Arba Minch University

School of Post Graduate

Institute of Water Technology

Design Components of Hydropower Schemes

(HE-733)

Elias Gebeyehu (Dr.Eng.)

eliasg2000@gmail.com

2021
CONTENTS

1 Chapter 01
Water intake

2 PART 02
Free surface conveyance

3 Chapter 03
Settling basins

4 Chapter 04

Pressurized pipes conveyance

(penstocks)

5 Chapter 05
Surge tanks and surge chambers

6 Chapter 06

Power house
Water intake
 1. Water Intake

 IntroductionBackgrou
nd
o Three basic elements are necessary in order to generate power from

water:

 A means of creating head,

 A conduit to convey water, and

 A power plant.

o To provide these functions, some or all of the following components are

used: dam, reservoir, conduit or penstock, surge tank, power house,

draft tube, and tail race.

 Cont…

Backgrou
nd

Withdrawal (intake) structure of power plant with (1) intake trashrack,

(2) intake transition, (3) trashrack cleaner. (4) penstock, (5) slide gate,
(6) wheel gate, (7) penstock to power plant, (8) gate shaft
 Cont…

Backgrou
Dams, Barrages and Reservoirs
nd
o Water control structures: dams, barrages, and weirs play two major

functions.

 It creates the head necessary to move the turbine, and

 Impounds the storage used to maintain the daily or seasonal flow

release pattern.

o The height of the diversion or the dam establishes the head and the

storage the amount of available water for generation.

 Cont…

Backgrou
o A reservoir consists of the water impoundment behind a dam.

o Storage capacity is the volume of nd

a reservoir available to store
water.

o This storage is divided into active and inactive storage.

 Active storage: that portion of the storage capacity in which

water will normally be stored or withdrawn for beneficial uses
(see Figure below).

 Inactive storage: that portion of the storage capacity from

which water is not normally withdrawn, in accordance with
operating agreements or restrictions.
 Cont…

Backgrou1. Active storage

2. Inactive storage
nd
3 Live storage

4 Dead storage

5 Flood storage

6.Reservoir capacity; gross capacity of reservoir; gross storage; storage capacity

7.Retention water level; top water level; full supply level; normal water level
8.Flood surcharge; surcharge
9.Maximum water level; top of joint use (joint use means that part of the reservoir
capacity including both surcharge & empty part of the active storage, assigned to flood
control or conservation depending on the time of the year)
10.Minimum operating level; top of inactive storage
11.Freeboard
 Cont…

 IntakesBackgrou
o The intake is a structure constructed at nd
the entrance of a power canal

or tunnel or pipe through which the flow is diverted from the source

such as a river or reservoir.

o It is an essential component of hydropower schemes and provided as an

integral part or in isolation from the diversion, weir or dam.

o A water intake must be able to divert the required amount of water

into the power canal or into the penstock without producing a negative

impact on the local environment and with the minimum possible head

loss.
 Cont…

o The intake serves as a transition betweenBackgrou

a stream that can vary from a

nd
trickle to a raging torrent, and a controlled flow of water both in quality

and quantity.

o Its design, based on geological, hydraulic, structural and economic

considerations, requires special care to avoid unnecessary maintenance

and operational problems that cannot be easily remedied and would have

to be tolerated for the life of the project

 Cont…
o The common design requirements for all intake structures are:
Backgrou
 Insignificant or small setup of vortices for relatively small head on
the inlet, nd
 No separation of flow at the inlet structure, and
 Emergency closure
o Intakes are somewhat contrary to outlets, as regards the hydraulic
features.
 Whereas the latter issue a concentrated jet into the atmosphere or
into a tailwater, and energy dissipation is a main concern.
 Intakes behave nearly as a potential flow with the characteristic
decrease of pressure due to velocity increase.
 Depending on whether the head on the intake structure is low or
high, significantly different flows are generated, and the associated
hydraulic problems are correspondingly different.
 Cont…
o For high velocity intakes, pressure may locally become so low as to fall
Backgrou
below the vapour pressure. nd
o Accordingly, the geometry of the intake must be chosen such that

pressure is always above the vapour pressure, and cavitation damage is

no concern.

o Based on the trajectory of an orifice jet, the boundary geometry may be

defined to inhibit such damages.

o Figure below shows a typical intake structure.

 The inlet geometry is bellmouth-shaped and is connected with a

circular-shaped penstock
 Cont…

Backgrou
nd

Withdrawal (intake) structure of power plant with (1) intake trashrack,

(2) intake transition, (3) trashrack cleaner. (4) penstock, (5) slide gate,
(6) wheel gate, (7) penstock to power plant, (8) gate shaft
 Cont…
o The tunnel is lined with reinforced concrete.

o Downstream from the intake is the gate shaft, with a slide and a roll

gate;

o Both gates are operated from the top of the gate shaft.

o The transition from the circular penstock to the rectangular gate

location is steel-lined.

o The trash rack is connected with the cleaning machine that can be

operated also from the gate shaft.

o Note that also the complicated transition geometry of the intake.

 Cont…
o Inlet structures for bottom outlets have to be safe under all hydraulic
conditions. Backgrou
o These include:
nd
(1) Cavitation,
(2) Vibration and
(3) Flow stability.

o In addition, the design of inlet structures should be simple and economic,

and the capacity should be large.

o Because the head on an inlet structure at the bottom of a dam may be

well in excess of 100m, the resulting velocities can be up to 50 m/s or
even more.

o These may give rise to low boundary pressure and are a potential danger
of cavitation damage.
 Cont…
o The inlet portion of an intake structure has to satisfy various conditions,
Backgrou
such as: nd
 Positive boundary pressures;

 Absence of cavitation zones;

 Continuous decrease of pressure line;

 Minor head losses, and thus a good hydraulic performance;

 Control of vibration; and

 Economic design.
 Cont…
Gate slots
Backgrou
o The performance of slide and wheel gates
nddepends highly on the gate
slots in which they are supported.

o Among various slot geometries, the configuration with abrupt

upstream and downstream corners was retained provided the
downstream corner was recessed to obtain a gradual convergence
towards the tailwater wall .

o A final design was presented by the United States, Army Corps of

Engineers .

o It involves a rounded slot geometry 58% deep of the gate length,

 Cont…

Backgrou
nd
 Cont…
o Attention is paid to the transition curve from the upstream dam face
Backgrou
to the intake penstock. nd
o The height of the intake is a, and b is the width.

o According to USACE, ellipses or compound ellipses may be used to

approximate the inlet geometry.

o Figure below shows a definition plot and defines the origin of the

coordinate system (x, y).

o According to USACE, the boundary pressure along the transition may

be negative if a single elliptical curve is adopted.

 Cont…

o Recent experiments substantiated this finding and

Backgrou
nd transition curve is
currently, the compound elliptical
recommended.

o With the dimensionless coordinates X = x/a, or X =

x/b depending on whether the vertical or horizontal
transition curve is considered, and Y =Y / a or Y =y/b,
respectively, the transition geometry can be defined
for a four sided intake configuration as
 Cont…

Backgrou
nd

Intake geometry of a high head intake: (a) Longitudinal Section, (b)

Cross Section, with (1) upstream pier face, (2) trash rack, (3) transition
curve, (4) gate with gate slot, (5) penstock.
 Cont…

Backgrou
nd
 Cont…

Backgrou
nd

Sluice entrance curves

 Cont…
 Functions of Intakes
o The main functions of intakes are: Backgrou
nd
i) To control flow of water into the conveyance system. The control
is achieved by a gate or a valve.
ii) To provide smooth, easy and vortex or turbulence free entry of
water in the conveyance system to minimize head loss. This can
be achieved through providing bell-mouth shaped entrance.
iii) To prevent entry of coarse river born trash matter such as
boulders, logs, tree branches etc. Provisions of trash racks at
the entrance achieve this function.
iv) To exclude heavy sediment load of the river from interring the
conveyance system. Special devices such as silt traps and silt
excluders are used to control & trap the silt.
 Cont…
o In high-head structures the intake can be either an integral part of a
Backgrou
dam or separate; for example, in the formnd
of a tower with entry ports at

various levels which may aid flow regulation when there is a wide range of

fluctuations of reservoir water level.

o Such a provision of multilevel entry also permits the withdrawal of water

of a desired quality.
 Cont…

Backgrou
Classification of Intakes
nd
o Intakes are conveniently classified into the following types depending

on the power plant type and its layout.

i) Run - of - river intakes

ii) Canal intakes

iii) Dam intakes

iv) Tower intakes

v) Shaft intakes

vi) Intakes of special type

 Cont…
 Run - of - river intakes
Backgrou
o The component parts are: nd
 Bell mouth entrance guarded by R.C or steel grid forming the trash

rack structure;

 Control gate situated immediately downstream of the bell mouth

entry;

 Upstream of the gate may be provided with stop-log groves for

provision of access for the gate for repair.

 Special de-silting arrangement may be provided in rivers with high

silt loads.
 Cont…

Backgrou
nd
 Cont…
 Canal Intakes
Backgrou
o Like run-of-river intakes, these are ndlow head intakes.
also In this
case, however, instead of leading water directly to the turbines, the
intake admits water into the diversion canals.

o The following are its major appurtenances:

 The inlet invert level of the intake is raised to form a sill so as

to prevent entry of rolling bed load into the canal;

 A skimmer wall (a diaphragm which extends below the water

surface) abstracts the floating material from interring into the
canal;
 Cont…

Backgrou
 The coarse rack (trash rack) to trap trash, equipped with either
manual or automatic power-driven racknd
cleaning devices;

 The settling basin (sand trap) followed by a secondary sill (entrance

sill) diverting the bottom (sediment-laden) layers towards the de-
silting canal;

 The flushing (de-silting) sluice to flush the deposited silt;

 The scouring (tunnel) sluices in the diversion weir to flush the bed
load upstream of the inlet sill;

 Vertical lift gate with motorized operation to control the flow into
the canal.
 Cont…

Backgrou
nd
 Cont…

Location and alignment of an intake

Backgrou
nd
o The river reach upstream of the intake should be well established with

stable banks.

o As the bottom layers of the flow around a bend are swept towards its

inside (convex) bank, it is obvious that the best location for an intake (to

avoid bed load entry) is the outer (concave) bank, with the intake located

towards the downstream end of the bend.

 Cont…

Backgrou
nd
 Cont…

Backgrou
nd
 Cont…

Backgrou
nd

o The secondary current near the bed, transports sediment away from the region
and draws in water from the top layers where the sediment concentration is
relatively low. Since the sediment concentration is highest at the bed the water
diversion structure should be located where the flow near the bed is away from
the intake.
o Such conditions occur at river bends where the spiral (helicoidal) current carries
sediment towards the inner bank away from the outer bank.
o A natural scour hole forms at the outer bank with its deepest point approximately
twice the river width downstream of the intersection of the upstream axis with
the bank,
 Cont…

o An off-take at 90° to the main flow is the Backgrou

least desirable one.
nd
o The structure should be aligned to produce a suitable curvature of flow

into the intake, and a diversion angle of around 30°– 45° is usually

recommended to produce this effect;

o In addition, an artificial bend, a groyne island or guide vanes may be

designed to cause the required curvature of flow

 Cont…

Backgrou
nd

Intake layouts with induced curvature to flow (an artificial bend)

 Cont…

Backgrou
nd

Use of artificial groyne (e.g. island) to induce desired curvature to flow at intakes
 Cont…

Backgrou
nd

Guide vanes layouts upstream of intake for sediment exclusion

 Cont…
Dam intakes
Backgrou
o For valley dam plants, the intake nd is provided
structure usually in the

body of the dam;

o The penstocks are embodied in the dam;

o The main features of such an intake are:

 A trash rack structure in front of the dam,

 A bell mouth inlet horizontal or inclined alignment,

 A control gate installed either at or after the bell mouth,

 Cont…
o Cage-shaped intakes resting against the face of the dam and supported
Backgrou
on slab cantilevered from the dam provide larger area of entry than the
nd
penstock intake area, thus reducing entrance losses.
 Cont…
Tekeze Hydropower project dam intake structure
Backgrou
nd
 Cont…
 Tower Intakes
Backgrou
o The tower intakes are normally on hillsides, not far off from the dam,
when it is not convenient to provide thendsimple intake directly on the
upstream face of the dam.
o In multipurpose reservoirs built for irrigation, drinking water
abstraction, flood regulation, etc, the water can be withdrawn through
towers with multiple level ports, permitting selective withdrawal from
the reservoirs vertical strata.
o They are also used when there are large discharges or when there is a
wide fluctuation in water level.
o Tower may be connected with main dam through a bridge when the tower
is near the dam.
o Flow into the pressure conduit is controlled by vertical lift gates.
o The structure should be strong enough to withstand hydrodynamic
pressure, earthquake, wind forces, etc.
 Cont…

Backgrou
nd
 Cont…
 Shaft intakes
Backgrou
o This is a vertical or a near-vertical shaft, driven at the reservoir
nd
site that carries water to the penstock tunnel feeding the power
house.

o It consists of the following parts:

 The entrance structure with trash rack and rounded inlet or

mouth,

 The vertical shaft followed by an elbow and transition

connecting the shaft with the tunnel;

 The intake gate and sometimes a stop-log closure.

 Cont…
 Trash racks and Skimmers
Backgrou
o Debris carried in the incoming water can have adverse impacts on a hydropower
scheme in that: nd
 It can obstruct flow along the conveyance structures, interrupting power
generation or causing the water to overflow and possibly undermine the
structures;

 It can cause rapid deterioration of the penstock or turbine or cause a

catastrophic failure, such as rupture of the penstock through a sudden
blockage of flow through the nozzle (in the case of impulse turbines) or
fracture of the runner blades (in the case of reaction turbines).

o It is therefore essential that the quantity of debris which enters the conveyance
system of a hydropower scheme be minimized.

o This can be achieved with the help of trash racks and skimmers.
 Cont…
 Trash Racks
Backgrou
o A trash rack intercepts the entire flow and removes any large debris, whether it
nd
is floating, suspended, or swept along the bottom.

o Frequently, it is located in the intake structure to prevent debris from entering

the water conveyance system.

o It can also be placed just before the inlet to the penstock to remove smaller
debris as well as other trashes which may have entered the water conveyance
system downstream of the intake.

o A trash rack is made up of one or more panels, each generally fabricated of a

series of evenly spaced parallel metal bars.

o The bars are parallel and evenly spaced because a rake is commonly used to clear
the debris off the rack.

o In this case, it is essential that the teeth of the rake mesh into the parallel bars
without binding so that the rake can be pulled along the bars easily to scrape off
accumulated debris
 Cont…

o Bars on a trash rack before the inletBackgrou

to the penstock should be
spaced no closer than is necessary to remove
nd debris which might be
detrimental to the turbine’s operation.

o Otherwise, head losses may be high and the rack may fill up quickly
with debris.

 With a Pelton turbine, the space between bars usually is not

more than half the nozzle diameter (or a quarter, if spear
valve is used) to prevent the nozzle from choking.

 For Francis turbines, the space between bars should not

exceed the distance between the runner vanes.
 Cont…

 The approach velocity of flow should be Backgrou

kept within such limits that it
nd
will not cause damage to the rack structure.

 A design approach velocity of 0.5 m/s is usually used.

 If a trash rack is located immediately in front of the inlet to a penstock

and the penstock velocities are significantly higher than 0.5 m/s, the

trash rack can be built in a circular area to increase the area of the

trash rack and correspondingly decrease velocity through it.

 Cont…
 Cleaning of the trash racks can be performed either manually (for
Backgrou
small schemes) using manual rake or mechanically (for large schemes)
using automatic cleaning machines.
nd
 The trash rack is usually placed vertical or near vertical (< 25o from
the vertical).

 Placing the trash racks in an inclined position makes the cleaning easy
apart from giving less resistance to flow.

 Clogging of racks is objectionable on account of the operational

trouble and loss of energy production involved, and of the unbalanced
load created on the rack causing partial or total damage thereof.

 Allowing for partial clogging, racks are generally designed to

withstand a head ranging from 1 to 2 m under normal conditions and
from 4 to 5 m under exceptional circumstances.
 Cont…
Skimmer walls
 A skimmer wall is an obstruction placed atBackgrou
the water surface, usually at
an angle to the stream flow which skims floating debris from the passing
water. nd
 If the water level changes markedly as, for example, at the intake of
stream, the skimmer can be a floating piece of timber secured at both
ends.
 If changes in water level are small, a fixed skimmer can be used.
 Because some debris usually pass under the skimmer, a trash rack is still
necessary.
 However, a skimmer reduces the frequency with which the trash rack
has to be cleaned.
 Skimmer walls are made, for the most part, of reinforced concrete with
a service bridge on top.
 They are designed usually for a horizontal pressure of 1000 kg/m2 acting
on the submerged surface.
 Cont…
A skimmer wall
Backgrou
nd
 Cont…
Losses in Intakes
Backgrou
o The intake losses include
nd
 Entrance loss,

 Trash rack loss, and

 Head gate loss.

a)Entrance Losses

o The entrance losses at an intake depend upon:

 The change in direction of the flow (entering the intake),

 The extent of contraction, and

 The type of trash rack provided at the inlet.

o They are expressed in terms of the velocity head as KV2/2g.

 Cont…
o Loss due to change in direction: The entrance loss due to a change in
Backgrou
direction of flow (intake at an angle α withnd
the main stream) is given by;

Where

 V is velocity in the diversion canal

 Vf is velocity of flow in the main river

 C is a constant which depends on the off-take angle of the diversion

canal.
 Cont…
 According to Mosonyi, C is equal to 0.8 for 300 off-take angles and 0.4
for 900 off-take angles. Backgrou
nd

Losses due to change of flow direction

The losses due to sudden contraction of the area at the inlet section:
It is given by;

Where K is a constant, which depends on the shape

of the entry;
K = 0.03 for bell-mouthed entry;
K = 1.3 for sharp cornered entry
 Cont…
Trash Rack Losses
Backgrou
o There are numerous expressions available for predicting head loss across
nd
trash racks.

o One such expression ( Kirschmer’s formula) (with flow parallel to rack

bars), is:

Where,
Kt is trash rack loss coefficient (a function of bar shape),
t is bar thickness,
b is spacing between bars,
Va is approach velocity, and
Ф is angle of inclination of bars with the horizontal.
 Cont…
o If the grill is not perpendicular but makes an angle β with the water
Backgrou
flow (β will have a maximum value of 90º for a grill located in the sidewall
nd
of a canal), there will be an extra head loss, given by the equation.
 Cont…
Gate Losses
Backgrou
o Head loss due to gates (at part gate opening) is given by:
nd

Where,
Q is flow in the canal or conduit,
A is area of gate opening, and
Cd is discharge coefficient which varies between 0.62 and 0.83.

Velocity Through Trash Racks

o Velocity should be sufficiently low to avoid high head loss and should
be sufficiently high to avoid large intake and trash rack cross section.
The following are suggested limiting entrance velocities:
 Cont…
i. Justin and Creager formula
Backgrou
nd
h =head from center line of gate to normal water surface

ii. Mosonyi’s formula: to eliminate eddies and vortices;

o U.S.B.R's criterion: permissible velocity in the range of 0.6 to 1.5 m/s.

The trash rack is designed so that the approach velocity (Va) remains
between 0.60 m/s and 1.50 m/s. The total surface of the screen will be
given by the equation
 Cont…
Air Entrainment and Vortex formation at Intakes
Backgrou
o Air entrainment at gate entrances is due to
nddevelopment of vortices and
also due to partial gate opening that facilitates hydraulic jump
formation.

o Effects of air entrainment are:

 Additional head losses,

 Reduction in discharge, and

 Drop in efficiency of turbines.

o Minimizing vortex formation and avoiding hydraulic jump formation help

in preventing air entrainment.
 Cont…
o A vortex which forms at the inlet to power conduit occasionally can
Backgrou
cause troubles by itself.
nd
 It can induce loss of turbine efficiency,

 Possible cavitations,

 Surging caused by the formation and dissipation of vortices, and

 Flow reduction as air replaces part of the water through the

inlet.

 It can also draw floating debris into the conduit.

o Thus, it is necessary to prevent formation of vortices at intakes and

air entrainment.
 Cont…
o Vortices are formed due to the following factors:
Backgrou
 Hydraulic jump formation; nd
 Velocities at intakes;

 Submergence at intakes.

 Geometry of approaching flow at intakes

o Designing for a low velocity into the conduit and increasing submergence

of the inlet can help prevent the formation of vortices.

 Cont…
o For low submergence, an intake structure can be prone to vortices.
Backgrou
o A vortex is a coherent structure of rotational flow. It is mainly caused
by: nd
 The eccentricity of the approach flow to a hydraulic sink,
 Asymmetric approach flow conditions and
 Obstruction effects among other reasons
o can also set up vortices. Figure below shows major sources of vorticity.

Figure. Vorticity due to (a) offset, (b) velocity gradient, (c) obstruction
 Cont…
o Vortices have four main disadvantages in hydraulic designs:
Backgrou
 Air entrainment, with effects on hydraulic machinery ,
nd
 Swirl entrainment, with increase of head loss and reduction of
efficiency in hydraulic machinery,

 Enhancement of cavitation and vibration with a reduced longevity

of important mechanical parts, and

 Entrainment of floating material such as wood or ice, and

blockage of screens, or damage of coatings,

o Ideally, the transition from free surface to pressurized flow should be

uniform, steady and of single phase,

o Air entrainment is the worst consequence of an intake structure, and an

acceptable hydraulic design has to avoid this condition in particular.
 Cont…
o Flow approaching the intake asymmetrically is more prone to vortex
formation than symmetrical flow. Backgrou
nd of the inlet area be as
o It is therefore important that flows upstream
straight and uniform as possible.
o For the condition of no vortices at intakes, the following empirical
relations may be used:

Where Ys is necessary submergence

depth,
V is velocity of flow into the conduit
D is diameter of the conduit
o Another remedy to vortex formation is provision of a floating raft
or baffle which disrupts the angular momentum of the water near
the surface.
 Cont…
 Inlet Aeration
Backgrou
o Intakes normally have a bulk head gate at the front and a control gate
nd
inside on the downstream side.

o An air vent is always provided just downstream of a control gate.

o The functions are:

 Admission of air to nullify vacuum effect, which could be created
when the penstock is drained after control gate closure.
 Intake gates operate under conditions of balanced pressure on both
sides of the gate.

o Thus the conduit is required to be filled with water through a by-pass

pipe.

o The entrapped air is therefore driven out through the air vent.
 Cont…

Backgrou
nd

Air Vent Arrangement

o Size of the air vent: There are several recommendations:

Where Qa = discharge of air in m3/s

a = area of vent pipe in m2
C = constant (normally with a value of 0.7)
P = pressure difference between the atmosphere and pressure in
the penstock in kg/cm2
 Cont…

o Fourth Congress on Large Dams Guideline (ICOLD)

Backgrou
nd
Area of Air Vent = 10% control gate area

o USBR Design Guide

Capacity of Air Vent = 25% Conduit discharge

Free Surface
Conveyance
 Free Surface Water Conveyances
Headrace/power canals
Backgrou
nd
o The head race is a conveyance for water from the source (reservoir or

river) to the power plant in the form of a canal (open waterway), tunnel

(low-pressure conveyance) or penstock (high-pressure conveyance).

o The open waterway usually terminates in a forebay which is an enlarged

body of water from which the penstocks convey the water to the

turbines in the power house.

 Cont…
Backgrou
nd

Head race (power canal/ low-pressure tunnel)

 Cont…
Power CanalsBackgrou
nd
o Canals are appropriate choice when the general topography of the

terrain is moderate with gentle slopes.

o However, when the ground is very steep and rugged, it becomes

uneconomical to construct canals as it follows longer distances and/or

needs provision of cross-drainage works and deep cuts and fills at a

number of appropriate locations.

o In such cases, it is advisable to go for tunnels or pipes.

o The choice, in fact, has to be made based on economic analysis.

 Cont…
o The tracing of a power canal should closely follow the contour lines of
Backgrou
the terrain. nd

o Based on the topographic conditions, a canal may be constructed through

cuts, over fills, and in cuts-and-fills as shown in Figure below.

o A very important feature of an open canal is its vulnerability to damage

from such sources as landslide and rock falls, and from storm water

runoff crossing its path.

o The cost of protection from these eventualities and their associated

repair costs must be included in an estimation of the canal cost.

 Cont…
Backgrou
nd

Canal Sections

o On rugged mountain slopes it may not be possible to follow the irregular

contour lines: deep valleys have to be bridged by aqueducts (such as elevated
flumes or canal bridges).

o It should also be kept in mind that geological conditions of the terrain

decisively influence locations of the canal.

o In order to establish a reliable bases for the alignment and determining the
cross-sections,
 The geological formation,
 The dip of layers,
 Cont…
 The quality of rock (degree of fissuring,
Backgroupermeability, strength,

tendency of weathering, etc.). nd

 Should be explored very thoroughly over sections in cut and fill.

o The proper solution will be governed by

 The permissible slope of banks and embankments,

 The depth of the cut, and the height of the fill,

 The extent and quality of lining.

 Cont…
Canal LiningBackgrou

o Power canals may be lined or unlined.

nd
o The lined canals are usually lined with impervious material such as
concrete, masonry, or clay. Canal lining might be carried out to:

 Reduce seepage losses

 Reduce canal surface roughness

 Prevent the growth of weeds

 Reduce damage caused by erosion, rodents, and livestock

 Permits the use of rectangular x-section

o Concrete is the most extensively used material in power canal lining.

 Cont…
Canal Lining Backgrou
nd
 Cont…
Design and dimensioning
Backgrou
nd
o Canal design involves determination of the carrying capacity, velocity of
water in the canal, canal slopes & roughness coefficient of the canal surface.

o The flow conveyed by a canal is a function of its cross-sectional profile, its

slope, and its roughness.

o Natural channels are normally very irregular in shape, and their surface
roughness changes with distance and time.

o The application of hydraulic theory to natural channels is more complex than

for artificial channels where the cross-section is regular in shape and the
surface roughness of the construction materials - earth, concrete, steel or
wood – is well known, so that the application of hydraulic theories yields
reasonably accurate results.
 Cont…
o The manning formula is widely used to compute the capacity of conveyances.
Backgrou
nd
o S is the hydraulic gradient, which normally is the bed slope.

o Manning’s Equation shows that for the same cross-sectional area A, and
channel slope S, the channel with a larger hydraulic radius R, delivers a
larger discharge.

o That means that for a given cross-sectional area, the section with the least
wetted perimeter is the most efficient hydraulically.

o Semicircular sections are consequently the most efficient

 Cont…
o A semicircular section however, unless built with prefabricated materials, is
Backgrou
expensive to build and difficult to maintain.
nd
o The most efficient trapezoidal section is the half hexagon; whose side slope
is 1 V: 0.577 H

o Actual dimensions have to include a certain freeboard (vertical distance

between the designed water surface and the top of the channel bank) to
prevent water level fluctuations over spilling the banks.

o Minimum freeboard for lined canals is about 10 cm, and for unlined canals
this should be about one third of the designed water depth with a minimum
of fifteen centimetres.

o One way to prevent overflow of the canal is to provide spillways at

appropriate intervals; any excess water is conveyed, via the spillway, to an
existing streambed or to a gully.
 Cont…
o The following table defines for the most common canal sections the optimum
Backgrou
profile as a function of the water depth y, together with the parameters
nd
identifying the profile.

o Once the canal profile has been selected it is easy to compute its maximum
discharge.
 Cont…
Backgrou
o Apart from the hydraulic computations (e.g. capacities), the flow
nd conduits in general are
velocities in the canal or other water
determined based on economic considerations (investments, head
losses, wear and tear of material, danger of erosion and silting).

o The velocity must be high enough to prevent sedimentation.

o It has to be low enough to prevent bed erosion for unlined and wear by
abrasion for lined-canals.

o Lowering the velocity keeps the head loss over the length of the canal
to a minimum; however, it increases the cost necessary to construct
the canal as the cross-sectional area increases when the velocity
lowers.

o Table below provides permissible velocity ranges.

Backgrou
nd
 Cont…
o In unlined canals flow velocities are limited by the resistance of the bed
Backgrou
material to erosion.
nd
o In lined canals flow velocities are limited by resistance against wear.

o There are various recommendations for non silting and non-scouring

velocity

1. According to Ludin

o If Vmin > 0.3 m/sec, there will be no silting (for silty sediments)

o Vmin > 0.3 to 0.5 m/sec, there will be no silting (for sandy sediments)

2. According to R.C. Kennedy

o Non-scouring and non silting velocity is given by: V = Ch0.64

o Where h is depth of water in meters and C is coefficient varying from

0.54 to 0.7, depending on silt load.
 Cont…
Forebay Backgrou
o A forebay, also called a head pond, is
nd
a basin located at the end of a

power canal just before the entrance to the penstock or pressure shaft.

o It acts as a transition section between the power canal and the penstock.

o It is formed simply by widening the power canal at the end as shown in

Figure below
 Cont…
Backgrou
nd
 Cont…
Backgrou
o Its main function is to store, temporarily, the water rejected by the
ndthe instantaneous increased
plant when the load is reduced and to meet

demand when the load is instantaneously increased.

o It acts as a sort of regulating reservoir.

o Thus, the forebay absorbs the short internal variations of intake of

water into the turbines in accordance with the fluctuating load.

 Cont…
Backgrou
o Following are the parts of a typical forebay;
nd
 The basin (in case of smaller dimensions the entrance bay), in some

installations with a submerged (or skimmer) wall,

 The spillway (sometimes a siphon type), with the waterway, the chute

and stilling basin,

 The bottom outlet which, at the same time, used for sediment

flushing sluice,

 The sill equipped with screens,

 The gate (valve) chamber, and

 Conduit or penstock inlet with air vent

 Cont…
Backgrou
o The forebay can also serve as a final settling basin where any water borne

debris which either passed through thend

intake or was swept into the

power canal can be removed before the water passes into the turbine.

o In this case, the forebay must be large enough to reduce flow velocities

sufficiently for settling to occur and to accommodate the sediment which

accumulates between cleanings.

o It can serve to distribute evenly the water conveyed by the power canal

among the penstocks, where two or more penstocks are provided.

 Cont…

Tunnels Backgrou
nd
o Tunnels are underground conveyance structures constructed by special
tunneling methods without disturbing the natural surface of the ground.

o In many modern high head plants, tunnels form an important engineering

feature.

o Tunneling is always much more expensive than canals and decision should
be carefully analyzed.

o In general for a tunnel to be economical the designer must establish that;

1. The geologic formation through which the tunnel will pass is stable,

2. The tunnel would be much shorter than alternative canal,

3. The construction of a canal would be prohibitively expensive because of

nearly vertical canyon walls, unstable soils, or other natural barriers.
 Cont…
o In the headrace of water conveyance system, tunneling is popular because
Backgrou
of the following reasons:
nd
1. It provides a direct and short route for the water passage thus
resulting in considerable saving in cost

2. Tunneling work can be started simultaneously at many points thus

leading to quicker completion

3. Natural landscape is not disturbed

4. Tunneling work has become easier with development in techniques of

drilling and blasting and new mechanical equipment (Tunnel Boring
Machines)

5. Development of rock mechanics and experimental stress analysis has

given greater confidence to engineers regarding stability of tunnels.
 Cont…
Backgrou
nd
 Cont…
o Tunnels of hydropower projects fall into three categories:
Backgrou
 Free-flow tunnels,
nd
 Service tunnels, and
 Pressure tunnels.

Free-flow tunnels

o Design, lining and stress analysis in connection with the external forces to be
resisted are governed by principles established for conventional highway tunnels,
railway tunnels and mining cuts.

o On the other hand, in contrast to ‘dry tunnels’ the water load in the free-flow tunnel
may influence the design and selection of the type of lining.

Service tunnels

o the principles of design do not differ from those for dry tunnels.

o Dimensions and shaping of their cross section depend naturally on requirements

about measures and placing of pipes.
 Cont…
Service tunnels Backgrou
nd

o Pressure tunnels

 May further be classified according to the head above the soffit of the tunnel as,

 Low-pressure tunnels,

with H less than about 5m;

 Medium-pressure tunnels,

with H approximately 5 to 100 m;

 High-head tunnels,

with H higher than about 100 m.

 Cont…
Backgrou
High head tunnel

nd
 Cont…
o According to another classification tunnels may beBackgrou
 Unlined, or
nd

 Lined either for structural reasons, or for purposes of water sealing.

o Structural linings are called upon to carry rock pressure and to offer protection

against rock splitting from the tunnel roof.

o Full linings, in addition to being capable of resisting external loads, are suitable

 To take internal water pressure,

 To prevent water losses, and

 To protect, if required, the rock against the aggressiveness of the conveyed

water.
 Cont…
Backgrou
o In the case of low-pressure tunnels the tunnel surface may frequently be left

unlined except for visible fissures which may nd

have to be sealed with concrete or

cement mortar.

o A watertight lining is usually required for tunnels operating under medium and high

heads.

o Seepage is more likely to occur as the head increases, water may leak through the

smallest fissures and cracks.

o Moreover, under high-pressure it may penetrate the otherwise watertight rock and

render it permeable.
 Cont…
Backgrou
o If the tunnel is unlined, or if the lining serves only water sealing purposes, i.e.,

carries no load, the permissible internal water nd

pressure is determined by the depth

of overburden and by the quantity of rock.

o Denoting the former by hr (in meters) and substituting the specific weight of the

rock 𝛾r (in tons/m3), the resulting vertical rock pressure is

[kg/cm2]

o And using a safety factor n, the permissible internal water pressure is

 Cont…
o Since the internal water pressure is Backgrou
[kg/cm2] nd
o The permissible head (static plus dynamic), may be written thus:

o Nevertheless, where a steep valley sides constitutes the overburden above the

tunnel, this criterion has to be modified into

o Where L is the shortest distance between the ground surface and the studied point

of the tunnel (or shaft) and β is the average inclination of the valley slope in the

surroundings. For horizontal terrain, L = hr and cos β = 1.

 Cont…

Overburden requirement in a steep valley side

 Cont…
Backgrou
o Another design criterion for establishing the safe overburden is based on the

nd
constraint that the internal water pressure shall nowhere exceed the minor principal

stress in the surrounding rock.

o The requirements for constructing medium-head or high-head unlined tunnels or

shafts are:

 Extremely low permeability of rock materials and of the joints and fissures.

The desirable imperviousness may be limited approximately at 10-8 m/sec.

 High rock stresses to the extent that the internal water pressure cannot cause

opening of the joints and fractures (hydraulic splitting). Hard and stable rock

masses and sufficient overburden are the relevant conditions.

 Foreseeable durability of the rock masses for life time of the project.
 Cont…
Backgrou
o Nevertheless, if, except sufficient impermeability, all the other conditions are

ndmay lead to the acceptance of the

fulfilled, the application of some sealing methods

unlined solution.

o The stability of rock around an unlined pressure tunnel/shaft is obviously affected

by any transient pressure phenomenon, and, therefore, it is advisable to estimate

the ‘radius of effect’ of possible water hammer shocks.

o Practicable values for safety factor n are from 4 to 6.

o The lower limit should be used for greater depth of overburden and for sound rock,

whereas in case of a shallow cover and poor rock the use of upper limit is expedient.
 Cont…
Backgrou
o Consequently, with the unit weight of rock varying from 2.4 to 3.2 tons/m3, the

nd above the soffit, yields

permissible head, in meters, related to the overburden

H = (0.4 to 0.8) hr

o If dynamic overpressure owing to water hammer can develop in the tunnel, this has

to be superimposed on the piezometric static head in any calculation.

o This situation occurs when either no surge tank is inserted into the power flow

conveyance system (possibly in case of very short tunnels), or the surge tank permits

noticeable transmission of transient surges.

o On the basis of a more accurate rock mechanics and engineering geology

investigation the n safety factor can considerably be reduced.

 Cont…
Backgrou
 In deep tunnels, where under the thick rock cover stress conditions approach

hydrostatic stress distribution, the condition isnd

less severe.

 Theoretically the stability of the rock is not endangered while the internal load

remains below the rock pressure: P ≤ Pv.

 Cont…
o The Water carrying tunnels include head race or power tunnels, tail race tunnels and
Backgrou
diversion tunnels.
nd
o Flows in water tunnels are usually under pressure (pipe flow), but sometimes free-
flow (open channel flow) can be experienced, especially, in tailrace tunnels.

o The design of free-flow tunnels follows the same principles as used in the design of
open canals.

o The shape of a tunnel can be circular, D-shaped and horseshoe shaped.

o Circular tunnels are most stable structurally.

 Cont…
Backgrou
nd

Fig. Section through a typical tunnel development for water conveyance of a

hydropower system
 Cont…
o Tunnels are aligned nearly horizontal when used as head race, access and tailrace
Backgrou
tunnel.
nd
o Shaft and pressurized tunnels are steep with vertical alignment or steeply inclined
to the horizontal.

o It is very crucial to investigate in detail the geology of the strata through which a
tunnel would be passing.

o Sound, homogenous, isotropic, and solid rock formations are the most ideal ones for
tunneling work.

o However, such ideal conditions are rarely present, and rather the rock mass exhibits
various peculiarities.

o There may be folds, faults, joint planes dipping in a particular direction, weak strata
alternating with good strata, etc.
 Cont…
Backgrou
o Lining of tunnel can be done with plain concrete, fiber reinforced concrete, R.C. or

nd is required:
steel in the case of pressure shafts. Lining of tunnels

 For structural reasons to resist external forces particularly when the tunnel is

empty and when the strata is of very low strength.

 When the internal pressure is high

 When reduction in frictional resistance and therefore the head loss is required

for increasing capacity

 For prevention or reduction of seepage losses

 For protection of rock against aggressive water

 Cont…
Backgrou
Tunnel Design Features

nd
o In addition to the aforementioned general discussion, as design features alignment,

geometric shape, longitudinal slope, flow velocity, head loss, rock cover (overburden),

lining requirements and economic x-section are most important.

Alignment

o In aligning water tunnels, the following points should be taken into account:

 Length of the tunnel: as much as possible short route should be followed

 Location of surge tanks & adits: the alignment should provide convenient points
for surge tanks & adits.

 Rock cover (overburden): sufficient rock cover should be available along the
alignment
 Cont…
 Discontinuities: The alignment should, if possible, avoid crossing of weak zones,
Backgrou
joint planes, etc. If crossing of these features is unavoidable, suitable
nd
direction of crossing should be considered.

 Rock quality: good quality of rock mass should be sought in aligning the tunnel

Fig. Typical layout of tunnel alignment & other structures

 Cont…
Backgrou
Geometrical Shape

nd
o The choice of the cross-sectional profile of a tunnel depends on:

 Hydraulic considerations: Circular is preferable

 Stability considerations: Circular is preferable

 Convenience for construction: Horseshoe is preferable

 Available tunneling equipment

 Cont…
Backgrou
Longitudinal Slope

o The minimum slope for a pressure tunnel

nd
is limited on the basis of dewatering

requirements.

o And also the longitudinal profile of the tunnel should be such that the roof remains

below the hydraulic pressure line by 1 to 2 m.

o Likewise, the tunneling method and the equipment employed for transportation of

the excavated material (rail or wheel transport) can limit the maximum slope

possible to provide.

o The usual practice is to keep the slope of power tunnel gentle till the surge tank and

then steeper (even vertical) for the pressure shaft.

 Cont…
Backgrou
Flow Velocity

nd
o The allowable velocities in tunnels depend upon whether it is lined or unlined.

o In unlined tunnels, a velocity of 2 to 2.5 m/s is the upper limit, while in concrete

lined tunnels 4 to 5 m/s is often in use.

o The velocities for the pressure shafts, which are generally steel lined, are usually

higher than that in the power tunnel.

o The normal range of velocities is between 5 to 8 m/s.

 Cont…
Head losses Backgrou
nd
o Head losses in tunnels can be computed using Manning’s, Darcy-Weisbach, or Hazen-

Williams formulas.
 Cont…
Backgrou
Rock Cover (overburden)

nd
o For pressure tunnels, it is obvious that the overburden on the roof of the tunnel

serves to balance the effect of upward force due to internal pressure.

o The required depth of overburden may vary for lined and unlined tunnels.

o In the case of unlined tunnels, the entire internal water pressure is resisted by the

overburden rock pressure.

o Where a steep valley side constitutes the overburden above the tunnel, the rule of

thumb equation, H= (0.4 to 0.8)hr has to be modified and given by:

o Where L is the shortest distance between the ground surface and the studied point

of the tunnel (or shaft) and β is the average inclination of the valley side with the

horizontal (see previous figure).

 Cont…
Backgrou
nd

o Overburden requirement in a steep valley side

o In the case of concrete or steel lined tunnels, the linings are usually designed to
carry part or full load of the internal water pressure, and the above equations, given
for unlined tunnels, are modified accordingly in determining the required overburden
depth.
 Cont…
Backgrou
o The optimum/economic x-section of a tunnel or a shaft is one for which the sum of

ndto head loss is minimum.

tunnel construction cost and the economic loss due

o However, for a quick initial estimate of the diameter of pressure tunnels, the

empirical formula suggested by Fahlbusch can be used:

 Cont…
Canal Surges - Unsteady FlowBackgrou
in Open Channels
nd
o Flow in power canal will take time to respond to a change in turbine flow rate.

o Thus, if the canal is operating at a steady flow rate and the flow to the turbines is

stopped suddenly, a positive surge will move upstream in the canal.

o These surges are hydraulic transients wherein the flow and the pressures change in

the canal on account of the load variations in the hydropower station units.

o The direct result of surges is sudden variation of water level in the channel.

o Sufficient free board should be provided to prevent overtopping of the canal banks.
 Cont…
Backgrou
o A positive surge is defined as one which leaves an increased water depth in its wake

nd is one which leaves a shallower

as the wave front passes, while a negative surge

depth in its wake as the wave front passes.

o In the following simplified analysis of surge front movement, the effect of frictional

resistance is neglected.
 Cont…
Backgrou
Upstream Positive Surge

nd
o An upstream positive surge may be created in channel flow, for example, by the

rapid closure of a gate, resulting in a step reduction in flow rate.

o The effect of this on the upstream side of the gate is the development of a wave

front which travels upstream, as illustrated in Fig. below.

 Cont…
Backgrou
o Referring to Fig. above, the surge front is seen to leave in its wake an increased

depth y2, hence the description ‘positive’. nd

o By superimposing a downstream velocity c on the flow system, the flow regime is

converted to an equivalent steady state, in which the wave front is now stationary.

o Applying the continuity and momentum principles to the control volume between

sections 1 and 2, under the transformed steady state conditions:

(1)
 Cont…
o Hence, Backgrou
nd

And

o Neglecting the flow friction force;

(2)

o Solving equations (1) and (2) for c and V2 (eliminating V2 in eq. (2) & by substituting

from eq. (1):

(3)
 Cont…
Backgrou (4)

nd
o For rectangular channel:

(5)

o NOTE: The continuity and momentum equations are not sufficient on their own to

define the flow regime since there are three unknowns, c, y2, and v2 (or Q2). One of

these must therefore be known to enable computation of the remaining two

parameters.

(3)
 Cont…
Backgrou
Downstream Positive Surge

nd
o A downstream positive surge is caused, for example, by sudden opening of a gate,

which results in an instantaneous increase in discharge and flow depth downstream

of the gate, as illustrated in Fig. below.

o Applying the same analytical approach as that used for the analysis of the upstream

positive surge, the flow regime is transformed to an equivalent steady state by

superimposing a backward velocity of magnitude c on the system

 Cont…
Backgrou
o Thus, referring to the above Fig., the continuity and momentum principles can be

nd
applied to the control volume defined by sections 1 and 2.

(6)

o Hence, (7)

o Neglecting the boundary friction force:

(8)
 Cont…
o Solving equations (6) and (8) for c and v1:

(9)

(10)

o For a rectangular section:

(11)

(12)
 Cont…
Summery

o During the control of discharge by a gate, one encounters (Figure below):

1. By suddenly opening the gate, an increase in discharge; a negative wave from

downstream forms itself in the upstream channel.

2. By suddenly closing the gate, a decrease in discharge; a positive wave from

downstream forms itself in the upstream channel and a negative wave from
upstream forms itself in the downstream channel.
 Cont…
Examples

1. A rectangular channel 4 m wide conveys a discharge of 25 m3/s at a depth of 3 m.

The downstream discharge is suddenly reduced to 12 m3/s by partial closure of a

gate. Determine the initial depth and celerity of the positive surge wave.

Solution

o Given: y1 = 3.0 m, b = 4.0 m, Q1 = 25 m3/s, Q2 = 12 m3/s

o Required: y2 and C
 Cont…

o For rectangular channel, the expression for c is given by

o By trial and error y2 = 3.75 m and c = 4.35 m/s

o Therefore, the change in depth due to the surge, ∆y = 3.75 – 3.0 = 0.75 m
 Cont…
2. A rectangular tailrace channel, 15 m wide, bed slope 0.0002 and Manning roughness

coefficient 0.017 conveys a steady discharge of 45 m3/s from a hydropower station. A

power increase results in a sudden increase in flow to the turbines to 100 m3/s.

Determine the depth and celerity of the resulting surge wave in the channel.

Solution

o Given: b = 15 m, slope, s = 0.0002, n = 0.017, Q2 = 45 m3/s, Q1 = 100 m3/s

o Required: y1 and C

o Using Manning’s equation, the depth of uniform flow under initial conditions at a

discharge of 45 m3/s will be, y2 = 2.42 m

o Then, from continuity equation for downstream positive surge,

Cont…
 Cont…
o Now substituting this and other values in the equation above (equation of c), with Q1

= 100 m3/s, we get,

o Another expression for c is given by

o Substituting for c in the above equation, we have

 Cont…
o By trial and error y1 = 2.95 m, and c = 6.92 m/s

o Therefore, the increase in depth in the tailrace channel due to the surge, ∆y, is

∆y = 2.95 – 2.42 = 0.53 m.

 Cont…

Exercises

1. A level, frictionless rectangular channel 3.0 m wide conveys a flow of 18 m3/s at a

depth of 2.0 m. If the flow rate is suddenly reduced to 12 m3/s by partial gate

closure, estimate the height and speed of the resulting surge wave.

2. A rectangular channel 10 m wide, bed slope 0.0001, Manning’s roughness coefficient

0.015, receives inflow from a reservoir with a gated inlet. When a steady discharge

of 30 m³/s is being conveyed the gate is suddenly opened to release a discharge of

70 m³/s. Calculate the initial celerity and depth of the surge wave.
Settling Basins
 Cont…

Settling Basins

o The water drawn from a river for power generation may carry suspended sediment

particles.

o This silt load may be composed of hard abrasive materials such as quartz and will

cause damage or wear to the hydro-mechanical elements like turbine runners, valves,

gates and penstocks.

o To remove this material a structure called settling basin should be constructed,

where the velocity of the flow will be reduced resulting in settling out of the

material, which has to be periodically or continuously flushed out.

 Cont…
o In order to satisfy the requirement for a good hydraulic performance the basin is

divided into three main zones:

 Inlet zone

 Settling zone, and

 Outlet zone.

Inlet Zone

o The main function of the inlet is to gradually decrease the turbulence and avoid all

secondary currents in the basin.

o This is achieved by decreasing the flow velocity through gradually increasing the

flow cross-section, i.e., by providing gradual expansion of the width and depth.
 Cont…
o To achieve optimum hydraulic efficiency and effective use of the settling zone, the

inlet needs to distribute the flow uniformly over the cross-section of the basin.

o To achieve uniform flow distribution, the following techniques, in addition to the

provision of gradual expansion, may be adopted at the inlet zone:

 Use of submerged weir

 Use of baffles: Lengthen the flow path and distribute the flow more widely

 Use of slotted walls

Cont…
 Cont…

Settling basin
 Cont…
Settling Zone

o This is the main part of the basin where settling of the suspended sediment is

supposed to take place.

o The dimensions of this zone can be determined through calculations.

Outlet Zone

o This is a kind of transition provided following the settling zone to facilitate getting

back the flow into the conveyance system with the design velocity by gradually

narrowing the width and depth.

o The outlet transition may be more abrupt than the inlet transition.
 Cont…
o The hydraulic design of settling basins is broadly outlined in the following:

1. Exploration of sediment conditions, involving the quantitative and qualitative

analysis of sediment carried by the river.

o As regards to wear of the hydraulic machinery, suspended sediment is of significance,

since the bulk of the bed-load moving along the bottom can be effectively prevented

from entering the canal by a well-designed intake.

2. On the basis of theory and practical experience, the necessary degree of removal,

governed by the operating requirements, should be determined.

 Cont…
o At medium-head plants the removal of particles larger than 0.2 to 0.5 mm is usually

specified. Sharp-edged quartzite sediment with a particle size as small as 0.25 mm may

seriously damage the turbines.

o As indicated by experience gained from high-head plants, particle sizes of 0.1 to 0.2

mm and even smaller might be objectionable.

o Undue wear of the mechanical equipment at plants operating under very high heads, of

several 100 meters, may sometimes be prevented only by removing particles of a size as

small as 0.01 to 0.05 mm from the water.

 Cont…
o The lower limit should be considered critical if the fine sediment fractions include

sharp-edged quartzite grains.

o Instead of using the limit particle size, the degree of removal is frequently defined by

the removal ratio, which is the ratio of concentrations after and before settling,

expressed in percentages.

o If the concentration of the raw water is C, and that of clarified water is specified as

the permissible value Cp, the required removal ratio is obtained as:
 Cont…
o By specifying or assuming the limit particle size, the removal ratio may easily be

calculated or read off directly from the gradation curve, if the gradation of the

suspended sediment is known.

o The relation between limit particle size, dl, and removal ratio is shown on the sieve

(gradation) curve of the suspended load (see Figure below)

o Since R/100 = Cp/C =p/100, when dl is fixed and sieve curve is given, the concentration

of the power flow must not surmount Cp = pC/100 [kg/m3] and the portion to be settled

out amounts to C – Cp = (100 – p)C/100 [kg/m3]

Cont…
 Cont…
3. Having determined the basic data as suggested above, one can proceed to establish

settling velocity of the smallest fraction, i.e., of the limit particle size to be removed and

then to design.

o The settling velocity can be established theoretically (Stoke's law) or by experiments

(Sudry graph – see Figure below)

o The so-called horizontal-flow settling system is usually applied at power developments.

o For this system the dimensions of the settling basin may in principle be determined by

two computation methods depending on whether to neglect or to take into account the

turbulence effect.
 Cont…

Figure Settling velocity in stagnant water plotted against the density of silt loaded water

and the particle diameter (After L.Sudry)

 Cont…
1. Design neglecting the effect of turbulence (simple settling theory)

o Here, the effect of turbulent flow upon settling velocity is neglected in simple settling

theory.

o Three basic relations may be written for the determination of the required basin

dimensions.

o Denoting the depth of the basin by D and its width by W, the discharge passing through

the basin is:

o Where V is the flow-through velocity

 Cont…
o The second equation expressing the relation between the settling velocity, ω, the depth

of the basin D, and the settling time t is:

o Finally, the length of the basin will be governed by the consideration that water

particles entering the basin and sediment particles conveyed by them with equal

horizontal velocity should only reach the end of the basin after a period longer than the

settling time.

o Thus, even the smallest settling particle may reach the bottom of the basin within the

settling zone.
 Cont…
o In other words, the retention period should not be shorter than the settling time.

o The required length of the basin is thus:

o Eliminating t from the last two equations, two relations will be established between the

six parameters governing the hydraulic design:

o Obviously a solution of the problem is not possible unless four of the six quantities are

known.
 Cont…
o The discharge Q can usually be considered given.

o The settling velocity ω is defined by the initially specified degree of removal and, as

mentioned previously, can be established by calculation or experimentally.

o The highest permissible flow-through velocity, V, should also be specified, considering

that particles once settled should not be picked up again.

o The actual flow velocity should not exceed this limit, whereas excessive dimensions

computed by substantially lower velocities would again result in uneconomical design.

 Cont…
o Velocities higher than the permissible tend to scour the material settling to the bottom,

which may even become suspended again.

o This limit velocity may in fact be considered equal to the theoretical suspending

velocity, or the critical velocity encountered in theory of sediment transport.

o According to Camp, the critical flow-through velocity is estimated from:

o Where, d is the equivalent diameter of the smallest sediment particle to be settled in

mm and a is a constant given as:

 Cont…
a = 0.36, for d > 1mm

a = 0.44, for 0.1 mm < d < 1 mm

a = 0.51, for d < 0.1 mm

o Thus, according to the foregoing considerations, the fourth value that can be assumed

in advance is one of the main dimensions of the basin.

o In view of the fact that long and/or wide basins can in general be constructed at lower

costs than deep ones, the minimum practical depth should be adopted for the design.

o The depth of horizontal-flow settling basins employed in water power projects is

generally between 1.5 and 4.0 m with velocities not higher than 0.4 to 0.6 m/s.
 Cont…
o Hence, the remaining two main dimensions of the basin, i.e. W and L can hereafter be

computed from equation given by

o The width is calculated by the first and the length by the second equation (above

equation).

o It should be noted that elimination of V from eq. (Q = WDV) and eq. (L =V* t) yields

Q* t = DWL = Volume

Water conveyed to tank = Volume of Tank

o Expressing the condition that the water mass conveyed during settling time should equal

the capacity of the settling basin.

 Cont…
o Settling velocities in stagnant water (water that sits in place for hours or even days or

weeks) are given by L. Surdy’s chart .

o The chart provides information as to the settling of coarse quartzite particles, but

cannot be used for determining the settling characteristics of fine fractions (fine sand

and smaller particles).

o For fine sediments it is advisable to determine these characteristics by settling tests.

 Cont…
2. Design considering the effect of turbulence

o Owing to the retarding effect of turbulent flow on subsiding particles, settling is slower

in flowing water.

o A more accurate investigation of the basin is, therefore, impossible, unless the

retarding effect of turbulence is taken into consideration.

o By using a lower settling velocity ω – ω’, equation ( ) will obviously yield, under

otherwise unchanged conditions, greater values for the length of the basin.

o The reduction in the settling velocity ω’ is related to the flow-through velocity by:
 Cont…
o The coefficient α may be computed from:

o Hence, the settling length can be modified as:

o This shows a larger settling basin is required, when compared with simple settling

theory.

o In the computation if the result provides negative value in the denominator, it indicates

that no settling takes place in the basin under the assumed conditions.

o Hence the computation should be repeated using modified dimensions.

 Cont…
o As can be seen from the foregoing, the correct determination of the settling velocity

constitutes one of the most important problems to be solved in designing settling basins.

o The experimental approach to this problem with the given type of sediment is deemed

most expedient.

o Computational methods may, however, be resorted to in preliminary design stage or if,

for one reason or another, no experiments are possible.

o Yet in this case all conditions that may materially influence the settling velocity should

be carefully investigated.

o The most important factors are the quality of sediment (specific weight and shape of

particles), density of water and water temperature.

 Cont…
o Theoretically, the following equation can be used to estimate the settling velocity:

o Where,

 d and 𝛾 s, respectively, are the diameter and specific weight of the sediment
particle,

 𝛾w is specific weight of water,

 Cd is the coefficient of drag and is a function of particle Reynolds number R =

 ν is the kinematic viscosity of the water.

 Cont…

 Drag coefficient of spheres as a function of particles Reynolds number (note ω = v)

 Cont…
o The drag coefficient in the Stokes range (R < 0.1) is given by Cd = 24/R, and previous

equation can be modified for Stokes range as:

o According to investigations made by Velikanov, the necessary settling length for

turbulent flow is computed from the settling velocity in stagnant water ω and from the

flow-through velocity.

o The settling length is given by

o Where λ depends on the removal ratio defined previously.

 Cont…
o Values of λ is defined by the function,

o The values of λ are given by Velikanov in tabular form.

o w denotes the ratio of settled sediment to the total load entering with the flow and can

be computed from the aforementioned removal ratio as follows:

o Results obtained by the method of Velikanov will be satisfactory if due consideration is

given, in applications, to both basic assumptions and approximations made during the

development of the formulae.

 Cont…
o The following considerations should be remembered in applying the Velikanov formulae.

 The settling velocity pertaining to the limit particle size of the fraction to be

settled out should be determined as for other methods, without, however,

assuming 100% removal;

 As indicated by experience, satisfactory values can be obtained by using

coefficients pertaining to a 95 to 98% removal of the limit particle size

o The curve characterizing Velikanov’s function is shown in Figure below

 Cont…

Figure Velikanov’s function for the design of settling basins

 Cont…
Removal of Sediments from Settling Basins

o There are different techniques for removing sediment deposits in settling basins:

 Manual or mechanical removal of deposited sediments after the basin is de-

watered.

 Flushing of deposited sediments through an outlet provided at the bottom, often

called flushing sluice.

o When the water flow through the basin is halted, it will cause interruption in power

generation.

o However, this is not an acceptable solution, and instead a continuous power generation

should be facilitated during cleaning of settling basins.

 Cont…
o Continuous operation can be ensured by one of the following arrangements:

 Providing two or more parallel basins, some of which can be flushed while others

are operating.

 Adopting continuous flushing, by admitting excess water into the basin.

 An inflow exceeding the water demand by about 10 % may be admitted

continuously into the basin and used for flushing the sediment accumulating at

the bottom.

 This type of basin is sometimes referred to as an automatic settling basin.

 Cont…

o The silt particles begin to collect, fall and the lightest ones will fall at the end of the

basin
 Cont…

o After a period of time the collection tank will be full. The lightest particles still fall at

the end of the basin

 Cont…
Example

1. Design a settling basin for a high-head power station by using the simple settling
theory. The basin should serve to remove particles greater than 0.5 mm diameter from
the water conveying mainly sand. Let the design discharge be 5m3/s and assume an
initial value of 3.2 m for the depth of the basin.

Solution

 Determine first the permissible velocity flow velocity. Owing to economical

considerations this should equal the critical velocity for which,

𝑉 = 44 𝑑 = 44 ∗ 0.5 = 31.2

 In designing the basin, V = 30 cm/sec flow velocity will be used.

 Cont…
 The following step is to determine the settling velocity according to the limit particle
size of 0.5mm to be removed. From the settling velocity – particle size Figure, 𝜔 = 6
cm/sec (for γ = 1.064). The required length of the basin is,

𝑉 30
𝑙=ℎ = 3.20 ∗ = 16𝑚
𝜔 6

 And the width,

𝑄 5
𝑏= = = 5.21𝑚
ℎ𝑉 3.2 ∗ 0.3

 Checking: The settling time is,

ℎ 3.20
𝑡= = = 53.4𝑆𝑒𝑐
𝜔 0.06

 The discharge conveyed during this period is,

𝑉 = 𝑄𝑡 = 5 ∗ 53.4 = 267𝑚
 Cont…
 Should be equal to the capacity of the basin;

𝑉 = ℎ𝑏𝑙 = 3.20 ∗ 5.21 ∗ 16.0 = 267𝑚

o Determine the length of the basin using identical basic values by the method of

Velikanov’s Figure for a removal ratio of 97% (W=0.97).

o The Figure yields λ = 1.50 for W = 0.97. The length of the basin is,

𝜆 𝑉 ( ℎ − 0.2) 1.5 ∗ 0.3 ( 3.2 − 0.2)

𝑙= = = 19𝑚
7.51𝜔 7.51 ∗ 0.06
 Cont…
2. Compute for the conditions of the preceding example (Ex. 1) the settling length
(approximately the basin length) by considering the retarding effect of turbulence.

Solution

 The coefficient governing the reduction of settling velocity is,

0.132 0.132
a= = = 0.0737
ℎ 3.20

 And thus the velocity decrement,

𝜔 = 𝑎𝑉 = 0.0737 ∗ 0.30 = 0.0221𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

 The settling length,

ℎ𝑉 3.20 ∗ 0.30
𝑙= = = 25.30𝑚
𝜔−𝜔 0.060 − 0.0221
 Cont…
 The unchanged width of the basin is,

𝑄 5.0
𝑏= = = 5.21
ℎ𝑉 3.20 ∗ 0.30

 And its capacity,

𝑉 = ℎ𝑏𝑙 = 3.20 ∗ 5.21 ∗ 25.30 = 422𝑚

 Cont…
3. Compute the modified dimensions for a reduced depth of 2.40 m.

Solution

0.132 0.132
𝑎= = = 0.0851
ℎ 2.4

ℎ𝑣 2.40 ∗ 0.30
𝑙= = = 20.90𝑚
𝜔 − 𝑎𝑉 0.06 − 0.0851 ∗ 0.30

 Width of the basin is,

𝑄 5
𝑏= = = 6.95𝑚
ℎ𝑉 2.40 ∗ 0.30

 And the reduced capacity, 𝑉 = 2.40 ∗ 6.95 ∗ 20.9 = 348𝑚

 Cont…
4. A power plant is fed by a river carrying very coarse suspended sediment load. As
indicated by the gradation curve obtained for the sediments, 70% are retained on the 1.0
mm mesh sieve. In order to protect the turbines the entire fraction over 1.0 mm diameter
should be settled out. Therefore, Design the basin for a discharge of 12
m3/s making allowance for the retarding effect of turbulence and assuming a depth of 2.8
m.

Solution

 The basin will be designed for a discharge of 12 m3 /sec with the retarding effect of
turbulent and a depth of 2.80 m will be taken. The critical velocity is,
𝑣 = 44 ∗ 𝑑 = 44 ∗ 1 = 44𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

 The settling velocity in stagnant water is obtained from the Figure (for γ = 1.064) 𝜔 =
10 cm/sec. The settling velocity decrement due to the turbulent,
 Cont…
0.132 0.132
𝜔 = 𝑣= ∗ 0.44 = 0.0346𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
ℎ 2.8

 The actual settling velocity is,

𝜔 − 𝜔 = 0.100 − 0.0346 = 0.0654𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

 And the settling length,

ℎ𝑉 2.80 ∗ 0.44
𝑙= = = 18.85𝑚
𝜔−𝜔 0.0654

 The required width of the basin is,

𝑄 12
𝑏= = = 9.74𝑚
ℎ𝑣 2.80 ∗ 0.44

 A settling basin 20 m long and 10 m wide will have a capacity of,

𝑉 = 10 ∗ 20 ∗ 2.8 = 560𝑚
 Cont…
 Compute the length of the basin also by the equation of Velikanov (W = 0.97), λ = 1.50,

1.50 ∗ 0.44 ∗ ( 2.8 − 0.2)

𝑙= = 12.50𝑚
7.51 ∗ 0.10
 Cont…
Exercise

1. Compute the dimension of periodic type settling basin for a hydropower plant
considering and without considering the turbulence effect using the simple settling
theory with data given below. Take settling velocity of the particle = 6cm/s, design
discharge = 5m3/s, particle diameter to be removed = 0.2mm, depth of the basin =
2.4m.
 Pressurized Pipes
Conveyance (Penstocks)
 Pressurized Pipe Conveyances - Penstocks

o The penstocks are pipes of large diameter, usually of steel or concrete, used for

conveying water from the source (reservoir or forebay) to the power house.

o They are usually high-pressure pipelines designed to withstand stresses developed

because of static and water hammer pressures created by sudden changes in power

demands (i.e. valve closures and openings according to power rejection and demand).

o The provision of such a high-pressure line is very uneconomical if it is too long, in which

case it can be divided into two parts,

 A long low-pressure conveyance (tunnel) followed by short high-pressure pipeline

(penstock) close to the turbine unit, separated by a surge chamber which absorbs

the water hammer pressure rises and converts them into mass oscillations.
 Cont…

Figure Components of a penstock

Cont…
 Cont…
Classification of penstock

o Classification may be based on:

1. The material of fabrication/construction

2. Method of support

3. Rigidity of connection and support

4. Number of penstocks

1. Material of fabrication/construction

o Factors for the choice of material are:

 The head to which the penstock is subjected

 The topography of the terrain, and

 The discharge to be handled.

 Cont…
o Various materials used are steel, R.C., PVC, wood stave pipes, banded steel, etc.

o Steel penstock has become the most common type of installation due to simplicity in

fabrication, strength and assurance that they can perform in a wide variety of

circumstances.

o The penstocks required to withstand high pressures because of very high heads, are

fabricated usually as banded steel pipes.

o Banded steel pipes are thin-walled but strengthened with the help of hoops of high-

strength steel slipped over them.

 Cont…

Wood stave pipes

 Cont…
o Very large diameters of precast or cat-in-place R.C. penstocks are impractical.

o They are usually limited to heads of less than 30 m and working pressures of the order

of 5 to 15 kg/cm2 (500 to 1500 kPa).

o Diameters may vary from 0.3 m to 3.0 m, and in 3 m to 7 m sections.

 Cont…
o The following factors have to be considered when deciding which material to use for a

particular project:

 Required operating pressure,

 Diameter and friction loss,

 Weight and ease of installation,

 Accessibility of site,

 Cost of the penstock,

 Design life,

 Availability,

 Weather conditions.
 Cont…
2. Method of support

o A penstock may be either buried or embedded underground (or inside dams) or exposed

above ground surface & supported on piers.

o Buried penstocks: are supported on the soil in a trench at a depth of 1 to 1.5m and

backfilled.

o For buried penstocks the general topography of the land should be gently sloping and of

loose material.
 Cont…
o Buried Penstocks

Advantages Disadvantages

o Continuity of support given by the soil o Difficulty of inspection

provides better structural stability

o Protection of the pipe against o Difficulty of maintenance

temperature fluctuations with the help of
small overburden
o Conservation of natural landscape o Possibility of sliding on steep slopes

o Protection from slides, storms & o Expensive for large diameter in rocky
sabotage soils
 Cont…
o Exposed penstocks: Exposed to view and supported on piers or saddles.

Advantages Disadvantages

Ease of inspection of faults Direct exposure to weather effect

Economy in rocky terrain & large Development of longitudinal stress due

diameters to support and anchorage, thus requiring
expansion joints

Stability is ensured with proper

anchorage

o When the situation warrants, partly buried system, may be adopted that combines the
advantages of both system.
 Cont…
3. Rigidity of connection & Support

o There are three possible methods of support,

a) Rigid pipe support: Here every support is an anchorage so that any movement is
checked completely. This type is suitable when the temperature condition is
moderate.

b) Semi-rigid pipes: Here each member of the pipe line is fixed at one and leaving the
possibility of movement over the other support.

c) Flexible support (Flexible or loose-coupled pipes): Here expansion joint are

introduced between each adjacent section
 Cont…
4. Number of Penstocks

o The number of penstocks used at any particular installation can be single or multiple.

o The general trend at older power stations was to use as many penstocks between the

forebay/surge tank and the powerhouse as the number of units installed.

o The recent trend is to use a single penstock, unless the size or thickness of the

penstock involves manufacturing difficulties.

o When a single penstock feeds a number of turbines, special sections called manifolds

are used at the lower end of the penstock to direct flow to individual units.

o The design of such sections is a complicated job and has to be analyzed carefully.
 Cont…

Manifolds
 Cont…
o The advantages of using a single penstock over the use of multiple penstocks are:

 The amount of material required to manufacture is less, making it economical.

 The cost of civil engineering components such as penstock supports and anchors is less.

o On the other hand, the use of a single penstock means reduced safety of operation and

complete shutdown will become necessary in case of repair.

o Furthermore, significant losses are usually experienced at the manifolds.

 Cont…
o In general, the use of multiple penstocks is preferably employed for low-head plants

with short penstocks; whereas for high-head plants requiring long penstocks, provision

of a single penstock with manifold at the end usually proves economical.

Design Criteria for Penstocks

o For the purpose of engineering feasibility and preliminary design, there are three major

considerations that need engineering attention:

1. The head loss through the penstock,

2. The safe thickness of the penstock shell (wall), and

3. The economical size of the penstock.

 Cont…
Head Losses

o The head losses consist of

 Trash rack losses,

 Entrance losses,

 Friction losses in the pipe,

 Bend losses, and

 Stop log, gate slot, and transition losses

Thickness of Penstock

o According to ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) wall thickness may be

computed using the following formula
 Cont…
o Where

t = wall thickness, cm

P = pressure, kg/cm2

R = internal radius, cm

S = design stress, kg/cm2

η= joint efficiency factor and 0.15 cm is allowance for corrosion.

o Under normal flow, the penstock is subjected to only internal hydrostatic pressure.

o But when turbine gates at the end of penstock are closed suddenly, there is a sudden
pressure rise, i.e. water hammer pressure.

o In this case the following steps are followed to compute the wall thickness.
 Cont…
1. Calculate the pressure wave velocity, a, as;

o Where

a = pressure wave velocity, m/s

𝜌 =mass density of water, kg/m3

k = bulk modulus of water ≈ 2 x 109 N/m2

D = internal diameter of penstock, m

E = modulus of elasticity of penstock material = 200 x 109 N/m2

t = thickness of the penstock wall, m

 Cont…
2. Calculate velocity, surge head (∆h), and total head (htot)

1. For steel penstock, if it is subjected to corrosion and welding and rolling defects, the
effective thickness is less than the nominal thickness quoted by the manufacturer.
 Cont…
o Therefore, to find the effective thickness (teff),

 Welding Divide t by 1.1

 Flat-rolled Divide by 1,2

 Corrosion Subtract 1mm for 10 years life

Subtract 2mm for 20 years life

5. Calculate factor of safety (F.S.) as follows:

o Where teff = effective wall thickness, m

S = ultimate tensile strength of penstock material, N/m2

D = diameter of penstock, m

5. If safety factor is less than 3.5, reject the penstock option and repeat the
above steps for stronger wall option
 Cont…
Economic Diameter of a Penstock

o For successful operation, the size of the pipe for a given discharge may vary between

wide limits, but usually there is one size that will make for the greater economy in

design.

o The diameter of the penstock is determined from economic consideration and then

checked to see that acceptable velocities are not exceeded.

o The following two methods are used to determine the size/diameter of a penstock

 Empirical equations

 Graphical (economic analysis)

 Cont…
Empirical Relations

o These are over-simplified rule of the thumb relations based on available experience.

1. USBR Formula

V = optimum velocity

The formula generally applies up to middle range of heads.

2. Sarkaria

o Developed an empirical approach for determining steel penstock diameter by using data
from large hydro projects with heads varying from 57 m to 313 m and power capacities
ranging from 154 MW to 730 MW.

o
 Cont…
o He reported that the economical diameter of the penstock is given by the equation

D = Penstock diameter (m)

P =rated hp (metric) of the turbines,

H = Net head at the end of the penstock, m.

3. Donald’s formula
 Cont…
4. Gordon and Penman: for steel penstocks used in small hydropower installations;

5. Fahlbusch reformulated the objective of the economic analysis in terms of the amount

of the invested capital and the capitalized value of the lost energy, and arrived at the

conclusion that the most economical diameter can be computed within an accuracy of

about ±10% from

o Where P is the rated capacity of the plant (kW), H is the rated head (m), and D is the

diameter (m).
 Cont…
Graphical Method

o There are various combinations of V and D which would give the same discharge.

o The frictional loss in the penstock, also depends on diameter and in turn

determine efficiency on the penstock pipe.

o Thus, the larger the diameter for a given discharge, the smaller will be the head losses

and greater will be the net head available to the turbines, resulting in a greater power

development.
 Cont…
 On the other hand, greater size would mean less velocity and greater capital

investment.

 We should choose, therefore, a size which would give the least annual costs.

 If the total annual cost of the penstock corresponding to any given diameter is plotted,

installation cost results.

 On the other hand, if the cost (which is the price of energy lost in friction at the

prevalent rate of sale of energy) due to the horse power lost is plotted in the same

figure, power lost would result.

 Cont…
o The total cost would be the sum of the ordinates of the two curves corresponding to

any diameter.

o Then, the total cost curve is plotted in the same figure.

o The least cost corresponds to the optimum diameter of the penstock.

 Cont…
Penstock Joints

o Penstock pipes are generally supplied in standard lengths, and have to be joined
together on site.

o There are many ways of doing this, and the following factors should be considered when
choosing the best jointing system for a particular scheme.

 Relative costs

 Ease of installation

 Suitability for chosen pipe material

 Degree of joint flexibility

 Cont…
o Methods of pipe jointing fall roughly into four categories:

 Flanged joints

 Spigot and socket joints

 Mechanical joints

 Welded joints

Flanged Joints

o Flanges are fitted to each end of individual pipes during manufacture, and each flange is
then bolted to the next during installation as shown in Figure below

o
 Cont…
o A gasket or other packing material is necessary between each flange of a pair.

o Flange jointed pipes are easy to install, but flanges can add to the cost of the pipe.

o Flanged joints do not allow any flexibility.

o They are generally used to join steel pipes, and occasionally ductile iron pipes.
 Cont…
Spigot and Socket Joints

o Are made by either fitting a collar to, or increasing the diameter during manufacture
of, one end of each pipe such that the internal diameter of the collar or increased
internal diameter of the pipe is the same as the external diameter

o The plain end of each pipe can thus be pushed into the collar or ‘socket’ in the next as
shown in Figure below.
 Cont…
o A good seal is required between each pipe section, and this is achieved by either
providing a rubber seal or special glue called solvent cement, depending up on the
material of which the pipes are made.

o Spigot and socket joints are generally used to join ductile steel, PVC, and concrete
pipes.

Mechanical Joints

o Mechanical joints are rarely used on penstocks because of their cost.

• One important application of it is for joining pipes of different material or where a

slight deflection in the penstock is required that does not warrant installing a bend.
 Cont…
Welded Joints

o Welded joints are used on penstocks made of steel.

o Steel pipes are brought to the site in standard lengths, and then welded together on

site.

o One advantage of welding on site is that changes in the direction of the pipe can be

accommodated without preparation of a special bend section.

o It is relatively cheap method, but has the drawback of needing skilled site personnel.
 Cont…
Expansion Joints

o A penstock, specially exposed ones, will change in length depending on temperature

fluctuations.

o If it is fixed the thermal expansion forces are substantial. It is possible to relieve

these forces by incorporating special joints called expansion joints, which allow the pipe
to expand and contract freely.

o For short penstocks, provision of a single expansion joint may be sufficient, but for long
penstocks with a multiple anchor blocks expansion joints should be placed below each
anchor block.

o Another alternative to take care of thermal expansion is to take in to account the

forces that result from it in designing anchors.
 Cont…
Penstock Supports and Anchors

o Slide blocks, anchors, and thrust blocks all serve the same basic function: to constrain
movement of the penstock.

o Different terms are used with these structures simply to indicate which specific
function they serve (see figure)

Slide Blocks

o A slide block, also called supporting pier, carries the weight of pipe and water, and
restrains the pipe from upward and sideway movements, but allows it to move
longitudinally. In most cases the spacing between slide blocks are assumed equal to the
length of each pipe.
 Cont…
 If the penstock is buried, slide blocks are unnecessary; rather instead the pipe is laid in

a trench on a bed of sand or gravel of consistent quality, with no big stones which could

cut into the pipe or cause stress concentrations on the pipe wall.

Forces that act on slide blocks

 Weight of the pipe and enclosed water: As slide blocks do not resist longitudinal forces,

only the component of the weight perpendicular to the pipe will be considered.

 Friction forces on the blocks: This is due to the longitudinal movement of the pipe over

the blocks caused by thermal expansion and contraction.

 Weight of the block

 Cont…

Figure Forces on slide block

 Cont…
Anchor Blocks

o An anchor block consists of a mass of reinforced concrete keyed to the penstock so

that the penstock cannot move in any way relative to the block.

o It is designed to withstand any load the penstock may exert on it.

o Anchors are often used at bends (horizontal and vertical) and before entrance to the

powerhouse.

o They can also be used along long straight sections of penstock, each one next to

expansion joint.
 Cont…
o Because an anchor is keyed to the penstock pipe and is also frequently located at a bend

in the pipe, more forces act on an anchor than on a slide block.

o The major forces which act on anchor blocks are the following:

 Weight of the pipe and enclosed water

 Hydrostatic force on a bend

 Friction forces on slide blocks located between the anchor and expansion joint

 Thermally induced stresses, when expansion joints are not incorporated

 The weight of the anchor block itself

 Cont…
Details of penstock
 Cont…
Thrust Blocks

o These are a special form of anchor whose sole purpose is to transmit forces primarily

caused by hydrostatic pressures at horizontal bends along a buried penstock to

undisturbed soil which provides the reaction force.

o However, if the bend is vertical, an anchor block is still used if the back filled soil is not

able to resist this force.

Cont…
 Cont…
Penstock Valves

o Valves are usually installed at two places in a penstock.

o One valve is provided at the upstream end of the penstock, i.e., at the forebay or
immediately after the surge tank, and is called penstock inlet valve, while the second is
provided at the downstream end of the conduit, immediately ahead of the turbine, and
is named as turbine inlet valve.

o The upper valve is sometimes replaced by a gate.

o The main purpose of penstock inlet valve is for dewatering of the penstock in case
maintenance of the penstock is required.

o But, it can be omitted for short penstocks where the closure of the power canal or
power tunnel is possible from the intake.
 Cont…
 The main purpose of turbine inlet valve is to close the penstock while the turbine is

inoperative.

 It can also act as an emergency shut-off device.

 This valve cannot be omitted except under special case where the penstock supplies a

single unit having installed the penstock inlet valve.

 The number of turbine inlet valves required at a power station is governed by the

number of turbine units installed, but not by the number of penstocks, as a single

penstock can serve a number of units through a manifold at the end.

 Cont…
o There are various types of valves for use in hydropower installations. The most

frequently applied include:

 Butterfly valves

 Spherical valves

 Needle valves etc

o The type to be applied should be determined individually for each case after considering

the various factors involved.

 Cont…

Butterfly valves Spherical valves

Needle valves
 Cont…
Water Hammer Analysis

o Sudden shutdown of hydroelectric plants or changes in water flow through

hydroelectric turbines may cause problem of rupture of penstocks due to water

hammer.

o Water hammer is a phenomenon of pressure change in closed pipes caused when flowing

water in a pipeline is decelerated by closing or opening a valve or changing the velocity

of water rapidly in some manner.

o The phenomenon is accompanied by a series of positive and negative pressure waves

which travel back and forth in the pipe system until they are damped out by friction.
 Cont…
 There are two approaches to the water hammer problem:

1. The rigid water column theory, and

2. The elastic water column theory.

The Rigid Water Column Theory

 Assumptions used in the theory:

 The water in the pipe is incompressible;

 The pipe walls do not stretch regardless of the pressure inside the pipe;

 The pipeline remains full of water at all times and the minimum pressure inside the

pipe is in excess of the vapor pressure of water;

 Cont…
 The hydraulic losses and velocity head are negligible when compared with the

pressure changes;

 The velocity of water in the direction of the axis of the pipe is uniform over any

cross section of the pipe;

 The pressure is uniform over a transverse cross section of the pipe and is equal to

the pressure at the center line of the pipe;

 The reservoir level remains constant during the gate movement time.

o Consider a pipeline of uniform area A and length L as shown in the figure below
 Cont…

Hydraulic head for gate

closure
Ha
Reservoir
WS

(H0 – Z1) =pressure head at

C
g A(H0 – Z1)

C H0
L
V
g AL sin α

Z1
g AL Control
gate
α

B g A (H0 + Ha)
 Cont…
o If the flow at the control gate is altered, an unbalanced external force will act at the

gate on the mass of the water column.

o The deceleration, or the rate at which the velocity decreases per unit of time is, ,

where V is measured positive in the direction of flow.

o The mass of water decelerated in the entire length of the pipeline is .

 Cont…
o If Ha is the head rise at the gate, the unbalanced force acting on the water column is

o But since L sin α = Z1, the resulting unbalanced force on the column of water is 𝛾𝐴𝐻

o Then, from Newton’s 2nd Law of motion,

o Prior to a closing movement of the control gate, the discharge into the atmosphere is

Or 3

 Where
 Cont…
o Then, at any instant during the gate movement,

o And

o If the ratio B/B0 is designated as 𝜏

o Where: 𝜏 −is a function of time which defines the ratio of the effective gate opening

at any time during the gate closure to the effective gate opening at time zero.
 Cont…
o Equations (3) and (5) are the basic water hammer equations for gate closure as defined

by the rigid water column theory.

o For partial or complete uniform gate closure,

o Where T = the gate movement time

V’ = the difference between the initial steady water velocity and the final
steady velocity of water in the pipe

o Then, from equation (6);

7
 Cont…
o Now equations (2) and (7) are solved simultaneously for (Ha)max, the maximum head rise

at the gate, by setting equal to zero.

o Then,

o Where:

o A simple procedure for determining (H’a)max, the maximum head drop at the gate due to
a uniform gate opening, results in the equation
 Cont…

Example

o Consider the pipeline shown in the figure below

(Ha)ma
Reservoir x
WS
(H’a)max

H0 = 152
m

L = 915 m

D = 3.0 m
 Cont…
o At this installation the initial flow of 43 m3/s is reduced to 14 m3/s by a uniform gate

closure in 12 seconds.

o Find the maximum head rise, (Ha)max and the maximum head drop, (H’a)max.

Solution
 Cont…
o The maximum head rise, (Ha)max , is

o Therefore, the maximum head rise, (Ha)max = Ho*0.23 = 152*0.23 = 34.96 ≈ 35 m

o If the control gate is opened uniformly in 12 seconds to increase the flow by 29 m3/s

(H’a)max will be

o (H’a)max = H0 x (-0.1891) = 152 x (- 0.1891) = - 28.7 ≈ 29 m

o and the minimum head at the gate is = 152 – 29 = 123 m

 Cont…

Exercise
1. Calculate the economic diameter of penstock it design discharge as 25 m3/s, net head
is 265m and overall efficiency 90%.

2. The static pressure of a penstock is 17.60 kg/cm2 and allowable hoop stress is 1020
Kg/cm2 with joint efficiency 85%. Calculate wall thickness it internal radius of a pipe is
60 cm (Assume 20% dynamic head)
 Cont…
NOTE

o For uniform gate operation, this theory gives satisfactory results only when T is
greater than L/1000. For rapid gate movements, the elastic water column theory must
be used.

Limitations

o The theory ignores the elastic effects due to sudden pressure changes. Thus any
change in pressure is assumed to be transmitted instantaneously over the whole pipe
length. In reality, the pressure transmission through the water mass is in the form of a
compression wave, the velocity, Vc, of which is given by,

o Where K = bulk modulus of water and 𝜌 = density of water

 Cont…
o A pressure wave, thus needs a time L/Vc to traverse the whole length of the pipe and is
not instantaneous as presumed.

o The critical time of closure, Tc, of the valve, i.e., the time taken by the pressure wave
for a round trip from the valve to the reservoir and back is

o If actual valve closure time T is greater than Tc, rigid water column theory gives fairly
correct estimation of excess head built up due to valve closure

o Based on this,

o If T > Tc , the valve closure is gradual,

o If T < Tc, the valve closure is rapid.

o For rapid closure, elastic effect has to be considered.

Surge Tanks & Surge
Chambers
 Cont…
Surge Tanks

o Surge tanks may be considered essentially as a forebay close to the machine.

o They are essential part of the conveyance pressure conduit whenever such systems are
long.

o Their primary purpose is the protection of the long pressure tunnel in medium- and
high-head plants against high water hammer pressures caused by sudden rejection or
acceptance of load.

o The surge tank converts these fast (water hammer) pressure oscillations into much
slower – and lower – pressure fluctuations due to mass oscillation in the surge chamber.

o The threefold purposes served by surge tanks may be summarized as

1. Flow stabilization to the turbine,

2. Water hammer relief or pressure regulation, and

3. Storage function.
Cont…
 Cont…
o The surge chamber dividing the pressure tunnel into a short high-pressure penstock
downstream and a long low-pressure tunnel upstream thus functions as a reservoir for
the absorption or delivery of water to meet the requirements of load changes.

o It quickly establishes the equilibrium of the flow conditions, which greatly assists the
speed regulation of the turbine.

o The surge tank protects the low-pressure conduit/tunnel system from high internal
pressures.

o Due to the surge tank, the entire pressure conduit on the upstream side of the surge
tank can be designed as a low pressure system, while the penstocks between the surge
tank and the power house will be designed as conduits which can resist high water
hammer pressures.
Cont…
 Cont…
Surges in surge chambers

o Sudden changes in load conditions of the turbine cause mass oscillations in surge tanks
which are eventually damped out by the hydraulic friction losses of the conveyance.

o The amplitude of these oscillations is inversely proportional to the area of the surge
tank, and if the area provided were very large dead beats would be set in the tank.

o Although these conditions would be favorable to achieving the new equilibrium state
very quickly, the design would be uneconomical.

o On the other hand, if too small an area is provided the oscillations (surge tank) become
unstable; this is unacceptable.

o It is therefore essential to choose a section in which the oscillations become stable

within a short period of time.
 Cont…
o The critical section for stability is given by the equation, known as Thoma criteria;

𝑉𝑜 𝐴 𝐿
𝐴 =
2𝑔𝑃 𝐻

o Where: At and Lt are the tunnel cross-sectional area and length respectively, and the
suffix ‘0’ defines the steady state conditions prior to the load variation.

o A stable tank area is usually chosen with a safety factor of about 1.5.
 Cont…

Hydraulic Design of Simple Surge Tanks

o Consider the simple surge tank installation shown below where the initial flow through
the control gate is cut off rapidly
 Cont…
o It is desired to find the maximum upsurge in the surge tank and the time at which this

upsurge occurs.

o The equations are derived based on the assumptions that hydraulic losses are negligible

in the simple surge tank, the velocity head in the pipe can be neglected, and the rigid

water column theory of water hammer is sufficient.

o This is justified if the pressure rise is small and there is neither appreciable stretching

of the pipe nor compressing of the water.

 Cont…
o Prior to the gate closure, the mass of water which is moving in the tunnel is LtAt𝛾/g.

Upon gate closure, the unbalanced force acting on this water column is

o From Newton’s 2nd Law of motion, the deceleration of the water column in the tunnel is

o From the condition of continuity of flow, following complete gate closure, the flow of
water into the surge tank is the same as that out of the tunnel, that is;

3
 Cont…
o The simultaneous solution of equations (2) and (3) is performed with the following

boundary conditions:

 When t = 0, Z = 0, and

𝒅𝒛 𝑸𝒐

𝒅𝒕 𝑨𝒔

o Then,

o From which

5
 Cont…
o And the time required to reach the maximum upsurge is;

o Where:

 Z = upsurge in surge tank above the static water level, m;

 Q0 = water discharge in the pipe before gate closure, m3/s;

 As = cross-sectional area of surge tank, m2;

 Lt =length of pipe (low-pressure tunnel) from surge tank to the reservoir (open
water surface, m;

 At = cross sectional area of pipe (tunnel), m2;

 t = instantaneous valve closure time, sec;

 T = time required to reach the maximum upsurge in the tank, sec.

 Cont…
o The last two equations can be useful for preliminary analysis and in cases where the

magnitude of hydraulic losses is small in the pipe extending upstream from the surge

tank.

o In actual installations, frictional effects are not negligible.

o Jaeger has recommended the use of the following approximate formula for the

calculation of upsurge in case where friction is taken into account.

o Hence, for sudden 100% load rejection, maximum upsurge will be;

7
 Cont…
o Where:

 Z = Maximum upsurge friction taken into account, m;

 Zmax = Maximum upsurge with negligible friction, m;

o And maximum downsurge,

o For 100% load demand, the maximum downsurge;

9
 Cont…
o Where P0 is given by the following relation

10

o the friction head loss in the steady state condition, m

o The maximum upsurge and down surge should be contained within the surge chamber.

o The range of surge levels (amplitudes) must not be too large to minimize the governing

difficulties.
 Cont…
o The maximum upsurge and downsurge are computed for extreme conditions, i.e.

 The top level of the surge chamber is governed by the maximum upsurge level

when the reservoir level is at its maximum, and

 The bottom level of the chamber is controlled by the maximum downsurge

level when the reservoir is at its lowest drawdown level.

o Instantaneous 100% demand conditions result in too large a maximum downsurge, as the

normal practice is to allow for 0–10% of full load demand quickly but, thereafter, the

unit is brought to full load only gradually.

o Maximum downsurges are normally calculated against 75–100% of full load and, once

again, the bottom level of the chamber is controlled by the reservoir at its lowest

drawdown level condition.

 Cont…
o This condition is invariably more critical than the one governed by the maximum
downsurge after a load rejection.

o Excessive surges may occur if several quick load variations are imposed on the unit
(overlapping surges).

o These may create additional governing difficulties and the top and bottom levels of the
surge chamber may have to be modified to accommodate these excessive surges.

o In order to achieve conservative designs of the surge chamber it is usual to assume

 A lower conduit friction factor than average for calculating the maximum upsurge,
and

 A higher friction factor for the maximum downsurge.

o In all cases due consideration of the effect of ageing of the tunnel must be given.

o Head losses of all types are assumed to be proportional to V2.

 Cont…
Types of Surge Tanks

1. Simple Surge Tanks.

o The simple surge tank is of uniform cross-section and is open to the atmosphere, acting
as a reservoir.

o It is directly connected to the penstock so that water flows in and out with small head
losses when load variations occur.

o It is usually large in size with expensive proportions and sluggish in responding to

damping surges and unstable.

o These are very rarely used in modern practice except in installations where load
changes are either small or very gradual.
 Cont…
2. Throttled Tank

o In the throttled tank (restricted orifice type tank) the restricted entry to the surge

tank creates retardation and acceleration conditions of flow in the tunnel upstream of

it, thus reducing the storage requirement and minimizing the maximum up and

downsurges.

o This improves the stability damping quality of the surge tank oscillations.

o Although this type of surge tank is economical (because of its smaller size) compared

with the simple tank section, the rapid creation of retarding and accelerating heads

complicates the governing mechanism, requiring additional inertia in the turbo-generator

units
 Cont…
3. Surge Tank with Expansion Chambers

o This type of surge tank consists of a narrow riser (main surge shaft); attached to it at

either end are large expansion chambers.

o The narrow riser reacts quickly, creating accelerating or decelerating heads, and at the

same time the expansion chambers minimize the maximum up- and downsurge levels,

thus limiting the range of surge levels (i.e. easier governing).

o In order to reduce the costs of the structure, spilling arrangements may sometimes be

provided either to wastage (if water is not scarce) or back to the penstock.
Cont…
 Cont…
4. Differential surge tank

o This type (also known as Johnson’s differential) tank consists of an internal narrow riser

shaft with an orifice entry to the larger outer shaft at the bottom.

o As the central riser is narrow it responds instantaneously during the upward phase; at

the same time the maximum amplitude is restricted to its top level, any excess water

spilling back into the outer chamber.

o Similarly, during the downward phase water spills into the narrow riser while the riser

itself responds quickly to maintaining the desired level.

o The differential tank with an extended penstock, which acts as a central riser, is shown

in Fig. (e).
Cont…
 Cont…
5. Surge Tanks with Venturi Mounting.

o Considering the velocity energy under the surge tank (V2/2g = E0), Thoma’s critical
section can be written as

o More economical sections may result by providing a venturi contraction under the surge
tank (thus increasing the velocity head), E0.
 Cont…
Example-1

o Given:

 H0 = 152 m,

 As = 29 m2,

 Dt = 3.0 m,

 Lt = 915 m, and

 Q0 = 23.9 m3/s

o Required: Zmax and T

 Cont…
Solution:

3 ∗ 𝜋 9𝜋
𝐴 = = 𝑚
4 4

𝑄 𝐴 𝐿 23.9 29 ∗ 915
𝑍 = = = 16.11𝑚
𝐴 𝐴𝑔 29 9𝜋 ∗ 9.81
4

𝜋 𝐴𝐿 𝜋 29 ∗ 915
𝑇= = = 30.7 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
2 𝐴 𝑔 2 9𝜋 ∗ 9.81
4
 Cont…
Example-2

o In a hydropower project, water is delivered from an impounding reservoir through a low-

pressure tunnel and four high-pressure penstocks to the four turbine units. The

elevation of the reservoir water level is 1500 m a.m.s.l, and the elevation of the

tailwater is 1200 m a.m.s.l. The maximum reservoir storage which can be utilized

continuously for a period of 48 hours is 15 x 106 m3.

 Cont…
o The low-pressure tunnel is constructed as follows:

 Length, Lt = 4 km

 Diameter, Dt = 8 m

 Friction factor, f =0.028

o The high-pressure penstocks (4 in no.) are constructed as follows:

 Length of each penstock, Lp = 500 m

 Diameter of each penstock, Dp = 2.0 m

 Friction factor, f = 0.016

 Turbine efficiency, ηt = 90%

 Generator efficiency, ηg =90%

 Cont…
i. Determine the maximum power output from the installation;

ii. If a simple surge tank 6 m in diameter is provided at the end of the low-pressure
tunnel, estimate

a. The maximum upsurge and downsurge in the surge tank for a sudden rejection of
one unit, and

b. The maximum downsurge for a sudden demand of one unit

 Cont…
Solution

o The discharge available,

∗
𝑄= = 86.8 𝑚 ⁄𝑠
∗ ∗

i. Power Output

o Velocity in tunnel,

𝑄 86.8
𝑉 = = = 1.73 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 𝜋∗8
4

o Therefore, head loss in tunnel,

𝑓𝐿 𝑉2 0.028 ∗ 4000 ∗ 1.73

ℎ = = = 2.13 𝑚
2𝑔𝐷 2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 8
 Cont…
o Discharge per penstock,

86.8
𝑄 = = 21.7 𝑚 /𝑠
4

o Velocity in penstock,

21.7 ∗ 4
𝑉 = = 6.91 𝑚/𝑠
4𝜋

o Head loss in penstock,

𝑓𝐿 𝑉2 0.016 ∗ 500 ∗ 6.91

ℎ = = = 9.73 𝑚
2𝑔𝐷 2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 2

o Gross head at the turbine = RWL-TWL= 1500 – 1200 = 300 m

o Hence, net head, H = Hg-hft-hfp= 300 – 2.13 – 9.73 = 288.14 m

 Cont…
o Power output per turbine,

1 1
𝑃= η 𝛾𝑄 𝐻 = ∗ 0.90 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 21.7 ∗ 288.14 = 55.20 𝑀𝑊
1000 1000

o Total power output,

𝑃 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 ∗ 𝑃 = 4 ∗ 55.20 = 220.80 𝑀𝑊

o The net output of the generator

𝑃 =η ∗𝑃 = 0.90 ∗ 220.80 = 198.72 𝑀𝑊

 Cont…
ii. Surge Tank

o Area of surge tank,

𝜋∗6
𝐴 = = 28.27 𝑚
4

Area of tunnel,

𝜋∗8
𝐴 = = 50.27 𝑚
4

o Length of tunnel, Lt = 4000 m

a. Sudden rejection of one unit

𝑄 𝐴 𝐿 21.7 28.27 ∗ 4000

𝑍 = = = 11.62 𝑚
𝐴 𝐴 𝑔 28.27 50.27 ∗ 9.81
 Cont…
ℎ 2.13
𝑃 = = = 0.183
𝑍 11.62

o Therefore, maximum upsurge, Z, will be,

𝑍 2 1 2 1
= 1 − 𝑃 + 𝑃𝑜 (𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑃 < 0.7) = 1 − ∗ 0.183 + ∗ 0.183 = 0.8817
𝑍 3 9 3 9

o Hence,
𝑍=𝑍 ∗ 0.8817 = 11.62 ∗ 0.8817 = 10.25 𝑚

o Maximum downsurge, Z,

𝑍 −1 −1
𝑚𝑖𝑛. = = = −0.70
𝑍 7 7
1+ 𝑃 1 + ∗ 0.183
3 3

o Hence,
𝑍 =𝑍 ∗ −0.70 = 11.62 ∗ −0.70 = −8.14 𝑚
 Cont…
b. Maximum downsurge for sudden demand of one unit,

𝑍
𝑚𝑖𝑛. = −1 − 0.125𝑃 = −1 − 0.125 ∗ 0.183 = −1.023
𝑍
𝑍 =𝑍 ∗ −1.023 = 11.62 ∗ −1.023 = −11.9 𝑚
 Cont…

Exercise
1. A power station is fed through a 10,000m long concrete lined tunnel of 5.0 m diameter
operating under a gross head of 200 m. The discharge through the tunnel is 30m3/s. A
surge tank of 300 m2 area has been provided at the end of the tunnel (Assume a
friction factor f for the concrete lined tunnel as 0.016). Calculate:

a. The maximum upsurge in the tank,

b. The minimum downsurge in the tank.

2. A hydroelectrically power channel is fed through a concrete lined tunnel of 4.9 m

diameter operating under gross head of 195m. The discharge through the tunnel is
28m3/s. A surge tank of 295 m2 has been provided at the end of the tunnel. Head lost
due to friction under steady state flow condition is 2% of gross head. Assuming
friction factor of the tunnel to be 0.015. Find: Total length of the tunnel, maximum
upsurge in the tank, maximum downsurge in the tank and calculate factor of safety of
the tank and ascertain weather it is adequate.
Power House
 Cont…
Power House
o The power house structure can be divided in two sections,

 A substructure supporting the hydraulic and electrical equipment, and

 A superstructure housing the equipment.

o The substructure is usually a concrete block with all the necessary waterways formed
within it.

o The scroll case and draft tube are usually cast integrally (especially in large low-head
plants) with the substructure with steel linings.

o The superstructure usually houses the generating units and exciters, the switch board
and operating room.
Cont…
Cont…
 Cont…
o Vertical-axis units (whose turbines are placed just below the floor level) generally

require less floor space than those mounted on horizontal axes.

o The cost of the superstructure can be reduced considerably by housing individual

generators only (outdoor power house), although it has the disadvantage that

maintenance works have to be restricted to good weather conditions only.

o Under certain topographic conditions, particularly when the power plant is situated in

narrow canyons with no convenient site for a conventional type of power house, this may

be located underground.
 Cont…
o It is essential to equip a power house with a crane to lift and move equipment for

installation and maintenance purposes.

o Travelling cranes spanning the width of the building and capable of traversing its entire

length is normally used.

o The crane rail elevation depends on the maximum clearance required when the crane is

in operation which, in turn, determines the overall height of the superstructure.

 Cont…

Section through a power station

 Cont…

Tail Race

o The tail race is the waterway into which the water from the turbine units is

discharged (through draft tubes if reaction-type units are used).

o It may be very short and if the power house is close to the stream the

outflow may be discharged directly into it.

o On the other hand, if the power house is situated at a distance from the

stream the tail race may be of considerable length.

o Proper tail race design ensures, especially in low-head plants, that more of

the plant gross head is available for power development.

 Cont…

o The tail race in the vicinity of the draft tube exit (head of tail race) must be

properly lined, as it may otherwise degrade and cause lowering of the tail

water elevation of scouring of the channel bottom.

o Should this be allowed to progress the designed turbine setting level would

alter, thus causing reduced efficiency of the turbine (cavitation in the

turbine runner), and remedial measures (artificial raising of the water level)

would have to be taken.

o The tail race channel may sometimes aggrade, in which case the gross head at

the plant decreases, with a resulting reduction in power output.

 Cont…

o This situation may arise if the main spillway outflow is close to the tail race

without an adequate separating wall.

o Gates, with an appropriate hoisting mechanism, must be provided at the draft

tube outlet (between the piers and tail race) to isolate the draft tube for

maintenance works.

o The tail race of the underground power house is invariably a horizontal tunnel

into which the turbine units discharge the water.

o Such tunnel flow could sometimes take place under pressure

 Cont…

Turbine Governors

o The governor is a mechanism controlling the rotational speed of the turbo-

generator unit;

o constant speed must be maintained in order to obtain the a.c. supply with

constant frequency.

o As the turbine and hence its interconnected generator tend to decrease or

increase speed as the load varies, the maintenance of an almost constant

speed requires regulation of the amount of water allowed to flow through the

turbine by closing or opening the gates (or nozzles) of the turbine

automatically, through the action of a governor.

 Cont…
o A simple governing mechanism for turbines is shown in Fig. below.

o Increase in the rotor speed raises piston A, permitting oil to enter chamber
B, thus closing the gates slightly.

o The operation is reversed if the speed drops.

Cont…
 Cont…

o A rapid closing or opening of the nozzle or guide vanes (gates) is undesirable,

as serious water hammer problems may result in the penstocks.

o Sudden changes may be avoided in the case of a Pelton turbine if a deflector

is activated in front of the jet, thus diverting part of the flow away from the

turbine.

o Similarly, in the case of a reaction-type turbine a relief valve may allow a part

of the discharge to flow directly to the tail race without entering the runner.
 Cont…

Generators

o The generator is an electrical machine coupled to the turbine shaft (either

horizontally or vertically).

o The alternating current (a.c.) synchronous generator is widely used in

hydroelectric power production practice.

o It has two elements, a magnetic field consisting of an assembly of

electromagnets (poles) which rotates (hence rotor), within a stator

(stationary unit) which is a system of conductors (armature windings).

o The relative displacement between the rotor and the stator induces an

alternating electromotive force.

 Cont…

o The a.c. supply in Ethiopia is produced with a standard frequency of 50Hz.

o The turbine is governed to operate at constant speed and the generator is

designed with the appropriate number of poles to produce the designed

frequency at the selected speed.

o The sizes of the generators vary depending on their rating and on their shaft

arrangements (either vertical or horizontal).

o A.c. generators are rated in kilovolt-amperes (kVA). The apparent or nominal

rating (output) differs from the actual output, Pa, the difference Pm being

used to magnetize the rotor field. Thus the rated kVA is given by
 Cont…

o And the power factor is given by

o Horizontal shaft units are generally suitable for low-speed plants and are

heavy, large and costly, whereas vertical shaft units used with high-speed

plants are rather small and less expensive.

o For speeds larger than 1000 rev/min additional stresses will be induced,

warranting special materials and designs

 Cont…

Hydraulic Turbines & Their Selection

o Types of Hydraulic Turbines

 As water passes through a hydropower plant, its energy is converted into

electrical energy by a prime mover known as a hydraulic turbine or water
wheel.

 The turbine has vanes, blades, or buckets that rotate about an axis by
the action of the water.

 The rotating part of the turbine or water wheel is often referred to as

the runner.

 Rotary action of the turbine in turn drives an electrical generator that

produces electrical energy or could drive other rotating machinery.
 Cont…
o Turbines may be classified as impulse- and reaction-type machines.

o Layout for (a) reaction turbine and (b) impulse turbine

 Cont…
o For the reaction type of turbine, (Figure a), the turbine section is assumed to
begin at the entrance to the turbine case (section A-A in the figure) and end
at the exit from the draft tube (section B-B). It may be noted that this
setting for a reaction turbine ensures the following characteristics:

1. The wheel passage remains completely filled with water

2. The water acting on the wheel vanes is under pressure greater than
atmospheric

3. The water enters all round the periphery of the wheel through the scroll
case

4. Energy in the form of both pressure and kinetic is utilized by the wheel

o
 Cont…
o In the Figure, Ht is the head of water on the turbine and is the difference in
water specific energy between beginning and end of the turbine section.

o For the impulse type turbine (Figure b), the following characteristics of the
turbine setting differentiates it from the reaction type of turbines:

1. The wheel passages are not completely filled with water since a jet
emanating from the penstock nozzle strikes the buckets of the runner

2. The water acting on the vanes or buckets located at the wheel periphery
is under atmospheric pressure

3. The water impacts on the runner at one point or at a few discrete points,
depending upon the number of nozzles

4. Energy applied to the wheel is completely kinetic

 Cont…

o In impulse turbine , all of the available potential energy (head) of the water is

converted into kinetic energy with the help of a contracting nozzle (flow rate

controlled by spear-type valve – Fig. (a) below) provided at the delivery end

of the pipeline (penstock).

o After impinging on the curved buckets the water discharges freely (at

atmospheric pressure) into the downstream channel (called the tail race).

o The most commonly used impulse turbine is the Pelton wheel (Fig. (b) below).
 Cont…

Impulse turbine (Pelton wheel)

 Cont…

o The water striking the buckets of the runner is regulated through the use of

bulb-shaped needle in a nozzle,

o The position of the needle determines the quantity of water striking the

runner.

o A deflector arrangement in more sophisticated designs is used to direct the

water away from the turbine buckets when there is a load rejection to reduce

hydraulic torque on the generator.

 Cont…

o The jet of water strikes the runner tangentially to a circular line of the pitch

diameter of the buckets and acts at atmospheric pressure.

o The water striking the buckets of the runner is regulated through the use of

bulb-shaped needle in a nozzle,

o The position of the needle determines the quantity of water striking the

runner.

o A deflector arrangement in more sophisticated designs is used to direct the

water away from the turbine buckets when there is a load rejection to reduce

hydraulic torque on the generator

 Cont…

o Impulse turbines are usually high head units and used at locations where

heads are 300 m or more.

o They are also used at lower heads for small-capacity units.

o The ratio of the wheel diameter to the spouting velocity of the water

determines the applicability of an impulse turbine.

o The impulse or Pelton turbines have advantages for high-head installations,

for installations with abrasive matter in the water, and for long-penstock

installations where water hammer is critical.

 Cont…

o Another design of an impulse turbine is the Turgo Impulse turbine.

o The turbine is designed so that the jet of water strikes the buckets at an

angle to the face of the runner and the water passes over the buckets in an

axial direction before being discharged at the opposite side.

o The buckets are constrained by a rim on the discharge side of the runner.

o The advantage claimed for this type of unit is that a larger jet can be

applied, resulting in a higher speed with a comparatively smaller machine.

 Cont…

Difference between Pelton turbine and Turgo impulse turbine

o Another type of impulse unit is the cross-flow turbine also called the Banki or

Michell turbine.

o The name "cross-flow" comes from the fact that the water crosses through

the runner vanes twice in producing the rotation.

 Cont…

o Figure below shows the components of the turbine.

o Its advantages are that standard unit sizes are available and an even higher

rotational speed is obtained than from other impulse turbines.

o Adjustable inlet valves or gates control flow to separate portions of the

runner so that a cross-flow turbine can operate over a wide range of flows.
 Cont…

o In reaction turbines only a part of the available energy of the water is

converted into kinetic energy at the entrance to the runner, and a substantial

part remains in the form of pressure energy.

o The runner casing (called the scroll case) has to be completely airtight and

filled with water throughout the operation of the turbine.

o The water enters the scroll case and moves into the runner through a series

of guide vanes, called wicket gates.

o The flow rate and its direction can be controlled by these adjustable gates.
 Cont…
o After leaving the runner, the water enters a draft tube which delivers the
flow to the tail race.

o There are two main types of reaction turbine, the Francis and the propeller
(also known as Kaplan or bulb) turbine (Fig.).

o Turbines may also be classified according to the main direction of flow of

water in the runner as:

 Tangential flow turbine (Pelton wheel);

 Radial flow turbine (Francis, Thompson, Girard);

 Mixed-flow turbine (modern Francis type);

 Axial-flow turbine of fixed-blade (propeller) type or movable blade

(Kaplan or bulb) type.
 Cont…

Reaction turbines
 Cont…
o In the operation of reaction turbines, the runner chamber is completely filed
with water and a draft tube is used to recover as much of the hydraulic head
as possible.

o Three conditions of flow determine the designs of reaction wheels.

o If the flow is perpendicular to the axis of rotation, the runner is called a

radial-flow turbine.

o If the water flow is partially radial and partially axial, it is called a mixed
flow turbine.

o The most common mixed-flow turbine is Francis. Francis turbines have a

crown and band enclosing the upper and lower portions of the buckets, while a
propeller-type runner merely has blades projecting from the hub. Figure
shows a cross-sectional view through a Francis turbine installation.
 Cont…

Cross section view of Francis turbine installation

 Cont…

o The direction of flow for most propeller turbines is axial, parallel to the axis

of rotation: thus they are classified as mid-flow turbines.

o Early developments utilized propeller units with vertical shafts.

o More recent developments utilize a horizontal shaft,

o Propeller turbines can have the blades of the runner rigidly attached to the

hub;

 These are called fixed-blade runners.

 The blades of the runners can also be made adjustable so that the
turbine can operate over a wide range of flow conditions at better
efficiencies.
 Cont…

o Figure below shows a cross section through a typical propeller unit.

 A propeller type turbine with coordinated adjustable blades and gates is

called a Kaplan turbine.

o The automatic coordination of the movement of runner blade and adjustment

of the gate position provides optimum hydraulic performance and has made

such units more efficient for variable flow and low-head applications.
 Cont…

Cross-section view of a propeller turbine (vertical Kaplan-type).

 Cont…
 Recent developments utilizing axial-flow runners have included arranging the
runners in specialized configurations sometimes referred to as tubular-type
turbines.

 The units are arranged to minimize the change in direction of flow,

 To simplify the mounting of the generator, and

 To provide the best hydraulic characteristics for the water moving

through the hydropower plant.

 Figure below shows examples of two such installations.

 Cont…

Tubular-type turbines
 Cont…

 Bulb hydropower units include propeller turbines that drive a generator

encapsulated and sealed to operate within the water passage.

 The generator design is such that all mechanisms are compressed into a

diameter that is approximately equal to the propeller diameter.

 The very compact nature tends to provide some advantages in powerhouse

design and in pattern of water flow.

 It does require special cooling and air circulation within the generator bulb.

 Figure below shows a cross section through a typical bulb installation.

 Cont…

Cross-section view of bulb installation

 Cont…

Hydraulics of Hydropower

 In Hydraulic theory of hydropower engineering, the concept of power is

related to the fundamental variables of head and discharge.

 As one approach for developing the necessary theory, Figure 1 illustrates

certain physical and mathematical concepts

 Cont…

Figure 1. Diagram for developing turbine theory

 Cont…

Energy-Work Approach

o Referring to figure 1, if the elemental volume of water, designated dv, moves

from position 1 slightly below the headwater level to position 2 at the surface

of the tail water the exit to the draft tube, the work done is represented by

in the following equation;

Work = force x distance

o Where: dw = work done by elemental mass of water; =density of water; g =

acceleration of gravity; dv = elemental volume and h = vertical distance moved

by elemental volume of water

 Cont…

o h has been purposely designated as slightly below the head water or forebay

level.

o It is conventional in hydropower computations to treat the head as the

effective head that is utilized in producing power.

o Effective head is the difference between energy head at the entrance to the

turbine and the energy head at the exit of draft tube.

o Eq. (1) represents the energy that the water has at position 1 with respect to

position 2.
 Cont…

o Now, consider that if the elemental volume of water moves in some

differential unit of time (dt), then the differential discharge (dq) of water

can be noted as

Discharge = volume per unit time

o The power extracted by the hydropower unit is the rate of doing work and

can be represented mathematically as follows

 Cont…

o Where dp = elemental amount of power or, by substitution from equation (1)

o Or, by substitution from equation (2)

o Which reduces to

5
 Cont…

o Summing the elemental power components of the total discharge passing

through the turbine gives the theoretical power equation for determining the

power capacity of hydropower plants;

o Where P = unit power capacity, Watt (W); ρ = mass density of water (kg/m3);

g = acceleration of gravity, (m/s2) and h = effective head (m)

o The foregoing equations are for theoretical conditions.

o The actual output is diminished by the fact that the turbine has losses in

transforming the potential and kinetic energy into mechanical energy.

 Cont…

o Thus an efficiency term (η), usually called overall efficiency, must be

introduced to give the standard power equation.

7
 Cont…

Bernoulli’s Energy Equation Approach

o A second approach is in terms of energy grade line and hydraulic grade lines,

using the Bernoulli equation.

o The Bernoulli equation is related to the energy grade line, hydraulic grade line,

and the position grade lines as shown in Fig. 2 and by the equation
 Cont…

Figure. Bernoulli diagram relating energy grade line and hydraulic grade line
 Cont…

o Mathematically, the Bernoulli equation states that

 The sum of the component energies (Position energy, pressure energy, and

kinetic energy) is constant in a confined moving fluid as the fluid moves along

its path.

o Thus a change in any one of the component energies at any point along the

path of the moving fluid must be compensated for by an equal change of the

water energy components at that point.

o This mathematical development assumes no friction or head loss in the fluid

moving from point 1 to point 2 as shown in Fig. 2.

 Cont…

o In a practical sense, there is friction loss or head loss, hf, in the case of

water flowing from point 1 to point 2.

o This is accounted for in the graphical representation shown in Fig. 3.

o Referring to Fig.3, the Bernoulli equation for a hydropower installation is first

written between points 1 at the surface of the forebay and point 2 at the

entrance to the turbine as

9
 Cont…

Figure 3 Bernoulli diagram for a hydropower installation

 Cont…

o Then the Bernoulli equation is written between points 2 and 3, the surface of

the water at the exit to the draft tube;

10

o Recognizing that for practical purposes, V1, P1, and P3 are equal to zero, then

solving for P2/ in equation (9), the result is

11
 Cont…
o Next solving for h in equation (10), the result is

12

o Now if the right side of equation (11) is substituted into equation (12) for
P2/ , the result is

13

o Simplifying, we have

14

o Which is the effective head and is so indicated dimensionally in figure 3.

 Cont…

o The weight of water flowing through the turbine system per unit of time by

definition is Q .

o Recognizing energy per unit time is power, if equation (14) is multiplied by Q,

the theoretical power delivered by the water to the turbine is:

15
 Cont…

Specific Speed and Turbine Classification

Similarity Laws

o Similarity laws have been developed for characterizing turbine performance

of units of different size and type.

o They provide a means of predicting performance based on the performance of

models or the performance of units of design similar to those that have

already been built.

o The fact that the similarity laws can be used is often referred to as the

homologous nature of turbines.

 Cont…

o When turbines of different sizes are designed to have corresponding linear

dimensions with a common geometric ratio, the turbines are said to be

homologous.

o The power outputs, speeds, and flow characteristics are proportional and they

tend to have equal efficiencies.

o These similarity laws are developed and presented in a series of formulas that

define what are called the turbine constants.

o The equations are derived from fundamental physical concepts of motion and

hydraulic theory.
 Cont…

Unit Speed

o Consider the speed ratio or peripheral speed coefficient as defined in the

formula

o Where: Ф = ratio of linear velocity of the periphery of the turbine runner to

the spouting velocity of the water; u = linear velocity of the turbine runner

at the reference diameter and = theoretical spouting velocity of the

water operating under a given head.

 Cont…
o Now if the linear speed of the runner is defined in terms of rotating speed
and diameter of the runner, the following results;

o Where d = reference diameter of runner (m) and n = runner speed (rpm).

o By grouping all known constant terms, the equation takes the form

o The left hand side terms are replaced with a single variable, n1, known as the
unit speed. Then
 Cont…
o n1 is the speed in rpm of a theoretical turbine having a unit diameter and
operating under a net head of unity.

Dimensionless Constants

o An international system has been put forth by various manufacturers to make

the turbine constants more convenient and to utilize a consistent system of
measurement units.

o Turbine constants under this system use dimensionless ratio and metric, SI,
units for the various parameters.
 Cont…
o For the unit speed the equation is

o Where: ωed = unit speed; ω = angular velocity of runner, rad/sec; D =

reference diameter of runner, m and H = head, m.

o The advantage claimed for these dimensionless constants is that the units of
measurement are more easily converted and the terms are more rational to
work with in mathematical expressions
 Cont…
Unit Discharge

o The unit discharge equation is developed in a similar manner, as follows

o Where q = design discharge flowing through turbine, m3/s; A = circular area

opening at the exit from the runner through which water passes, m2 and C =
an orifice-type coefficient relating flow to head and area A.

o Writing this in terms of diameter of the runner, the following equation

results;

o By grouping all constants on one side, the equation takes the form
 Cont…
o Then,

o Then q1 is the discharge of a runner with unit diameter operating under a unit
head.

o The corresponding dimensionless unit discharge specified by international

standards is as follows:
 Cont…

o Where Qed = unit discharge and Q = design discharge flowing through turbine,
m3/s

Unit Power

o The unit power is given by the following equation;

ii

o Where P = turbine power output, kW;

o By substituting the value of ⁄

from eq. (i) into eq. (ii), the following
results:
 Cont…
o By grouping the variable q1 and all the constant terms, the equation has the
form

o P1 is the power produced by a runner with a unit diameter operating under a

unit head. The corresponding dimensionless unit power is

o Where Ped = unit power, dimensionless and P = turbine power output, watts;
 Cont…
Specific Speed

o To develop a more universal constant that embodies all the equations, the
value of from (unit speed equation) is substituted into (unit power
equation), we get;

o Grouping the n1 and P1 on one side of the equation, the following results;

o Taking the square root of both sides of the equation gives the term ns, the
specific speed, as follows;
 Cont…

o ns is the speed of a unit producing unit output under a head of unity. In

common usage, specific speed is expressed in the following form;

o Where: Ns = specific speed;

N = rotational speed of turbine, rpm;

P = power output of turbine, kW;

H = effective head, m
 Cont…
o The specific speed, Ns, of a turbine is its most important characteristic, and

is of paramount importance in design.

o It is defined as the speed at which a geometrically similar runner would rotate

if it were so proportioned that it would develop 1 kW when operating under a

head of 1 m.

o In general, for a given head and power, the higher the specific speed, the

higher the speed of the unit and the lower the overall cost of the installation.

o But there are limits on the specific speed of a runner for a given head and

output.
 Cont…
o Too high a specific speed would reduce the dimensions of the runner to values

that would cause excessively high velocities for the water discharge through

the throat of the runner and draft tube.

 It could reduce the runner structural dimensions and the rotating parts of the

generator to such small dimensions that high stresses would make it

uneconomical, if not impracticable, to design.

o Too low a specific speed would unduly increase the size and cost of the

generator.

o Obviously, there are practical limitations to the range in specific speeds for

any head.
 Cont…
o For Francis turbines, the specific speed is indicative of the type and shape of

the runner. A low specific speed runner (high head) has an inlet diameter

greater than the discharge diameter while the reverse is true for a high

specific sped runner (low head).

o For propeller turbines, higher specific speeds for higher heads require an

increase in the number of blades.

o The speed factor (or peripheral speed coefficient), Ф, is the ratio of the

peripheral speed, u, of the buckets or vanes at the nominal diameter, D, to the

theoretical velocity of water under the effective head, H, acting on the

turbine;
 Cont…
o Table below suggests appropriate values of Ф which give the highest
efficiencies for any turbine. Also shown in the table are the head and specific
speed ranges and the efficiencies of the three main types of turbine.

o Table Range of Ф values, specific speeds and heads

Type of runner Ф Ns H (m) Efficiency (%)

8 – 17 85 – 90
Impulse 0.43 – 0.48 17 >250 90
17 - 30 90 – 82
40 – 130 90 – 94
Francis 0.60 – 0.90 130 – 350 25 - 450 94
350 - 452 94 – 93
380 – 600 <60 94
Propeller 1.4 – 2.0
600 - 902 94 – 85
 Cont…
Turbine rating and performance

o Hydraulic turbines are generally rated under maximum, minimum, normal, and
design head.

o The runner is designed for optimum speed and maximum efficiency at design
head, which is usually selected as the head above and below which the average
annual generation of power is approximately equal.

o However, in reality, head and load conditions change during operation and it is
extremely important to know the performance of the unit at all other heads.

o Such information is usually furnished by the manufacturer in the form of

plots of efficiency versus various part-loading conditions (Fig.(a) below).

o The change of efficiency with specific speed is shown in Fig.(b) below.

 Cont…

Fig. Turbine performance curves

 Cont…
o For a given total plant capacity, total costs will generally increase with an

increase in the number of units.

o As efficiencies of large units (turbine and generators) are higher than those

of smaller ones of the same type, if the power demand is reasonably uniform,

it is good practice to install a small number of large units.

o On the other hand as the efficiency of the hydraulic turbine decreases with

the decreasing flow rate (e.g. when running under part-full- load condition) it

is better to use a greater number of smaller machines for widely variable

operating conditions.
 Cont…
o The load variation is then met by putting machines into and out of service, so
that individual sets do not have too wide a variation of load and therefore
always operate as efficiently as possible.

Operating or normal speed, N and runaway speed

o All runners having the same geometrical shape, regardless of size, have the
same specific speed.

o As specific speed is a useful parameter for the selection of a runner for

particular duties, charts or tables (see Table below) can be used for this
purpose.

o If the head and flow rate are known, the speed of the unit N can be
calculated from the power equation and specific speed equation.
 Cont…
o Table Q–H–Ns data: Q (m3/s); H (m); P (kW); D (m); N (rev/min)
 Cont…
o If the turbines are to drive electricity generators their speeds must
correspond to the nearest synchronous speed. For synchronous running, the
speed N is given by

o Where f is the frequency of the a.c. supply in Hz (50–60Hz) and p is the

number of poles of the generator (divisible by 4 for heads up to 200m or by 2
for heads above 200m).

o The recommended (according to Mosonyi) normal speeds for 50 Hz a.c. supply

machines are 3000, 1500, 1000, 750, 600, 500,375, 300, 250, 214, 188, 167,
150, 125, 107, 94, 83, 75 and 60 rev/min.
 Cont…
o If the external load on the machine suddenly drops to zero (sudden rejection)

and the governing mechanism fails at the same time, the turbine will tend to

race up to the maximum possible speed, known as runaway speed.

o This limiting speed under no-load conditions with maximum flow rate must be

considered for the safe design of the various rotating components of the

turbo generator unit.

o The suggested runaway speeds of the various runners for their appropriate

design considerations are given in Table below.

 Cont…
o Table Runaway speeds and acceptable head variations
 Cont…
Cavitation in Turbines and Turbine Setting

o Cavitation results in pitting, vibration and reduction in efficiency and is

certainly undesirable.

o Runners most seriously affected by cavitation are of the reaction type, in

which the pressures at the discharge ends of the blades are negative and can

approach the vapor pressure limits.

o Cavitation may be avoided by suitably designing, installing and operating the

turbine in such a way that the pressures within the unit are above the vapor

pressure of the water.

 Cont…
o Turbine setting or draft head, Ys (Figs (a) and (b) below), is the most critical

factor in the installation of the reaction turbines.

o The recommended limits of safe specific speeds for various heads, based on

experience with existing power plants, are shown in Fig. (c).

 Cont…

Figure a Elbow-type draft tube

Figure b Vertical draft tube

 Cont…

Figure c Recommended limits of safe specific speeds

 Cont…
o The cavitation characteristics of a hydraulic machine is defined as the

cavitation coefficient or plant sigma (s), given by

o Where Ha – Hv = Hb, is the barometric pressure head (at sea level and 200C, Hb

= 10.1 m), and H is effective head on the runner.

o From the above equation the maximum permissible turbine setting Ys, max

(elevation above tail water to the centerline of propeller runners or to the

bottom of Francis runners) can be written as

 Cont…
o This is referred to as Thoma’s formula. sc is the minimum (critical) value of s

at which cavitation occurs (usually determined by experiments). If Ys is

negative the runner must be set below the tail water.

o Typical values of sc for reaction turbines, versus their specific speeds, are

shown in Table below.

o Table Critical plant sigma values, sc

 Cont…
o The above recommended limiting values of s may also be approximated by

For Francis runners

For propeller runners with an increase of sc

by 10% for Kaplan turbines.

o The preliminary calculations of the elevation of the distributor above the tail

water level (Yt, see Fig. above) suggest the following empirical relationships;
 Cont…
For Francis runners

For propeller runners.

o Where D is the nominal diameter of the runner.

 Cont…
Runner diameter, D

o For the approximate calculations of the runner diameter, the following

empirical formula (according to Mosonyi) may be used:

o Where a = 4.4 for Francis- and propeller-type runners and 4.57 for Kaplan-

type turbines (D in m, Q in m3/s, N in rpm).

o The following equation may also be used to fix the propeller-type runner

diameter (H in m).
 Cont…
o The impulse wheels are fed by contracting nozzles and, in the case of the

Pelton wheel turbine, the hydraulic efficiency is at its maximum when the

speed factor Ф is around 0.45 and the smallest diameter of the jet,

o The nominal diameter, D, of the Pelton wheel (also known as mean or pitch

diameter measured to the centerline of the jet) is thus given by

o The jet ratio m, defined as D/dj, is an important parameter in the design of

Pelton wheels, and for maximum efficiency a jet ratio of about 12 is adopted

in practice.
 Cont…
o The number of buckets for a Pelton wheel is at an optimum if the jet is always

intercepted by the buckets, and is usually more than 15.

o The following empirical formula gives the number of buckets, nb,

approximately as:

o This holds good for 6 < m < 35

 Cont…
Turbine scroll case

o A scroll case is the conduit directing the water from the intake or penstock

to the runner in reaction-type turbine installations (in the case of impulse

wheels a casing is usually provided only to prevent splashing of water and to

lead water to the tail race).

o A spiral-shaped scroll case of the correct geometry ensures even distribution

of water around the periphery of the runner with the minimum possible eddy

formations.

o The shape and internal dimensions are closely related to the design of the

turbine.
 Cont…
(a) Full spiral case

o A full spiral case (Fig.(a)) entirely enclosing the turbine with a nose angle, φ of

360° ensures most perfect flow conditions.

o However, in practice spiral cases with 320°< φ < 340° are also called full spiral

cases.

o This kind of spiral case will generally be used in medium- and high-head

installations where discharge requirements are smaller.

 Cont…
(b) Partial spiral case

o For low-head plants the entrance area should be large so as to allow large

flows.

o This is achieved by choosing nose angles that are less than 320°.

o The spacing of the units is therefore governed by these large entry widths of

the partial spiral scroll cases (Fig. (b)).

o For high-head plants, a circular scroll case cross-section is normally adopted;

a metal casing is more suited to this shape.

o For low-head plants where the water quantities are large a rectangular section

with rounded corners may be constructed in situ in concrete.

 Cont…
o The approximate dimensions of a Francis turbine layout with steel scroll case

and a propeller turbine layout with concrete scroll, respectively, are shown in

Figs (a) and (b).

o The design of the shape of the spiral case is governed by the flow

requirements.

o Initial investigations should be based on the following assumptions:

 a spiral case of constant height;

 an evenly distributed flow into the turbine;

 no friction losses.
 Cont…

Figure Recommended dimensions of scroll casings

 Cont…
Draft tubes

o The draft tube is a conduit discharging water from the runner to the tail

race, and has a twofold purpose:

 To recover as much as possible of the velocity energy of the water

leaving the runner, thus increasing the dynamic draft head;

 To utilize the vertical distance between the turbine exit and the tail

water level, called the static draft head (Fig.(a) below).

 Cont…

Figure a Elbow-type draft tube

Figure b Vertical draft tube

 Cont…
o The most common draft tube is the elbow type (Fig. a), which minimizes the
depth of the substructure.

o Compared with the vertical type (Fig. b) it also has the desirable effect of
directing the flow in the direction of the tail water flow.

o The elbow-type draft tube is divided into three parts, all three sections
gradually expanding like diffusers:

 A vertical (entrance) part in circular cross-section, gradually expanding;

 A bend part (its aim being to minimize losses due to changes in the
direction of flow) in gradual transition from the circular section into a
rectangular section;

 An almost horizontal part in rectangular section, gradually expanding to

direct the flow into the tail race with minimum losses.
 Cont…
o Draft tubes of large discharge capacities (units operating under low heads)
are usually designed by model tests, investigated jointly with the runner
models.

o Considering the layout in Fig. (b) above, for example, the energy equation
between 1 and 3 gives:

o Where pa is the atmospheric pressure and HL is the friction and eddy losses
in the draft tube.
 Cont…
o Therefore, the pressure head at the runner exit, p1/ g, is given by

o Where ηd is the efficiency of the draft tube.

o By a proper design of the draft tube, the exit velocity v2 can be reduced to 1
– 2 m/s, with ηd as high as 85%.
 Cont…
o In order to avoid cavitation at the exit from the runner, the condition p1/rg >

pv/rg, where pv is the saturated vapor pressure (around 0.3 m of water

absolute), must be satisfied with a sufficient safety factor, since the flow

over parts of the runner will be at lower pressures.

o The suggested dimensions of the draft tube used for high specific speed

turbines are shown in Figure below.

 Cont…

Figure Recommended dimensions of an elbow-type draft tube

THANKS FOR YOUR ATTENTION

2021