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Magnetite and ilmenite series (peraluminous) granites4,5. However, a leucocratic facies

of granitoids, i.e. aplite may correspond to diamagnetic
granitoids of Ladakh batholith, type. Relative abundances of magnetic and weakly mag-
Northwest Indian Himalaya: netic minerals in granites can be measured in terms of
implications on redox conditions magnetic susceptibility (MS in 10–3 SI units), which is
used to characterize the magnetite series (MS > 3.0 × 10–3
of subduction zone magmatism SI units) and ilmenite series (MS ≤ 3.0 × 10–3 SI units)
granites corresponding to oxidized type and reduced type
Santosh Kumar granites respectively4,6. MS values primarily indicate
Department of Geology, Kumaun University, Nainital 263 002, India redox conditions (oxygen fugacity) of felsic melts com-
monly inherited from source regions. There may be a
Multiple felsic magmatic pulses north of the Indus- parallelism7 between the magnetite-/ilmenite series4 and
Tsangpo Suture Zone constitute the Ladakh batholith the metaluminous (I-type)/peraluminous (S-type) grani-
in the Northwest Indian Higher Himalaya, which is toids8, commonly reflected in species and amount of
characterized largely by calc-alkaline metaluminous opaque and ferromagnesian minerals4, biotite composition9,
(I-type) granitoids with abundant microgranular en- whole-rock molar Al2O3/CaO + Na2O + K2O (A/CNK)
clave formed in a subduction setting. Mineralogical ratio8 and isotopes6.
and magnetic susceptibility (MS) parameters of grani- The Ladakh batholith located to the north of the Indus
toids exposed in the northwestern, central and south-
Tsangpo Suture Zone (ITSZ), considered to be formed by
eastern parts of the Ladakh batholith have been
evaluated in order to understand the redox conditions subduction-related calc-alkaline magmatism, forms an
(magnetite versus ilmenite series) of felsic melts with integral part of the Trans-Himalayan magmatic arc. The
implication on the nature of the subducting source Ladakh batholith provides ample opportunity to evaluate
materials. Average MS values of granitoids range the nature of magmatic accretion processes in space and
widely from 0.02 × 10–3 to 44.54 × 10–3 SI units, corre- time. Detailed MS mapping of mafic–felsic magmatic
sponding to both magnetite series (MS > 3 × 10–3 SI lithounits constituting the Ladakh batholith has been
units; oxidized type) and ilmenite series (MS ≤ 3 × 10–3 carried out recently10. In the present communication,
SI units; reduced type) granites, which is broadly con- mineralogical and MS parameters of granitoids from
sistent with the observed variations in mafic to felsic northwestern, central and southeastern parts of the
minerals (low to high), colour index (leucocratic to Ladakh batholith have been examined in order to under-
mesocratic), modal composition (hbl–bt quartz mon-
stand the redox conditions (magnetite series versus
zodiorite–granodiorite–tonalite), biotite composition
(Fe/Fe + Mg = 0.42–0.80) and whole-rock molar Al2O3/ ilmenite series) of arc-related magmatic evolution with
CaO + Na2O + K2O ratio (0.74–1.09) of granitoids of implications on understanding the nature of the subduct-
the Ladakh batholith. Although throughout the ing-slab (source) materials undergoing partial melting
Ladakh batholith magnetite series granites dominate processes in space and time.
over the ilmenite series granites, the ratio of magnetite/ Felsic and associated mafic magmatic rocks constitute
ilmenite series granites decreases gradually from the the Ladakh batholith, which is an elongated body (600 km
northwestern to the southeastern parts of the Ladakh long and 20–80 km wide), roughly trending NW–SE and
batholith along its strike-length, which primarily re- covers an area of ca. 30,000 km2 (refs 11–13). The
sulted from varying amounts and types of subducting Ladakh batholith lies to the north of ITSZ and shows
materials and contamination with mantle wedge gradual shortening in width from northwest (Kargil) to
source. At places, oxidizing condition of granitoid
southeast (Chuma Thang) through Leh–Upshi extending
melts becomes elevated because of mafic (enclave) and
felsic magma interaction in the open system, and laterally in a linear fashion14 (Figure 1). The Ladakh
granitoids are locally reduced to ilmenite series close batholith is characterized by multiple intrusions of vari-
to either intrusive or tectonic contacts. able composition ranging from gabbro–diorite–tonalite to
granodiorite–granite, which are in turn cross-cut by mafic
Keywords: Granitoids, ilmenite, magnetite, magnetic dykes14,15. Mafic to hybrid microgranular (magmatic)
susceptibility, redox series. enclaves (ME) and disrupted fragments of synplutonic (or
synmagmatic) mafic dykes are ubiquitous, which have
PRIMARILY granitoids are bimodal in nature, which can equally contributed in the magmatic evolution of the
be explained in petrophysical terms as magnetic or ferro- Ladakh batholith16,17. Several studies show that the
magnetic, and weakly magnetic or paramagnetic1–3 Ladakh batholith is formed by subduction of the Neo-
depending upon relative modal abundance of magmatic Tethyan oceanic crust beneath the Eurasian plate repre-
opaque phases, viz. magnetite ± ilmenite in I-type (meta- senting one of the largest Andean-type calc-alkaline
luminous) and ilmenite + sulphide ± magnetite in S-type magmatic arc found in an orogenic belt18. The Ladakh
batholith has been formed by at least seven spatially and
e-mail: skyadavan@yahoo.com genetically linked subduction-related, calc-alkaline felsic
1260 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 99, NO. 9, 10 NOVEMBER 2010
 RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS

Figure 1. a, Geological structure of Himalaya showing location of Ladakh batholith38. b, Geological map of Ladakh
batholith and associated lithogroups39,40. Locations of various places within the Ladakh batholith are also shown, where
magnetic susceptibility is measured on the granitoids. Relative abundance of magnetite series (oxidized type) and ilmenite
series (reduced type) granites in northwestern, central and southeastern parts of Ladakh batholith is shown as wheel
diagrams10. See text for detailed discussion.

magma pulses that occurred during ca. 102, 67, 64, 59, the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun.
53, 50 and 45 Ma, when the most dominant felsic mag- MS measurements of granitoids exposed along various
matisms prevailed between ca. 67 and 45 Ma, probably transects (northwestern, central and southeastern parts) of
marking the duration of arc-related magmatism propagating the Ladakh batholith have been carried out on smooth and
from northwest to southeast of the Ladakh batholith15,18–25. fresh rock surfaces using SM-20 model Kappameter. MS
Granitoids of the Ladakh batholith can be broadly clas- values (in 10–3 SI units) were corrected further using rec-
sified into coarse-grained facies with abundant mafic ommended factors for degree of rock-surface unevenness:
(hbl–bt), medium-grained facies with less abundant mafic, 1 mm – 1.07, 2 mm – 1.15, 3 mm – 1.23, 4 mm – 1.32
and fine-grained leucocratic facies with very low content and 5 mm – 1.41. Mineralogical parameters and average
of mafic minerals (Figure 2 a–c). They exhibit medium to MS values measured at various outcrops of granitoids are
coarse-grained hypidiomorphic textures with varying summarized in Table 1. Relative abundance of magnetite
amounts of opaque and mafic minerals (Figure 2 d–f ). series (MS > 3 × 10–3 SI units) and ilmenite series
Medium to coarse-grained granitoids contain fine-grained (MS ≤ 3 × 10–3 SI units) granites4 corresponding to oxi-
mafic to hybrid ME, which are rare or absent in the leu- dized type and reduced type granites respectively6, has
cocratic variety17. ME and the felsic host bear common been shown as wheel diagrams placed on the geological
mineral assemblages (hbl–bt–pl–kfs–qtz–ap–zrn–mag ± map of the Ladakh batholith (Figure 1).
ttn ± ilm; mineral symbols after Kretz26), but differ in In the northwestern part of the Ladakh batholith aver-
mineral proportions and grain sizes17. The Ladakh batho- age MS values measured at 14 selected outcrops vary
lith is comprised of calc-alkaline, strongly metaluminous from 3.21 × 10–3 to 27.69 × 10–3 SI units (Table 1). About
I-type (molar Al2O3/CaO + Na2O + K2O = 0.74–1.09) 97% of the observed MS represents the magnetite series
granitoids, which become relatively less metaluminous in and 3% the ilmenite series granites. Relatively lower
the southeastern parts of the Ladakh batholith (Table 1). average MS values (3.21–18.3 × 10–3 SI units) have been
Mafic minerals (bt–hbl) were analysed by the electron- recorded for the granitoids exposed in and around Dras
probe micro-analysis (EPMA) technique at Indian Insti- region, which most likely represents local reducing envi-
tute of Technology, Roorkee, and whole-rock major ronment of granitoid magma as a result of interaction
oxides were determined by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) at with volcanics. Granitoids enclosing ME usually record

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Table 1. Mineralogical and magnetic susceptibility parameters of granitoids from northwest, central and southeast parts of Ladakh batholith

Parameter Northwest Central Southeast

Texture Coarse-grained, occasional Medium to coarse-grained Medium to coarse-grained, occasional

megacrystic megacrystic
Mineral® assemblage Plg–Kf–Hbl–Bt–Qtz– Plg–Kf–Hbl–Bt–Qtz–Mag–Ap– Plg–Kf–Bt–Qtz–Zrn + Mag ± Ap ±
Mag–Ap–Ttn–Zrn Ttn–Zrn (Bt > Hbl) Ttn (Bt >> Hbl)
(Hbl > Bt)
Mafic/felsic minerals High Moderate Low
Colour index (M′)+ Mesocratic Mesocratic Mesocratic to leucocratic
Modal composition Bt–Hbl quartz monzodio- Hbl–Bt quartz monzodiorite, Bt ± Hbl granodiorite, tonalite
rite, granodiorite granodiorite
ME occurrence Less frequent Frequent Scarce
Average pressure (kbar) 3.35, 4.27 (± 0.5 kbar) 2.99 (± 0.5 kbar) 2.17 (± 0.5 kbar)
(Al-in-hornblende barometer*)
Biotite
Fe/(Fe + Mg) pfu 0.45–0.80 (N = 21) 0.42–0.52 (N = 35) 0.42–0.60 (N = 23)
FeOt/MgO 1.44–2.19 (N = 21) 1.31–1.90 (N = 35) 1.71–2.63 (N = 23)
Buffer stability FMQ > NNO FMQ≡NNO FMQ < NNO
Whole-rock molar A/CNK 0.74–1.04 (N = 9) 0.88–1.03 (N = 13) 0.90–1.09 (N = 12)
Average magnetic 19.80 (19), 3.21 (20), 0.28 (10), 3.86 (14), 11.27 (18), 2.36 (44), 6.30 (8), 0.64 (10),
susceptibility# 9.45 (62), 18.30 (16), 7.06 (12), 9.75 (10), 9.04 (6), 0.69 (7), 13.18 (20), 10.79 (8),
(× 10–3 SI units) 23.17 (29), 12.03 (20), 9.46 (20), 25.82 (20), 44.54 13.65 (21), 4.45 (10), 9.74 (15),
10.85 (19), 14.88 (5), (18), 42.65 (9), 21.98 (15), 18.12 (29), 13.96 (29), 12.22 (12),
14.61 (20), 8.81 (20), 0.19 (29), 16.46 (6), 17.63, 18.82 (6), 27.15 (10), 17.52 (20),
19.05 (20), 27.69 (38), (15), 15.55 (14), 20.86 (5), 15.78 (10), 12.40 (29), 15.49 (20),
5.98 (6), 13.15 (10) 0.81 (14), 13.91 (29), 17.21 0.02 (10), 3.99 (13), 0.10 (40),
(15), 25.95 (6), 28.14 (6), 0.07 (15), 0.02 (10), 0.10 (29),
25.30 (28), 9.42 (20), 18.13 0.14 (32)
(21), 11.13 (29), 18.60 (16)
®
Mineral’s symbols are after Kretz26; M′ = 100 – light coloured minerals; M′ = 35–65 Mesocratic; M′ = 10–35 Leucocratic (after Le Maitre36);
ME, Microgranular enclave; *Schimdt37; pfu, Per formula unit; FMQ, Faylite–magnetite–quartz; NNO, Nickel–Nickel–Oxide; Molar A/CNK,
Molar Al2O3/CaO + Na2O + K2O; #Kumar10.

higher MS values compared to ME-free outcrops, which In the southeastern parts of the Ladakh batholith aver-
strongly suggests an increase of oxygen fugacity ( f O2) age MS values measured on 25 selected outcrops vary
due to mafic–felsic magma mixing and mingling proc- from 0.02 × 10–3 to 27.15 × 10–3 SI units (Table 1). Moder-
esses that prevailed in the open magma chambers. ate to high oxidizing nature of granitoids has been obser-
In the central region of the Ladakh batholith, the average ved at Sakti (4.45–13.65 × 10–3 SI units), Zingral (9.74–
MS values measured at 26 selected outcrops vary widely 18.12 × 10–3 SI units) and ChangLa (15.82–27.15 × 10–3 SI
between 0.19 and 44.54 × 10–3 SI units, corresponding to units). Granitoids at Karu (0.64–2.36 × 10–3 SI units),
both ilmenite and magnetite series granites respectively Upshi (0.02–3.99 × 10–3 SI units), Litse (0.10 × 10–3 SI
(Table 1). The observed large MS variations are probably units) and Himiya (0.02–1.03 × 10–3 SI units) correspond
related to modal variations of opaque and ferromagnesian to highly reduced type ilmenite series. Progressive
minerals (Table 1). Medium to coarse-grained granitoids increase in the reducing (ilmenite series) nature of grani-
intruding the diorite body become strongly reduced to toids has been observed from north (ChangLa) to south
ilmenite series measuring a very low average MS value (Himiya)10. In the southeastern part of the Ladakh batho-
(0.81 × 10–3 SI units)10. Mafic–felsic magma-mingled lith, about 56% and 44% of MS values represent magnetite
outcrops characterized by the presence of randomly ori- series and ilmenite series granites respectively. The ratio
ented small mafic to hybrid ME17 usually reflect high aver- of the two granite series (magnetite/ilmenite series) de-
age MS value. Highly oxidized (magnetite series) nature creased substantially in the southeastern part compared to
of the granitoids was mostly observed at Khardung La the northwestern and central parts of the Ladakh batholith.
(21.98–44.54 × 10–3 SI units). Granitoids are reduced to Granitoids from the northwestern, central and south-
moderately magnetite and ilmenite series towards the eastern parts of the Ladakh batholith have recorded
northern (Khardung) and southern (Karu) margins, respec- changing ratios of mafic to felsic minerals (high–
tively and also observed at some places in and around moderate–low), corresponding to modal compositions
Pullu and Leh regions. About 87% MS values of granitoids classified as mesocratic bt–hbl quartz monzodio-
represents magnetite series, whereas 13% belongs to the rite/granodiorite, hbl–bt quartz monzodiorite/granodiorite
ilmenite series. The ratio of the two granite series (magnet- and mesocratic to leucocratic bt–hbl granodiorite/tonalite
ite/ilmenite series) was thus found to decrease from the respectively (Table 1). Occurrence of ME is less frequent,
northwestern to the central parts of the Ladakh batholith. frequent and scarce respectively, in the northwest
1262 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 99, NO. 9, 10 NOVEMBER 2010
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Figure 2. Megascopic features showing textural and mineralogical variations (a–c), and hypidiomorphic textures
showing variations in ferromagnesian and opaque oxide (magnetite) contents (d–f ) in granitoids from northwest,
central and southeast parts of Ladakh batholith.

(P = 3.35–4.27 kbar), central (P = 2.99 kbar) and south- Felsic magmatism of bimodal nature (magnetite and
east (P = 2.17 kbar), exposing differentially unroofed ilmenite series granites) observed in the Ladakh batholith
(deeper to shallower) parts of the Ladakh batholith, as spans from 102 Ma in the northwestern part to 45 Ma in
evident from total Al-in-hornblende geobarometer (Table the southeastern part of the Ladakh batholith, which
1). Magnetite and ilmenite series granitoids are primarily broadly correlates with a shortening of the batholith
governed by the prevailing f O2 indicated by biotite width and decreasing ratios of magnetite/ilmenite series
(Fe/Fe + Mg) crystallized with K-feldspar, quartz and granites. Redox state of granitoids gradually changing
magnetite9. As a result of changing f O2 of felsic melts, laterally along the strike-direction of the Ladakh batholith
biotite in the magnetite series bears Z colour: greenish- and longitudinally (N–S) in the central and southeastern
brown, is rich in Mg because iron is consumed to form parts largely appears inherited from contamination of
early magnetite rich in Fe3+, whereas Z colour in ilmenite subducted materials with the mantle wedge source, which
series biotite is reddish-brown because of Fe2+ enrich- primarily controlled the redox state of granitic magmas30.
ment27. Biotite in magnetite series therefore should stabi- It has been inferred elsewhere that the most likely source
lize above the Ni–NiO buffer and the ilmenite series of sea-water sulphate required for magnetite series granites
biotite below it4,28. Fe/Fe + Mg ratios in biotites of grani- is subducted altered oceanic crust, whereas sedimentary
toids from the northwestern (0.42–0.80), central (0.42– sulphide source materials are needed for the generation of
0.52) and southeastern (0.42–0.60) parts of the Ladakh ilmenite series granites, prevalent in the southeastern
batholith are variable in nature, which is primarily con- parts of the Ladakh batholith. Although redox states of
trolled by the relative amount of their stability at various granites are intrinsic properties of felsic magma source
buffers corresponding to FMQ > NNO, FMQ ≡ NNO and regions31, some granites may acquire oxidation or reduc-
FMQ < NNO respectively (Table 1). Biotites in calc alka- tion state due to prevailing physico-chemical conditions
line I-type suites are moderately magnesian-rich, with an of magma chambers32, or may occur locally by degassing
average FeOt/MgO of 1.76, whereas biotites in S-type or assimilation of wall rocks in situ30, or deeper-derived
(peraluminous) suites are siderophyllitic29 with an aver- lithology with the ascent of felsic magma33, or later tectonic
age FeOt/MgO of 3.48. FeOt/MgO ratios of biotites in the and deformational processes34, or mafic–felsic magma
northwestern (1.44–2.19), central (1.31–1.90) and south- mixing and mingling processes35, or a combination of two
eastern (1.71–2.63) parts of the granitoids suggest domi- or more of the above processes.
nance of calc-alkaline, magnetite series (I-type) felsic In the present study, the observed magnetite to ilmenite
host magmas in the Ladakh batholith, with subordinate series granitoids of the Ladakh batholith were most likely
amount of ilmenite series (S-type) felsic melts in the inherited from subducting materials undergoing partial
southestern part of the Ladakh batholith (Table 1), con- melting process and contamination with mantle wedge
sistent with the observed MS values. source, and to some extent granitoid melts have reduced

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partially and locally, to varying degrees close to tectonic 22. Upadhyay, R., Frisch, W. and Siebel, W., Tectonic implication of
or intrusive contacts. However, magma mixing and min- U–Pb zircon ages of the Ladakh batholith, Indus suture zone,
northwest Himalaya, India. Terra Nova, 2008, 20, 309–317.
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19. Harrision, T. M., Copeland, P., Kidd, W. S. F. and Yin, A., Rising ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. This work is supported under a DST–
Tibet. Science, 1992, 255, 1663–1670. FIST (Level-I) grant sanctioned to the Department of Geology,
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145, 1–13. tively. I also thank the anonymous referees whose comments helped
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Ladakh, India. J. Asian Earth Sci., 2007, 30, 490–503. Received 2 June 2009; revised accepted 15 September 2010

1264 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 99, NO. 9, 10 NOVEMBER 2010