PEMP

RMD 2501

Combustors

Session delivered by:

Prof Q.H.
Prof. Q H Nagpurwala

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 PEMP
RMD 2501
Session Objectives

This session is intended to introduce the following:

• Types and constructional features of combustion chambers
• Flow distribution in combustors
• Combustor performance parameters
• Design requirements of good combustors

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 PEMP
Introduction RMD 2501

Location of
combustor in a gas
trubine engine

A typical gas turbine engine Combustor

Rolls Royce Turbomeca

Ad
Adour Mk102
k102

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 PEMP
Introduction RMD 2501

 Heat input to the gas turbine Brayton cycle is provided by the

combustor.
 The combustor accepts air from the compressor and delivers it at an
elevated temperature to the turbine.
 The overall air/fuel ratio of a combustion chamber ((combustor)) can
vary between 45:1 and 130:1.
However, the fuel will burn efficiently at or close to the stoichio-
metric
t i air/fuel
i /f l ratio
ti off 15:1
15 1 only.
l
 So, the fuel is burned with only part of the air entering the combustor
in the primary combustion zone.
 Combustion products are then mixed with the remaining air in the
secondary and dilution zones to arrive at a suitable turbine inlet
temperature.

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 PEMP
Introduction RMD 2501

 Air from the engine compressor enters the combustor at a velocity of

about 150 m/s, which is far too high for sustained combustion to take
place.
 Hence, the air is first decelerated to a velocity of about 25 m/s in a
pre-diffuser.
 However, the speed of burning kerosene at normal fuel-air ratios is
only about 5-10 meters per second; hence any fuel lit even in the pre-
diffused air stream also would be blown away.
away
 Therefore, a region of low axial velocity is created in the combustor,
through swirlers so that the flame will remain alight throughout the
range of engine operating conditions.

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 PEMP
Introduction RMD 2501

 The high pressure air from the engine compressor is already heated to
about 450 deg C.
 The
Th temperature off the
h airi is
i raised
i d to about
b 1300 K in
i the
h combustor
b
at constant pressure. The temperature rise in the combustor is limited by
the material used in the first stage of the turbine.
 Present day aero engines are designed for high TET of the order of
1800 K (with efficient turbine blade cooling techniques), because high
TET enhances overall gas turbine cycle efficiency.
efficiency
 These high TETs require combustor primary zone flame temperatures
of the order of 2000 K, which, in turn, necessitate the development of
newer materials and efficient cooling techniques apart from the need for
low loss, efficient and complete combustion.

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 PEMP

Parts of a Combustion Chamber RMD 2501

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 PEMP

Distribution of Air in a Combustor RMD 2501

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 PEMP

Air Flow Pattern in a Combustor RMD 2501

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 PEMP
Types of Combustor RMD 2501

C
Can C b
Combustor
 This type of combustion chamber
i so arrangedd that
is th t air
i from
f the
th
compressor enters each individual
chamber through the adapter.
 Each individual chamber is
composed of two cylindrical tubes,
the combustion chamber liner and
the outer combustion chamber.
 Combustion takes place within the
liner.
 Airflow into the combustion area is
controlled by small louvers located
in the inner dome, and by round
holes and elongated louvers along
the length of the liner.

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 PEMP
Types of Combustor RMD 2501

A l Combustor
Annular C b t
 The primary compressed air is
introduced into an annular space
formed by a chamber liner around
the turbine assembly.
 The space between the outer liner
wall and the combustion chamber
housing permit the flow of
secondaryy cooling g air from the
compressor.
 Primary air is mixed with the fuel
for combustion.
 Secondary (cooling) air reduces the
temperature of the hot gases
entering the turbine to the proper
level
l l by b forming
f i a blanket
bl k t off cooll
air around these hot gases.
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 PEMP
Types of Combustor RMD 2501

C A l C
Can-Annular b t
Combustor
 The combustion chambers are
completely surrounded by the
airflow that enters the liners
through various holes and louvers.
 This air is mixed with fuel which
has been sprayed under pressure
from the fuel nozzles.
 The fuel-air mixture is ignited
g byy
igniter plugs, and the flame is then
carried through the crossover
tubes to the remaining liners.
 The inner casing assembly is both
a support and a heat shield; also,
oil lines run through it.

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 PEMP
Combustion System Components RMD 2501

1
1. Diffuser: A di
Diff diverging
i passage, which
hi h reduces
d the
th velocity
l it off compressor exit
it
air flow from ~Mach 0.3 to Mach 0.05-0.1 in combustor passages with
minimum pressure loss.
2. Cowls: Structures attached to dome which guide flow from diffuser into the
combustor passages with minimum pressure loss.
3. Dome: Front end of the combustor structure which provides shelter and means
of flame stabilisation (e.g. swirlers) for the primary combustion zone.
4. Liners: Thin metal shells extending from the dome to the turbine nozzle for
control of combustion and dilution air jets and cooling air film.
film The liners
protect the engine casing and internal shafts form the hot combustion products.
5. Casings: Engine structural shells which carry thrust loads. Casings also
comprise inner and outer passage boundaries.
6. Fuel Injectors: Devices which provide fuel to the primary zone, usually through
the dome.
7. Igniter: Spark plug located in dome or primary zone.
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 PEMP
Combustion System Components RMD 2501

Main Combustor of GE CF5-80C

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 PEMP
Combustor Design Requirements RMD 2501

 O
Operability
bili  P f
Performance
 Ground start  Combustion efficiency
 Altitude relight  Pressure drop
 Lean blow out  Exit temperature distribution
 Bleed airflows  Emissions
 Configuration  Smoke
 Size  Carbon monoxide (CO)
 Weight  Unburned hydrocarbons
 Maintainability  Oxides of Nitrogen (Nox)
 Thermal
h l growthh  Durability
 Mounting Method
 Structural integrity
 C li life
Cyclic lif

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 PEMP
Combustor Design Approach RMD 2501

 Combustor design and development efforts rely very heavily on

previous experience.
 Design rules usually involve empirical correlation of data from
previous designs.
 CFD simulations are also used in conjunction with the empirical
correlations.
 Ongoing
g g efforts are aimed to reduce reliance on empirical
p correlations
and development tests. Computational models will play an increasing
role in future combustor designs.
 Design
D i rules
l actually
t ll usedd in
i industry
i d t tend
t d to
t vary from
f manufacturer
f t
to manufacturer.

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 PEMP
Combustor Design/Test Relationship RMD 2501

Design Phase Test Activity

Preliminary Design
• Diffuser
Diff flow
fl pathth • Diffuser
Diff water
t table
t bl model
d l
• Combustor flow path • Fuel injector drop size
• Initial air flow distribution • Swirler /primary zone flow field characterisation
• Linear heat transfer model

Detailed Design
• Refine design features and • Low pressure sector combustor rig
air flow distribution • Annular diffuser model

Combustor Development
• Final hole pattern and air • High pressure sector combustor rig
fl distribution
flow di t ib ti • Full scale annular combustor rig

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 PEMP
Inlet Diffuser RMD 2501

The compressor exit

Th it velocity
l it from
f th modern
the d gas turbine
t bi enginesi i typically
is t i ll ini
the range of 150-170 m/s and the corresponding velocity head may be as high as
10% of the total pressure. The function of the diffuser is to recover a large
proportion of this energy and to keep the total pressure losses low with resulting
lower specific fuel consumption.
For an air velocity of 170 m/s and a combustor temperature ratio of 2.5, the
pressure loss
l incurred
i d in
i combustion
b i would ld be
b about
b 25% off the
h compressor
pressure rise. Hence, the air velocity must be reduced prior to combustion to about
1/5 of the compressor exit velocity.
Diffuser Design Requirements:
 Low pressure losses (<40% of the compressor exit velocity head)
 Short length (use of splitter vanes may be considered)
 No flow separation, except in dump region
 Uniform flow, both circumferentially and radially
 D
Dynamic i fl
flow stability
t bilit att all
ll operating
ti conditions
diti
 Insensitivity to changes in compressor exit flow pattern
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 PEMP

Inlet Diffuser RMD 2501

Effect of Inlet Flow Conditions:

 Inlet swirl
 Presence of upstream struts
 Radial distribution of compressor exit velocity
 Reynolds number
 M h number
Mach b
 Turbulence

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 PEMP

Inlet Diffuser RMD 2501

Types of Diffusers

Faired Diffuser

Fig. 3-9 / 3-10 Lefebvre

Dump Diffuser

Fig. 3-11 Lefebvre

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 PEMP

Inlet Diffuser RMD 2501

Vortex Controlled Diffuser

Fig.
i 3-13 / 3-14 Lefebvre
f b

Hybrid Diffuser

Fig. 3-15 / 3-16 Lefebvre

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 PEMP

Inlet Diffuser RMD 2501

Types of Diffusers

Step Diffuser Fig. 6 Mellor

Fi 8 Mellor
Fig. M ll

Multiple passage Diffuser

Controlled Diffuser Fig. 7 Mellor

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 PEMP
Comparison of Inlet Diffusers RMD 2501

R l ti Merits
Relative M it off Various
V i Diffuser
Diff Types
T

Diffuser Type Merits Drawbacks

Aerodynamic or  Low pressure loss  Relatively long
faired  Performance susceptible to thermal distortion
and manufacturing tolerances
 Performance sensitive to variations in inlet
velocity profile
Dump  Relatively short  Pressure loss about 50% higher than faired
 Insensitive to variations type
i inlet
in i l t flow
fl conditions
diti
Vortex  High performance  Requires minimum of 4% air bleed
controlled  Short length  Design procedures not fully established
 Low pressure loss
 High performance  Design procedures not fully established
Hybrid  Short length  Bleed air pressure too low for turbine cooling
 Low pressure loss
 Low bleed air
requirement
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 PEMP

Inlet Diffuser Design Requirements RMD 2501

 Low pressure losses: In general the diffuser pressure losses

should be less than 40% of the compressor exit velocity head
 Short length: Special features, like splitter vanes, can be used to
reduce length
 No flow separation except in dump regions
 Uniform flow, both radially and circumferentially
 Dynamic flow stability at all operating conditions
 Insensitivity to changes in compressor exit flow patterns or exit
flow conditions

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 PEMP

Combustion Chamber Flow Path RMD 2501

 Design of combustion chamber flow path is related to the inlet diffuser

design.
 These designs must be coordinated because the combustor cowl and
passage contours are very important for efficient diffuser operation.
 Conversely, diffuser pressure recoveries must be known in order to
Conversely
select appropriate cooling and dilution hole sizes.
 The combustor flow path should have a shortest length that meets all
design requirements. Increased length adds to engine weight and requires
more liner cooling flow.
 New combustor
Ne b t flow
fl path
th designs
de i aree generally
e e ll based
b ed on previous
e i
successful designs. Design improvements tend to be evolutionary.

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 PEMP
RMD 2501
Combustion Chamber Flow Path –
D i Variables
Design V i bl
 Combustor Dome height, Hd

 Combustor dome velocity, Vd

 Combustor length to height ratio, Lc/Hd
 Combustor passage velocity, Vp
 Fuel Injector spacing, B
 Space rate, SR
 Reference velocity, Vref
 Reference velocity head, qref
 Inlet velocity head, q3

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 PEMP

Air Flow Distribution RMD 2501

Total
T t l combustor
b t airflow,
i fl Wc, is
i distributed
di t ib t d to
t different
diff t combustor
b t locations
l ti to
t
achieve different design goals. The airflow distribution does not vary significantly
with combustor operating conditions. The most important airflows are:
W3 Compressor exit flow
Wtc Turbine cooling airflow, which bypasses combustor
Wc Combustor air flow (Wc = W3-W
Wtc)
Wa Fuel atomising air flow admitted through the fuel injector
Ws Swirler airflow
Wp Primary air jets which interact with swirler flow in the primary zone
Wdil Dilution air jets downstream of the primary zone to provide the dome
cooling airflow
Wdc Dome cooling airflow
Wlc Liner cooling airflow
Wd Combustor dome flow (Wd = Wa + Ws + Wdc)

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 PEMP

Swirlers RMD 2501

• Flame Holding Concepts

• Swirler Design Approaches

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 PEMP
Requirement of Dilution Zone RMD 2501

• Dilution Flow Distribution

• Mixing
Mi i U Uniformity
if it
• Profile Trim

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 PEMP

Combustor Cooling RMD 2501

• Louvered Liners
• Cooling Slots
• Thermal
Th l Barrier
B i Coatings
C ti
• Augmented Backside Convection
• Segmented Wall Construction
• Quasi Transpiration Cooling

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 PEMP

Combustor Cooling RMD 2501

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 PEMP

Combustion Chamber Performance RMD 2501

A combustion chamber must be capable of allowing fuel to

burn efficiently over a wide range of operating conditions
without incurring a large pressure loss.
loss In addition,
addition if flame
extinction occurs, then it must be possible to relight. In
performing these functions, the flame tube and burner atomizer
components must be mechanically reliable.
Because the gas turbine engine operates on a constant pressure
cycle,
l any loss
l off pressure during
d i the th process off combustion
b ti
must be kept to a minimum. In providing adequate turbulence
and mixing, a total pressure loss varying from about 5 to 10 per
cent of the air pressure at entry to the chamber is incurred.

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 PEMP
Combustion Intensity RMD 2501

The heat released by a combustion chamber or any other heat

generating unit is dependent on the volume of the combustion area.
Thus to obtain the required high power output,
Thus, output a comparatively
small and compact gas turbine combustion chamber must release
heat at exceptionally high rates.
For example, a Rolls-Royce Spey engine will consume in its ten
flame tubes 3402 kg of fuel per hour. The fuel has a calorific value
off approximately
i t l 8888 kJ/s
kJ/ kg
k (18,550
(18 550 British
B iti h Thermal
Th l Units
U it per lb),
lb)
therefore each flame tube releases nearly 4076 kJ/s (232,000 British
Thermal Units per minute). Expressed in another way, this is an
expenditure of potential heat at a rate equivalent to approximately
40.8 MW for the whole engine.

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 PEMP
Combustion Efficiency RMD 2501

The combustion efficiency of most gas turbine engines at sea-

level take-off conditions is 100 per cent, which reduces to 98 per
cent at altitude cruise conditions. The values vary as shown in
the figure, because of the reducing air pressure, temperature and
fuel/air ratio.

Combustion efficiency
y and
air-fuel ratio

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 PEMP
Combustion Stability RMD 2501

Combustion stability means smooth burning and the ability of

the flame to remain alight over a wide operating range.
range
For any particular type of combustion chamber there is both a
rich and a weak limit to the air/fuel ratio,
ratio beyond which the
flame is extinguished. An extinction is most likely to occur in
flight during a glide or dive with the engine idling, when there is
a high
hi h airflow
i fl andd only
l a smallll fuel
f l flow,
fl i
i.e., a very weakk
mixture strength.

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 PEMP
Combustion Stability (… contd.) RMD 2501

Combustion stability limits

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 PEMP

Combustion Stability (… contd.) RMD 2501

The range of air/fuel ratio between the rich and weak limits is
reduced with an increase of air velocity, and if the air mass flow is
increased beyond a certain value, flame extinction occurs. A
typical stability loop is illustrated in the figure. The operating
range defined by the stability loop must obviously cover the
required air/fuel ratios and mass flow of the combustion chamber.
The ignition
g pprocess has weak and rich limits similar to those
shown for stability. The ignition loop, however, lies within the
stability loop since it is more difficult to establish combustion
under ‘cold’
cold conditions than to maintain normal burning.
burning

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 PEMP

Carbon Formation RMD 2501

High pressure ratio engines tend to produce exhaust smoke at

take-off
k ff conditions.
di i This
Thi indicates
i di that
h carbon
b particles
i l are being
b i
formed in over-rich regions of the primary zone in conditions of
low turbulence, at high
g temperature
p and ppressure. However,
smoke represents an almost negligible loss in combustion
efficiency of less than 0.3 per cent.

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 PEMP

Combustor Materials RMD 2501

The containing walls and internal parts of the combustion chamber

must be capable of resisting the very high gas temperatures in the
primary zone. In practice, this is achieved by using the best heat
resisting materials available and by cooling the inner wall of the
flame tube as an insulation from the flame.
The combustion chamber must also withstand corrosion due to the
products of combustion, creep failure due to temperature gradients,
and fatigue due to vibrational stresses.

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 PEMP

Combustion Chamber Requirements RMD 2501

• Complete combustion
• Low total pressure loss
• Stability of combustion process
• Proper temperature distribution at exit with no “hot spots”
• Short length and small cross section
• Freedom from flameout
• Relight ability
• Operation over a wide range of mass flow rates, pressures
p
and temperatures

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 PEMP

Session Summary RMD 2501

• Constructional features of gas turbine combustors are

introduced.
• Basics of combustion pprocess and combustor pperformance
parameters like combustion intensity, efficiency, stability
are discussed.
• Design
D i features
f t off different
diff t types
t off swirlers
i l andd diffusers
diff
are explained.

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 PEMP
RMD 2501

Thank you

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