Horticultural Terms and Definitions

HORTICULTURAL TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Horticulture includes the art and science of

growing fruits, vegetables, and flowers, besides
encompassing plantation crops, spices, aromatic
plants, medicinal plants and processing technology.
Nursery business, seed production, micro-propagation,
biotechnology, packing and storage industry, glass
house technology etc. are also coming under the
purview of the discipline.
Large number of horticultural terms are used in

the academic, research, extension and developmental
areas. However, there exists some amount of
ambiguity with respect to the interpretation and use of
these terms. In this context, the authors try to provide
precise definitions and the most appropriate
meanings for the terms.
The book will be useful for the under-graduate

and post-graduate students, teachers, scientists,
administrators, planners and others engaged in the
field of Horticulture. It will also serve as a ready source
of information for the candidates appearing for under-
graduate and post-graduate entrance examinations
and comprehensive tests conducted by the
Agricultural Scientists Recruitment Board, the Indian
Council of Agricultural Research, the Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research, the NABARD,
various Commodity Boards and the State and Central
research and developmental organizations.
Horticultural Terms and Definitions 2
PREFACE
Horticulture includes the art and science of

growing fruits, vegetables, and flowers, besides
encompassing plantation crops, spices, aromatic
plants, medicinal plants and processing technology.
Nursery business, seed production, micro-propagation,
biotechnology, packing and storage industry, glass
house technology etc. are also coming under the
purview of the discipline.
Large number of horticultural terms are used in

the academic, research, extension and developmental
areas. However, there exists some amount of
ambiguity with respect to the interpretation and use of
these terms. In this context, the authors try to provide
precise definitions and the most appropriate
meanings for the terms.
The book will be useful for the under-graduate

and post-graduate students, teachers, scientists,
administrators, planners and others engaged in the
field of Horticulture. It will also serve as a ready source
of information for the candidates appearing for under-
graduate and post-graduate entrance examinations
and comprehensive tests conducted by the
Agricultural Scientists Recruitment Board, the Indian
Council of Agricultural Research, the Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research, the NABARD,
various Commodity Boards and the State and Central
research and developmental organizations.
Sincere efforts were taken to make the
definitions precise and crisp. Suggestions for
improvement would be very much appreciated.
2
ABOUT THE AUTHORS:
Dr. B.K. Jayachandran, Professor of Horticulture &

Head, Department of Plantation Crops & Spices,
College of Agriculture, Kerala Agricultural University,
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.
Dr. K. Rajmohan, Professor of Horticulture & Head,

Department of Biotechnology, College of Agriculture,
Kerala Agricultural University, Thiruvananthapuram,
Kerala. He has post doctoral experience in
biotechnology from the National Chemical Laboratory,
Pune and the University of Minnesota, USA.
3
Abscisic acid (ABA, Abscisin, Dormin)

Naturally occurring plant growth inhibitor,
promoting senescence, abscission and / or
dormancy.
Abscission
Detachment of leaves, flowers, fruits or other
plant parts.
Abscission zone (Abscission layer)
Zone where transverse division and separation of
cells occur, leading to abscission of organ.
Absolute
Purified floral concrete. Impurities like plant
waxes, albumin, colouring matter etc., are
removed by separation techniques using
absolute alcohol (See Concrete).
Accessory
In Floriculture, an item used in support of
landscape or floral design such as figurine, bird
bath, pool or accent rocks.
Accessory bud
A bud located above or beside the main axillary
bud.
Accessory fruit
A fruit developing from accessory floral parts like
floral tube, receptacle etc., in addition to the
ovary.
Acclimatization
The process of adapting to a new environment.
Achene
A dry indehiscent, one seeded fruit in which the
ovary wall remains free from the seed coat.
Acropetal
From a physiological base to a physiological
apex.
4
Acuminate
Tapering to a point, as a leaf.
Adaptability
The capacity of an organism or species to
become suited to its environment.
Adaptation
The fitness of a population in a given
environment.
Adaptive trial
A trial conducted to assess the adaptability of a
technology or a variety to a particular region.
Adventitious
Produced in an unusual or abnormal position,
or at an unusual time of development or away
from the natural habitat.
Adventitious embryony (Nucellar embryony)
Type of apomixis where embryos arise from a
cell or group of cells either in the nucellus
(usually) or in the integuments in addition to the
regular embryo.
Aeration
Supply of oxygen to the roots of plants and
micro-organisms in the soil.
Aerenchyma
Tissue of thin walled cells with large, air filled
intercellular spaces, found in roots and stems of
some aquatic and marsh plants.
Aerial roots
Roots absorbing moisture from the air e.g.
orchids.
Aeroponics
A system of growing plants where the roots are
suspended and bathed in a nutrient mist rather
than a nutrient solution as in hydroponics.
5
Aerosol
Type of formulation of insecticide, antibiotic or
plant growth substances dispersed as very fine
droplets on application, forming smoke or fog.
Aestivation (Estivation)
The arrangement of sepals and petals in the
flower bud before expansion.
Aetiology (Etiology)
The science of the cause or origin of diseases.
Afforestation
Artificial establishment of a forest where tree
crops are not previously grown or on
deforested land.
After-cultivation
Harrowing, tilling and other cultural operations
in a field after the emergence of the crop.
After-ripening
The physiological changes that occur in a
dormant seed to enable germination.
Agar (Agar agar)
A gelatinous substance obtained from certain
species of red algae, widely used as a solidifying
agent in aseptic culture.
Aggregate fruit
A fruit developing from a flower having several
pistils that ripen together in a single mass.
Agriculture
(1) An activity of man aimed at the production of
food, fibre, fuel etc., by the use of terrestrial
resources.
(2) The art, science and industry of managing
the growth of plants and animals for human
use.
6
Agri-silviculture
Use of land for the concurrent production of
agricultural and forest crops.
Agro-climatic regions
Broadly homogenous zones with respect to
climate and edaphic factors.
Agro-ecology
The study of the relation of agricultural crops
and environment.
Agro-forestry
Self-sustaining land management system
combining production of agricultural crops
with that of tree crops with or without
livestock.
Agrostology
The science which deals with the study of
grasses, their classification, management and
utilization.
Air drainage
Air outlets and convection currents which
prevent dead air and frost pockets.
Air-inarching
Technique of grafting a branch to the trunk of a
tree.
Air layering
Layering in above ground branches by removing
a ring of bark and placing the rooting medium
around.
Air plants
Plants not attached to the ground.
Air root-grafting
The grafting of roots on to a branch while it is
still attached to the tree.
7
Aitionomic
Able to develop parthenocarpic fruits only in
response to some stimulus external to the ovary.
Akene
Dry, one seeded, small, indehiscent fruit of one
carpel, seed like in appearance.
Albido
The white tissue beneath the peel of citrus fruit.
Albino
An organism lacking normal pigmentation due to
genetic factors. The condition is albinism.
Alkaloids
Group of nitrogen containing basic organic
compounds which possess poisonous and
medicinal properties e.g. atropine, morphine
quinine and strychnine.
Allelopathy
Any direct/indirect harmful effect that one plant
has on another or mutually on each other
through the production of chemical compounds
that escape into the environment.
Alley
A narrow passage left across rows to facilitate
harvesting and cultural operations.
Allogamy
Cross fertilization in plants.
Allograft ( Homograft )
A graft between like species.
Allopolyploidy
Polyploidy involving the combination of
chromosomes from two or more species.
Alpine garden
A garden comprised of plant species normally
found growing at high elevations.
8
Alpine plant
A plant suitable for rock gardens or one that
normally grows in exposed mountain regions.
Alternate
An arrangement of leaves, buds, and other
organs borne singly at different heights on
either side of the stem or axis.
Alternate bearing ( Biennial bearing )
The phenomenon of producing heavy bearing
during ‘on year’ which is alternated by shy
bearing during ‘off year.’
Altitude (Elevation)
Vertical distance of a level, a point or an object
from mean sea level (MSL).
Ambient
(1) The environment of a particular time.
(2) Set of climatic conditions existing during an
experiment.
Amphimixis
Normal sexual reproduction in which the
morphologically dissimilar male and female
gametes unite together for the formation of
zygote.
Analogues
Organs of different plants with like function but
of unlike origin.
Androecium
The collective term for stamens of a flower.
Androdioecious
Condition in which male and hermaphrodite
flowers are borne on separate plants.
Androgenesis
Plant development from male gametophytes.
9
Andromonoecious
Condition in which both male and
hermaphrodite flowers are borne on the same
plant.
Anemophily ( Anemophilous )
Pollination by wind.
Angel crops
Crops raised without chemical fertilisers, plant
protection chemicals and growth stimulants.
Angiosperm
A member of the group of flowering vascular
plants whose seeds are enclosed within a mature
ovary (fruit) in contrast to the seeds of
gymnosperms which are not enclosed in an
ovary.
Annual
Plant that completes its life cycle from seed to
seed within one year or one growing season.
Annual ring
A distinct layer of growth as seen in the cross
section of a woody stem (See Growth ring).
Annual up timing (Crop timing)
Adjusting planting and / or adopting cultural
operations to facilitate harvesting of the crop at
a specified time.
Anther
The portion of the male flower that bears the
pollen.
Anthocyanin
Chemical plant pigment; usually red or blue.
Anti-auxin
Substance which can inhibit growth by
antagonising the activity of auxins.
10
Anticoagulant
Material added to rubber latex to prevent
coagulation by natural means before it reaches
the factory.
Antioxidants
Substances which are antagonistic to oxidation
process.
Antitranspirants
Substances that retard or inhibit
transpiration.
Apetalous
Without petals.
Apogamy
A type of apomixis in which the embryo develops
from the cells other than egg cell.
Apomixis
Occurrence of an asexual reproductive process
in place of normal sexual reproduction involving
reduction division and fertilization.
Approach grafting
A grafting method where rootstock is taken to
the scion donor plant for grafting. Stock and
scion are independent for their nourishment
till the completion of the graft union (Synonym :
Inarching).
Aquaculture
(1) The cultivation or rearing of aquatic plants or
animals.
(2) The technique of growing plants without
using soil (hydroponics) either in circulated,
aerated nutrient solutions or in inert media such
as gravel, sand, peat, vermiculite or saw dust, to
which a nutrient solution is added.
11
Aquatic plant
Any plant that grows in or near water.
Arborescent
Becoming tree like, nearly the size of a tree.
Arboretum
Area set aside for growing and displaying
different kinds of woody ornamental trees,
shrubs and vines with proper labelling.
Arboriculture
Cultivation of trees and shrubs.
Areole
The area occupied by a group of spines or hairs
on a cactus.
Arid fruit culture
The cultivation of edible fruits in arid region that
are consumed either fresh or processed.
Aril
(1) Modified mesocarp covering the seed of
nutmeg Also called mace.
(2) An appendage or outer covering of a seed,
growing from the hilum or funiculus.
Aromatic
Chemical compound derived from the
hydrocarbon, benzene (C6 H6), having a pungent
odour.
Aromatic plants
Plants which yield aromatic essential oils on
steam distillation or solvent extraction e.g.
lemongrass; patchouli.
Artificial long days
Interruption of dark period or extension of
natural daylength to prevent flower bud
initiation of short day plants.
12
Artificial seed
Encapsulated or coated somatic embryos used
for planting like seeds.
Aseptic
Free of all microorganisms.
Aseptic canning
A technique in which food is sterilised outside
the can and then aseptically placed in previously
sterilised cans which are subsequently sealed in
an aseptic environment.
Asexual
Lacking or not involving sex; sexless; not
involving union of gametes.
Asexual propagation
(1) The multiplication of plants using a
vegetative plant part.
(2) Plant propagation not involving union of
gametes. The propagation using
parthenogenetic seed (as in mangosteen ) is
asexual.
Astringency
A puckering taste to the mouth caused by
tannins.
Astroturf
A synthetic lawn, popularly used in developed
countries in roof gardens , as well as in stadium
(mainly in football and hockey).
Atrophy
Dwarfing or reduction in size, often extreme,
through disease affecting the whole plant or
part.
13
Attenuation
The decrease in the intensity of radiation caused
by the absorption and scattering of the radiation
as it passes through the matter.
Autecology
The study of the interaction of a plant species
with its environment.
Autogamy
Self fertilisation or the fertilisation of a flower by
its own pollen.
Autograft
A type of graft which involves transplantation of
tissue or an organ from one part of an individual
to another part of the same individual.
Autopolyploidy
Polyploidy with similar sets of chromosomes.
Autotroph
A self sufficient organism that synthesizes its
own food from inorganic molecules.
Auxanometer
An instrument used to measure growth of
plants.
Auxin
Plant growth regulator that functions more by
stimulation of cell elongation than through an
effect on cell division.
Axenic culture
A culture without foreign or undesired life forms.
Axillary bud
A bud origination in an axil or point where a
leaf stalk or branch forms an angle with the
main stem.
Baccate
Berry like ; pulpy or fleshy.
14
Back cross
A cross of a hybrid with one of its parents with
the purpose of transferring a specific gene.
Bactericidal
Capable of killing bacteria.
Balata
A product analogous to “gutta percha” obtained
from the bark of Mimusops globosa.
Balled and burlapped
Any plant dug with a soil ball and tied up in
burlap.
Balling
The aggregation of macerated tea leaves into
lumps or balls during rolling or fermentation.
Bare root ( Bare root plant )
Rooted plant without soil, opposite to balled and
burlapped.
Bari
Tea plantation in which trees are allowed to
grow without pruning to produce seed.
Bark
The tough exterior covering of a woody stem or
root outside the cambium.
Bark grafting
A method of grafting in which dormant scion is
inserted between the bark and wood of a
rootstock.
Bark inversion
A method of grafting for dwarfing a plant in
which a complete ring of a bark is removed from
the trunk, inverted and regrafted into place.
Bark ringing
The removal of a ring of bark from the trunk of
a plant to regulate shoot growth and flowering.
15
Barley water
Fruit beverage containing at least twenty five
per cent fruit juice or pulp, thirty per cent total
soluble solids and 0.25 per cent barley starch.
Basipetal
(1) Development in succession towards the base,
oldest at the apex and younger at the base.
(2) Transport of substances away from the apex,
within a plant.
Bearing habit
The relative position of flowering and fruiting on
the shoots of a plant (See Fruiting habit).
Bed
(1) Narrow flat-topped ridge on which crops are
grown with a narrow furrow on each side to
facilitate irrigation and drainage.
(2) An area in which seedlings or sprouts are
grown before transplanting.
Bed planting
Planting on elevated level beds, which are
separated by narrow furrows.
Bedding plants
Plants that are raised by commercial growers
and sold in the early stages of growth for use in
outdoor gardens.
Bench grafting ( Root Grafting )
Grafting where roots are used as the rootstock.
Berry
A simple fruit with one or more carpels and
having the entire pericarp fleshy.
Berry fruits
A synonym of small fruits or soft fruits.
16
Biennial
A plant with a two year life cycle, growing
vegetatively and storing food in the first year and
producing flowers and seeds in the second year.
Biennial bearing
See Alternate bearing.
Bifarious
Arranged in two opposite rows.
Bilateral cordon
Training system as in grapes, where the trunk is
divided into two branches extending horizontally
on a supporting wire.
Binomial system of nomenclature
The assignment of names to organisms using
two Latin words, the first denoting the genus
and the second denoting the species e.g.
Mangifera indica.
Bio-aesthetic planning
Planting of trees and plants for beautifying
roads, parks, public and private places.
Bioassay
Determination of the biological activity as well
as relative strength of a substance (hormone,
drug etc.) by comparing its effect on a test
organism with that of a standard preparation.
Biomass
The combined dry or wet weight of all the
organisms in a habitat.
Biometrics
The science dealing with the application of
statistical procedures for the study of
biological problems.
17
Biosynthesis
Biological synthesis, building or forming of
biochemical compounds in a living organism.
Biotechnology
The application of biological organisms, systems
or processes in industrial scale for the benefit of
man.
Biotic
Pertaining to life.
Biotype
Physiological race or form within a species which
is morphologically identical, but is different in
genetic, physiological, biochemical or
pathogenic characteristics.
Bird baths
A garden adornment consisting of a bowl
shaped container fixed over a pillar, storing
water for birds.
Bird chilli (Tabasco chilli)
Perennial chilli(Capsicum frutescens),with small
sized pungent fruits.
Bisexual
Both sexes present and functional in the same
flower.
Blackout system
A means of covering plants with black polythene
or cloth to shorten the photoperiod to promote
flowering of short day plants.
Blade
The expanded portion of a leaf, the lamina.
Blanching
(1) Heating of a fruit or vegetable product in
boiling water or steam for a brief period to
inactivate enzymes before processing.
18
(2) The technique of covering plant parts with

soil or other materials to exclude light.
Bleeding
Loss of sap through wounding.
Blind shoot
A shoot in which the apical bud aborts, resulting
in no further growth.
Bloom
(1) The state of flowering.
(2) Blossom.
(3) Delicate waxy or powdery substance on the
surface of leaves, berries etc.
Blossom
See Bloom.
Bluing
The objectionable development of blue pigment
in flower petals usually after harvest.
Bole
The basal region of the stem or trunk of a tree.
Bolting
Process by which plants produce flower stalks
and flowers.
Bonsai
Japanese art of growing miniature trees and
shrubs in shallow containers by extreme
dwarfing treatments.
Bonsai style
Training plants in bonsai-like fashion.
Bonus crop
An additional crop of economic importance
taken in intercropping / mixed cropping systems
without any extra inputs.
19
Border plants
Plants located at the perimeter of landscapes or
experimental plots.
Botanical garden
A garden used for growing and displaying
ornamental plants for educational and research
purposes.
Botanical name
Scientific name assigned to a plant species.
Botanical pesticides (Botanicals)
Pesticides obtained from plants.
Bottle garden
The art of making miniature garden by growing
delicate plants inside bottles.
Bound water
Water held by the cell against freezing.
Box ridging
A system in which box shaped ridge is formed
around the base of the plant to control erosion
and aid irrigation.
Bracing
Method of grafting done to support branches
which are in danger of breaking off.
Bract
A modified, often very small leaf / leaf-like
structure subtending a flower or inflorescence. It
may appear to be the part of the flower.
Bramble
A fruit which is a member of the Rubus genus.
Break
New lateral shoot, often developing after the
removal of apical dominance by pinching.
Breaker
A device at the end of a hose to permit
application of water at low velocity.
20
Breeder seed
The seed raised and controlled by the originating
or sponsoring institution or breeder.
Bridge grafting
The repair grafting done when the root system of
the tree is injured.
Brining
Treating vegetables with solution of salt in water
( brine ) to improve flavour and to serve as a
heat transfer medium for facilitating processing.
Brix
The percentage of total soluble solids in fruit
juices, plant saps etc., measured using Brix
hydrometer.
Broadcasting
The process of scattering agricultural inputs,
such as seed, fertiliser and manure on the
surface of the soil by hand or by implements for
uniform distribution over the entire field.
Brown budding
A budding method commonly adopted in rubber
using buds taken from bud wood of one year
growth and stock plants of ten months or more
growth.
Brown head
A bloom that is excessively open.
Browning
The process of browning of cut surfaces of fruits
and plant parts due to polyphenol oxidation.
Brush (in grapes)
Vascular strands remaining on the pedicel of
grapes after the berry is detached.
21
Bud
(1) Undeveloped shoot or flower, often enclosed
by reduced or specialised leaves called bud
scales.
(2) A vegetative outgrowth from yeast.
Bud break
The resumption of growth of resting buds.
Bud mutation
Mutation in bud, causing variation in the arising
branch, flower or fruit ( Synonym: Bud sport,
Bud variation).
Bud sport
Mutation in bud, causing variation in the arising
branch, flower or fruit (Synonym: Bud mutation,
Bud variation).
Budded stump
Planting material comprised of the stock plus a
dormant or recently activated bud, the stock
being cut off a few centimeters above the bud.
Budding
(1) A form of grafting using a single bud.
(2) Production of a shoot from an underground
stem.
(3) The new growth in the spring.
(4) The process by which yeasts produce
vegetative outgrowths.
Bud rubbing
The removal of buds from spurs or shoots by
pushing or rubbing with hand.
Bud scale
Protective scale-like leaves which cover the shoot
apex, flower and embryonic leaves.
22
Bud sport (Bud mutation)

A plant or portion of a plant arising by
spontaneous mutation in the apical meristem of
a bud.
Bud stick
A shoot or twig used as a source of bud for
budding.
Bud take
The success of budding operation as observed
by the presence of green, healthy bud which is
in the process of bud union.
Bud wood
Shoot from which bud is selected for budding.
Bulb
A specialized underground plant organ
consisting of a greatly reduced stem (basal
plate) surrounded by fleshy, modified leaves
called scales.
Bulbel ( Bulbils, Bulblets)
(1) Small or miniature bulbs arising from the
parent bulb.
(2) Aerial bulblets.
Bulb cutting
Cutting of bulb used for propagation.
Bull
The inflorescence of banana during its ascent
up the pseudostem.
Bull head
(1) The corm of a banana plant which has
flowered.
(2) A condition when the short petals or excess
number of petals give a blunt, broad
appearance to a flower.
23
Burning
The browning of leaves caused by excess
fertiliser.
Bush
A low woody plant, without a distinct trunk, but
with a number of branches at or near the
ground level.
Button
(1) In coconut, female flower which is a small
spherical body about 1.3 cm in diameter with
resemblance to a small nut.
(2) The young emerging fruit of a mushroom.
Buttress
Outgrowth of the trunk and roots at or above the
surface of the ground to give the plant additional
support.
C3 plants
Plants showing decreased carbohydrate
production due to photorespiration and in
which three-carbon sugars are the first stable
intermediates in the Calvin Benson cycle of
photosynthesis.
C4 Plants
Plants that can photosynthesize at a faster rate
than C3 plants due to special leaf anatomy and
a unique biochemical pathway which begins
with a stable, four-carbon sugar intermediate.
Cabbage
(1) The piece of banana pseudostem discarded
from the head or large corm.
(2) The terminal bud of coconut.
(3) Brassica oleracea var. capitata, the vegetable
coming under Cruciferae family.
24
Cacti
A group of xerophytic plants, not having true
leaves, thriving without being watered for several
days.
Caducous
(1) Falling off early or prematurely, as the calyx
in some plants.
(2) Not persistent.
Caffeine
The purine base alkaloid found in tea and coffee
which works as stimulant.
Callus
Mass of parenchymatous cells, developing on or
around a wound or from an explant.
Calli clone
Plants regenerated from callus.
Calyx
The outer parts of the flower (sepals) is
collectively called calyx.
Cambium
A lateral meristem in vascular plants which
produces increases in diameter of stems and
roots through the production of xylem, phloem
and parenchyma cells.
Campanulate
Bell shaped.
CAM plants
Desert plants in which Crassulacean Acid
Metabolism (CAM) system is prevalent where the
CO2 is fixed at night e.g. Bryophyllum calycinum
and cactus plants.
25
Candied fruit/vegetable
A fruit / vegetable impregnated with cane sugar
or glucose syrup, and subsequently drained free
of syrup and dried.
Cane
(1) A main stem of a small fruit plant or vining
crop.
(2) In grapes the term applies to previous
season’s growth or new shoots after they lose
their leaves.
Canker
A dead area caused by a fungal disease.
Canning
A method of preserving food in a fresh condition
by processing and sealing in airtight containers.
Canopy
The overhead cover or horizontal projection of
a plant formed by its leaves, branches etc.
Caoutchouc
American Indian name for rubber, meaning
weeping wood.
Capillary watering
See Mat watering.
Capsule
A simple, dry, dehiscent fruit, formed of two or
more united carpels.
Carbonated beverages
Carbonated drinks prepared by using fruit
juices.
Carbon nitrogen ratio ( C:N ratio)
The ratio of carbonaceous materials to nitrogen
in plant or soil.
26
Carotine
An orange pigment occurring in certain
plastids; precursor of vitamin A.
Carpel
One of the innermost floral structures which
bears or encloses the ovules.
Carpet bedding
Covering the beds in gardens with dense, low
growing herbaceous plants.
Carpellody
Abnormal development of the stamen into carpel
like, fleshy structures, resulting in misshapen
‘catface’ fruits e.g. papaya.
Caryopsis
An indehiscent fruit with one seed which is
completely fused to the inner surface of the
pericarp.
Cash crop
A high value marketable crop e.g. tea;
cardamom.
Casual
An introduced plant which has not become
established, although sometimes found in places
where it is not cultivated.
Catabolism
Metabolic process in which complex materials
are converted into simple compounds e.g.,
respiration.
Catch crop
(1) A quick growing crop incidentally planted
and harvested between two major crops in
consecutive seasons.
(2) A contingency crop grown to replace a major
crop which has failed.
27
Catch wire
A wire that serves as an attachment for
developing grape shoots or other plants with
tendrils.
Catkin
A hanging type of spike inflorescence that has
male or female flowers with a perianth.
Cauliflorous
Bearing inflorescence on the trunk or woody
branches e.g. cocoa; jack.
Cauline
Arising from or inserted on the stem.
Central leader
System of training a fruit tree in which it is
trained to form a trunk extending from the soil
to the top of the tree.
Centre of diversity
An area where the genetic and specific diversity
is very high.
Certified plants
Plants produced under strict guidelines and
inspections controlled by a regulatory agency to
ensure trueness to type and freedom from
damage, insects, diseases etc.
Certified seed
The progeny of breeder, foundation or registered
seeds, so handled as to maintain satisfactory
genetic purity and identity.
Chat
An assortment of fresh dessert fruits cut into
pieces and sprinkled with salt and spices.
Check
A row or plot of standard variety included in field
experimentation for comparison.
28
Chemical mutagen
A chemical capable of causing genetic mutation.
Chemical thinning
Thinning of blossoms by the use of chemical
substances.
Chemotropism
A bending or turning in response to chemical
stimulus.
Cherelle
Small and immature pods of cocoa.
Chicory
Roots of Cichorium intybus used for blending and
mixing with coffee to the extent of 40 per cent.
Chilling injury
Damage to plant parts resulting from exposure
to cold, above freezing temperature.
Chilling requirement
The number of hours at or below a specific
temperature, necessary for uniform bud break
following winter dormancy.
Chilling unit
A period of time at or below a specified
threshold temperature that has the maximum
effect toward fulfilling the chilling requirement of
a given plant.
Chimera
A plant having tissues of different genetic
composition adjacent to each other.
Chinese layerage
See Air layering.
Chip budding ( Yemma budding)
Budding where a single bud with a piece of wood
is fitted to a suitable cut in the stock.
29
Chlorophyll
Green pigment found in plants, used for
photosynthesis.
Chlorosis
Yellowing caused by loss of or reduced
production of chlorophyll.
Chromoplast
A coloured plastid containing pigments other
than chlorophyll, often yellowish or red.
Chupon
Vertical stems or shoots of cocoa.
Ciliate
Margined with hairs
Cion
Obsolete term for scion.
Circumposition
See Air layering.
Circumutation
An irregular spiral movement of a plant which
takes place from unequal growth rates.
Citrange
An intergeneric hybrid between Poncirus
trifoliata and Citrus sinensis, used as rootstock.
Cladophyll (Cladode)
A stem that resembles a leaf in appearance.
Clarifying agents
Substances used to remove haziness or
sediment produced by oxidative deterioration in
fruit juices, wines, beer etc.
Clean cultivation
Periodic soil tillage to eliminate all vegetation
other than the crop being grown.
30
Cleft grafting
A grafting method where the scion piece is
placed in a split (cleft) formed on a stock plant
(See Wedge grafting).
Cleistogamy
Self pollinating nature of closed flowers.
Cleistogamous
Flowers which fertilise themselves without
opening.
Climacteric
The maximum respiration rate of a fruit,
reached just before full ripening.
Climacteric fruits
Fruits exhibiting increased rate of respiration
before full ripening e.g. mango; banana.
Climate
The aggregate of weather conditions over a long
period of time.
Climate control greenhouse
Greenhouse in which climatic factors like
temperature, light (intensity and duration) and
humidity are controlled manually or
automatically.
Climax vegetation
The most fully developed natural vegetation the
climate can sustain.
Climber
Annual or perennial herb or shrub with special
structures to climb over a support.
Clonal propagation
Asexual propagation of plants from a single
plant, resulting in true-to-type and uniform
progenies.
31
Clonal seed
A seed collected from a clone.
Clone
A group of genetically uniform plants,
vegetatively propagated from a single parent.
CO2 compensation point
The concentration of carbon dioxide at which
photosynthesis balances respiration and there is
no net CO2 flux. In C3 plants this is about 50
ppm, whereas in C4 plants it is almost zero.
Coconut milk
The milky juice obtained from macerated
coconut kernel (endosperm).
Coconut water ( Liquid endosperm)
In coconut, water like liquid filling the entire
cavity of the endosperm when young and
partially filled when fully ripe.
Coffeine
The purine base alkaloid in tea and coffee,
acting as a stimulant.
Colchicine
A poisonous (alkaloid) drug obtained from
Colchicum autumnale, used for inhibiting
spindle formation during mitosis at metaphase
for doubling of chromosome number.
Cold frame
An enclosed bed for propagating or protecting
plants in temperate climate, where the source of
heat is solar energy (See Hot bed).
Cold hardiness
The ability of a plant to resist injury during
exposure to low temperature.
32
Cold storage
An insulated storage using mechanical
refrigeration to maintain a stable low
temperature for long term storage of agri-
horticultural products.
Cold test
A germination test in which seeds are planted
for a period in cool moist soil before transferring
to a high temperature in order to assess the
seedling vigour.
Cole crops
(1) Cabbage and its various allies.
(2) Representatives of the species Brassica
oleracea
Coleoptile
A protective sheath covering, the first leaf of a
grass seedling.
Collar pruning
Pruning of a mature tea bush by cutting close to
the soil, thereby removing all the frame, leaving
only the central stem (See Rejuvenation
pruning).
Collective fruit
Fruit formed from a complete inflorescence or
from several flowers as of mulberry and
pineapple.
Colouring agents
Substances added to food products to make
them attractive and appetising.
Combining ability
The relative ability of an inbred line or a clone,
when crossed to another inbred line or clone, to
transmit desirable trait(s) to its cross.
33
Command area
The land area that can be irrigated by canal or
from a dam or an irrigation project.
Commercial Floriculture
Area of horticulture related to the commercial
production and marketing of cut flowers,
flowering pot plants, foliage plants and bedding
plants.
Community forestry
Forest managed for the interest of local
community or village, run almost exclusively
by them.
Companion crop
Any subsidiary crop grown in association with a
main crop.
Compatibility
(1) In sex cells, the ability to unite and form a
fertilized egg that can grow to maturity.
(2) Congenial condition for successful graft
union between stock and scion.
Compatible varieties
(1) Varieties that will set seed when cross
pollinated
(2) Varieties that will make a successful graft
union when inter-grafted.
Compensation point
The light intensity at which the photosynthetic
intake of carbon dioxide is equal to the
respiratory output of carbon dioxide.
Competition (Interference)
The process in which two individual plants or
two populations of plants interact such that at
least one exerts a negative effect on the other.
34
Complete flower
A flower having pistil(s), stamens, petals and
sepals.
Component crops
Individual crops of a cropping system.
Compost
A product obtained by the controlled
decomposition of organic matter having a C:N
ratio of about 10:1.
Compote
(1) Fruits cooked in sugar syrup, retaining their
shape.
(2) A stemmed container used for arranging
flowers.
Compound layering (Serpentine layering)
Layering method where a flexible branch is
alternately covered and exposed along its
length, resulting in several new plants.
Compound leaf
A leaf composed of two or more leaflets e.g.
ferns.
Concrete (Floral concrete)
The substance containing odoriferous principles
of commercial flowers like jasmine, rose and
tuberose obtained by solvent extraction (See
Absolute ).
Condiments
These are substances of plant origin with
pronounced odour and piquancy, used for
seasoning food and stimulating appetite (See
Spices and condiments ).
Congeneric
Belonging to the same genus.
35
Conifer
A cone bearing plant or gymnosperm.
Conservation
Sustainable use of natural resources, such as
soils, water, plants, animals and minerals.
Conservatory (Fernery)
A greenhouse of the tropics which protects
plants from fierce sunlight and strong wind.
Continental climate
A climate having large daily and annual ranges
of temperature.
Continuous cropping
Growing of crops one after the other without
seasonal fallowing.
Contour planting
Planting crops along the contour.
Control
(1) The untreated plant for comparison with the
experimental treatment (See Check).
(2) To direct or regulate as in induction of
organogenesis in cultures through hormone
regulation.
Controlled atmosphere storage (CA storage)
A storage method in which the concentrations of
atmospheric gases (mainly O2 and CO2) and
atmospheric pressure are adjusted to extend the
storage life of fresh produce (See Modified
atmosphere storage).
Cool season vegetables ( Temperate vegetables )
Vegetables whose growth and productivity are
favoured by low temperatures; most of them
have the ability to withstand frost; also known
as winter vegetables.
36
Coppice farming
Practice of intensive exploitation of land
capability by regular harvesting of trees which
produce numerous shoots from the stump after
cutting.
Coppicing
The cutting back of trees or shrubs close to the
main trunk or ground level resulting in the
production of a number of vigorous new shoots
(See Pollarding).
Copra
The mature endosperm (kernel) of coconut when
dried to about six per cent moisture content.
Cordate
Heart-shaped.
Cordial
A sparkling, clear, sweetened fruit juice from
which pulp and other insoluble substances have
been completely removed.
Corm
The underground swollen base of stem axis
enclosed by scale leaves.
Cormel
Miniature corm arising from a parent corm.
Corona
An appendage between the petals and
stamens e.g. cup of the daffodil.
Cosmetic pruning
Minor pruning of dead flowers and weak or
crossing shoots to keep a plant tidy and
balanced in shape.
Cotyledons
Embryonic seed leaves that stores nutrients to
sustain the growth of a newly germinated plant.
37
Coumarin
A naturally occurring plant growth inhibitor.
Cover crop
A crop grown alone or in between rows of crops
to reduce soil erosion, conserve nutrients, and
supplement organic matter.
Creeper
A plant which spreads along the ground surface
or other substrata.
Critical level
Concentration of a nutrient element below which
deficiency symptoms may develop or a response
to addition of the nutrient may be observed.
Crocks
Broken pieces of earthen pots.
Crop
Plants sown and harvested by man for
economic purposes.
Crop cafeteria
The demonstration of identified efficient crops /
varieties in an agrometerological region/zone
offering an opportunity to the farmer to choose a
suitable crop or crop combination
commensurating with the available resources
and requirements.
Crop canopy
The overhead cover or horizontal projection of
a crop formed by its leaves, branches etc. which
can influence the penetration and interception
of radiant energy.
38
Crop competition
The tendency of plants of the same or different
species growing together to strive for and
capture common resources like light, water,
nutrients and space, resulting in reduced growth
and/or altered form of the crop(s).
Crop duration
Days taken by a crop from germination to
maturity.
Cropping pattern
Yearly sequence and spatial arrangements of
crops and fallow, on a given area.
Cropping system
Cropping pattern and its interaction with farm
resources, farm enterprises and available
technology.
Crop residue management
Use of the non-commercial portion of the crop
for soil protection and improvement.
Crop rotation
The practice of growing different crops on the
same land in a regular, recurring sequence.
Crop season
The most favourable weather condition to get
better yield.
Crop timing
Regulating the harvesting time of crops by way
of adjusting the planting time, pruning or
suitable treatments.
Cross pollination
Transfer of pollen from the anther of one plant to
the stigma of another plant (unless of the same
clone).
39
Crotch
Any angle formed between two woody branches,
or that point where the main trunk divides into
branches.
Crown
(1) The junction between stem and root near the
ground level.
(2) The tree-top.
(3) Leafy top of pineapple fruit used for
vegetative propagation.
(4) Part of a rhizome with a large bud suitable
for propagation.
Crown bud
A flower bud, whose development has ceased,
resembling a crown.
Crown budding
Replacing the undesirable and susceptible crown
of a high yielding tree with a resistant clone by
budding.
Crown grafting
A graft union made at the crown of a plant on an
established rootstock.
Crown slips
Shoots growing on the crown of pineapple
(between fruit and crown), used for planting
after rooting.
Cruciferous
Of or pertaining to the mustard family,
Cruciferae.
Crush
Fruit beverage containing at least twenty five per
cent fruit juice or pulp and fifty five per cent
total soluble solids.
40
Cryo-preservation
Storage of cells, tissues, organs and seeds at
super-low temperature.
Crystallised fruit/vegetable
Candied fruit/vegetable when covered or coated
with crystals of sugar, either by rolling in finely
powdered sugar or by allowing sugar crystals to
deposit on them from a dense syrup.
CTC method
Crushing, tearing and curling method of
processing tea.
Culinary
Suitable for cooking or processing in some form.
Culm
The joined stem of a grass, which is usually
hollow, except at the nodes.
Cultigen
A plant species or race which has arisen in the
course of cultivation.
Cultivar (cv. )
A contraction of the phrase 'cultivated variety'
which designates a group of plants which are
significant in agriculture, forestry or
horticulture.
Cultivation
Labour and care taken in the raising of plants
such as stirring soil, fertilising etc. or loosening
the soil around a plant for weed control and
providing soil mulch.
Curing
Natural or artificial aging of the plant produce
brought about by some (dry or wet) heat
treatment.
41
Cuticle
The waxy covering on plant parts like leaves and
fruits, which prevents excess moisture loss.
Cuttage
Method of plant propagation by means of
cuttings.
Cutting
The portion of a plant cut and removed for
rooting, in asexual propagation.
Cybrid
Hybrid of two cells, produced by protoplast
fusion, having the cytoplasm of both and
nucleus of one.
Cyclic
Having floral parts in whorls.
Cymba
A woody, boat like spathe which encloses the
inflorescence in certain palms.
Cyme
An inflorescence in which primary axis bears
single terminal flower that develops first, the
arrangement being repeated by axis of
secondary and higher orders.
Cytokinins
Group of plant growth substances which
promote cell division and exert other growth
regulatory functions e.g. zeatin, kinetin,
benzyl adenine, 2iP.
Cytoplasmic male sterility
A type of male sterility conditioned by the
cytoplasm rather than the nuclear genes and
transmitted only through the female parent.
Cytotoxic
Toxic to cells.
42
Damping off
A seedling disorder caused by microorganisms.
Dark storage
Storage of foliage plants, cut flowers etc. in
darkness during transit (from harvest to end
use).
Datun
A brush made from a small twig of a tree used
for cleaning teeth.
Day neutral plants
Plants in which flowering is not affected by day
length.
De-acclimation
De-hardening or the loss of adaptation to a
climate.
Dead-head
To prune the spent flowers or the unripe seed
pods from a plant.
Dead heading
Removal of dead flowers or the unripe seed pods
from plants.
De-blossoming
Removing blossoms from a plant.
De-budding
Removal of floral or vegetative buds.
De-bunching
The removal of the bunch soon after emergence
to speed up growth of the follower.
Deciduous
(1) Shedding leaves during winter or dormant
season.
(2) The falling of plant parts at the end of a
growing period.
43
Deciduous plants
Trees and shrubs that drop their leaves before
entering onto the rest period.
Decortication
Removal of bark or outer covering of plant or
plant produce.
Decumbent
Lying on the ground with the end ascending.
De-differentiation
Process in which the inter-organ, inter-tissue
and inter-cellular relations are broken, leading
to the formation of a mass of parenchymatous
cells, called callus.
Defleating
The cutting down of leaves that could scar the
fruit, leaves with leaf spot and leaves that have
collapsed.
Defoliant ( Defoliator )
Chemical used for inducing leaf fall, usually to
facilitate harvest.
Defoliate
To strip off leaves .
Defoliation
The removal of leaves by hand or using
chemicals or by withholding water.
Degrees Brix
A measure of total soluble solids content which
approximates the percentage of sugar found in
juice or a fruit. Corresponds to Degrees Balling.
Dehanding
Removal of the false hand (hand with
undeveloped fingers) and / or the last apical
hand of banana at the time of bagging.
44
Dehisce
To open spontaneously when ripe.
Dehiscence
The bursting or splitting of fruit (to emit the
seeds) or anther (to emit the pollen grains).
Dehiscent fruits
A type of dry fruit in which the carpels split
along definite sutures at maturity.
Dehydration
Removal of water by sun drying or by artificial
heat under controlled conditions of
temperature humidity, and air flow.
Dehydro- freezing
A process of freezing food where freezing is
preceded by partial dehydration.
De-novo
Arising spontaneously from unknown or very
simple precursors.
Dentate
Toothed leaf margin.
De-potting
Removing the plant from the original container
mainly for repotting.
Desert
Places where the annual rainfall is often less
than 250 mm and with extreme temperature
fluctuations.
Deshooting
Removal of shoots that are unwanted.
Desiccate
To dry thoroughly to remove moisture from an
object to below normal level.
45
Desiccation
The process of drying up of tissues due to excess
water loss or due to conditions that prevent the
entry of water to the roots / shoot.
Dessert
A final course of fruits, puddings or other sweets
at the end of meals.
Dessert fruit
Any fruit which may be served after meals.
Determinant inflorescence
Inflorescence in which the apical flower blooms
first.
Devernalization
Negation of a vernalizing stimulus by
temperatures above a critical level.
Dew-point ( Dew point temperature)
The temperature at which condensation will
start and 100 per cent relative humidity results
in a given mixture of air and water vapour.
Diallel crossing
Crossing of a number of genotypes in all possible
combinations.
Diandrous
Having two-stamens.
Diara cultivation
Cultivation of vegetables in the river beds,
making use of the organic sediments and
subterraneous moisture.
Dibbling
A method of sowing by placing crop seeds in
the holes manually by using a dibbler,
maintaining specific spacing and number of
plants between the rows and within the rows.
46
Dicliny
A condition in which male and female organs are
separate and in different flowers.
Diclinous
Unisexual and requiring two flowers to represent
both sexes.
Dicotyledon ( Dicot)
Class of plants having embryos with two
cotyledons.
Die-back
Death of shoots, originating from the shoot tip.
Differentiation
The process of changes in composition,
structure and function of cells and tissues
during growth.
Digitate leaf
Leaf with many finger like leaflets radiating from
a central point, or joined only at the base.
Dihybrid
Plants that differs by two pairs of genes.
Dimorphic
Exhibiting two distinct forms.
Dimorphism
The occurrence of two types of leaves, flowers or
other structures on a single plant or on different
plants of the same species.
Dioecious
Condition in which staminate and pistillate
flowers are produced on separate plants.
Diploid
A nucleus, organism, or generation that has two
sets of chromosomes.
Disbudding
The removal of vegetative or floral buds.
47
Disc floret
The central regular five lobbed floret of a flower-
head in compositae.
Diseminule
A part of a plant which gives rise to a new plant
(propagule).
Dish garden
The art of making miniature garden by growing
delicate plants in containers such as bowl
shaped drinking cups or a brandy goblet.
Distal
Opposite from the point of origin or attachment;
toward the apex.
Diurnal
Of or during the day; not nocturnal.
Diversified cropping
The cropping plan in which no single crop
contributes to 50 per cent or more towards the
annual crop production or income.
Division
(1) A taxonomic grouping of plants belonging to
similar classes.
(2) The process of cutting into sections of
rhizomes, stem tubers, tuberous roots etc. for
propagation.
Dominance
Ability of an allele to express itself in the
heterozygous state.
Donor plant
See Mother plant.
Door yard fruit
Fruit species grown in small numbers around
homes.
48
Dormancy
Resting state of buds, seeds and spores that fail
to grow when provided with seemingly optimal
conditions.
Dormin
Initial name given to abscisic acid (ABA). A
dormancy inducing substance which has been
extracted from buds and leaves. Also known as
abscisin II.
Double
Term to describe flowers having more than the
usual number of petals.
Double cropping
Taking two crops a year in sequence from the
same piece of land.
Double cross
A cross between two single crosses involving
four different inbreds.
Double fertilization
Union of two male gametes with the female
gamete and polar nuclei.
Double hedge planting
Pairs of row of plants form a double hedge where
the spacing within the rows and between the set
of two rows are close but the spacing between
pairs of rows is wider.
Double leader
Two shoots competing as leaders on a tree, each
trying to assert apical dominance.
Double recessive
An organism with two recessive alleles for a
particular trait.
49
Double working
Type of grafting where the graft combination
contains an interstock between the scion and
the stock.
Downy
Term to describe soft hairs; also called
pubescent e.g. African violet.
Drainage
The process of removal of excess water from the
land.
DRC
Dry rubber content, ascertained by coagulating
a weighed sample of latex.
Drip culture (Sand culture)
A modification of hydroponics where plants are
kept in sand medium and watered with a
nutrient solution.
Drip irrigation (Trickle irrigation)
The application of small quantities of water
directly to the root zone through various types
of delivery systems.
Drought
Lack of moisture that hinders plant growth.
Drupe
A fleshy one-seeded indehiscent fruit with the
seed enclosed in a strong endocarp.
Drupelet
A small drupe as that in an aggregate fruit as
the blackberry.
Dry farming
The production of crops without irrigation on the
land which receives annual rainfall of less
than 500 mm.
50
Dry fruits
Class of fruits in which the pericarp is often
hard and brittle at maturity.
Dry ice
Frozen solid carbon dioxide.
Drying off
The process of preparing bulbs and tubers for
their necessary rest or dormant period by
withholding water.
Dry matter
Remains of the plant after the removal of water.
Dry-pack storage
The storage of cut flowers in vapour-proof
containers, usually at 0oC.
Duff (Litter)
The partially decomposed organic matter (e.g.
leaves, flowers, fruits etc.) found beneath
plants, as on a forest floor.
Dwarfing rootstock
Rootstock which has a dwarfing effect on scion.
Earth vegetables
All forms of vegetables in which food is stored in
underground parts.
Echinate
Having prickles or spines.
Ectocarp
The outer layer of cells of the pericarp or fruit
wall.
Eco-climate
Climate under the crop canopy.
Eco-system
An ecological system involving living and non-
living units where a stable cyclic interchange of
energy and materials occur in a defined space
and time.
51
Eco-type
Plant type or strain within a species, resulting
from exposure to a particular environment.
Edgings
A border of bricks, low shrubs or dwarf
perennials provided to demarcate garden paths
or to make an area more conspicuous.
Effective rooting depth
Soil depth from which the full grown crop
extracts most of the water needed for evapo-
transpiration.
Electronic leaf
Device in a mist system to switch on the mist
as and when the cuttings/plants become dry.
Elite plant
A plant with superior traits.
Elite variety
An improved variety developed by plant breeders
and released to farmers due to it superiority in
at least one respect.
Elliptic
Oval but narrowed towards the rounded ends.
Emasculation
Removal of stamens of self fertile plant to aid self
sterility.
Embryo
The rudimentary plant within the seed.
Embryo culture
In vitro culture of isolated mature or immature
embryo.
Enation
Outgrowth on a plant surface.
Endemic
Peculiar to a particular area.
52
Endocarp
(1) The inner layer of cells of the pericarp or fruit
wall.
(2) The stony part of a drupe or pome.
Endodormancy
Dormancy regulated by endogenous
physiological factors.
Endogenous
Arising from deep-seated tissues.
Endosperm
Triploid food storage tissue of angiosperm seed
resulting from triple fusion.
Endospermic seeds
Seeds with dominant endosperm.
Enemophilous
Desert-loving.
Energy cropping plantation
Growing of crops like casuarina and eucalyptus
for energy purpose.
Enology
The art and science of wine making.
Entire
Without lobes or indentations.
Entomophilous
Insect-pollinated.
Epicarp
Outer layer of fruit wall.
Epicormic shoots
A cluster of shoots, derived from dormant
adventitious buds, on a main stem or branch
after a wound or cut has been made.
Epicotyl
That portion of an embryo or seedling above the
cotyledons.
53
Epidermis
Outermost cell layer of young plants and some
parts of older plants (like leaves and fruits).
Epigeal
Plants in which the cotyledons appear above the
soil surface (See Hypogeal).
Epigeous germination
Germination pattern of seed where the hypocotyl
elongates and raises the cotyledons above
ground level.
Epigynous
Condition in which the perianth and stamens of
a flower are attached above the ovary.
Epinasty
Condition in which the upper surface of a
structure, such as a leaf, grows more rapidly
than the lower surface, causing a downward
curvature.
Epiphyte
Nonparasitic plant growing on another plant,
absorbing atmospheric moisture with the help
of velamen roots.
Episodic growth
Growth occurring in spurts or flushes, as
against continuous growth.
Equable
Uniform, even or smooth.
Eremophyte
Desert plant.
Erratic bearing ( Irregular bearing)
Inconsistent and unpredictable flowering and
fruiting behaviour.
Esculentus
Means ‘edible’ (used in botanical names).
54
Espalier
Plants trained to grow flat against a wall.
Essential oil
Volatile aromatic extracts prepared by steam
distillation of ground spices (See Spice essential
oils).
Estate
A property where rubber, tea, coffee etc. are
cultivated.
Estivation
See Aestivation.
Ethereal oil
Essential oil.
Ethylene
A gaseous plant growth substance, regulating
vegetative growth, fruit ripening and abscission
of plant parts.
Etiolation
Development of plants or plant parts in
darkness, resulting in elongated stem, small
leaves, and reduced chlorophyll content.
Etiology (Aetiology)
The science of the cause or origin of diseases.
Even span greenhouse
A greenhouse whose roof-slopes are of equal
length and angle.
Evergreen
Plants that have persistent green leaves for two
or more growing seasons.
Excised embryo test
Germination test of seeds whose embryos
require long periods of after-ripening.
55
Exhausting
The process of removing air from the contents of
the can, for preserving food and reducing
corrosion.
Exocarp
The outer skin-like region of the fruit pericarp.
Exogenous
Arising from the external tissues.
Exotic plant
A newly introduced plant, not native to a place
(See Indigenous).
Explant
Excised plant part used for tissue culture.
Explantation
The removal of living tissue from an organism
and its culturing in an artificial medium.
Explosive fruit
Fruit which bursts suddenly and violently,
scattering seeds over a considerable area.
Extensive production
Crop production using large area of land with
minimum labour and inputs.
External dormancy
Dormancy imposed by unfavourable external
conditions like moisture stress, extreme
temperature and sub-optimal levels of oxygen
and light.
Ex-vitro
Conditions, reactions or responses of organisms
removed from in vitro conditions. (In Latin ex
vitro means 'from glass’)
Eye
(1) Common term for a bud.
(2) Bud of a tuber.
(3) A lateral bud as on a rose stem.
56
(4) Small opening on a fig which is the site of

pollination.
F1 (First filial generation)
The first generation of offspring resulting from
an arranged cross between selected parents in
breeding programmes (See Monohybrid).
F2 (Second filial generation)
The second generation of offspring resulting
from crosses between individuals of the F1 generation.
Face-packing
Packing fruits for market with the top layer
of the container artistically arranged, while the
fruits below are without arrangement and often
inferior in quality.
Facilitation
The process in which two individual plants or
two populations of plants interact in such a way
that at least one exerts a positive effect on the
other. Double facilitation is equivalent to
mutualism.
Facultative long and short night plants
Plants which do not require a night length longer
or shorter than a given critical length for a
response to occur, but which will respond faster
if the dark period is longer or shorter,
respectively, than a critical length.
Fallow
A system in which cultivated land is left without
a crop for long periods.
False cardamom
See Large cardamom.
57
False fruit (Pseudocarp)

A fruit that incorporates in addition to the ovary
wall, other parts of the flower, such as the
receptacle.
Family
Group of genera.
Fan branches
The main branches of a shrub or a tree
appearing like the leaves of a fan.
Fan-and-pad cooling system
A cooling system, utilized in greenhouses, where
cooling is brought about by evaporation of air
drawn in through wet pads with the help of fans.
Farm forestry
Practice of growing trees specifically for fuel,
food and a variety of other resources on a
farm.
Farming system
Appropriate combinations of cropping systems,
livestock, fisheries, poultry and forestry,
ensuring ecological and socio economic
balances.
Farming system research
Research on farming systems, multi and inter-
disciplinary in nature, to enhance and stabilize
agricultural production.
Fasciation
A malformation in plant shoots resulting in an
enlarged and flattened shoot, as if several shoots
are fused.
Fauna
Pertaining to the animal life of a locality or
region or that existing during a specific
geological period or time.
58
Favism
Haemolytic anaemia caused by eating broad
beans or by inhaling the pollen of its flower.
Feeder roots
Ultimate branches of a root system with a large
absorbing area.
Feni
Fermented wine made from cashew apple in
Goa.
Fermentation
(1) Anaerobic breakdown of organic substances
by microorganisms, producing heat, wastage
gases and a variety of end products.
(2) Process after maceration (rolling) in the
production of tea.
(3) A step in cocoa processing to get rid of the
pulp around the beans and to induce chemical
changes for improving the quality.
(4) A step in processing of parchment coffee
where the mucilage is removed by natural
fermentation.
Fernery (Conservatory)
A greenhouse of tropics which protects plants
from fierce sunlight and strong wind.
Fertilization
(1) The fusion of male and female gametes to
produce zygote, containing chromosomes of both
the parents.
(2) The application of fertilisers to the soil to
increase fertility.
Fertiliser
Substance which supplies mineral nutrients to
plants in required quantity.
59
Fibrous root system

Root system in which primary and lateral roots
develop almost equally and have a limited
quantity of cortex.
Field test
An evaluation test whereby the field performance
of experimental plants, their response to inputs
and physical factors etc. are assessed in
comparison to control.
Filament
The stalk of a stamen or male flower part.
Filiform
Thread-like.
Fimbriate
Bordered with hair, fringed.
Finger
The individual fruit in the hand of a banana
bunch.
Fish leaves
In tea, the first two leaves formed on a shoot as
it grows from a bud.
Flaccid
Wilted.
Flat
Shallow tray made of wood, plastic or metal
with drainage holes for germinating seeds or
rooting of cuttings.
Flat grafting
Grafting in which smooth transverse cut is made
on both scion and stock (as in cactus ) and the
flat surfaces are held firmly in position by thread
or raffia.
60
Fleshy fruits
Class of fruits having soft and fleshy pericarp
at maturity; includes berry, pepo, hesperidium,
drupe and pome.
Fleshy root
A root that accumulates and stores a rich supply
of reserve food for the plant.
Flexuous
With a wavy form.
Flora
(1) The plant life of a locality or of a geological
era.
(2) Plants taken collectively.
(3) A book in which all the plants from a
particular area are described.
Floral concrete
See Concrete.
Floral foam
A water absorbing material (a substitute for pin
holder or wire mesh) used in floral decoration to
keep the cut flowers in place.
Florets
Small, individual flowers that make up a very
dense inflorescence.
Floricane
A flowering and fruiting stem of a bramble, the
season after it was produced (in the season of
production, it is called primocane).
Floriculture
The art and science of growing and marketing
flowering and foliage plants.
Florigen
Hypothetical hormone like substance implicated
in floral initiation in many plant species.
61
Florist
One who is involved in the procurement and
selling of flowers.
Flower
The angiosperm reproductive structure which
may include calyx, corolla, androecium and
gynoecium.
Flower bud
An unopened flower.
Flower bud initiation
Formation of floral primordium.
Flower blasting
Flower bud abortion after the completion of
flower differentiation.
Flower differentiation
Complete morphological differentiation of the
floral organs following flower bud initiation.
Flower initiation
Visible organisation of flower primordia (buds) at
the stem apex.
Flower induction
An invisible developmental process that occurs
prior to visible flower bud initiation.
Floral preservative
Chemical used to prolong the vase life of cut
flowers.
Floral primordium
Very early stage of flower bud.
Florescence
Refers to anthesis or flowering time, the state of
being in bloom.
62
Flotation
A method for separating a valuable material
from a less valuable material by placing them in
a liquid in which one will sink and the other will
float.
Foliar
Pertaining to leaves.
Foliar diagnosis
Estimation of mineral nutrient deficiency or
excess by analysing the chemical composition,
colour and/or growth characteristics of the
foliage.
Foliar embryos
Vegetative embryos developed at the edge of
leaves, capable of growing into new plants.
Foliar feeding
Feeding plants with nutrient solution through
the leaves.
Foliage plant
Any plant grown primarily for its foliage, utilized
for interior decorations or landscaping.
Follicle
Simple dry dehiscent fruit having one locule
which splits along one suture.
Follower
A banana sucker which has been allowed to
grow for bunch production.
Forcing
The manipulation of environment factors for
producing a marketable pot plant or cut
flower, especially during off season.
63
Forest
A plant community, predominantly of trees and
other woody vegetation, usually with a closed
canopy.
Forestry
(1) Management of forest for maximum
sustained yield of their resources and benefits.
(2) The science or management of forests.
Forkert budding
A modification of patch budding where the lower
portion of the patch of the rootstock is not cut
but retained as a flap. The bud patch is
inserted in the portion and the flap is drawn
over the inserted bud, followed by wrapping as
usual.
Form
A member of a population that differs from the
others to a degree not great enough that it can
be called a cultivar.
Foundation planting
Planting of trees, shrubs or ground covers in
front of a building foundation.
Frame work
The ‘skeleton’ of main branches of a tree or
shrub.
Free clones
Clones that can be purchased and resold
without any agreement or prohibition.
Free pollination
Pollination without control. The offsprings are of
unknown parentage.
Free water
Water released by the cell when freezing occurs
in intercellular spaces (See Bound water).
64
Freeze-drying
A method of food processing where the material
is initially frozen at super low temperature and
then vacuum dried.
Freezing agents
Substances used for chilling foods.
Fresh weight (Wet weight)
The weight of a plant or plant part including the
water content.
Frond
General term designating leaf of coconut,
oilpalm, fern etc.
Frost
Minute crystals of ice collected or deposited on
ground or plants when the nights are cold and
temperature falls below freezing point.
Frost damage
Damage caused by low temperature.
Frost day
Day with a minimum temperature less than
0 0C.
Frost injury (Freezing injury)
Injury or killing of plant tissues caused by
exposure to low temperature and consequent
formation of ice.
Frost pocket
A depression in the terrain into which cold air
drains but from which it cannot escape, making
the plants of the area prone to freezing injury.
Fructification
(1) The act of producing fruit.
(2) The production of a reproductive structure.
65
Fruit
A ripened ovary or ovaries with or without
accessory floral parts and / or seeds.
Fruit buds
Buds containing underdeveloped flowers; also
referred to as flower buds.
Fruit butter
Product prepared by boiling screened fruit pulp
with or without adding sugar, fruit juices, and
spices to a semisolid mass of homogenous
consistency.
Fruit confections
General term used to describe candies in which
fruits are used.
Fruit drop
Any substantial dropping of immature fruits.
Fruit growing
The cultivation of edible fruits that are
consumed either fresh or processed.
Fruiting habit
The relative position of fruiting on the shoots of
a plant (See Bearing habit).
Fruit juice concentrate
A fruit juice from which water has been mostly
removed by heating or freezing.
Fruit juice powder
Fruit juice converted into a free flowing, highly
hygroscopic powder by puff-drying, freeze-
drying, vacuum drying, spray-drying or drum-
drying.
Fruit leather
See Fruit paste.
66
Fruit paste (Fruit leather)

A product like fruit butter, but is dried in the
sun or by artificial heat to a solid consistency or
to approximately the consistency of putty.
Fruit preserve
Product made by cooking prepared fruit in sugar
(sucrose) syrup until the concentration of sugar
reaches 55 to 70 per cent. The fruit should be
crisp and retain its form.
Fruit set
Persistence and development of an ovary and/or
adjacent tissue following bloom.
Fruit vegetable
Fruits used as vegetables (e.g. plantain and
tomato).
Fugacious
Falling off soon or fading away.
Full bloom
The plant at the period at which most of its
flowers are blossoming.
GA3
See Gibberellins.
Gametes
Male and female sex cells.
Gametoclone
A plant regenerated from the in vitro cultures of
gametic tissue.
Gametoclonal variation
Variation among the plants regenerated from the
cultures of gametic cells.
Gametogenesis
Sexual reproduction.
67
Garden
A piece of land used for growing flowers, fruits,
vegetables etc. Often used as a place for
recreation.
Garden agriculture
Cultivating crops like vegetables in land more or
less adjacent to settlements, utilising organic
wastes.
Gardening
Cultivation of plants in enclosed areas for
ornamental purposes.
GATT
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade.
Gene pool
All the genes and their different alleles that are
present in a population of a plant.
Genera
Plural of genus.
Generation
A single complete life cycle in the life of a plant
or insect.
Generative nucleus
The nucleus of pollen grains which by division
forms sperms.
Genetic architecture
The general genetic structure of a species.
Genetic breakdown
Loss of vigour and often the early death of F2
plants which lack the necessary adaptive
complexes of either or both the original parents.
Genetic drift
A change in gene frequency from generation to
generation as a result of chance events.
68
Genetic engineering
Technology involving man made changes in the
genetic constitution of cells (apart from selective
breeding).
Genetic purity
Trueness to type /varietal purity conforming to
the characteristics of the variety as described by
the breeders.
Genetic shift
Change in genetic make up of a variety due to
growth for several consecutive generations in
areas outside their adaptation.
Genotype
The genetic make up of a nucleus or individual.
Genus
A group of closely related species ( Genera is the
plural). In a scientific name genus is the first of
the two names given for an organism.
Geocarpy
The development of a fruit beneath the ground
which originates from a flower above the ground.
Geotaxis
Plant orientation with respect to gravity.
Geotropism
Growth in response to gravity.
Germination
The initiation and development of vegetative
growth of an embryo, spore, seed or other
reproductive body, forming a new individual
plant.
Germplasm
A collection of genotypes of a particular
organism.
69
Gestation period
The period taken from germination / planting to
commencing regular flowering and fruiting.
Gibberellins
A group of plant growth substances that
influence cell elongation, cell division and other
physiological processes in plants e.g. GA1, GA2
etc.
Girdling
The removal of a narrow ring of bark from a
shoot, cane, spur or trunk to favour fruit set,
size, and /or ripening.
Glabrous
Lacking hairs or projections; smooth surfaced.
Glace fruit
Product obtained by coating candied fruit with a
concentrated solution of sugar and
confectioners’ glucose syrup, followed by careful
drying to give a transparent glaze to the surface
(See Candied fruit).
Glasshouse
A structure that has a transparent cover and an
artificial heat source for growing plants, mainly
in temperate regions (See Green house).
Glaucus
A surface with a waxy, white coating that can be
rubbed off.
Glazing
Covering of fruit/vegetable with a thin
transparent coating of sugar, which imparts
them a glossy appearance.
Goottee
Synonym for air layering, marcottage,
circumposition, and Chinese layerage
70
Gourmandisers
Strong shoots arising from the stem as in cocoa,
coffee etc.
Grading
The process of sorting into different lots
conforming to certain pre-determined standards.
Graft
Planting material consisting of a scion and a
rootstock.
Graftage
See Grafting.
Graft chimeras
Chimeras produced artificially by grafting or
budding.
Graft incompatibility
The inability of two different plant parts when
grafted together to have a successful, long lived
graft union.
Grafting (Graftage)
Fusing or uniting one part of a plant (rootstock)
with that of another (scion), for producing a
graft.
Grandiflorus
Comparatively large flowered; used in botanical
names.
Gravel culture
Modification of hydroponics where granites of
irregular shape and size are used as the medium
and nutrient solutions are applied.
Gravitational water
Water in excess of the holding capacity of soil;
removed by drainage.
71
Green budding
A method of budding where seedlings of 2-6
months are used as stock while the bud wood is
only 6-8 weeks.
Green bulbs
Bulbs with leaves, used in propagation.
Green house
A structure which protects plants from wind,
precipitation, excessive radiation, extremes of
temperature etc.
Greenhouse effect
The quality of the atmosphere to permit most of
the insolation and prevent back radiation.
[Solar radiation is predominantly of short
wavelengths which passes through the
atmosphere. Terrestrial radiation is of much
longer wavelength and is trapped or reflected by
the atmosphere. The selective transmission of
radiant energy by the atmosphere is similar to
that of the glass in a greenhouse.]
Greenhouse gardening
Growing of unusual and out of season
vegetables, fruits and flowers using greenhouse,
especially under temperate climatic conditions.
Green leaf manuring
The practice of collecting and incorporating
green leaves and tender green twigs into the soil.
Green manure crop
Crop grown and incorporated when succulent, to
improve soil, especially of organic matter.
Green manuring
The practice of growing green manure crops and
incorporating into the soil.
72
Green plants (Foliage plants)

Ornamental plants valued aesthetically for their
foliage.
Green pruning
Pruning of actively growing rose plants without
the benefit of a dormancy period.
Gregarious
Plants of one kind which occur naturally in close
proximity.
Gregarious flowering
Simultaneous flowering as in bamboo, coffee etc.
Grooming
The operation of cleaning out lichens and
mosses which develop on rubber trees during
monsoons.
Ground cover
Plants grown for their low, spreading habit to
prevent the growth of weeds and for protecting
soil.
Ground layering
Layering method where ground is utilized as a
rooting medium.
Ground sucker
A sucker or shoot arising from below the soil.
Growing point
Region at the tips of both stems and roots where
cell division occurs and new cells are formed.
Growth
An irreversible process in which there is an
increase in size, dry weight or volume of an
organism.
Growth hormone
See Plant growth hormone.
73
Growth inhibitor
Any chemical that suppresses plant growth e.g.
CCC; B-9
Growth regulator
See Plant growth regulator.
Growth retardant
A chemical (such as chloro choline chloride or
CCC) that selectively interferes with normal
hormonal promotion of growth, but without
appreciable toxic effects.
Growth ring (Annual ring)
A distinct layer of growth as seen in the cross
section of a woody stem.
Growth stimulant
Any chemical that encourages plant growth.
Growth substance
See Plant growth substance.
Gutta percha
Poly-isoprene obtained from the leaves of
Palaquium oblongifolium.
Guttation
Exudation of water by uninjured plants usually
on the edges or tips of leaves from hydathodes.
Guying
Supporting a tree by use of cables, rope or wires
until root growth is established.
Gynogenesis
See Pseudogamy.
Habit
A characteristic form or mode of growth.
Habitat
Natural home or dwelling place of an organism.
74
Habituation
The acquired ability of cultures to grow and
develop without depending on external source of
plant growth substances.
Hailstorm
Prolonged and severe storm consisting largely of
hail or frozen raindrops.
Half-standard
In floriculture, trees or shrubs grown with
about one metre of clear stem.
Hamper
Container used for shipping gladiolus.
Hand
The two rows of banana fingers, having a
common base in the bunch stalk.
Hand pollination
Pollination done by handbrush or hand.
Hanging basket
A container suspended from a ceiling or wall.
Haploid
A plant with half the number of chromosomes of
the normal diploid.
Hardening
(1) The process of gradually exposing tissue
culture plants to higher temperature and light
intensity and lower relative humidity to make
them establish ex vitro.
(2) The treatments given in the nursery to enable
seedlings /planting materials to withstand the
transplanting shock and/or the adverse
conditions in the main field.
Hardiness
Quality of plants to resist injury from
unfavourable temperatures.
75
Hard pan
An impervious layer in a soil which restricts root
penetration as well as movement of air and
water.
Hard seed
Seeds that have a seed coat impervious to water
or oxygen required for germination
Hard water
Water which contains certain minerals, usually
calcium and magnesium sulphates, chlorides or
carbonates in solution, to the extent of causing a
curd or precipitation rather than a lather, when
soap is added.
Hard wood cutting
Cuttings from hardwood for propagation as in
the case of pomegranate, grape, fig, plum etc.
Harvest index
Yield of the plant parts of economic interest
(economic yield) as percentage of total
biological yield in terms of dry matter.
Haulm
Stems of herbaceous plants as distinct from
hollow culms of grasses.
Heading-back (Heading)
A type of pruning where terminal portion of the
shoot is removed, causing side buds to grow
below the cut.
Head-house
A building in close proximity to or attached to a
greenhouse, used as a workshop, storage area,
pesticide room, potting area, eating area etc.
76
Heart wood
The darker, denser part in the central portion of
a woody stem, consisting of dead elements
which lost their conducting ability.
Heat delay
Delay in the initiation of a flower bud due to an
abnormally high temperature.
Heaving
Occurs during alternate periods of freezing and
thawing, where roots become exposed and
frequently die.
Heavy soil
A soil predominantly composed of clay.
Hedge
Plants grown close together, forming a row of
massed foliage.
Hedge planting (Single hedge planting)
The method of planting where the spacing
between plants within the row is closer than that
between rows.
Heel cutting
Cutting, with a heel (small slice of older wood)
at the base for maximising rooting.
Heel of cutting
The expanded base of a side shoot after
removing it away from the main stem of a plant.
Heeling-in
Placing plants in the ground for temporary
storage (when planting cannot be done
immediately) keeping the roots in contact with
moist soil.
Herb
(1) Plants grown for their flavour, aroma or
medicinal value.
(2) Any vascular plant which is not woody.
77
Herbaceous
Having the characteristics of a herb; not
woody.
Herbaceous cutting
Cutting made for vegetative propagation from
succulent herbaceous plants.
Herbage
Leaves, stems and other succulent parts of
forage plants used as animal feed.
Herbarium
Collection of dried plants, systematically
arranged and labelled.
Herbicide
Substance used for killing or inhibiting the
growth of weeds.
Hermaphrodite
A flower with both stamens and pistils.
Hesperidium
A syncarpous, polycarpellary berry with a
separable leathery rind, characteristic of
orange.
Heterograft ( Xenograft)
An interspecific graft.
Heterophylly
The production of more than one leaf form in a
plant species.
Heterosis
Superiority of the F1 over the parents (Synonym:
Hybrid vigour).
Heterostyly
A condition which favours cross pollination in
bisexual flowers due to the presence of male and
female parts at different levels.
78
Heterotroph
An organism which cannot synthesize its own
food, and hence depends on previously
synthesized foodstuffs.
Heterozygous
Condition where one or more genes on a
chromosome differ from that on the other
member of the chromosome pair.
Hidden hunger
A condition when a plant shows no obvious
symptoms of nutrient deficiency, yet the nutrient
content is not sufficient enough to give the
expected yield.
Hill
A circular area housing several vegetable seeds.
Hip (Hep)
The seed pod of the rose.
Hirsute
Rough, hairy.
Homestead cultivation
Cultivation in the surrounding land of a house,
by the householders.
Homozygous
A condition where all the genes on one
chromosome are similar to all those of the other
chromosome pair.
Hormone
See Plant growth hormone.
Hortensis (Hort.)
Pertaining to gardens, or plants found only in
gardens.
79
Horticulture
(1) Latin, Hortus, “garden”; cultura, “cultivation”.
(2) The art and science of production and
processing of fruits, vegetables, ornamentals,
spices, plantation crops, medicinal plants
and aromatic plants.
Horticultural fruit
A fruit which is edible on ripening.
Horticulture therapy (Hort therapy)
Treatment of unhappy and mentally retarded
people, by diverting their attention to
ornamental gardening, flower decoration and
growing vegetables, fruits and other horticultur-
al crops.
Hot bed
Propagating structure, in temperate regions,
where temperature is enhanced for germinating
seeds, rooting cutting and growing nursery stock
(See Cold frame).
Hot pack ( Hot fill )
Filling of pasteurised or sterilised food, while
hot, into clean (not necessarily sterile)
containers under clean (not necessarily aseptic)
conditions.
House plant
A plant adapted to the micro-environmental
conditions of houses and other buildings.
Humid tropics
The tropical areas with excessive moisture and
relative humidity, characterized by isothermal
conditions which facilitate year round crop
production.
Humification
Process of organic decomposition.
80
Humus
An organic soil material consisting of partially or
completely decomposed plant and animal
matter.
Hybrid
An individual resulting from the union of
gametes differing in one or more genes.
Hybridization
The process of crossing individuals with different
genetic make up.
Hybrid sterility
The inability of some hybrids to produce viable
gametes due to absence of homologous
chromosomes.
Hybrid vigour
The increased vigour over the parental types
exhibited by hybrids.
Hydro-cooling
A cooling method for fresh produce in which the
product is flooded with large volumes of cold
water to remove field heat.
Hydrogen swell
Swelling of food cans due to the hydrogen gas
produced by the action of food acids on the
metal.
Hydro-handling
System of unloading containers and conveying
fruits and vegetables in water to minimize
bruising.
Hydrophilous
(1) Pollinated by water.
(2) Preferring moist places or water as a habitat.
81
Hydrophyte
A plant which lives in water or a moist
environment.
Hydroponics (Soil-less culture)
The technique of growing plants without using
soil, either in circulated, aerated nutrient
solutions or in inert media such as gravel, sand,
peat, vermiculite or saw dust, to which a
nutrient solution is added.
Hydrotropism
Growth movement of plants in response to water
or moisture stimulus.
Hygrochatic process
Opening of fruit or movement of organs as a
result of water uptake; usually connected with
the dispersal of seeds or spores.
Hygrophilous
Living in fresh water or moist places.
Hypobaric (Sub-atmospheric pressure) storage
Storage of agricultural produce in low
atmospheric pressure where the concentration of
oxygen and ethylene are reduced, resulting in
low rate of respiration.
Hypocotyl
The part of the embryo or seedling below the
cotyledonary node and above the radicle or root;
the transition region connecting the stem and
root.
Hypogeal
(1) Plants in which the cotyledons remain below
the surface of the soil (See Epigeal).
(2) Subterranean or occurring beneath the
surface of the soil or underground.
82
Hypogeous germination
Germination in which the cotyledons remain
below the surface of the soil.
Hysteranthous
Developing leaves after the appearance of
flowers, as the almond.
Ikebana
Japanese style of flower arrangement which has
a spiritual and religious background.
Illegitimate clonal seeds
Seeds collected from the budded area of known-
rubber clones; but produced by natural cross
pollination.
Imbibition
Process of absorption of water as by seeds
during germination.
Imbricated
Covered with overlapping scales like tiles on
roof.
Immunity
Natural or acquired resistance of a plant to
active infection by the pathogenic
microorganisms or to the adverse effects of
a particular parasite.
Imperfect flower
Flower lacking either the stamen or the pistil.
Impermeable seed
Seed which does not allow passage of water or
gases through the seed coat (See Hard seed).
Implant
A grafted portion of a tissue.
83
Inarching
A grafting method where rootstock is taken to
the scion donor plant for grafting. Stock and
scion are independent for their nourishment till
the completion of the graft union (Synonym :
Approach grafting).
Inbred
The progeny of either a single cross pollinated
plant obtained by selfing or two closely related
plants obtained by inbreeding.
Inbreeding
The crossing of closely related plants, which
leads to increase in homozygous gene pairs as
well as genetically linked undesirable
characters.
Incompatible varieties
Varieties which do not successfully cross
pollinate or intergraft.
Incompatibility
(1) Condition preventing pollen grains from
functioning on a pistil.
(2) Inability to form a successful, long lived graft
union.
Incomplete flower
Flower lacking one or more of the four sets of
floral parts.
Indeterminate growth
Growth that is potentially limitless.
Indexing
Determining the presence of disease or verifying
the assumption of freedom from disease or virus.
Indexed plants
Plants that have been tested and found to be
free of known pathogens.
84
Indicator plants
Plants which reflect deficiency of plant nutrients,
soil moisture stress etc. indicating the suitability
for growing crops.
Indigenous
A plant that is native to a particular country,
habitat or climate, as distinct from an
introduced plant.
Induced mutations
The mutations artificially produced using
mutagens.
Infilling (Supplying)
The operation of replacing vacant sites in a
plantation with new plants.
Inflorescence
A collective term for flowers when several are
borne on one main axis , as panicle, raceme,
umbel, etc.
Inhibitory polyculture
Polyculture of crop species where there is
undesirable interaction resulting in a net
negative effect on all species.
Insecticidal plants
Plants having insecticidal properties.
Insecticide
Any substance that kills insects.
In situ
In the natural or original position, location or
site.
Insolation
Radiation received from the sun.
85
Integrated pest management

System of pest management blending cultural,
biological and chemical controls along with host
plant resistance or tolerance.
Intensive cropping
Intensive land utilization adopting multiple
cropping, intercropping, frequent succession of
crops etc.
Intercropping
(1) Growing short term crops or dissimilar crops
in the interspaces of the main crop.
(2) Growing two or more crops simultaneously
on the same field.
Intercultivation (Interculturing)
Soil cultivation in a standing crop.
Interfertile
Allowing union of male and female gametes of
different individuals or groups.
Inter-generic hybrid
A hybrid resulting from crossing species of two
or more genera.
Intermediate stock (Interstock)
Stem or root piece present between the
(desirable) scion and original rootstock that
provides the root system. Double grafting is
involved.
Internode
The length of space on a plant stem between two
adjacent nodes or stem joints.
Inter-specific
Between species.
86
Interspecific competition
Competition amongst plants belonging to
different species.
Intra-generic hybrid
A hybrid resulting from crossing between species
within a genus.
Intra-specific
Within species.
Intraspecific competition
Competition amongst plants belonging to the
same species.
Introduction
See Plant introduction.
In vitro
Latin for ‘in glass’. Reactions, responses, or
experiments in an artificial environment in
isolation from the whole organism.
In vivo
Latin for ‘in living’. Biological processes that
occur within the whole, living organism.
Involucre
Collection of bracts or leaves surrounding a
flower or inflorescence.
IPR
Intellectual Property Right.
Irradiate
(1) To illuminate.
(2) To expose to waves of light, heat or nuclear
emissions.
Irregular bearing
See Erratic bearing.
Irrigation
Method of supplying water by artificial means.
Isograft (Syngraft)
A graft between genetically identical individuals.
87
Isolation distance
Distance maintained between the seed crop and
the contaminant plants.
Isolated seed garden
An area planted with selected clones / varieties
and completely isolated from other clones /
varieties by specific isolation distance all round
Jack
(1) Jack tree (Artocarpus heterophyllus).
(2) Japanese tool for bending trunks and
branches (in bonsai culture).
Jam
The product prepared by boiling fruit pulp with
sugar (sucrose) to a moderately thick
consistency.
Jelly
The product prepared by boiling fruit with or
without water, expressing and straining the
juice, adding sugar (sucrose) and concentrating
to such consistency that gelatinisation takes
place on cooling. A perfect jelly is clear
sparkling, transparent and of attractive colour.
Jorquette
The point at which fan branches emerge from
the vertical chupon stem of cocoa.
Juvenile budling
A budling in which the scion is derived from a
young plant, usually less than two years old.
Juvenile period (Juvenile phase/condition)
Early period of plant growth when flowering is
not observed or cannot be induced. Also
characterised by easiness in rooting of cuttings
in difficult to root species.
88
Juvenile plant
A young plant that has not yet gained the ability
to flower.
Juvenility
Juvenile condition.
Kernel
Seed or `stone’ within a shell, or husk of one
seeded fruit.
Kharif
Crop sown just before the south- west monsoon
and usually harvested in August- September.
Kind
One or more related species or sub-species of
crop plants, each individually or collectively
known by one common name e.g. mango,
banana etc.
King of spices
Black pepper (Piper nigrum ).
Knee roots
A root arising above ground level as a result of
flooding or poor soil drainage.
Kniffen
System of training grapevine, named after
William Kniffen. The arms of the vine are tied to
horizontal wire on the same level above the
ground.
Labellum
Lip.
Lacquering
Process of coating the inside of tin cans with
some material ( lacquer) which prevents
discoloration but does not affect the flavour or
wholesomeness of the contents (food inside).
89
Lactiferous
Containing latex (milky sap).
Lanceolate
Lance (sword) shaped.
Landscaping ( Landscape gardening )
Planting and planning of outdoor space to have
harmony between land-forms, architecture and
plants to meet human needs for function and
beauty.
Large cardamom (False cardamom)
Aframomum spp. or Amomum spp., important
cash crop of Sikkim and Darjeeling.
Latent bud
A bud which may usually remain dormant for
indefinite period.
Lateral shoot
A shoot growing sideways to the leader or main
branch.
Latex
Milky fluid found in specialised latex producing
cells, called lactiferous cells, of many higher
plants e.g. rubber tree, papaya.
Lath house
A structure made up of lath or other materials
for storing container grown nursery stock in
shade.
Latitude
The distance measured in degrees north or
south from the equator.
Lawn
An area covered by green carpet of grass and
kept clipped by regular mowing.
90
Lawn mower
Hand operated or power-driven machine used
for cutting the grass in the lawn.
Layering (Layerage)
Method of asexual propagation in which rooting
is induced from stem, branches or roots.
Layout (Layout plan)
A planting plan with respect to land, space, time
and planting materials.
Leaching
The removal of soluble plant nutrients from the
soil by excess water running through it.
Leader
(1) The major supporting stem or trunk of a tree
or shrub.
(2) A shoot selected to form or extend a
branch or trunk.
Leaf bud
A bud that produces only leaves.
Leaf bud cutting
Cutting consisting of a single leaf with the
axillary bud and a small portion of stem.
Leaf cutting
Entire leaf with or without petiole.
Leaflet
One of the ultimate segments of a compound
leaf.
Leaf mould
Partially decayed or decomposed leaves, useful
for improving soil structure and fertility.
Lean to greenhouse
A greenhouse built against the side of another
structure such that it has only one sloping roof.
91
Leavening agents
Substance used in yeast foods to promote the
growth of baker's yeast.
Legitimate clonal seed
A clonal seed of known parentage.
Light saturation
A level of irradiance above which there is no
further increase in net photosynthesis.
Lignin
A complex substance which impregnates the
walls of woody cells.
Limb cutting
Large unrooted stem cutting used for vegetative
propagation as in drumstick
Line
A group of uniform individuals reproduced by
seed from a common ancestry. It is a narrower
group than a strain or variety.
Liner
Nursery stock of small size planted at close
spacing in a bed for rooting, ready for
transplanting.
Liquid endosperm
In coconut, water like liquid filling the entire
cavity of the endosperm when young and
partially filled when fully ripe.
Litter
See Duff.
Living landscape ( Sakai)
Art of growing and developing plants in pots
creating miniature replicas of a natural
landscape.
92
Loam
Soil having reasonably balanced amounts of
sand, silt, and clay. Loam soils contain 7-28 per
cent clay, 28-50 per cent silt, and less than 52
per cent sand.
Lobe
A part or segment of a leaf or petal.
Lobule
A part or segment of a lobe (usually of leaf).
Local variety
A variety well adapted to local environment. It is
endemic to an area with its origin dating back
to several hundred years.
Long day plants
Plants which flower only in daylength which
exceed a particular duration called ‘critical day
length’.
Longevity
Length of time the seed can remain dormant and
still be viable.
Lopping
Pruning or cutting away aerial parts of shrubs or
trees.
Lux
Illumination on a surface of one square meter
at a distance of one meter from a uniform
source of one candela. An old unit for
measuring light intensity (0.0929 foot
candles).
Luxury consumption
The absorption of nutrients by plants in excess
of their need for growth.
Lye-peeling
Peeling of fruits using dilute acid solutions.
93
Mace
Modified mesocarp covering the seed of nutmeg
(See Aril ).
Macro-climate
The climate of a large general region.
Macro nutrients
Elements necessary in relatively large quantity
for successful crop growth; Essential
inorganic nutrient elements such as N, P, K, Ca,
Mg and S.
Maiden
(1) One - year old growth, tree or shrub.
(2) A rose in its first season after budding.
Maiden sucker
A large but non-fruiting ratoon.
Maintenance pruning (tea)
Regular pruning done in tea plantations, in one
to five years to renew the foliage and to regulate
the height of the plucking table.
Malling Merton series
A group of apple rootstocks resulted by crossing
the Malling series with ‘Northern Spy’ to
incorporate resistance to woolly aphis.
Malling series
A group of apple rootstocks evolved at the East
Malling Research Station in England, which vary
very much in vigour. M27 is a popular dwarfing
rootstock of the series.
Mame
Miniature bonsai.
Mame bonsai (Miniature bonsai)
Bonsai using very dwarf plants (5-20 cm).
94
Mango-ginger
Curcuma amada, a spice with the smell of unripe
mango and colour of ginger; commonly used for
pickling.
Manual thinning
Removal of some branches, flower buds, flowers
or fruits by hand (See Chemical thinning).
Marcottage
See Air layering.
Market gardening
Growing an assortment of vegetables for local or
roadside markets.
Maritime climate
Climate influenced by the ocean (or other factors
having the same influence) resulting in mild
temperature and small daily and annual
variations in temperature.
Marmalade
Clear jelly in which slices of fruit or peel are
suspended.
Mat (Hill)
Whole banana plant.
Mattocking
Gradual removal of the pseudostem after
harvesting the banana bunches, for favouring
the uninterrupted growth of the follower sucker.
Mature type budling
A budling in which the scion is derived from a
bud of a mature plant.
Maturity
(1) Stage of full growth, development or ripeness.
(2) Stage at which a plant is capable of
reproducing by seed.
95
Mat watering (Capillary watering)

Irrigation of potted plants by capillarity. The
pots are kept on an absorbent mat which
provides a constant supply of water to the
base of the plants.
Maximum cropping
Cropping for the highest possible production per
unit area per unit time without considering
cost of production or net return.
Maxi stumped budling
A budling of rubber which has been allowed to
grow in the nursery for three to four years and
cut back at two to three metres above the bud
union, for transplanting (See Mini stumped
budling)
Media
Substrates in which plants are grown e.g. soil,
sand, peat, moss, vermiculite, humus etc.
Medicinal plants
Plants yielding secondary metabolites like
alkaloids, steroids, glycosides, coumarins,
flavanoides, etc. which have preventive and
curative properties.
Mericlinal chimera
A chimera in which the outer layer of genetically
different tissue does not extent completely
around the stem, occupying only a segment of
the circumference.
Mericlones
Plants regenerated by meristem culture.
Meristem
A tissue of actively dividing cells, from which
various organs or tissues are developed.
96
Meristem culture
In vitro culture of excised apical meristem.
Mesocarp
The middle layer of cells of the pericarp or fruit
wall; found between the endocarp and exocarp.
Mesophytes
Plants with characteristics intermediate to
xerophytes and hydrophytes and adapted where
moisture and aeration are between the extremes.
Metrolac
A hydrometer used for determining the density
of latex and calculating its drc.
Michie Golledge
A widely used tapping knife of rubber.
Micro-budding
Budding in which the bud piece is reduced to
very small size.
Micro-climate
The local climatic condition around and within
the plant canopy, resulting from the
modifications of the general climatic conditions
by local difference in relief, exposure, cover etc.
Micro-cutting
A tiny cutting from an in vitro culture.
Micro-grafting
(1) Grafting of tiny plant parts.
(2) In-vitro grafting.
Micro-nutrients (Minor elements or Trace elements)
Plant nutrient elements necessary in extremely
small amounts only (usually less than 50 parts
per million) for normal plant growth. These
include B, Cl, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo and Zn.
Micro-habitat
See Microclimate.
97
Micro-plots
Small plots used for the accurate determination
of the comparative performances of varieties.
Micropropagation
In vitro propagation of plants using micro sized
plant materials.
Micro-species
Species of very small size and range of genetic
diversity which may later be considered as
genetic variants of larger species.
Midrib
The main vein of a leaf.
Miniature garden
A rock garden done on a miniature scale, laid in
troughs of concrete, stone or wood.
Miniatures
Cut flowers consisting of several flowers ,
supported on short and branched stems.
Mini stumped budling
Smaller stumped budling of rubber having
brown colour up to 60 cm of the scion (See Maxi
stumped budling).
Minor element
See Micro nutrient.
Mist
A gentle spray of water over the surface of
plants.
Mist chamber
A nursery structure where high relative
humidity is maintained through intermittent
spraying of water for facilitating easy
propagation of cuttings.
98
Mixed Bud
Bud containing primordial tissue for both leaves
and flowers.
Mixed cropping
(1) Growing perennials along with the main crop.
(2) Growing two or more crops simultaneously
without any definite row arrangement.
Mixed farming
Farming involving the raising of crops and
rearing of animals and or poultry; based on the
principle that land should support animals and
vice versa.
Mixed intercropping
Growing two or more crops simultaneously with
no distinct row arrangement.
Mixoploid
Having variable sets of chromosomes.
Modified atmosphere storage
See Controlled atmosphere storage.
Modified leader
System of training trees, intermediate between
central leader and open centre.
Molar solution
One gram molecular weight of a substance
dissolved in one litre of water or solvent.
Monocotyledon (Monocot)
A plant having one cotyledon in the seed.
Monocrop
A cropping system in which the same crop is
grown year after year in the same field.
Monoculture (Monocrop)
A cropping system in which the same crop is
grown year after year in the same field.
99
Monoecious
Condition in which staminate and pistillate
flowers are produced on the same plant.
Monoembryonic
Having seed with a single embryo.
Monohybrid
F1 that is heterogeneous at one locus.
Monotypic
A genus with only one species.
Moribana
`Piled flowers' in which the flower arrangements
are made in shallow containers (One style of
Ikebana).
Moribund
In a dying state.
Morimono
Flower arrangement in combination with fruit
and or vegetables.
Mother block
The parent plants from which cuttings are taken
at regular intervals.
Mother of clove
The ripe fruit of the clove tree.
Mother plant (Donor plant)
The source plant used for propagation.
Mound layering (Stool layering)
Layering in which the new shoots developing
just above the soil surface are mounded
around their base for excluding light and
enhancing root formation.
Mucronate
With short narrow point.
100
Mulch
Material (straw, leaves, plastic etc.) spread on
soil surface for conserving moisture,
stabilizing soil temperature, suppressing weed
growth etc.
Mulch farming
A system of farming in which the organic
residues areleft on the soil surface instead of
ploughing in.
Multiple cropping
(1) Growing more than one annual and /or
perennial crops in the interspaces of the main
crop.
(2) Growing two or more crops consequently in
the same field in the same year.
Multiple cross
A cross among many inbreds with pollination
between desired lines.
Multistory cropping
Growing a friendly combination of crops, having
their canopies intercepting solar energy at
varying heights and roots foraging the soil at
different zones.
Multitier cropping
See Multistory cropping.
Must
Crushed berries and juice.
Mutagen
A physical or chemical agent that is capable of
inducing mutation in organisms.
Mutagenic
Capable of causing or inducing a mutation.
101
Mutant
An organism or gene which has undergone
mutation.
Mutation
A sudden heritable change in the genetic make
up of the cell; can be spontaneous or artificial.
Mutualism (Eusymbiosis)
Form of symbiosis in which two organisms
belonging to different species live in intimate
association to the advantage of both.
Mutation breeding
Artificial creation of mutations and their
utilisation for crop improvement.
Mycorrhizae
Fungi having a symbiotic, non pathogenic
association with the roots of many vascular
plants. They may remain superficial(ectotropic)
or within the host cell (endotropic).
Mycotoxin
Toxin produced by a variety of fungi such as
Aspergillus, Penicillium, Rhizopus and
Fusarium. Ingestion of the toxin containing food
causes the syndrome known as mycotoxicosis.
Nanism
Dwarf growth.
Narcotic
A drug that in mild doses dulls the senses,
relieves pain, and induces profound sleep but in
excessive doses causes stupor, coma or
convulsions.
Nastic movements (Sleep movements)
Reversible and repeatable plant movements
produced in response to stimuli e.g. leaf
movement in Mimosa.
102
Natural rubber
Natural rubber a high molecular weight
polymeric substance with visco elastic
properties, obtained from the latex of plant
species, mainly, Hevea braziliensis. Structurally
it is cis 1, 4-poly isoprene (See Synthetic
rubber).
Necrosis
Tissue browning and drying up due to death of
cells.
Nectary
Any structure that secretes nectar (such as
glands trichomes or stomata like orifices).
Negative tropism
Growth of plant parts away from the source of
stimulus (Roots are generally negatively
phototropic).
Neocarpy
Fruit production by an immature plant.
Neophyosis
Embryo bath
Neoteny
The occurrence (retention) of juvenile characters
in the adult phase or vice versa.
New growth
Growth of the current year.
New wood
The current year’s growth in plants.
Nira
Alcoholic beverage prepared from the juice of
the palm trees.
Node
A joint where both leaves and buds appear on
the stem.
103
Nomenclature
The system of naming plants (See Binomial
system of nomenclature).
Non climacteric fruit
A fruit without a climacteric peak during
ripening (See Climacteric fruit).
Non-recurrent apomixis
Apomixis in which a haploid embryo arises from
the egg nucleus without fertilization.
Nucellar embryo
A true to type somatic embryo developed from
the nucellus.
Nucellar embryony (Adventitious embryony)
A type of apomixis where somatic embryos arise
from a cell or group of cells either in the
nucellus or in the integuments, in addition to
the normal embryo.
Nucellus
A tissue originally making up the major part of
the young ovule in which the embryosac
develops.
Nurse crops
(1) Crops grown during the early years of
plantation crops for providing protection
against wind and frost damages.
(2) Companion crops which nourish the main
crop by way of nitrogen fixation.
Nurse root grafting
Temporary grafting in which the nurse root
sustains the plant till the scion forms its own
roots.
Nursery
A place where young plants are raised and
maintained for permanent planting.
104
Nursery bed
Prepared soil area of convenient size, where
seedlings are raised for transplanting to the
main field.
Nursery business
A business that specializes in the production of
planting materials.
Nursery stock
Trees, shrubs, vines and other plants grown in a
nursery.
Nut
An indehiscent, dry, one seeded fruit having a
hard seed coat.
Nutlet
A little nut.
Nutriculture
See Hydroponics.
Nutrient film technique (NFT)
A water culture technique in which the plant
roots are suspended in shallow circulating
nutrient solutions, delivered as a
continuous film of liquid.
Nux
Nut.
Nyctinasty
Daily nastic movements, especially of leaves
which open during the day and fold at night (See
Nastic movements; Photonasty).
Oblong
Longer than broad with margins nearly parallel
for most of their length.
Obovate
Egg-shaped with broader end upwards.
105
Officinale
Applied to medicinal plants, especially those
used by herbalist.
Offset (Offshoot)
(1) An asexually produced sucker or basal shoot,
bulbil or cormlet.
(2) A young plant that appears naturally on a
parent, and is easily detached and propagated.
Off shoot
A lateral shoot or branch which arises from one
of the main stems of a plant.
Off-type
(1) Any notable deviation from the normal or
standard.
(2) Plant or seed significantly deviating from the
characteristics of a variety.
Off-year
The year in which an alternate bearing plant
does not produce fruits.
Old wood
Ripened wood that is at least one year old.
Oleoresins
See Spice oleoresins
Olericulture
The art and science of vegetable growing.
On-farm research
Research conducted on farms with the active
participation of the farmers.
Ontogeny
The process of development of an organism,
organ or tissue towards maturation.
Open pollination
The free exchange of pollen between flowers and
plants irrespective of flower type or cultivar.
106
Orbicular
Circular or disc shaped.
Orcharding
Commercial production of fruits, mainly from
perennials.
Organic farming
It is a method of farming, utilising organic
inputs, which maintains soil health and
ecological balance.
Organic manure
Carbonaceous materials of plant / animal origin
incorporated in soil for improving fertility and
physical properties.
Organic matter
Carbonaceous materials of either plant or
animal origin, which exists in all stages of
decomposition in soils.
Ornamental Floriculture
The study and cultivation of various groups of
ornamental plants which are used to decorate
indoor and outdoor gardens.
Ornamental Gardening
The study and cultivation of various groups of
ornamental plants which are used to decorate
indoor and outdoor gardens (Synonym:
Ornamental floriculture).
Ornamental Horticulture
The branch of horticulture specializing in the
areas of floriculture, tuft grass management,
nursery stock production and landscaping.
Ornamentals (Ornamental plants)
Plants grown for their aesthetic value rather
than commercial usefulness or food value.
107
Ornithophily
Pollination by birds.
Ortet
The original mother plant or donor plant from
which a group of vegetatively propagated plants
is derived.
Orthodox seeds
Seeds that can be dried to a low moisture level
and which show a loss of viability with the rise
in moisture content (See Recalcitrant seed).
Orthotropic
Vertically oriented, with an upright growth
habit. The antonym is plagiotropic.
Osmosis
The diffusion of liquid through a semi-
permeable membrane.
Osmunda fibre
The root mass of Osmunda regalis (royal fern)
used for potting, particularly for certain
epiphytic orchids and bromeliads.
Otto of roses
Essential oil (volatile oil) used as perfume.
Out-breeding
Crossing of genetically different plants. It is used
to introduce new genes and increase
heterozygosity (See Inbreeding and Heterosis).
Outcross
An off type resulting from the crossing of a
parent plant with a plant other than the
selected parent.
Ovary
The enlarged basal portion of a pistil which
contains the ovules or the seeds.
108
Over budding
Budding done at higher levels for converting an
existing bud wood nursery of a clone to another
clone, without replanting.
Ovule
The structure which develops into a seed after
the fertilization of the contained egg.
Packaging
The process of filling, weighing and sealing bags
or containers.
Packing gases
Inert gases for preventing oxidative and other
changes in foods.
Pallet
Low portable bench used to grow and transport
bedding and potted plants.
Palmate
Lobed, divided in a palm-like manner.
Panicle
An indeterminate branching racemose
inflorescence with stalked flowers.
Paniculate
Resembling a panicle.
Panning
Transplanting or potting of rooted cuttings or
bulbs.
Papain
Water soluble proteolytic enzyme (protease)
present in the latex of unripe papaya fruit. It is
used as a meat tenderizer and has industrial
and pharmaceutical applications.
Pappus
Modified outer perianth segments of a floret in
compositae.
109
Paprika ( Hungarian paprika, Sweet pepper)

A non-pungent variety of chilli belonging to
Capsicum annuum.
PAR
See Photosynthetically active radiation.
Paradormancy
Dormancy initiated by external physical factors
or biochemical signals.
Parasite
An organism that lives and derives its food from
another plant or animal.
Parts per million (ppm)
Unit of measurement used for expressing the
quantity of material in a solution or mixture. In
metric units, one part per million is equal to one
milligram of material in one litre of the solution
or mixture.
Parthenocarpy
Fruit development without fertilization, resulting
in seedless fruit.
Parthenogenesis
Seed development without fertilization.
Parthenogenetic seed
A seed developed by parthenogenesis.
Pasteurization
The selective destruction of some, but not all,
living micro-organisms. Helpful to eliminate
harmful disease organisms and to retain the
beneficial micro organisms. Temperature usually
does not exceed 820C unlike in sterilization (100
0C). Terms are often incorrectly used as
synonyms.
Pathogen
Infectious agent that causes disease.
110
Patio
An open court area in the garden that is usually
covered with concrete, bricks, flag stone or other
materials.
Pea berry
A coffee berry with only one seed instead of the
normal two.
Pectin
Soluble gelatinous polysaccharides in ripe fruits.
Used as a setting agent in jams and jellies.
Pedicel
Flower stalk.
Peduncle
Inflorescence stalk.
Peeper
Very young banana sucker, bearing scale leaves
only, as it appears above the soil surface.
Pepos
Berries having a hard rind around the fruit.
Perennation
(1) Surviving from year to year.
(2) Persistence of fruit long after its usual season
of maturity.
Perennials
Plants which do not perish after flowering but
continue to live for at least three or more years
or seasons.
Pergola
An extension of an arch using climbers in a
garden.
Perianth
A collective term for the floral envelopes, usually
the combined calyx (sepals) and corolla (petals).
111
Pericarp
The fruit wall, consisting of three distinct layers
viz., the exocarp, the mesocarp and the
endocarp.
Periclinal
Parallel to the surface.
Periclinal chimera
Chimera in which genotypically or
cytoplasmically different tissues are arranged
in concentric layers.
Perlite
Small pieces of expanded volcanic rock, used in
potting media.
Permanent sod
A soil management system in which a sod is
periodically mowed but no tillage is carried out.
Petal
A portion of the corolla.
Petiole
Leafstalk.
Petiolule
Stalk of a leaflet.
pH
Negative logarithm of hydrogen ion
concentration.
Phased planting
Spreading the planting of a crop over an
optimum period in order to extend the
availability of a produce for a protracted period
or to minimise competition among the
component crops in intercropping (See Staggered
planting).
112
Phenotype
The external physical appearance of an
organism (without reference to its genetic
nature) resulting from an interaction between
the genotype of the individual and the
environment.
Photoblastic seeds
Seeds in which the germination is influenced by
light. Germination is stimulated by light in
positively photoblastic seeds, and inhibited in
negatively photoblastic seeds.
Photodormant seeds
Seeds which require exposure to light for
germination.
Photomorphogenesis
The non-photosynthetic influence of light on
germination, growth, development and
reproduction.
Photonasty
Nastic movements as influenced by light e.g.
opening and closing of flowers at different parts
of the daily cycle (See Nastic movements).
Photo oxidation
Oxidation of certain cell constituents when light
intensity exceeds a limit, resulting in the
bleaching of chlorophyll and inactivation of
enzymes.
Photoperiod
(1) Day length.
(2) Relative length of time a plant is exposed to
light.
Photoperiodism
The developmental responses of plants to the
relative lengths of light and dark periods.
113
Photorespiration
Respiratory utilisation of photosynthetic
products during day time or light period.
Observed in C3 plants, unlike in C4 plants
which have little or no photorespiration.
Photosynthesis
Synthesis of carbohydrate from carbon dioxide
and water in the presence of chlorophyll, using
light energy.
Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR)
That part of light spectrum (between 400 and
700 nm) which is primarily absorbed by plants
and used in photosynthesis.
Photothermal
Pertaining to combined effects of light and
temperature.
Phototropism
Growth of plants in response to light.
Phreatophyte
Plant having extremely long roots, reaching to
the water table.
Phylachron
The time interval between the production of
successive leaves.
Phyllotaxy (Phyllotaxis)
The radial leaf order around the stem of a plant.
Phylogeny
Evolutionary development of organisms.
Phylogenetic system
System of classification of plants according to
their evolutionary pedigree.
Physiological drought
Non availability of water to the plant due to
unfavourable physiological conditions.
114
Phytochrome
Photosensitive and photoreversible pigment
system in plants.
Phytology
Study of plants.
Phytotoxic
Toxic to plants.
Pickling
The preservation of food in common salt or
vinegar.
Pilose
Hairy with long soft hairs.
Pinching ( Pinching back )
Removal of shoot apex to overcome apical
dominance and promote lateral shoot
development.
Pinholder
Device used for holding cut flowers in position in
a container.
Pinna
Primary leaflet of a compound leaf.
Pinnate
A compound leaf having leaflets (pinnae)
arranged in two ranks, one on each side of a
leaf.
Piquancy
See Pungency.
Pistil
The ovule producing part of a flower which is
composed of stigma, style and ovary.
Plagiotropic
Horizontal or prostrate growth habit (Antonym:
Orthotropic).
115
Plantation
A self contained settlement or estate on which
plantation crops are grown.
Plantation crops
A group of extensively cultivated perennial
crops, demanding plant to plant attention.
Plant ecology
Branch of ecology which deals with the study of
plants in relation to the environment.
Plant growth
A permanent increase is volume, dry weight or
both.
Plant growth hormone
Organic compound, produced in very small
amounts in one part of a plant and transported
to another part where it promotes, inhibits or
modifies physiological processes.
Plant growth substances (Plant growth regulators)
Organic compounds (natural or synthetic) other
than nutrients which in very small amounts
promote, inhibit or modify physiological
processes in plants.
Planter
(1) Machine used for precision drilling, hill
dropping or check - row planting.
(2) A farmer who owns large estate or farm.
Planting board
Device for planting trees in exact position. The
planting board is usually 1.5 m long, 10 cm wide
and 2.5 cm thick with a central notch and one
hole on either end.
Planting distance
The minimum distance between two plants.
116
Plant introduction
A method of plant breeding in which a variety or
a species is brought to an area where it is not
grown before.
Plant murals
A hanging patch of green plants (herbaceous
perennials) on the wall like a hanging picture,
suitable for congested apartments in cities.
Plant tissue culture
In vitro cultivation of plant parts, whether a
single cell, tissue or organ, under aseptic
conditions in defined or semi defined media.
Plastic mulch
Black or transparent polyethylene film used for
mulching.
Plastochron
The time interval between two successive and
similar occurrences e.g. the rhythmic initiation
of leaves by the apical meristem.
Pleiotropy
The condition in which several characteristics
are affected by a single gene.
Ploidy
A general term indicating the number of sets of
chromosomes e.g. diploid = two sets; triploid =
three sets; tetraploid = four sets; pentaploid =
five sets; hexaploid = six sets.
Plucking table
The upper surface of the tea bushes at which
level the flush is harvested.
Plugging
The propagation of turf grass by means of
vegetative sod pieces (pluggs).
117
Plumule
(1) The major young bud of the embryo within a
seed from which develops the aerial portions of
the plant.
(2) Part of the embryonic axis above the
cotyledons.
Pneumatophores
Vertical extensions of the buried roots of certain
trees (e.g. mangroves) in marsh or swamp
habitats. They help for exchange of gases
between the atmosphere and the submerged
roots.
Pod
Dry dehiscent fruit which splits along two
sutures e.g. the fruit of a legume.
Polarity
The phenomenon by which stem cuttings form
shoot at the distal end and roots at the proximal
end and root cuttings form roots at the distal
end shoots at the proximal end.
Pollarding
The cutting back of trees or shrubs close to the
main trunk or ground level resulting in the
production of a number of vigorous new shoots
(See Coppicing).
Pollen grain
Dust like material in the anther which gives rise
to male sperm cells.
Pollination
Movement or transfer of pollen from the anther
to the stigma.
118
Pollinator
(1) The agent of pollen transfer e.g. insects or
wind.
(2) Plant or cultivar needed for fertilization and
fruit set in another plant of the same species.
Polliniferous
Bearing or producing pollen.
Polyandrous
Having an indefinite number of stamens.
Polyculture
The cultivation of two or more species of crops in
such a way that they interact agronomically
(biologically).
Polyembryonic
Containing more than one embryo.
Polyembryony
The presence of more than one embryo in an
ovule.
Polyethylene ( Polythene )
A plastic material. It is extensively used for
covering greenhouses and making containers for
potting plants.
Polyethylene mulch
See Plastic mulch.
Polygamo-dioecious
With hermaphrodite and unisexual flowers on
different individuals of the same species.
Polygamous
Bearing staminate, pistillate and hermaphrodite
flowers at the same time.
Polymorphic
Composed of many different forms.
Polyploid
A condition having more than diploid number of
chromosomes.
119
Pome
Inferior, indehiscent, many-seeded fruit, the
greater part of which is developed from
receptacle of the flower and not from the ovary
e.g. apple.
Pomology
The art and science of fruit growing.
Pot-bound (Root-bound)
Having closely packed mass of roots on a plant
that has grown too large for its container.
Pot layering
See Air layering.
Potential crop yield
Yield of a crop grown under the most ideal
environmental and management conditions.
Potting
The act of planting a cutting or seedling in a pot
containing potting medium (See Depotting and
Repotting).
Potting mixture
Any mixture of soil and additives used for the
potting of plants.
PPM
See Parts per million.
Precipitation
(1) Rain, drizzle, dew, snow, hail, fog or any
other form of water from the sky.
(2) amount of precipitation expressed in depth of
water which would cover a horizontal plane if
there is no run off, infiltration or evapo-
transpiration.
Precocious
Appearing or developing early.
120
Pre-emergence weedicide
A chemical applied to the land to destroy weed
seeds before they germinate.
Pre-packaging
Packing a product in a consumer package by the
wholesaler rather than by the retailer.
Preserve
See Fruit preserve.
Preservatives
Substances used in food processing, capable of
inhibiting, retarding or arresting the growth of
micro-organisms.
Prey crop
The crop grown for eliminating undesirable
plants through physical or allelopathic effects.
Primary branch
A branch arising from the trunk of a tree.
Primary flower, fruit
The terminal flower or fruit in the central axis of
the flower or fruit cluster.
Primary plant foods
See Major nutrients.
Primary root
The root developing directly from the radicle.
Processing
Preparing for future use as in canning, freezing,
preserving and dehydrating.
Processing technology
A branch of Horticulture, dealing with the post-
harvest handling, storage and processing of
horticultural produces.
Procumbent
Trailing over the ground, but not rooting.
121
Productivity
The yield or biomass production capacity of a
plant per unit area per unit time.
Progeny
Plant derived from the seed of a parent plant.
Proliferous
Bearing adventitious buds on the leaves or in
the flowers which can root and form separate
plants.
Propagule
Any structure, sexual or asexual that becomes
separated from the parent plant and serves as a
means of propagation.
Propagulam
Propagule.
Proprietary clones
Clones distributed under agreement with certain
estates or institutions which can be multiplied
but are not re-saleable.
Prostrate
Lying close to the ground surface.
Protandry
Condition where the male organ matures earlier
than female organ in bisexual flowers.
Protected cultivation
Cultivation of crops in artificial structures
providing ideal micro climate and acceptable
growing conditions.
Protoclones
Plants regenerated from protoplasts.
Protocorms
Small corm like bodies arising from orchid
explants cultured in vitro.
122
Protogyny
Condition where the female organ matures
earlier than male organ in bisexual flowers.
Protoplast
A cell from which the rigid cell wall has been
removed, using cell wall digesting enzymes.
Proximal
(1) Situated near the point of reference.
(2) Next to the point of origin or attachment.
(3) Away from the apex.
(4) Opposite of distal.
Prune
Dried plum.
Prune fruits
Fruits of the plants of Rosaceae family which
have many central seeds in each fruit.
Pruning
Selective removal of plant parts such as buds,
shoots and roots to maintain a desirable form
and to improve plant health and fruit yield.
Psammophyte
Plant that grows in sand.
Pseudo-bulb
Specialised storage structure of many orchid
species consisting of an enlarged fleshy section
of stem with one or more nodes.
Pseudo-carp
See False fruit.
Pseudo-hermaphrodite
Functional unisexuality in the presence of
apparently well developed stamens and pistils.
Pseudo-stem
(1) A type of shoot arising from an underground
rhizome, consisting of overlapping petioles.
(2) The shoot of a banana plant.
123
Psychrometer
Instrument to measure the humidity of the
atmosphere.
Psychroxerophyte
A drought resistant plant growing in cold
regions.
Pterocarpus
Having winged fruit.
Pterocaulous
Having winged stem.
Pungency (Piquancy)
Sharp, stinging or biting quality of a spice or
condiment, while tasting.
Pure line
Descendants of a single homozygous plant.
Pyrene
A hard, stony endocarp enclosing one or two
seeds.
Pyrethrum
An insecticide prepared from the dried flower -
heads of Chrysanthemum cinerarifolium and C
roseum.
Quadruple cropping
Growing four crops a year, in sequence.
Quality
(1) Various factors including flavour, texture,
colour, appearance, odour and food
value that influence the produce.
(2) Characteristic that helps in differentiating a
product regarding its acceptability to the
consumer.
124
Quarantine
(1) The isolation of plants to determine whether
diseases or insect pests are present, in order to
prevent infestation to healthy plants.
(2) Regulation forbidding sale or shipment of
plants, to prevent disease or insect invasion in a
specific area.
Queen of Spices
Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum).
Quiescence (Eco-dormancy)
Period of non-visible growth caused by
unfavourable environmental conditions like
cold temperature or drought (Dormancy is
subdivided into rest and quiescence).
Quonset type greenhouse
Greenhouse having semi-round roof. Ideally,
30m long and 10 m wide with 2.5 m sides and
4.0 m centre and covered with fibre glass or poly
sheets.
Raceme
An inflorescence consisting of a long main axis,
bearing stalked lateral flowers, the lowest
opening first.
Radicant
Rooting, with reference to roots developing from
stems or leaves.
Radical
(1) Proceeding from or pertaining to the roots.
(2) Of leaves arising from the base of a stem, or a
rhizome.
Radicle
(1) The rudimentary root of the embryo, which
forms the primary root of the young seedling.
(2) Lower portion of hypocotyl.
125
Rain forest
Tropical forest developed under fairly high r
rainfall.
Rambling
Straggling, climbing.
Ratoon
(1) New tillers , suckers or plants arising from
the root, crown or rhizome of plants, which will
be utilised for a subsequent crop.
(2) To send up new shoots after being cut down
or cropped.
Ratoon crop
The crop produced from the suckers of an
original planting as in pineapple and banana.
Ratooning
An intensive cropping in which more than one
harvest is obtained, as the ratoons are retained
after the harvest of the first crop.
Ray floret
The outer strap-shaped floret of a composite
flower.
Recalcitrant seeds
Seeds that lose viability when dried below a
certain critical moisture level, which is
comparatively high for ordinary seeds.
Recalcitrant seeds are short lived (See
Orthodox seeds).
Reclaimed rubber
Obtained by treatment of vulcanised rubber to
make it reusable as a raw material in the same
manner as raw rubber.
Recurrent flowering
The successive production of several crops of
flowers during one season.
126
Re-differentiation
Regeneration of organs from the callus mass.
Reforest
Establishment of forests on land from which
trees have been removed by felling, fire etc.
Rejuvenate
Renewal of growth and vigour of plants by
selective pruning, fertilisation, soil management,
plant protection measures, treatment with plant
growth substances etc.
Rejuvenation
Stimulation of new growth on old plants
usually accompanied by pruning.
Rejuvenation pruning
Pruning done for rejuvenating plants.
Relative humidity ( R.H.)
The amount of water vapour present in the air,
expressed as a percentage of the maximum
water vapour that the air would hold at the
same temperature and pressure.
Relay intercropping
Growing two or more crops simultaneously
during part of the life cycle of each.
Renewal pruning
Pruning of a tree or shrub for constant supply of
young shoots or for maintaining vigour and
flowering.
Reniform
Kidney-shaped.
Re-potting
Transfer of a plant from one pot to another filled
with fresh potting mixture.
127
Reserve roots
Dormant roots which would take up active work
when necessary arise.
Resins
Water insoluble complex oxidation products of
various essential oils which normally oozes
out through the plant bark and hardens on
exposure to the air.
Rest
Condition in which growth will not occur due to
physiological reasons, despite the presence of
favourable environmental conditions (See
Dormancy).
Rest period
Period of non-visible growth.
Retting
Process of fermentation for separating fibre from
coconut husks by submerging them in water in
tanks, ponds or streams.
Rhizobium
A bacterium which can infect legumes in a
symbiotic relationship and fix atmospheric
nitrogen.
Rhizocarpous
Having a perennial root but an annual stem.
Rhizome
Underground horizontal stem, serving as storage
organ and capable of producing new shoots and
roots at the nodes.
Rhizomatous
Producing or bearing rhizomes.
Rimose (Rimous)
Having numerous clefts of tissues as the bark of
trees.
128
Rind
(1) Tough, external covering or layer of fruits and
stems.
(2) Outer layer of the bark of a tree.
Ring barking
See Girdling.
Ringing
Removing a narrow strip of bark round the
periphery of the stem to prevent downward
translocation of food beyond that point.
Ripeness
State of complete maturation, prior to the onset
of senescence.
Ripening
Composite changes occurring in fruits after the
end of the maturation period and by the
beginning of senescence.
Ripening hormone
Ethylene (C2H4) is known as the ripening
hormone.
Rockery (Rock garden)
A garden constructed with boulders or rock
pieces and soil where annuals, succulents, bog
plants and ferns are grown. The term is derived
from the words ‘rocks’ and ‘cries’.
Rod
The main, woody stem of a vine.
Rogue
An off-type or undesirable plant present in a
standing crop.
Roguing
The process of removing undesirable or off-type
plants from a standing crop.
129
Roller
The traditional machine for macerating tea.
Rolling
Method of firming and smoothing ground
surface, following seeding of a lawn.
Roof gardening (Terrace gardening)
Gardening on the flat roofs or terraces of
buildings.
Root
Vegetative plant part which anchors the plant,
absorbs water and minerals in solution and
often stores food.
Root-bound
See Pot-bound.
Root cap
A protective mass of cells located at the root tip
which help protect root cells in that area as the
root pushes through the soil.
Root crop
Crop plants in which the reserve foods are
stored primarily in enlarged roots e.g. sweet
potato.
Root cuttings
Cuttings of the roots of plants, used for
propagation.
Root grafting
Grafting where roots are used as the rootstock
(Synonym: Bench grafting).
Root-hairs
Unicellular outgrowths from the epidermis of
young roots, immediately behind their root tips,
useful for absorbing water and nutrients from
the soil.
130
Rooting hormone
Chemical used to encourage faster rooting or
encourage rooting of more cuttings e.g. IBA,
NAA, IAA etc.
Rootings
Rooted cuttings.
Root medium
A suitable substrate in which plant roots can
grow. It consists of one or more mineral and/or
organic components mixed together.
Root pressure
Pressure generated in the root and stem of
plants, partially accounting for the rise of
water in plants.
Root pruning
The practice of cutting back roots prior to re-
potting or transplanting to stimulate root
branching and growth.
Root stock (Under stock)
A seedling or other plant part on which the scion
is grafted or budded.
Root sucker
A shoot arising from the root of a plant.
Rosemary
An evergreen fragrant shrub Rosmarinus
officinalis with leaves used as a culinary herb,
in perfumery etc.
Rose sick soil
Soil in which roses will not grow well due to
their continuous cultivation for years.
Rosery
A rose garden.
131
Rosette
(1) A radiating cluster of basal leaves.
(2) Bunchy or rosette appearance in many plants
due to profuse leaf development with retarded
internode growth.
Rotation
See Crop rotation.
Row intercropping
Growing two or more crops simultaneously
where one or more crops are planted in rows.
RTS (Ready-to-serve)
A fruit beverage which can be served without
diluting.
Rubber
Natural or synthetic substance characterised by
elasticity, water repellence, and electrical
resistance.
Rubber honey
Honey produced from the extra floral nectary
glands at the end of the petiole (where the
leaflets join) of the rubber tree.
Runner
A horizontal, specialised above-ground stem that
gives rise to new plants from the nodes touching
the ground.
Russet
(1) Brownish rough area on the skin of fruits due
to abnormal production of cork, caused by
disease.
(2) Apple varieties having natural russet
coloured skin.
132
Saddle grafting
Grafting in which the root stock is shaped in the
form of a wedge and a cleft is made in the scion
for effecting successful graft union.
Sakai (Living landscape)
Art of growing and developing plants in pots
creating miniature replicas of a natural
landscape.
Salad crops
Crops, the produce of which are consumed raw.
Samara
An indehiscent dry fruit, having flattened wing
like outgrowth from pericarp.
Sand culture
A kind of hydroponics where plants are kept in
sand medium and supplied with a nutrient
solution.
Sap
Juice or fluid substance, circulating through the
vascular tissues of a plant.
Sapling
Young seedlings of trees.
Saprophyte
Plant which lives on dead or decaying organic
matter.
Sap wood
The young, living, light coloured outer annual
rings of a tree.
Sarcocarp
Mesocarp.
Sarment
A runner or stolon.
Savanna
Grassland with scattered trees.
133
SC1, SC2, SC3 etc.

Subsequent generations of somaclone.
Scaffold branches ( Scaffold limbs)
The main support branches of a tree arising
nearest to the ground.
Scale
A small often dry leaf or bract.
Scalping
Close mowing of lawn to remove the major
portion of foliage.
Scandent
Climbing.
Scansorial
Having the habit of climbing.
Scape
The leafless peduncle of a flower which arises at
or near the ground, as in the tulip.
Scapiflorous
Having flowers borne on a scape.
Scar
(1) A mark on a stem which marks the former
attachment of a leaf, bud, flower or fruit.
(2) The hilum of a seed.
Scarification
Chemical or physical treatments given to some
seeds in order to weaken the seed coat for
facilitating germination.
Scientific name
Internationally accepted Latin name of an
organism consisting of genus, species, varieties
and forms and their subdivisions which avoids
confusion while using common names (See
Binomial system of nomenclature).
134
Scion
(1) Shoot or bud grafted or budded on a root
stock.
(2) The upper part of the union of a graft.
Scooping
Removing the basal plate of a bulbous plant with
the help of a scalpel or blade and exposing the
cut surface of the bulb scale for propagation.
Scout harvesting
Collection of the small amounts of first formed
fruits from young oil palms in areas where
ablation has not been carried out.
Secateur
A handy garden tool used for pruning small
branches.
Secondary clone
The vegetatively propagated offspring of a
primary clone.
Secondary compounds
The compounds produced in the plant body as
by-products of primary metabolic pathway e.g.
hydrocyanic acid (HCN) in cassava.
Secondary dormancy
Dormancy observed for a second time in a seed
when it is exposed to unfavourable
environmental conditions after becoming
imbibed.
Secondary metabolites
See Secondary plant metabolites.
135
Secondary plant metabolites

Plant metabolites, produced as the by-products
of the primary metabolic pathway, used for
protection and better adaptation to the
environment e.g. alkaloids, terpenes,
glycosides and tannins.
Secondary plant nutrients
Calcium, magnesium and sulphur are called
secondary plant nutrients as they are not
included in straight commercial fertilisers.
Seed
A mature ovule consisting of an embryonic plant
together with stored food and surrounded by a
protective coat.
Seed-at-stake
In situ sowing of seeds.
Seed bed
A well prepared land of convenient dimensions
for sowing or planting.
Seed certification
Field inspections and seed tests to ensure
genetic and physical purity and good
germination of seed lots, and issuance of a
certificate to that effect.
Seed hardening
Subjecting seeds before sowing to alternate
cycles of wetting and drying to induce tolerance
to drought.
Seed leaf
See Cotyledon.
Seedling
Young plant grown from seed.
136
Seed longevity
The period for which the seeds will remain
viable.
Seed piece
Pieces cut from stem and used for vegetative
propagation.
Seed processing
Process involved in the preparation of harvested
seed for marketing.
Seed rate
The quantity of seed required for sowing in a
unit area of land.
Seed technology
The science dealing with the production,
harvesting, processing, testing, packaging and
marketing of seeds.
Self-compatible (Self-fertile)
A plant that is capable of reproducing sexually
by itself.
Self-fertilization
Fertilization of an egg by a pollen grain from the
same plant.
Self-incompatibility
Inability to be self-pollinated or self-fruitful.
Self-pollination
Pollination with pollen from the same flower,
from other flowers of the same plant, or from
other flowers of plants with the same genetic
constitution (from the same clone).
Self-sterile
Incapable of reproducing sexually by self
fertilization.
137
Semi-hardwood cutting
Cutting made from newly matured stem with
some bark.
Semi-hardy plants
Plants which are less resistant to frost.
Senescence
(1) The aging process of an organ or organism.
(2) Irreversible changes associated with the
ripening of a fruit leading to its death.
Sepal
A segment of the calyx, or outermost floral part,
which is normally green in colour.
Separation
Propagation using naturally detachable parts
like bulbs and corms.
Sequential cropping
Growing two or more crops in sequence on the
same field per year. There is no intercrop
competition since crop intensification is only on
the time dimension.
Sequestrants
Substances used to suppress the action of some
objectionable but practically unavoidable
ingredients in solution.
Serpentine layering
See Compound layering.
Serrate
Saw-tooth edge shape.
Service area
An area of a landscape set aside for necessary
family use such as garbage storage, wood
storage or clothes drying.
Sessile
Without stalk.
138
Sett
Portion of large tubers bearing one or more
dormant buds or ‘eyes’ or small bulbs, used for
propagation.
Sex dimorphic palm
In coconut, palms which produce pure male
inflorescence during certain months and during
other months they produce both male and
female flowers.
Sex reversal
Phenomenon in plants like papaya where the sex
of plants are changed, permanently or
alternatively.
Shade net
Net woven from synthetic fibres to provide
shade levels ranging from 20 to 90 per cent.
Shade house
Plant-growing structure used to shelter plants
from excess sunlight (See Lath house).
Shade trees
Fast growing trees which provide shade to many
crops in the tropics like coffee, tea and cocoa
and to some orchards for their growth and
development.
Shaping
A horticultural operation in perennial herbs and
foliage plants , involving pruning, clipping or
trimming of young branches for keeping them
compact and elegant looking.
Sheathing
Surrounding base of stalk, either leaf-like or
membranous.
139
Shield budding ( T budding)

Budding where T shaped cut is made on the
rootstock and the scion in the form a shield, is
inserted under the two flaps of bark and the bud
union is tied by exposing only the bud.
Shoot
Collective term for stem and its leaves.
Short-day plants
Plants which flower only in daylengths shorter
than a particular duration called ‘critical day
length’.
Shot
See Peep.
Shrub
Woody perennial plant, low in stature with a
habit of branching from the base and with
bushy appearance.
Shrub land
Ecosystem in which relatively small ( up to 6 m
), woody, usually multistemmed, densely
branched vegetation dominates.
Side dressing
The application of fertilisers along the side of a
row or around a plant.
Side grafting
A method of grafting where an angular cut is
made on one side of the stock, and the scion
wood having slanting cut on both sides is
inserted into this cut.
Silviculture
The art and science of cultivating forest crops.
Simple fruit
A fruit formed from single ovary without other
parts adhering to it.
140
Simple layering
Layering method where ground or containers
filled with medium is used for inducing rooting.
Single cross
A cross between two inbreds.
Sink
Plant part receiving translocated sugars and
other metabolites synthesized or stored in other
parts.
Sion
See Scion.
Skiffing
Pruning in tea at a high level to remove
congested stems and resume flushing after a
short interval.
Skim latex
The residual liquid of very low drc, being the by-
product of concentration of normal latex by
centrifuging.
Skim rubber
Rubber made from skimmed latex.
Skinning
See Peeling.
Slaughter tapping
All out bleeding of the rubber tree to obtain the
maximum latex yield without regard to trees,
which is adopted one or two years before
replanting.
Sleepiness
Condition in flowers where petals curve upward,
exhibiting wilted appearance.
Sleeves
Polythene covers used for raising seedlings or
cuttings.
141
Slips
(1) Herbaceous or softwood cuttings.
(2) Shoots borne on the stem below the fruit of
pineapple and which are used for vegetative
propagation.
Small cardamom
See True cardamom.
Small fruits
Fruits produced by plants of small stature. Also
called soft or berry fruits.
Smother crop
See Prey crop.
Snag
A short stump of a branch left after incorrect
pruning.
Social forestry
Programme of forestry development and
conservation through mixed plantations in waste
lands and re-afforestation of degraded forests.
Social gardening
Plant husbandry having recreational, social,
educational and economic values other than
those covered by social forestry and Agriculture.
Sods (Turfs)
Pieces of earth with grass cover used for turfing.
Sod culture
System of soil management wherein the plants
are grown in permanent grass without tillage.
Soft fruits
See Small fruits.
Soft pinch
The removal of only a portion of a shoot
terminal at a point where the tissue has not
become woody.
142
Soft wood cuttings

Cuttings taken from soft, succulent, new growth
of woody plants.
Soil-less plants
See Hydroponics.
Sole crops
A crop grown in pure stand at optimum
population density.
Somaclonal variation
Variation among plants regenerated through
tissue culture.
Somatic embryogenesis
Development of embryos from vegetative cells.
Somatic hybrid
Hybrid cell or plant resulting from the fusion of
two somatic cells belonging to different
genotypes, varieties or species.
Somatic mutation
Mutation occurring in vegetative cells or tissues.
Spacing
The distance between crop rows (inter-row
spacing) and between plants within the row
(intra-row spacing).
Spadix
An elongated, fleshy flower spike with small
flowers, surrounded by a spathe.
Sparkling wine
Wine containing carbon dioxide.
Specialized cropping
A cropping plan in which a single crop
contributes to 50 per cent or more of the
annual production or monetary receipt.
Speciosa
Handsome; showy (used in specific names).
143
Species
Closely related groups of plants which are sub
divisions of a genus.
Spectabilis
Remarkable, conspicuous (used in specific
names).
Spheroplast
A cell from which most of the cell wall has been
removed.
Spicate
Spike like.
Spice essential oil
distillation of ground spices.
Spice oleoresins
Volatile and non-volatile resins extracted from
spices by suitable food grade solvents.
Spices
Plants, the products of which are used as food
adjuncts to improve aroma and flavour (See
Spices and condiments).
Spices and condiments
Natural plant or vegetable products or their
mixture, used in whole or ground form for
imparting flavour, aroma and piquancy to food
and also for seasoning of foods.
Spike
A common name for a narrow elongated
inflorescence.
Spikelet
The unit of the panicle.
Spindly
Characteristic of some plant growth when placed
in areas of low light intensity.
144
Spine
A woody sharp pointed organ arising from a
stem or leaf.
Splice grafting
A grafting method where a long slanting cut is
made at the base of the scion and a similar cut
is made at the top of the stock and kept in close
contact by tying together.
Split
A flower having a split calyx, in which the petals
protrude from the split.
Spore
‘Seed’ of ferns.
Sport (Bud sport)
A plant or portion of a plant that arises by
spontaneous mutation.
Sprig
A small branch, shoot or twig.
Sprigging
Propagation by rhizomes or stolons placed in
shallow furrows or small holes.
Sprout
The new growth from seeds or vegetative
planting materials.
Spudding
Removal of weeds by cutting off below the soil
surface.
Spur
A slow-growing short branch of a tree with short
internodes that carries cluster of flower buds.
Squash
Fruit beverage containing at least twenty five per
cent fruit juice or pulp and forty to fifty per cent
145
Stacking
Fixing proper stakes for giving support to weak
plants.
Staggered planting
Spreading the planting of a crop over an
optimum period in order to extend the
availability of a produce for a protracted period
or to minimise competition among the
component crops in intercropping.
Straggling
Growing long and weedy.
Stamen
The pollen producing male part of flower
consisting of an anthers and filaments.
Standards
Living or non-living supports used for trailing
vine crops.
Starter solution
Nutrient solution used for dipping seedlings
while transplanting.
Stenospermocarpy
Development of seedless fruits, consequent to
embryo abortion.
Sterilization
The process of making things sterile through
(1) Rendering plants non-productive.
(2) Killing of weeds and other parts in soil with
heat or chemicals.
(3) Complete destruction of micro organisms as
in processing of fruits and vegetables.
Stigma
The part of the pistil to which pollen adheres.
146
Stimulatory parthenocarpy
Parthenocarpy in which pollination or pollen
stimulus is required.
Stion
Combination of root stock and scion growing
into a single plant.
Stionic effect
The reciprocal effects of stock and scion on each
other.
Stipule
A leaf-like or membranous organ found at the
base of leaves.
Stock (Root stock, Understock)
A seedling or other plant part on which the scion
is grafted or budded.
Stock
A group of closely related plants.
Stock plant
The source plant from which cuttings, layers,
scions or explants are obtained.
Stock sprout
A shoot or sprout appearing from the rootstock.
Stolon
Runners or stems that develop roots and shoots
at nodes.
Stoloniferous
Having suckers or runners.
Stomata
Pores surrounded by guard cells utilised for the
exchange of gases in leaves and stems for
photosynthesis.
Stone fruits
Members of the Rosaceae family which have only
one seed per fruit.
147
Stool
A clump of plants formed at the base of the
mother plant as in chrysanthemums.
Storage industry
Industry dealing with the extension of the shelf
life of horticultural produces.
Strain
A group of plants within the variety which differs
from it in one or more genetic or physiological
characters other than the main morphological
characters.
Strap leaves
Abnormal strap like leaves, partially or
completely missing the margins.
Stratification (Moist chilling)
Chilling of seeds under moist conditions to
break dormancy.
Stress
A potentially injurious force or pressure acting
on the plant which may lead to injury or death.
Strip intercropping
Growing two or more crops simultaneously in
different strips wide enough to permit
independent cultivation but narrow enough for
the crops to interact agronomically.
Stump
(1) Plant whose stem has been cut back to a
height suitable for transplanting to the field.
(2) Stalk on which pineapple fruit is borne.
Stumped budling
A budling which has been allowed to grow in
the nursery for prolonged period and cut back at
a convenient height for transplanting (See Mini
stumped budling and Maxi stumped budling).
148
Style
The extension from the ovary which supports the
stigma.
Sub-atmospheric pressure storage
See Hypobaric storage.
Sub-culture or passage
The process of transferring cultures from one
vessel to another, having fresh medium.
Suberization
The formation of a complex wax like substance
in the cell walls of wounded or cut plant tissue
to reduce water loss and protect the area.
Sub-humid
Climate or region where the moisture content is
below that of humid conditions but still
adequate enough for growing many crops
without irrigation.
Sub-lateral shoot
A shoot growing sideways to the lateral shoot.
Subordination
Severe heading back of all but one of the
multiple leaders to restore apical dominance.
Subsistence crop
Crop grown in problematic conditions, when no
other crop can be grown e.g. floating-rice in
flood prone areas.
Subsistence farming
The farming to provide food and commodities
just sufficient for the farming family and not
capable of generating surplus to sell.
Sub-soil
That layer of soil directly below the top soil.
149
Substitution cropping
The substitution of an existing inefficient crop
with an identical efficient crop.
Subtropical
Climate or region where occasional light frosts
occur.
Successive planting
Planting at varied dates for extending the
harvest period.
Succulent
Plants with fleshy leaves and stems, usually
tolerant to water stress.
Sucker
(1) An off-shoot that develops from an
adventitious bud of the roots or lower stem of a
plant.
(2) Shoot growing in the axils of leaves
(pineapple).
(3) In rose, a shoot growing from the rootstock.
Sun-curing
The process of drying in sun.
Sunken garden
A garden laid below the ground level.
Sunscald
The burning of a plant’s foliage by the sun.
Super cooling
Cooling below the freezing point without
solidification.
Support crops
Fast growing crops which work as support to
vine crops (See Standards).
Sweet pepper
Capsicums (See Paprika).
150
Swell
Bulging of the ends of a can which was
apparently normal and perfect with good
vacuum (Synonym: Blower).
Sword sucker
A banana sucker bearing narrow sword leaves
and attached to the mother rhizome.
Sympodial
A zig zag or irregular form of growth.
Syconium
The fruit of a fig.
Syconus
A multiple hollow fruit, consisting mainly of the
much enlarged receptacle of the inflorescence
e.g. fig.
Symbiosis
An intimate physiological association of two or
more species resulting in mutual benefit e.g.
Rhizobium bacteria on the roots of legumes.
Synergism
An activity of two or more agents in such a way
that the total effect is greater than the sum of
the independent effects.
Synthetic cross
A cross among many inbreds , clones or sibbed
lines without control of pollination (Synonym:
polycross, Strain building).
Synthetic rubber
Rubber produced synthetically from unsaturated
hydrocarbons (See Natural rubber).
Syringing
The use of a high pressure spray of water to
prevent wilting and to encourage growth.
151
Syrup
Fruit beverage containing at least twenty five
per cent fruit juice or pulp and sixty five per cent
Syruping
The process of using sugar solution (syrup) in
canning of fruits to improve the flavour and to
serve as a heat transfer medium for facilitating
processing.
Systemic
Spreading throughout the vascular system of a
plant.
Systemic insecticide
Any insecticide that is applied to the soil in
soluble form and absorbed by the plant’s roots
and which is designed to kill most of the sucking
insects.
T Budding ( Shield budding)
Budding where T shaped cut is made on the
rootstock and the scion in the form a shield, is
inserted under the two flaps of bark and the bud
union is tied by exposing only the bud.
Tabasco chilli
See Bird chilli.
Tailing
Tap root pruning (rubber)
Tamp
To firm the soil or sand around a tree or
constructional material.
Tannin
(1) Organic compounds present in some plants,
chiefly glucosidal in nature, that cause an
astringent taste.
152
(2) Polyphenol compound in tea leaves. It is the

second most valuable constituent of tea, after
caffeine.
Tapping task
The number of trees to be tapped by a tapper in
a day.
Taproot
Root originating from the radicle in
dicotyledonous plants, growing vertically
downward and providing anchorage to the plant.
Tasselled
Disc-like pattern.
Tea cream
The milky deposit which forms in an infusion of
tea on cooling due to interaction between
caffeine and phenols.
Temperate fruit
A fruit plant which requires a cool period and is
deciduous e.g. apple, pear and peach.
Temperate vegetables ( Cool season vegetables )
as winter vegetables.
Temperate zone plants
Plants that require a more or less extended
chilling period for proper vegetative growth in
areas that have periods of prolonged cold
weather, often below freezing.
Tendril
Slender prolongation of a stem or leaf that helps
the plant to climb.
153
Terete
Approximately cylindrical , usually tapering at
one or both ends.
Terminal
Apical.
Terrace gardening
(1) Gardening done on raised space of ground
(terrace).
(2) Gardening on the flat roofs or terraces of
buildings.
Terrarium
A transparent enclosure, usually of glass, for
providing a clean, humid environment to
plants.
Tetraploid
Plant having four sets of chromosomes.
Thinning
(1) Removal of young fruits from a cluster to help
the remaining ones to have more reserve food for
development.
(2) Removal of plants from thickly populated
crop stand for maintaining optimum plant
population.
(3) Pruning branches for providing the remaining
ones more space and reserve food for better
growth.
Three way cross
A cross between a single cross used as female
and an inbred used as male.
Tiller
(1) Side-shoot growing from the base of the stem
of a cereal or grass plant.
(2) A sprout or stalk arising from the root or the
axils of the lower leaves.
154
Timber industry
The industry concerned with harvesting and
production of timber for construction purposes ,
furniture manufacture etc.
Tip bearer
Plants bearing most of their fruits at the tips of
one-year old shoots.
Tip layering
Layering near the tip of the current season’s
shoot by placing in soil or medium.
Tipping
The process of removing flushes in tea bushes
for producing a level plucking table.
Tips
The highest quality tea, rich in flavour, made
from the tips of the flush.
Tissue analysis
Quantitative estimation of the nutrient content
of plants using suitable procedures.
Tissue culture
In vitro cultivation of plant parts, whether a
single cell, tissue or organ, under aseptic
conditions in defined or semi-defined medium.
Tomentose
Covered with densely matted hair.
Top budding
Method of top-working using budding on
vigorous shoots.
Top cross
A cross between an open pollinated variety and
an inbred.
Top dressing
The application of manures and fertilisers to an
established crop.
155
Top soil
The uppermost layer of the soil (usually 15 to
20 cm), comparatively rich in organic matter.
Topiary
The severe clipping of plants into unusual or
geometric shapes for ornamental purpose.
Topography
Shape and physical features of the land surface
that make up the landscape of an area.
Topophysis
The phenomenon, observed in vegetative
propagation, in which the different growing parts
of a plant perpetuate their specific features in
the offspring.
Topping
Removal of the top of the plants for regulating
growth.
Top working
Changing a tree from one cultivar to another by
budding or grafting after cutting back the main
scaffold branches.
Totipotency
The inherent ability of the plant cell to grow and
develop into a whole plant.
Trace element
See Micro nutrient.
Trait
A loose synonym for character.
Training
Shaping or adapting plants to specific forms by
pruning, fastening or bracing.
Transition stage
The integration period of juvenile and mature
phases of growth.
156
Transpiration
Loss of water vapour from plant tissues through
stomata, cuticles and lenticels.
Transplant
Transferring a planting material from the
nursery to the main field.
Tree
A large, woody plant usually having a main stem
or trunk.
Trellis
Any structure capable of supporting the growth
of vines or other climbing plants.
Trench layering
A layering method in which a number of new
plants are obtained from a stock plant by
placing the shoots in horizontal position in a
trench and filling with soil.
Trickle irrigation (Drip irrigation)
A method of irrigation directly near the root zone
of the plants through a number of low flow-rate
outlets.
Trifoliate
Compound leaf with three leaflets.
Triple cropping
Growing three crops a year in sequence.
TRIPS
Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights.
Trophy
Arrangement of potted plants in different tiers
around a central structure.
Tropical fruit
A fruit plant which is evergreen and cannot
withstand freezing temperatures.
157
Tropical plant
Plants grown in areas free from frost, with
growth ceasing in most of the crops at
temperatures below 200C.
Tropical region
Comprises the area between the Tropic of
Cancer (230 27’ N latitude) and Tropic of
Capricorn (230 27’ S latitude).
Tropism
Movement in response to an environmental
signal, such as light or gravity (See Geotropism
and phototropism).
Trough
A period of low availability of ripe fruits in oil
palm.
Truck crop production
Large scale production of a limited number of
vegetable crops for wholesale markets and
shipping.
Truck up production
Large scale production of selected varieties of
vegetables for distant markets.
True cardamom (Small cardamom)
Fruits of Elettaria cardamomum, commercially
more important than large cardamom
(Aframomum spp. or Amomum spp).
Trueness to type
Condition in which the characteristics and
performance of the progeny plants closely
resembles that of the parent plant.
Truss
(1) A cluster of flowers or fruit.
(2) Main supporting structure of the greenhouse
roof.
158
Tube culture
A hydroponics technique where nutrient solution
is pumped through PVC drain pipes.
Tuber
A swollen, modified underground stem or root,
storing food.
Tuberous root
A root, producing tubers e.g. tapioca.
Tunnels
Temporary plant growing structures in the form
of tunnels, approximately 1-2m high, made by
steel tubes, bamboo etc. and covered with
polythene sheet.
Turfs (Sods)
Pieces of earth with grass cover used for turfing.
Turf-grass industry
The production and maintenance of specialised
grasses and other ground covers for utility,
recreation, and beautification.
Turgid
Condition whereby the organ is completely filled
with water.
Twiner
Annual or perennial herb or shrub which climb
over support or a plant by twining themselves
spirally around such support.
Type
A group of plants within a variety which differs
in a few minor definable characteristics.
Umbel
A flower cluster in which all the individual flower
stalks arise at one point, the cluster being flat
shaped.
159
Upland
Cultivable land on high ground with good
natural drainage.
Understock
See Rootstock.
Vacuum cooling
A method for extending shelf life of fruits and
vegetables using a vacuum chamber where a low
atmospheric pressure is maintained.
Vanillin
Most abundant volatile aromatic constituent of
vanilla.
Vanillism
A form of poisoning which may appear in
persons working with vanilla.
Variegation
A varied, somewhat mottled pattern of
colouration in a leaf, flower or other plant parts
due to non-uniform pigmentation.
Variety
A sub- division or group of plants within a
species which differs in some minor definable
characteristics.
Variety release
Release of varieties by appropriate authorities
such as Central Variety Release Committee and
State Variety Release Committee.
Vascular
Referring to the xylem, phloem or both.
Vase life
The length of time that a cut flower retains its
aesthetic value after placing in a vase.
160
Vector
The organism or object which spreads a disease
from one plant to another.
Vegetable
Edible herbaceous plant or plant parts,
commonly used for culinary purposes or as
salads.
Vegetable garden
Garden or place where vegetables are raised
Vegetable garden, floating
Production of vegetables on floating rafts.
Vegetable garden, forcing
Production of vegetables to grow out of their
normal season.
Vegetable garden, kitchen(home)
Production of vegetables in homesteads for the
consumption of family members.
Vegetable garden, market
Production of vegetables for local markets.
Vegetable garden, processing
Production of vegetables suitable for canning,
dehydration or freezing, preferably around
processing factories.
Vegetable garden, seed
Production of vegetables exclusively for seeds.
Vegetable garden, truck
Large scale production of selected varieties of
vegetables for distant markets.
Vegetable pepsin
The dried latex obtained from fruits just before
maturity; often called vegetable pepsin as it
contains enzymes somewhat similar to pepsin.
161
Vegetative propagation
The production of a complete plant by asexual
methods like cutting, layering, budding and
grafting.
Vegetative reproduction
Vegetative propagation.
Veins
The conducting tissue within a leaf and other
plant parts.
Ventilator
Opening in a greenhouse to ensure the exchange
of air.
Vermiculite
A sterile mica product used in rooting/potting
medium.
Vernalin
An hypothetical hormone - like substance in
plants, consequent to verbalisation.
Vertical or upright storage
A storage structure whose height is greater than
the width or diameter. Other term are silos,
tanks and deep bins.
Vernalisation
Low temperature treatment of seeds and
seedlings, found useful in some plants, to
shorten the time required for flowering.
Vestigial bud
An imperfectly developed bud.
Viability
(1) Ability of seeds to germinate.
(2) Ability of vegetative plant propagules to
sprout and grow.
162
Viability test
Test to ascertain the percentage of living cells or
plants in a population.
Vigour
Sum total of all seed attributes which favour
rapid and uniform stand establishment on the
field.
Vine
A slender stemmed trailing or climbing plant.
Vinegar
Liquid obtained by alcoholic and acetic
fermentation of suitable materials containing
sugar and starch.
Vitality (Viability)
Capacity to renew growth or germinate.
Vitamin
An organic molecule that functions as a
coenzyme or cofactor of enzymes.
Viticulture
The art and science of growing grapes.
Viviparous germination
Germination of seeds while they remain attached
to the tree or fruit.
Volatile
A liquid readily vaporising or evaporating at
relative low temperature and pressure.
Volatile oil ( Essential oil )
distillation of ground spices.
Volunteer plants
Unwanted plants growing from the remaining
seeds of a previous crop.
Vulgaris
Common (used in scientific names to denote
common species).
163
Wardian case
A glass-topped enclosure, supplied with
provision for bottom heat, used for plant
propagation.
Water gardening
Growing water plants in artificial pools, tanks,
ponds etc.
Water harvesting
Conservation of rain water under unirrigated
condition, by collecting run off of precipitation
in order to supplement soil moisture in an
adjacent area.
Water logged
Soil condition devoid of aeration due to blocking
of the pore spaces by water.
Water shed
The line of separation between adjacent water
catchment areas.
Water shoot (Water sprout)
A very vigorous and straight growing non
productive shoot arising from trunks or
branches of trees.
Water sucker
A banana sucker of superficial origin, bearing
broad leaves.
Water table
The upper surface of ground water or that level
below which the soil is saturated with water.
Waxing
A method of coating fruits with a thin film of wax
for reducing the rate of respiration and
extending the shelf life.
164
Wedge grafting (Cleft grafting)

A grafting method where the scion piece is
placed in a split (cleft) formed on a stock plant.
Wetting agent
A substance added to a spray solution for
improving its contact with plant surface.
Whip grafting
Method of grafting in which tongue shaped cuts
are made on both stock and scion and are
interlocked.
Whorl
Flowers or foliage arranged in a circle round
the stalk or branches.
Wilting
Loss of freshness and drooping of foliage of a
plant due to inadequate supply of moisture,
excessive transpiration or by disease.
Wind break
A group of plants grown close together for
protecting crops from strong winds.
Wind blast
Injury to leaves and twigs by strong winds.
Window garden (Window box garden)
Garden where plants are grown within the room
just opposite or close to the window or on the
window sill outside.
Winter vegetables ( Cool season vegetables)
as temperate vegetables.
165
Wiring
The technique of winding wire around a branch,
stem or trunk to change its shape as practiced
for making bonsai plants.
Witches broom
The growth of many short twigs at one point on
a branch.
Withering
The first stage in the processing of tea, lasting
from 6 to 20 hours, where important chemical
changes take place.
Woody plants
Plants with woody fibre.
Wrapping
Covering fruits with suitable materials for
improving the post harvest life.
Xanthophyll
Yellow or orange carotinoid pigment associated
with cholrophyll in choloroplasts, also present in
certain chromoplasts.
Xenograft
See Heterograft.
Xeromorphic
Xerophytic.
Xerophyte
A plant adapted to a very dry environment.
Xylem
The upward conducting vessels within the
plant.
Yemma budding ( Chip budding)
Budding where a single bud with a piece of wood
is fitted to a suitable cut in the stock.
Yield potential
Maximum production capability of a crop.
166

Horticultural Terms and Definitions

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HORTICULTURAL TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Horticulture includes the art and science of

Large number of horticultural terms are used in

The book will be useful for the under-graduate

Horticulture includes the art and science of

Large number of horticultural terms are used in

The book will be useful for the under-graduate

ABOUT THE AUTHORS:

Dr. B.K. Jayachandran, Professor of Horticulture &

Dr. K. Rajmohan, Professor of Horticulture & Head,

Abscisic acid (ABA, Abscisin, Dormin)

(2) The technique of covering plant parts with

Bud sport (Bud mutation)

(4) Small opening on a fig which is the site of

False fruit (Pseudocarp)

Fibrous root system

Fruit paste (Fruit leather)

Green plants (Foliage plants)

Integrated pest management

Mat watering (Capillary watering)

Paprika ( Hungarian paprika, Sweet pepper)

SC1, SC2, SC3 etc.

Secondary plant metabolites

Shield budding ( T budding)

Soft wood cuttings

(2) Polyphenol compound in tea leaves. It is the

Wedge grafting (Cleft grafting)

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