Lecture 7:

Fuels
Introduction
Fuel is a combustible substance, containing carbon as a main constituent, which on
proper burning gives large amount of heat, which can be used economically for domestic
and industrial purpose.

Examples: Wood, charcoal, coal, kerosene, petrol, diesel, producer gas, oil gas etc.

 During the process of combustion, carbon, hydrogen, etc., combine with oxygen with
a liberation of heat.
 The combustion reaction can be explained as:
C + O2 CO2 + 94 kcals
2H2 + O2 2H2O + 68.5 kcals

 The calorific value of a fuel depends mainly on the amount of Carbon and
Hydrogen.
Requirements of a Good Fuel
 High calorific value.
 Moderate ignition temperature.

Ignition temperature is the minimum temperature at which the fuel in an air-

liquid mixture ignites spontaneously and continues to burn without any
external heating.

 Low contents of non-combustible matters.

 Low moisture content.
 Free from objectionable and harmful gases like CO, SOx , H2S.
 Moderate velocity of combustion.
 Combustion should be controllable.
 Easy to transport and readily available at low cost.
Calorific Value
It is the most important characteristic property of any fuel. Calorific value may be
defined as “the amount of heat liberated by the complete combustion of a unit
mass of a fuel”.

The quantity of heat can be measured by the following units.

i. Calorie
The amount of the heat required to raise the temperature of 1gm of water through 1OC (15-16 OC)
ii. Kilocalorie
This is the unit of metric system and may be defined as “the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of one kilogram of water through one degree centigrade. (1 kcal = 1000 calories)
iii. British thermal unit (BTU)
Defined as “the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water through
one degree Fahrenheit (60-61 oF).
iv. Centigrade
1 BTUheat units
= 252 cal(CHU)
= 0.252 kcal 1 kcal = 3.968 BTU
It is “the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water through one
degree centigrade”
1 kcal = 3.968 BTU = 2.2 CHU
Gross or High Calorific Value (GCV or HCV)
 The total heat generated when a unit quantity of fuel is completely burnt and the
products of combustion are cooled to room temperature.

For example, when a fuel containing hydrogen is burnt, it under goes combustion and will
be converted to steam. If the combustion product is cooled to room temperature, the
steam gets condensed into water and the latent heat is evolved. Therefore, the latent heat
of combustion of condensation of ‘steam’ so liberated is included in gross calorific value.

Dulong’s formula for the theoretical calculation of calorific value is

1 𝑂
GCV (or) HCV = 100 (8080 C + 34500 [H - 8 ] + 2240 S) kcal/kg

where, C, H, O & S represent the % of the corresponding elements in the fuel.

Lower or Net Calorific Value (NCV or LCV)
The net heat produced when a unit quantity of fuel is completely burnt and the products of
combustion are allowed to escape.

NCV = GCV – Latent heat of condensation of steam produced 1 part by weight of H2

produces 9 parts by weight of H2O as follows.

The latent heat of steam is 587 kcal/kg.

H2 + ½ O2 H2O
2gms 16gms 18gms
1 8 9
Thus,
9
NCV = GCV – H × 587 kcal/kg
100

NCV = GCV – 0.09H × 587 kcal/kg

where, H = % of H2 in the fuel.

Sample Problems
Calculate the Gross and Net calorific values of a coal having the following
compositions; C = 80 %, H2 = 8 %, O2 = 8 %, S = 2 % and ash = 2. Latent heat of
steam is 587 cal/g.
Sample Problems
Calculate the Gross and Net calorific values of a coal having the following
compositions; C = 63 %, H2 = 19 %, O2 = 3 %, S = 13 % and ash = 2. Latent heat
of steam is 587 cal/g.
Sample Problems
On analysis, a coal sample has the following composition by weight; C = 75%,
O2 = 4 %, S = 5 % and ash = 3 %. Net calorific value of the fuel is 9,797.71
kcal/kg. Calculate the percentage of hydrogen and gross calorific value of coal.
Classification of Fuel
Fuels are classified into:
(i) Primary or Natural fuels - These are found in nature.
(ii) Secondary or Artificial fuels - These are derived from
primary fuels.

 Primary and secondary fuels may also be divided into 3

classes namely solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.
Classification of Fuel
Solid Fuels
(Advantages and Disadvantages)
Advantages of Solid fuels
 Handling and transportation of solid fuels are easy.
 Solid fuels are cheap and easily available.
 They have a moderate ignition temperature
 This type of fuel can be stored conveniently without any risk.
Disadvantage of solid fuels
 During burning, solid fuels produce a large amount of ash and disposal of
ash is a big problem.
 The calorific value of solid fuel is comparatively low.
 Since a lot of air is required for complete combustion, its thermal
efficiency is not so high.
 A large space is required for storage.
 Combustion is a slow process and it cannot be easily controlled.
Liquid Fuels
(Advantages and Disadvantages)
Advantages of Liquid fuels
 Liquid fuels do not yield any ash after burning.
 They require comparatively less storage space.
 Calorific value of liquid fuel is higher than that of solid fuels.
 Their combustion is uniform and easily controllable.

Disadvantages of liquid fuels

 Liquid fuels are comparatively costlier than the solid fuels.
 They give unpleasant odor during incomplete combustion.
 Some amount of liquid fuels will escape due to evaporation during storage.
 Special type of burners are for effective combustion.
Gaseous Fuels
(Advantages and Disadvantages)
Advantages of gaseous fuels
 Gaseous fuels can be easily transported through the pipes.
 They do not produce any ash or smoke during burning.
 They have high calorific value than the solid fuels.
 They have high thermal efficiency.

Disadvantages of gaseous fuels

 They are highly inflammable and hence the chances for fire hazards are
high.
 Since gases occupy a large volume, they require large storage tanks.
Gaseous Fuels
(Advantages and Disadvantages)
Advantages of gaseous fuels
 Gaseous fuels can be easily transported through the pipes.
 They do not produce any ash or smoke during burning.
 They have high calorific value than the solid fuels.
 They have high thermal efficiency.

Disadvantages of gaseous fuels

 They are highly inflammable and hence the chances for fire hazards are
high.
 Since gases occupy a large volume, they require large storage tanks.
Classification of Coal
Wood → Peat → lignite → sub-bituminous → bituminous coal → anthracite coal

a) Peat
1. Peat is the first stage in the formation of coal.
2. Its calorific value is about 4000-5400 k cal/kg.
3. It is an uneconomical fuel due to its high proportion of (80 -90%) moisture and lower
calorific value.
4. It is a brown fibrous mass.

b) Lignite
1. Lignite is an intermediate stage in the process of coal formation.
2. Its calorific value is about 6500-7100 k cal/kg
3. Due to the presence of high volatile content, it burns with long smoky flame.
Classification of Coal
c) Bituminous coal
Bituminous coal is further sub-classified on the basis of its carbon content into three
types as:
i) Sub- bituminous coal,
ii) Bituminous coal
iii) semi-bituminous coal.

d) Anthracite
1. Anthracite is the superior grade of coal.
2. Its volatile, moisture and ash contents are very less.
3. Its calorific value is about 8650 k cal/kg.
Analysis of Coal
Proximate analysis
 It means finding out weight percentage of moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon and
ash in coal
 This analysis gives the approximate composition of the main constituents of coal.
 It is useful in deciding its utilization for a particular industrial use.

Ultimate analysis
 It means finding out the weight percentage of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and
sulphur of the pure coal free from moisture and inorganic constituents.
 This analysis gives the elementary constituents of coal.
 It is useful to the designer of coal burning equipment and auxiliaries.
Analysis of Coal
Proximate analysis

Moisture content
A known amount (say W1 gm) of finely powdered air dried coal sample is weighed in a crucible and
heated in an electrical hot-air-oven at 105o − 110oC for 1 hour and then taken out, cooled in a
desiccator and weighed (say W2 gm).The loss in weight is a measure of the moisture content of coal.
The loss in weight is expressed in:

𝑊1−𝑊2
percentage as % of moisture = x 100
𝑊1

 High moisture content in coal is undesirable because it,

i) Reduces Calorific Value of coal
ii) Increases the consumption of coal for heating purpose
iii) Lengthens the time of heating.

 The lesser the moisture content, better is the quality of coal.

Analysis of Coal
Proximate analysis
Volatile matter contents
Coal may contain combustible gases like H2, CO, CH4 or non-combustible gases like CO 2 and N2. Volatile matter
does not include moisture of coal. For determination of volatile matter contents in coal, a known amount of
moisture free coal is taken in a silica crucible covered with a lid and then heated at 950 ± 20oC for about 5 − 10
minutes in a muffle furnace. The crucible is then taken out and cooled first in air, then inside a desiccator and
weighed again. Then

𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟

% of volatile matter = × 100
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦

*** Coal sample with high % of volatile matter burns with a long flame, high smoke. It reduces calorific value.

The coal with higher volatile content,

 Ignites easily (i.e : it has lower ignition temperature)
 Burns with long yellow smoky flame
 Has lower Calorific Value
 Will give more quantity of coal gas when it is heated in absence of air.
Analysis of Coal
Proximate analysis

Ash content
For determination of ash content, a measured amount of air dried coal is taken in an open crucible. It is
then heated at 700−750oC for about half an hour in a muffle furnace. The solid residue (ash) is cooled
and weighed.

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑

% of ash = × 100
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

 Ash is the combustion product of mineral matters present in the coal. It consists mainly of SiO2 ,
Al2O3 and Fe2O3 with varying amounts of other oxides such as Na2O, CaO, MgO etc.
 Ash containing oxides of Na, Ca and Mg melt early. (Low melting ash). During coke
manufacture, the low melting ash forms a fused lumpy - expanded mass which block the
interspaces of the ‘grate’ and thereby obstructing the supply of air leading to irregular burning of
coal and loss of fuel.
 High ash content in coal is undesirable because it
(a) increases transporting, handling, storage costs,
(b) is harder and stronger,
(c) has lower Calorific Value.
Analysis of Coal
Proximate analysis

Fixed carbon
The % of fixed carbon can be obtained by subtracting the total percentage of moisture contents, volatile
matter contents and ash contents from 100.

% of fixed carbon = 100 − % of moisture − % of volatile − % of ash matter

**It is the pure carbon present in coal. Higher the fixed carbon
content of the coal, higher will be its Calorific Value.
Analysis of Coal
Ultimate analysis
Carbon and hydrogen

A known amount of coal is burnt in presence of oxygen there by converting carbon and hydrogen of
coal into CO2 (C + O2 → CO2) and H2O (H2 + ½ O2 → H2O) respectively. The products of combustion
(CO2 and H2O) are made to pass over weighed tubes of anhydrous CaCl2 and KOH, which absorb H2 O
and CO2 respectively.

The increase in the weight of CaCl2 tube represents the weight of water formed while increase in
the weight of KOH tube represents the weight of CO2 formed. % of carbon and hydrogen in coal can be
calculated as follows.
Let X - the weight of coal sample taken
Y - the increase in the weight of KOH tube
Z - the increase in the weight of CaCl2 tube
Analysis of Coal
Ultimate analysis
a) Carbon b) Hydrogen
C + O2 → CO2
H2 + ½ O2 → H2O
12 32 44 2 16 18
44 g of CO2 contain 12 g of carbon.
12 18 g of water contains 2 g of hydrogen.
1 g of CO2 contains g of carbon
44
2
1 g of water contains g of hydrogen.
12 18
∴ Y g of CO2 contains = × Y g of carbon
44 2
∴ Z g of water contains = × Z g of Hydrogen.
18
12 𝑌
% of C in coal = x x 100 𝑍
44 𝑋 2
% of hydrogen in coal = × × 100
18 𝑋
Significance:
 Higher the % of carbon and hydrogen, better the quality of coal and higher is its calorific value.
 The % of carbon is helpful in the classification of coal.
 Higher the % of carbon in coal reduces the size of combustion chamber required.
Analysis of Coal
Ultimate analysis
Nitrogen is determined by the Kjeldahl method. A known amount of coal is heated with conc H2 SO4
along with K2 SO4 as catalyst in a long-necked flask (Kjeldahl’s flask). The nitrogen is converted to
(NH4)2 SO4 and the solution becomes clear.

Nitrogen (from coal sample) + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4

Now the solution is treated with an excess of NaOH for complete conversion of (NH4)2SO4 to ammonia.

2 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
(NH4)2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2NH3 ↑ + 2H2O

The ammonia thus liberated is distilled over and absorbed in a known volume (V1) of standard H2SO4
solution (say N/10).

NH3 + H2SO4 = (NH4)2SO4

The unused acid is then determined by titrating with a standard NaOH solution (N/10), from which the
percentage of nitrogen is calculated. If V2 be the volume of NaOH (N/10) required for neutralization of
excess acid.
Analysis of Coal
Ultimate analysis

1. Nitrogen does not have any calorific value, and its presence in coal is undesirable.
2. Good quality coal should have very little nitrogen content.
Analysis of Coal
Ultimate analysis
Sulfur
To determine sulfur in coal, a known amount of coal (W1) is burnt in a Bomb calorimeter in a current of oxygen to
oxidize sulfur to sulfates. The residue (ash) in the Bomb calorimeter is extracted with dilute HCl. Then it is
precipitated as BaSO4 by adding BaCl2 solution. The precipitated BaSO4 is filtered, washed, dried and heated to
constant weight (W2) from which percentage of sulfur is calculated.

S + 2 O2 SO4-2 BaCl2 BaSO4

32 233

32 𝑊2
% of Sulfur = × × 100
233 𝑊1

Though sulfur increases the calorific value, its presence in coal is undesirable because
a. The combustion products of sulfur, i.e, SO2 and SO3 are harmful and have corrosion effect on
equipment.
b. The coal containing sulfur is not suitable for the preparation of metallurgical coke as it affects
the properties of the metal.
Analysis of Coal
Ultimate analysis

Ash
Ash is determined in the same way as in proximate analysis.

Oxygen

% of oxygen = 100 − % of (C + H + N + S + Ash)

Significance:
1. Lower the % of oxygen higher is its calorific value.
2. As the oxygen content increases its moisture holding capacity increases
and the calorific value of the fuel is required.
Carbonization of Coal
Heating of coal in absence of air at high temperature to produce a residue coke, tar and
coal gas is called carbonization.

i. Caking of coal
When coal is heated strongly, the mass becomes soft and coherent, then it is called caking of
coal.

ii. Coking of coal

The mass produced is hard, porous and strong then it is called coking of coal. All the caking
coals do not form strong, hard and coherent residue coke.

Hence all the caking coals are not necessarily coking coal but all the coking coals have to be
necessarily caking in nature.
Petroleum
Petroleum or crude oil is a naturally occurring brown to black colored viscous oil
formed under the crust of earth, on shore or off shore. Chemically it is a mixture of various
hydrocarbons with small amounts of N, O, S compounds.

The approximate composition of petroleum is:

C = 80 - 84%
H = 10 - 14 %
S = 0.1 - 0.5 %
N+ O = Negligible
Classification of Petroleum
Petroleum is classified on the basis of various types of hydrocarbons:

i) Paraffin based oil - Contains mainly n-alkanes

(Ex : Pennsylvanian and gulf coast oil)

ii) Asphalt base oil - Contains aromatic and alicyclic hydrocarbons.

(Ex: Californian oil)

iii) Mixed base oil - Contains higher proportion of aromatics and

naphthenes (cyclo alkanes).
(Ex : Mexican oil)
Fractions of Petroleum
i) Petrol (or) Gasoline (C5-C9)
 It is a low boiling fraction of petroleum obtained between 40 - 120oC.
 It is a mixture of hydrocarbons pentane to nonane (in terms of carbon atoms
C5- C9).
 Its calorific value is about 11,250 kcals/kg.
 It is used as fuel in ICE of automobiles and aero planes.
 Its antiknock value can be improved by the addition of Tetra Ethyl Lead
(TEL).

Uses :
It is used as a fuel in IC engine and also used in dry cleaning and as a solvent.
Fractions of Petroleum
ii) Naphtha (C9-C10)
 It is a colorless, light fraction obtained between 1200C to 1800C during
fractional distillation of petroleum. It is a mixture of hydrocarbons such as
nonane and decane.

Uses:
Naphtha is also called as white spirit, which is generally used in dry cleaning
and as thinner for varnish, floor and furniture polishes etc. The lightest
portion of the distillate is used as solvent for fats and rubbers, whereas the
heaviest portion of the same is used as a fuel.
Fractions of Petroleum
iii) Kerosene (C10-C16)
 It is relatively a high boiling fraction obtained between 180-250oC during fractional
distillation of petroleum. It is a mixture of hydrocarbons such as decane to hexadecane
approximate composition is C = 84%, H = 16%, > 0.1% S. Its calorific value is about
11,100 kcal/kg.

Uses: It is mainly used as a domestic fuel in stoves and lamps. It is also used as jet engine
fuel and for making oil gas.

iv) Diesel (C15-C18)

 It is also a high boiling fraction obtained between 250-320oC during fractional distillation
of petroleum. It is a mixture of hydrocarbons such as C15H32 to C18H38. Its calorific value
is about 11,000 kcal/kg.

Uses: It is used as a very good diesel engine fuel.

Fractions of Petroleum
v) Heavy oil or Residual fuel oil (C17 – C30)

 The left over portion of petroleum after distilling off all the lighter fractions are called
Fuel Oil. The approximate composition of fuel oil is C = 86%, H = 12%, S = 1%, H2O =
0.6%; sediments = 0.4%. Its calorific value is about 9200 kcal/kg.

The following fractions are obtained on further vacuum distillation of the fuel oil.
i) Light fuel oil = 350 -420oC
ii) Heavy neutral oil = 420-500oC

Uses: It is used as fuel for ships and also used in metallurgical furnaces. Gasoline is also
obtained from oil by cracking process.
Fractions of Petroleum
vi) Asphalt
Asphalts are obtained by
i) The oxidation of residual heavy oil in presence of air at higher temperature.
ii) The deep vacuum distillation of residual heavy oil.

Asphalts are available in the market in liquid, semi-solid and solid forms.

Uses: It is used for road making and making water-proofing roofs. It is also used for
the manufacture of water proofing concrete and water proofing paints.
 Natural Gas
Natural gas is always found above the oil in the oil wells. It is also called Marsh gas. It consists of methane
and other saturated hydrocarbons. The average composition of natural gas is as follows :

Constituents Percentage (%)

Methane 88.5
Ethane 5.5
Propane 4
Butane 1.5
Pentane 0.5

Its calorific value varies from 12,000 to 14,000 kcal/m3.

If natural gas contains lower hydrocarbons like methane and ethane it is called lean or dry gas. In the natural
gas contains higher hydrocarbons like propane, butane along with methane it is called rich or wet gas.

Uses
1. It is used as a domestic and industrial fuel.
2. It is used as a raw material for the manufacture of carbon black and hydrogen.
3. It is also used for the generation of electricity by using it in fuel cells.
Water Gas or Blue Gas
Water gas essentially a mixture of combustible gases like CO,
H2 with little noncombustible gases like CO2 and N2. Its
Calorific Value is 2800 kcals/m3.
.
The average composition is
H2 = 48 %
CO = 44 %
CO2, N2 and CH4 = rest

Properties
It has high Calorific Value & burns with non- luminous flame. Its flame is short but very hot.

Uses
i) It is used for the manufacture of ammonia by Haber’s process.
ii) Carbureted water gas (water gas + oil gas) is used for lighting and heating purposes.
iii) Water gas is also used for welding purposes.
iv) Used for the manufacture of methyl alcohol.
v) Used for the manufacture of synthetic petrol.
Producer Gas
It is prepared by passing air mixed with a little steam over a red hot coal (or) a coke bed maintained at
above 1100° C in a special reactor called ‘‘ Gas Producer’’.

Composition
 Its Calorific Value is 1800 kcals/m3.
It is a mixture of CO and N2
Properties
Its average composition is
i) It is a poisonous gas.
N2= 50 %
ii) Insoluble in water.
CO = 30 %
iii) Heavier than air.
H2= 10 %
CO2and CH4 = rest.

Uses
i. It is used as fuel for heating open - hearth furnaces (used in steel and glass manufacture), muffle
furnaces (used in coal gas and coke manufacture).
ii. It provides reducing atmosphere in certain metallurgical operations.
 Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG)
It is a mixture of propane and butane. It is obtained as one of the top fractions in the
fractional distillation of petroleum. It is easily liquified and so can be economically stored
and transported in cylinders.

Composition
Its approximate composition is
n-Butane = 70 %
Isobutane = 17 %
n-Propane = 11 %
Butylene and Ethane = rest.

Calorific Value
Its Calorific Value is 27,000 kcals/m3
.
Uses
i. It is used as a fuel for domestic cooking.
ii. Used for heating industrial furnaces.
iii. Used as an alternate for Gasoline in automobiles.
Biogas
These gases generally produced by the fermentation of bio wastes, sewage wastes
etc., by anaerobic bacteria. For example, natural gas is a Biogas, which results after a
long periodic decay of animal and vegetable matters buried inside the earth.

The cheapest and easily obtainable biogas is Gobar gas, which is produced by
anaerobic fermentation of cattle dung. The biogas is burnt to raise steam, which can
drive turbines to produce electricity.
Combustion
Combustion is an exothermic chemical reaction, which is accompanied by development
of heat and light at a rapid rate, temperature rises considerably. For example, combustion of
carbon in oxygen:

C(s) + O2(g) CO2 (g) + 97 kcal

For proper combustion, the substance must be brought to its kindling (or) ignition
temperature, which may be defined as the minimum temperature at which the substance
ignites and burns without further addition of heat from outside.
Factors Affecting Combustion
The rate of combustion depends on the following factors:

1. The concentration of the fuel and air.

2. The nature of the combustible substance
3. The temperature
4. With increase in pressure or surface area of the fuel the rate of
combustion can be increased.
5. It increases with an increase in pressure of air.
6. It increases with preheating of fuel and air.
Types of Combustion
1. Complete Combustion
All the fuel’s combustible components are gasified: all of the carbon (whatever form it may exist in
the fuel) is burned to carbon dioxide; all of the hydrogen is converted to water and all sulfur to sulfur
dioxide.
1 𝑥 𝑥
CwHxOySz + 2 (2w + 2 + 2z – y) O2 wCO2 + 2 H2O + z SO2

2. Incomplete Combustion
- represents a loss of heat since this should have been given off for additional power use had the fuel
been completely burnt
- Indicators of incomplete combustion are the presence of CO, H2 and soot in the exhaust gas as well
as unburned combustibles in the refuse
 Gravimetric Volumetric
(by mass) (by volume)

Oxygen 23 % 21 %

Nitrogen 77 % 79 %
Sample Problems
Calculate the volume of air required for complete combustion of 1 liter of CO.
Sample Problems
Calculate the minimum volume of air required for the complete combustion of 1
m3 of a gaseous fuel containing the following composition by volume, CO = 25%,
H2 = 10%, CH4 = 8%, CO2 = 3%, N2 = 52% and O2 = 2%.
Sample Problems
A fuel contains C = 60%, H2 = 9%, CH4 = 8%, O2 = 8%, S = 15% and the
remaining ash. Calculate the minimum volume of air required for the complete
combustion of 1 kg of fuel.
Thank you….
50