the axons are covered
and insulated by layers of fat cells, begins
prenatally and continues after birth.
=The process of MYELINATION or

MYELINIZATION increases the speed at w/c
information travels through the nervous
system.
At birth, the newborn’s brain is
about 25% of its adult weight.
By the second birthday, the
brain is about 75% of its adult
weight.
Shortly after birth, a baby’s
brain produces trillions more
connections between
neurons than it can possibly
use. The brain eliminates
connections that are seldom
or never used. The infant’s
brain is literally waiting for
experiences to determine
how connections are made.
Motor Development
Along this aspect of motor development, infants and
toddlers begin from reflexes, to gross motor skills and
fine motor skills.
REFLEXES
The newborn has some basic reflexes which are,
of course automatic, and serve as survival
mechanisms before they have the opportunity to
learn. Many reflexes which are present at birth
will generally subside within a few months as the
baby grows and matures.
Motor Development
COMMON REFLEXES
Sucking Reflex( The sucking reflexes is initiated
when something touches the roof of an infant’s
mouth. Infants have a strong sucking reflex which
helps to ensure they can latch unto bottle or
breast. The sucking reflex is very strong in some
infants and they may need to suck on a pacifier
for comfort).
Rooting Reflex( The roofing reflex is most evident when
an infant’s cheek is stroked. The baby responds by
turning his or her head in the direction of the touch
and opening their mouth for feeding).
Gripping Reflex( Babies will grasp anything that is
placed in their palm. The strength of this grip is
strong, and most babies can support their entire
weight in their grip).
 Curling Reflex( When the inner sole of a baby’s foot is
stroked the infant respond by curling his or her toes.
When the outer sole of a baby’s foot is stroked, the
infant will respond by spreading out their toes).
 Startle/Moro Reflex( Infants will respond to sudden
sounds or movements by throwing their arms and
legs out, and throwing their heads back. Most
infants will usually cry when startled and proceed to
pull their limbs back into their bodies ).
Galant Reflex ( The galant reflex is shown when
an infant’s middle or lower back is stroked next
to the spinal cord. The baby will respond by
curving his or her body toward the side which is
being stroked).
Tonic Neck Reflex ( The tonic neck reflex is
demonstrated in infants who are placed on their
abdomens. Whenever side the child’s head is
facing, the limbs on that side will straighten, while
the opposite limbs will curl).
LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT OF
INFANTS and TODDLERS
Gross Motor Skills
It is always a source of excitement for
parents to witness dramatic changes in the
infant’s first year of life. This dramatic motor
development is shown in babies unable to
even lift their heads to being able to grab
things off the cabinet, to chase the ball and
to walk away from parents.
Fine Motor Skills
 Are skills that involve a refined use of the small muscles
controlling the hand, finger and thumb. The development of
these skills allows one to be able to complete tasks such as
writing, drawing and buttoning.
 The ability to exhibit fine motor skills involve activities that
involve precise eye- hand coordination.
 The development of reaching and grasping becomes more
refined during the first 2 years of life. Initially, infants show only
crude shoulder and elbow movements, but later they show
wrist movements, hand rotation and coordination of the thumb
and forefinger.
SENSORY and PERCEPTUAL
DEVELOPMENT
The newborn senses the world into which
he/she is born through his/her senses of
vision, hearing, touch, taste and smell. As
he/she advances physically his/her sensory
and perceptual abilities also develop.
RESEACH FINDINGS regarding
NEWBORN’S VISUAL PERCEPTION
The newborn’s vision is about 10 to 30 times
lower than normal adult vision. By 6 months
of age, vision becomes better and by the first
birthday, the infant’s vision approximates
that of an adult.
RESEACH FINDINGS regarding
NEWBORN’S VISUAL PERCEPTION
Infants look at different things for different lengths
of time. In an experiment conducted by Robert
Fantz(1963 cited by Santrock, 2002), it was found
out that infants preferred to look at patterns such
as faces and concentric circles rather than at color
or brightness. Based on these results, it is likely
that ‘’pattern perception has an innate basis’’.
Among the first few things that babies learn to
recognize is their mother’s face, as mother feeds
and nurses them.
Can NEWBORN Hear?
The sense of hearing in an infant develops much
before the birth of the baby. When in the womb,
the baby hears his/her mother’s heartbeats, the
grumbling of his/her stomach, the mother’s voice
and music.
Infants’ sensory thresholds are somewhat higher
than those of adult which means that stimulus
must be louder to be heard by a newborn than by
an adult.
Can NEWBORNS differentiate
Odors?
 In an experiment conducted by
MacFarlane(1975) ‘’ Young infants who were
breastfed showed a clear preference for smelling
their mother’s breast pad when the babies were
only two days old. This shows that it requires
several days of experience to recognize their
mother’s breast pad odor’’.
Can NEWBORNS feel pain?Do
they Respond to touch?
 They do feel pain. Newborn males show a
higher level of cortisol( an indicator of
stress) after a circumcision than prior to
the surgery.
 Babies respond to touch. The newborn
automatically sucks an object placed in
his/her head toward the side that was
touched in an apparent effort to find
something to suck.
Can NEWBORNS distinguish
the different tastes?
 In a study conducted with babies only two
hour old, babies made different facial
expressions when they tasted sweet, sour
and bitter solutions.
 When saccharin was added to the amniotic
fluid of a near-term fetus, increased
swallowing was observed.
 This indicates that sensitivity to taste might be
present before birth.
WHAT INFANTS and TODDLERS
can do Physically?
PHYSICAL HEALTH
0-6 months
 Startles to loud sounds
 Visually follows a moving object from side to side
 Visually follows a moving object up and down
 Reacts to pain by crying
 With draws or reacts with surprise when in contact with somethingcold
 Reactswith pleasure/smiles or relaxed expression when he/she tastes
something
delicious
 Reactsby making a face/frowns/grimaces when he/she tastes
something he/she does not like
WHAT INFANTS and TODDLERS
can do Physically?
PHYSICAL HEALTH
7-12 months
 Reactswith pleasure when he/she smells something nice
 Reactsby making a face when he/she smells something fouls
13-18 months
 Play without tiring easily, able to keep pace with playmates
 Participates actively in games, outdoor play and other exercises
19-24 months
 Sustainsphysical activities (e.g. dancing, outdoor games,swimming) for at
least 3-5 minutes
MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT(Gross
Motor skills)
Standard 1_ The child shows control in
coordination of body movements involving
large muscle groups.
0-6 months
 Holds head steadily
 Moves arms and legs equally to reach at danglingobject
 Rolls over
 Bounces when held standing, briefly bearing weight on
legs
 Sits with support
 Stating to crawl but not yet very good at this
7-12 months
 Sits steadily without support
 Creeps or crawls with ease as a primary means of
moving around
 Stands without support
 Stands from a sitting position without any help
 Squats from standing position with ease
 Stands from standing position with ease
 Bends over easily without falling
 Stands from a bent position without falling
 Walks sideways by holding onto the sides of crib
or furniture (cruises)
 Walks with one hand held
13-18 months
Walks without support
Walks backwards
Walks up the stairs with hand held, 2 feet on
each step
Walks down stairs with hand held, 2 feet on
each step
Jumps in place
Climbs onto a steady elevated surface (e.g.
bed, adult chair or bangko etc.)
13-18 months
Throws a ball but with little control of
direction
Throws a ball but with little control of speed
Runs without tripping or falling
Maintains balance (walking on a low, narrow
ledge, between 2 lines without assistance
Moves with music when he hears it
Can move body to imitate familiar animals
Can move body to imitate another person/TV
character
19-24 months
Walks up the stairs with alternating feet,
without help
Walks down the stairs with alternating
feet without help
 Kicks a ball with a control of direction
 Throws a ball with control of direction
 Throws a ball with control of speed
MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT(Fine
Motor skills)
0-6 months
 Hands open most of the time
 Bring both hands together towards dangling object/toy
 Uses either hand interchangeably to grasp objects
 Uses all 5 fingers in a ranking motion to get food/toy
placed on a flat surface
 Grasps objects with the same hand most of the time (hand
preference emerging)
7-12 months
Pulls toys by string
Bangs 2 large blockstogether
Picksup objects with thumb and index fingers
Graspsand transfer objects from hand to hand
Graspsobjects with the same hand all the time
(definite hand preference established)
13-18 months
 Puts small objects in/out of container
 Unscrew lids
 Unwraps candy/food
 Holds thick pencil or crayon with palmar grip (e. g. all 5
fingers wrapped around pencil)
19- 24 months
 Colors with strokes going out of the lines
PERSONAL CARE AND HYGIENE
(Activities of Daily Living)
Standard 1_ The child participates in basicpersonal care
routines.
0-6 months
Sucks and swallows milk form breast/bottle
Begins to take complementary or semi-solid
foods by the en of 6 months
Keeps reasonably still while being dressed,
undressed bathed and while diaper is being
change
7-12 months
 Holds feeding bottle by himself

 Helps hold cup for drinking
 Chews solid foods well
 Feeds self with finger foods
 Scoops with a spoon with spillage
13-18 months
Feeds self with assistance
Feeds self using fingers to eat rice/viands
with spillage
Feeds self using spoon with spillage
No longer drinks from feeding bottle
Drinks from cup unassisted
Participates when being dressed by lifting
arms or raising legs
Pulls down gartered short pants/underpants
or panties
13-18 months
Removes shoes/sandals
Informs caregiver of the need to move his
bowels so he/she can be brought to comfort
room
Takes a bath with assistance
Brushes teeth after meals with assistance
from adult
Washes and dries hands under adult
supervision
Washes and dries face with the assistance of
an adult
19-24 months
 Gets drink for self unassisted
 Removes loose sando
 Removes socks
 Informs caregiver of the need to urinate sohe/she canbe
brought the comfort room
 Goesto the designated place to urinate but sometimes wets
his/her pants
 Goesto the designated place to move his/her bowels but
sometimes still solshis/herpants
 Goesto the designated place to move his/her bowels but
needs help with wiping and washing
 Brushesteeth after meals with adultsupervision
 Washesand dries face under adult supervision
Module 13 Cognitive Development of Infants
and Toddlers
Module 14 Socio Emotional Development of

Infants and Toddlers
Module 14 The Socio Emotional Development of
Infants and Toddlers

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Basic Concepts and

• By understanding how characteristics develop, we can make

• Development takes place

• They don’t grow overnight nor can

Involves changes in the

Includes changes in the individual’s relationship with

It does not end

The Stages of Development

1. How many developmental stages were

1.Learning to 1.Learning 1.Achieving 1.Selecting a 1.Helping 1.Adjusting to

3.Learning to 3.Learning to 3.Accepting 3.Starting a 3.Satisfactory 3.Adjusting to

4.Learning to 4.Learning an 4.Achieving 4.Rearing 4.Developing 4.Establishing

5.Learning sex 5.Developing 5.Preparing for 5.Managing a 5.Relating to 5.Meeting social

7.Readiness 7.Developing 7.Acquiring 7.Assuming 7.Adjusting to

8.Learning to 8. Achieving 8. Desiring

1.Prenatal period (from conception to

no.2- Middle and Late Childhood

3.Preschool age corresponds to early

7.Play is a great need of children in

8. Preparing children for school

1. Reflect on your early childhood, middle

 Nature versus Nurture

⚫ For example, does a naturally extroverted and

As a journalist who covers science, I was intrigued when I

5 Steps of the Scientific Method. (John Dewey)

3. Collect and analyze data

-Gathering of data may be conducted through a printed

-Information is obtained by utilizing standardized

Some key points are:

2. Participating in teacher research also helps teachers become

4. Engaging in teaching research at any level may lead to

5. Teacher research has the potential to demonstrate to teachers

Sigmund Freud (May 6, 1856 to Sept. 23, 1939) founded

⦿Wether these needs are met or not, determines

Electra Complex – female child

According to Freud, boys

⦿ 4 Latency Stage (age 6-

⦿ 5 Genital Stage – (Puberty

⦿Freud described the personality structures as

⦿ The id – Freud says that a child is born with

⦿The ego – As the baby turns

⦿ The super ego – Near the

⦿ The conscious – Freud also

⦿ The subconscious/ preconscious. – this is the part of

“The ego is not master in its own house”

It refers to the mental processes by an organism learns,

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the

Piaget originally trained in the areas of biology and

This theory has now been applied

The Concrete Operational stage is characterized by the appropriate

• 4. Reversibility: The child understands that numbers or objects

• Piaget’s theory provides valuable information and advice on

• Stage 1 – Oral Sensory

• While in Central America in 1973, Kohlberg developed a rare

• There is some suspicion that Kohlberg took his own life.

• Like Piaget, He believed that the children form ways of

• Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgment and

• If Piaget designed specific tasks (Piagetian tasks) to learn about

consequence/result of Behavior motivated by

• One is motivated by fear of