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Electronics Digest--Audio
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LED VU Meter

This simple peak reading VU meter circuit uses six LEDs to indicate
six signal levels at - 14, - 8, - 3, 0, +3, and +6dB, or any other levels
having the same spacing (e.g. - 17, - 11, - 6, - 3, 0, and +3dB, if
preferred). About 24mV peak to peak is needed in order to activate

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the highest LED indicator, so the circuit is sufficiently sensitive to be

used with any normal item of audio equipment.

The circuit is based on an LM3914N bargraph display driver device

(IC1), which can be used to drive up to ten LEDs. This is connected
so that with OV12 at the input only the first LED indicator switches
on. With the input raised to OV24 the second LED switches on as
well; OV36 causes three LEDs to switch on and so on up to an input
of 1V2 or more whereupon all ten LEDs are activated. In this circuit
only LEDs 1, 2, 3, 5, 7 and 10 are included in the display, and these
are D1 to D6 respectively.

The input signal is taken to a variable attenuator which enables the

sensitivity of the circuit to be set at the correct level. The signal is
then passed to a low gain common emitter amplifier based on Q1
which gives a tenfold boost in the sensitivity of the circuit. C2
couples the output from Q1 to the input of IC1. R5 is the input bias
resistor for IC1, and D7 protects IC1 against an excess negative in
put voltage. R6 sets the current to each LED at about 12mA, but as
IC1 responds only to positive half cycles the LEDs can switch on for
a maximum of 50% of time. This gives an effective LED current of
6mA. The quiescent current consumption of the unit is about 8mA,
rising to an absolute maximum of 44mA with all six LEDs activated.

To calibrate the unit, a 0dB test signal should be fed into the
equipment and R1 adjusted for the lowest sensitivity that does not
cause the 0dB LED to extinguish.

The input impedance of the unit is about 80k and it will only lightly
load the monitored equipment.

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General Purpose Amplifier

This useful amplifier will provide an output power of up to about 8

watts rms at low distortion (less than 0.1% THD) into an 8 ohm
loudspeaker when using a 28 volt supply. If used with a 4 ohm loud
speaker the output power is in creased to about 12 watts rms or so,
with the distortion being roughly doubled (although obviously still
quite low). The circuit will operate with lower supply voltages, down
to less than 9 volts, with a reduction in the maximum output power.

The circuit utilizes a TDA2030 integrated circuit, a modern device

superior in performance and easier to use than most previous
devices.

It is used in much the same way as an operational amplifier and like

an operational amp it has both inverting (-) non-inverting (+) inputs.
In this circuit it is used in the inverting amplifier mode.

The non -inverting input is biased to half the supply potential Audio
by R2 and R3; C2 decouples any hum or other noise from the
supply lines. R4 biases the inverting input of IC1, with a negative
feedback action stabilizing the output at half the supply voltage

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under quiescent conditions. This ensures that the circuit can pro
vide the highest possible un clipped peak to peak output voltage
swing (and output power).

R4 also forms part of the network which sets the gain and input
impedance of the circuit, with R1 forming the other half. The voltage
gain is approximately equal to R4 divided by R1, about 30 with the
specified values. This gives the circuit an input sensitivity of about
260mV rms for 8 watts into 8 ohms. The value of R1 sets the input
impedance of the amplifier at 22k, but volume control VR1 shunts
the input to give a minimum input impedance of 11kR.

Input and output DC blocking are given by C1 and C4 respectively.

C3 and R5 are a Zobel net work and aid the stability of the circuit.
C5 provides supply de-coupling and should be mounted close to
IC1.

++++++++++++++++++++++++

Clipping Monitor

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WHEN using an amplifier at virtually its full output power there is a

risk of "clipping" occurring. The amplifier is overdriven to the point
where output peaks are flattened because the amplifier simply can
not provide a high enough output voltage. The distortion caused by
clipping is often quite severe and readily apparent, but this is not
always the case. It is not uncommon for the tweeters in loud
speakers to burn out due to overloading caused by clipping
producing strong high frequency signals!

The circuit relies on the fact that with less than about 2V applied to a
LED it will not pass any significant current and will fail to light up. If
the voltage applied to the LED is only marginally increased above
2V, the LED avalanches, a heavy current flows and it glows brightly.
R1 is adjusted so that the voltage applied to LED1 via current
limiting resistor R2 is just sufficient to cause D1 to low quite brightly
when the amplifier is driven into clipping. With the amplifier driven
just below the clipping threshold there is just enough voltage applied
to the circuit to cause LED1 to visibly glow, al though it does so at
less than full brightness. If the amplifier is driven significantly below
the clip ping level there will be insufficient voltage fed to D1 to cause
it to conduct and it will not light up.

+++++++++++++++++++

Power Amplifier

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Most Hi Fi amplifiers are similar to this design. The circuit uses a

complementary output stage with one NPN and one PNP power
transistor; this eliminates the need for an output transformer. Output
power is close to 1W with reasonably low distortion.

The input signal is passed through the volume control RV1 and then
via C1 to the base of Q1.

The collector load for Q1 is com posed of R1, R5 and the loud
speaker and the voltage at the collector will be about half the supply
voltage, i.e. 4V5. The bases of Q2 and Q3 are also at the same
voltage (very nearly) as the collector of Q1 because the value of R1
is so low.

At the junction of the emitters of Q2 and Q3 the voltage will also be

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very nearly 4V5. R3 and R4 limit the current through Q2 and Q3.

When the amplified input signal is less than 4V5, Q2 is turned off but
Q3 will conduct. When Q1 amplifies the signal to above 4V5 the
reverse happens; Q2 conducts and Q3 is turned off.

The signals are combined at the common emitter junction of Q2 and

Q3 and passed to the loud speaker through the large electrolytic
capacitor C2. Small values of C2 result in a poor low frequency
response. Negative feedback is provided by R5 and R2; these en
sure stability by reducing the gain slightly. R1 is included to provide
a small amount of base bias for Q2 and Q3; more sophisticated de
signs use thermistors or diodes to prevent thermal runaway.

A disadvantage is the DC coupling of the transistors; the output pair

should be 'matched pair', other types can be tried as long as they
are also 'matched pairs'.

++++++++++++++++

Cassette Radio Booster

This amplifier was designed as a booster to enable output powers of

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