HRE Prelim Finals

Introduction to Highway
Engineering
IS A BRANCH OF CIVIL ENGINEERING THAT DEALS WITH THE PLANNING,
DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF ROADS, BRIDGES AND
TUNNELS TO ENSURE SAFE AND EFFECTIVE TRANSPORTATION OF
PEOPLES AND GOODS
History of highway engineering
A) Ancient Roads
The first mode of transport was by foot. These human pathways would have
been developed for specific purposes leading to camp sites, food, streams for
drinking water etc.
The next major mode of transport was the use of animals for transporting both
men and materials.
B) Roman roads
 The earliest large scale road construction is
attributed to Romans who constructed an
extensive system of roads radiating in many
directions from Rome. Romans recognized that
the fundamentals of good road construction
were to provide good drainage, good material
and good workmanship. Their roads were very
durable, and some are still existing.
The function of these early road systems
were: (1) for armies in line with their defense
against any form of invasion; (2) transportation
of goods among the neighboring communities.
C) French roads
The next major development
in the road construction
occurred during the regime of
Napoleon.
The significant contributions
were given by Jerome
Tresaguet in 1764 . He
developed a cheaper method
of construction than the lavish
and locally unsuccessful revival
of Roman practice.
Meanwhile, Thomas Telford, a
Scottish Engineer and president and
founder of Institute of Civil Engineer
improved the construction method
proposed by Tresaguet with stones
having 3in thickness (min), 7in
height, and 5in breadth. He also
employed flat sub-grade allowing
variety of stones to be used in the
construction
D) British roads
British engineer John Macadam
introduced what can be considered as
the first scientific road construction
method.
Stone size was an important element of
Macadam recipe. By empirical
observation of many roads, he came to
realize that 250 mm layers of well
compacted broken angular stone would
provide the same strength and stiffness
and a better running surface than an
expensive pavement founded on large
stone blocks
E) Modern roads
The modern roads by and large follow
Macadam’s construction method. Use of
bituminous concrete and cement
concrete are the most important
developments. Various advanced and
cost-effective construction technologies
are used. Development of new
equipment help in the faster
construction of roads. Many easily and
locally available materials are tested in
the laboratories and then implemented
on roads for making economical and
durable pavements.
HIGHWAY AND
RAILROAD ENGINEERING
What is highway and
railroad engineering?
2
“
Highway Engineering is a branch
of transportation engineering
which deals with the design,
construction and maintenance
of different types of roads.
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Highway engineering involves
the study of the following :
1) Planning, location and development of roads.

2) Materials required for their construction.
3) Highway traffic performance and its control.
4) Drainage of roads etc.
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Characteristics of Roads or Highway
Engineering :
1. It can be used by all types of vehicles including cycles, rickshaws,
automobiles, passenger cars, buses, trucks, etc.
2. I t is nearest mode of transport for people or public.
3. It offers flexibility of changes in direction of travel as per need,

comfort and convenience.
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Characteristics of Roads or Highway
Engineering :
4. It saves time of travel especially for short distances and light
traffic because the road vehicles can be taken upto or very near to
the point of destination.
5. It requires small investments and maintenance costs as

compared to railways, airports, docks and harbours.
6. Road transport save time particularly for short distance travel.

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Scope of the Highway Engineering
1. Roads are generally constructed on small embankment, slightly
above the general ground level, in order to avoid the difficult
drainage and maintenance problems.
2. Such roads are therefore termed as highway and the science and
technology dealing with roads are generally called highway
engineering.
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Scope of Highway Engineering
3. Highway engineering deals with various phase like.
○ Development ○ Pavement design
○ Planning ○ Construction and
○ Alignment maintenance
○ Highway material ○ Economic Consideration
○ Traffic control ○ Financial and
○ Highway geometric design administration
and location
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transportation
“
Transportation contributes to the economical,
industrial, social and cultural development of
any country. Transportation is vital for
economic development of any country. Every
commodity needs transport facilities both at
the production stage as well as distribution
stage.
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Importance of Transportation
1. They play an important role in the economic, social and
commercial development of the country.
2. They help in cultural development of the country.
3. They help in political development of the country.
4. It plays a vital role in development of rural areas of the
country.
5. They improve the employment opportunities.
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Importance of Transportation
6. Improves the contact between two countries.
7. Improves the living standard of the country.
8. It helps to improve science and technology.
9. It helps in industrial development throughout the
country.
10. Enhances the import and export of the country
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Modes of Transportation
1. Roadways or highways
2. Railways
3. Airways
4. Water ways
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Roadways or highways
Roadways are the means of

transportation on land. Roadways
are also known by highways. This is
the only mode which is giving
maximum service to one and all. It
is possible to provide door to door
service only by road transport.
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Roadways
ADVANTAGES: DISADVANTAGES;
✘ Flexibility: It offers complete freedom ✘ Speed is related to accidents and more
to the road users. accidents results due to higher speed.
✘ It requires relatively smaller ✘ Not suitable for long distance travel
investments and cheaper in ✘ Power required per tonne is more.
construction with respect to other
modes.
✘ It serves the whole community alike
the other modes.
✘ For short distance travel it saves time.
✘ These are used by various types of
vehicles.
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Railways
The steel tracks laid on the ground,

over which the trains move is
known as railways. Railways have
been used for long as well as for
short distances and also for urban
travels. For longer distances,
railways transportation is more
effective and advantageous than
highways.
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Railways
✘ Can transport heavy loads of goods at ✘ Entry and exist points are fixed
higher speed ✘ Requires controlling system and no
✘ Power required per tonne is less freedom of movement
compared to roadways ✘ Establishment and maintenance cost
✘ Chances of accidents are less. is higher.
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Airways
In the airways, air crafts and
helicopters are used. Air system of
transportation is one of the fastest
system. Air system of
transportation provides
comfortness and also save time to
the passengers. But this system is
more costly compared to all other
modes of transportation.
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Airways
✘ It has highest speed ✘ Highest operating cost (cost/tonne is
✘ Intercontinental travel is possible more)
✘ Journey is continuous over land and ✘ Load carrying capacity is lowest
water ✘ Depends on weather condition
✘ Should follow the flight rules.
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Waterways
This mode of transportation uses
oceans, rivers, canals and lakes for
the movement of boats and ships.
By waterways human beings and
materials are used to transport
from one place to another with the
help of ships and boats etc.
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Waterways
✘ Cheapest: Cost per tonne is lowest ✘ Slow in operation and consumes more
✘ Possess highest load carrying capacity time
✘ Leads to the development of the ✘ Depends on weather condition
industries. ✘ Chances of attack by other countries
on naval ships are more.
✘ Ocean tides affects the loading and
unloading operation
✘ The route is circuitous.
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Comparison of the different modes
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Characteristics of Road Transport
1. Roads are used by various types of vehicles.
2. Road transport requires a relatively small investment for the
government.
3. Road transport offers flexibility to road users.
4. Road transport saves time.
5. Road transport is subjected to a high degree of accidents.
6. Road transport is the only means of transport that offers
itself to the whole community alike.
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thanks!
Any questions?
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PHILIPPINE NATIONAL ROAD NETWORK
I. Road Classification
A number of laws have been passed regarding the classification of roads in the country. The first
comprehensive reference to a Road Classification System is found in Republic Act No. 917, known
as the Philippine Highway Act, enacted in 1953 and Executive Order (E.O.) No. 113, Series of
1955. E.O. No. 113 also laid down the criteria for classification of national roads and for
conversion from local roads to national roads. This directive classified the roads into National
Primary and National Secondary classes as well as delineated the so-called "national aid"
provincial and city roads of sufficient importance.
In 1987, by virtue of E.O. No. 124, Series of 1987, Department of Public Works and Highways
(DPWH), through the Secretary, was given the power to classify roads and highways and also to
provide and authorize the conversion of roads and highways from one category to another.
In April 2002, a Technical Working Group (TWG) was established in connection with the New
Planning Process under NRIMP-1, where the main recommendation was to transfer over 10,000
km. of national roads to the Local Government Units (LGU’s) but this did not materialize.
In June 2009, a memorandum was approved by then Secretary Hermogenes E. Ebdane, Jr.
relative to the Department’s criteria/guidelines on road functional classification. National roads
were classified in relation to its functionality to the local road network into National Primary
Arterial Road (which is further categorized into: North-South Backbone, East-West Lateral, Other
Roads of Strategic Importance) and National Secondary Roads.
The North-South Backbone was the main trunk line from northernmost Luzon down to Southern
Mindanao interconnecting major islands while the East-West Laterals were the roads traversing
the backbone and across the islands. Other Roads of Strategic Importance were direct access to
important centers and areas vital for regional development and emergencies. National Secondary
roads were other roads which complemented national arterial roads that provided access to other
major population and production centers.
On April 14, 2014, a memorandum was issued by Secretary Rogelio L. Singson regarding the new
Road Classification System as well as the Route Numbering to all primary roads that has been
extended to secondary roads at present. This Road Classification and Route Numbering System
was then implemented and incorporated in the Road and Bridge Information Application (RBIA)
in compliance to the said memorandum. The succeeding table provides the criteria for each of
these classes of road.
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TABLE A
Current Classification System
(Per D.O. No. 133, s. 2018)
National Primary  A contiguous length of significant road sections extending linearly

Roads without any breaks or forks that connect major cities (at least around
100,000 population) comprising the main trunk line or the backbone
of the national road system.
National  Directly connect cities to National Primary Roads, except in
Secondary metropolitan areas
Roads  Directly connect major ports and ferry terminals (as defined by DOTr)
to National Primary Roads
 Directly connect major airports (as defined by DOTr) to National
Primary Roads
 Directly connect tourist service centers (as defined by DOT) to National
Primary Roads or other National Secondary Roads
 Directly connect cities (not included in the category of major cities)
 Directly connect provincial capitals within the same region
 Directly connect major National Government Infrastructure to National
Primary Roads or other National Secondary Roads
Applicable only  Bypass/Diversion Roads – Roads that divert through traffic away from
for Primary and the city/municipality business centers (with affirmative feasibility
Secondary study)
Roads  Roads that would connect or fill the gap between adjoining national
roads (protruding) to form a continuous national road network.
National
 Other existing roads under DPWH which perform a local function
Tertiary Roads
Provincial  Connect cities and municipalities without traversing National Roads
Roads  Connect to National Roads to barangays through rural areas
 Connect to major provincial government infrastructure
Municipal  Roads within a Poblacion
and City Roads  Roads that connect to Provincial and National Roads
 Roads that provide inter-barangay connections to major Municipal and
City Infrastructure without traversing Provincial Roads
Barangay Roads  Other Public Roads (officially turned over) within the barangay and not
covered in the above definitions
Expressways  Highways with limited access, normally with interchanges; may include
facilities for levying tolls for passage in an open or closed system.
Modifications have been made to the new classification with the inclusion of the “National
Tertiary” class, instead of transferring 10,000 km. of National Roads to the Local Government
(city and municipality). No route numbers were assigned to Tertiary Roads as they function as
local roads.
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II. Route Numbering System (RNS)
Along with a new Functional Classification, a Route Numbering System was created which can
be easily understood by road users. Route numbering is essential to road users in planning their
itinerary. Road users will also expect that all roads of a certain classification, and of a certain
numbering scheme, will have similar performance standards. A well-numbered, well-signed and
well-publicized route system is also useful for road agencies and other government bodies to
channel traffic into preferred routes or corridors.
The details of the road classification and numbering can be viewed through this web link:
http://www.dpwh.gov.ph/dpwh/gis , which shall also be the official source of this information.
The RNS has been devised for Expressways, Primary Roads and Secondary Roads at present. It
may be expanded to the Tertiary class at a later date.
TABLE B
Route Numbering System
Classification Numbering
National Primary Nos. N1 to N49 for the "main" routes or corridors, i.e.
those connecting 3 or more cities
Nos. N50 to N99 for other primary routes connecting

two cities
National Secondary Nos. 100 to 999
Expressways E1, E2, E3, etc.
Expressways are prefixed by the letter “E” for Expressway, in order to differentiate these roads
in road user’s mind from other types of road. The letter “E” implies a different design and
standard of road, and indicates to the public that a toll may be required. Expressways are
numbered continuously. A new number is not given simply because a different concessionaire is
in charge.
Primary Roads are numbered differently according to whether they form “main” corridors, or
whether they only connect two cities. Numbers N1 to N49 are used for “main” routes or
corridors like those connecting three or more cities. While, numbers N50 o N99 are for other
primary routes connecting two cities. This is purely for convention but it helps to differentiate
the nature and function of highways.
Secondary Roads have been given 3-digit numbers. The following general principles or guidelines
have been applied:
(1) The first digit of the Secondary Route corresponds to the number of the Primary Road to
which it connects, if any. Thus, for example, Secondary Road 102 connects to Primary
Road 1 while Secondary Road 405 connects to Primary Road
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(2) If a Secondary Route connects two Primary Routes, then the first digit of the
Secondary Route corresponds to the first digit of the lowest numbered Primary Route.
Thus, if a Secondary Route connects Primary Routes 3 and 4, then the first digit of
the Secondary Route would be 3;
(3) “Major” Secondary such as those which can easily be identified as more significant
thoroughfares have been numbered in multiples of 10 (e.g. 410, 420, 430…);
(4) Where possible, gaps have been left in the numbering scheme to accommodate
future expansion. Thus, there may be a Route 410, 411, 412 and then the next Route
may be 420, leaving a gap 413-419 for future use;
(5) Most islands (apart from the larger islands of Luzon and Mindanao) have unique first
and second digits. Thus, for example, Secondary roads in Bohol are numbered in the
85 series (i.e. 850, 851, 852, etc.) while Secondary roads in Siquijor are numbered
in the 86 series (i.e 860, 861, etc.). Note that, at this point, it has not been possible
to apply these guidelines strictly in certain cases especially in dense parts of the
network such as in National Capital Region.
It will be necessary to add new routes in the future. Any change in classification of an individual
road section should result in a new Route Number. It will also be necessary to assign route
numbers to new roads, especially at the Primary and Secondary levels.
It is not possible to develop detailed procedures in numbering routes since each situation must
be dealt with on a case-by-case basis. The current route numbers will evolve over time as
network develops. Reviews shall be undertaken on a periodic six-year cycle and must be done
on a holistic basis and should consider the road network in its entirety rather than in a disjointed
manner.
III. Road Conversion
The initial classification system of roads in the Philippines was established by succession of laws
based from the necessity during the period of their implementation. There are several Executive
Orders (E.O.s) and Republic Acts (R.A.) that governs the classification of roads in the Philippines.
E.O. No. 124, Series of 1987, reorganizing the Department of Public Works and Highways, state
among others, “the Minister (now Secretary) of the Ministry (now Department) of Public
Works and Highways shall have the power to classify roads and highways into
national, regional (interpreted as routes of primary arterial roads), provincial, city,
municipal, and barangay roads and highways, based on objective criteria it shall
adopt; provide or authorize the conversion of roads and highways from one category
to another.”
Road conversion relates to funding or ownership of the road or which organization is responsible
for managing and maintaining an individual road. Normally, national roads are managed by the
National Government and local (Provincial, City, and Municipal) roads are managed by the Local
Government.
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A memorandum dated June 10, 2009 adopting the DPWH Road Functional Classification Criteria
and Technical Requirement was approved and signed by the Department Secretary with the
Planning Service as the final recommending arm of the Department. As such, the Planning Service
is vested with the authority to inspect and evaluate the conversion of roads from one category
to another.
There are three (3) ways of converting roads. It may be done through either executive, legislative
or administrative means. The Department of Public Works and Highways was mandated by virtue
of E.O. No. 124, series of 1987 to convert regional highways, provincial, city, municipal, barangay
roads into national roads under its established Road Functional Classification Criteria and
Technical Standards and Requirements. For legislative procedure, the Planning Service (PS)
essentially provides comment and information in consonance to the Department’s Criteria on
Road Functional Classification when requested by both Committees on Public Works, House of
Representatives and the Senate. During the hearings conducted by these committees, the
Director and staff from PS usually represent DPWH, if the Secretary is not available.
The local road proposed for conversion will be considered for reclassification into national road
by way of DPWH Administrative Procedure, as mandated under E.O. No. 124, Series of 1987. It
shall be subjected to the criteria and guidelines set per Department Order (D.O.) No 133, s.2018.
Said road should satisfy at least one of the new DPWH Road Functional Classification Criteria and
should conform to the Technical Requirements and Standards for a national road
DPWH Technical Requirements and Standards for a National Road:
1) Proof of acquisition of the required minimum 20-meter road right-of-way (RROW) per E.O.
254, s.1987 (absolute requirement). This includes Deeds of Donation or Sale duly notarized
(indicating the lot number, OCT/TCT number, area acquired including technical description,
sketches and Real Property Tax Declaration Number;
2) Certifications from the concerned Provincial/City/Municipality Register of Deeds in order to
ensure the Department that there will be no expense from its part for any claims for the
payment of RROW that may arise therefrom; and,
3) Certification from the District Engineer concerned that the road is within the DPWH’s standards
of at least 20 meters RROW, with carriageway width of 6 meters with gravel surfacing and in
maintainable condition.
If these conditions are satisfied, a D.O. will be issued by the DPWH Secretary converting the
road. The Secretary of Public Works and Highways was given the authority to recommend roads
to be declared as national roads by the President of the Republic of the Philippines.
Since the Philippine road network is already mature, it is likely that there are very few cases
which can actually warrant a change in classification from local to national function.
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TABLE C
NUMBER AND LENGTH OF CONVERTED ROADS
FOR CY 2009 – 2019
Table C shows the number and length of converted roads through Legislative and
Administrative procedures from 2009 to 2019.
Overall, the total length of road sections whose administration have been transferred from
local government units to the national government, from 2009 to 2019, is now 2,695.07 km,
consisting of a total of 254 road sections that were converted for the period cited. All road
sections reclassified from the year 2009 to 2019 are already included in the RBIA database.
The Department’s main focus at this point is developing the Primary and Secondary roads to
serve national road network functions. There is no basis for converting roads that largely
perform local function. Likewise, the Philippine road network is already mature. It is likely that
there are very few cases which can actually warrant a change in classification from local to
national function.
Presented in the succeeding graphs (Figures A and B) are the number and length of roads
converted per year from CY 2009 - 2019.
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FIGURE A
FIGURE B
The number of local roads subject for reclassification varies considerably based on the number
of proposals endorsed by DEOs and local government units through resolution, as well as
Congress through House Bills. The number of roads that have been converted from 2009 to
2019 are twenty-seven (27), forty (40), nine (9), nine (9), sixty-four (64), twenty-four (24),
seven (7), thirty-three (33), eleven (11), sixteen (16) and thirteen (13); having a
corresponding road length of 499.62 km, 1,056.16 km, 67.73 km, 60.79 km, 549.13 km,
118.01 km, 52.65 km, 82.05 km, 87.17 km, 48.02 km and 73.74 km, respectively.
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FIGURE C
Figure C shows the annual percentage distribution of the number of roads converted in an
eleven (11) year period, from 2009 to 2019. The highest percentage distribution of converted
roads is 25.30% which was in 2013. The lowest is at 2.77% in 2015.
Figure D represents the percentage distribution of the length of converted roads from 2009-
2019. In a period of eleven (11) years, 39.19% is the highest percentage recorded for the
year 2010, seconded by 20.38% in 2013, followed by 18.54% in 2009, 4.38% in 2014, 3.23%
in 2017, 3.04% in 2016, 2.74% in 2019, 2.51% in 2011, 2.26% in 2012, 1.95% in 2015 and
1.78% in 2018.
FIGURE D
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Table D below provides a detailed list of local roads converted into national roads for CY
2018.
Table D
Table E illustrates the number and length of converted roads on a per region basis from the
year 2009 to 2019. It clearly shows that NCR has the most number of road sections that were
converted as there were forty-eight (48) proposed local roads that have passed the Functional
Classification Criteria set by the Department.
Furthermore, the region with the longest aggregate road length that has been converted from
local roads into national roads is Region X at 318.10 km.
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Table E
Regional Summary of Reclassified Local Roads into National Roads
by Number of Road Section and Length
YEAR
REGION UNIT Total
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Number 2 2 0 0 8 0 0 2 0 0 0 14
CAR
Length (km) 19.17 44.40 - - 99.06 - - 17.55 - - - 180.18
Number 3 3 0 0 7 11 2 14 4 4 0 48
NCR
Length (km) 13.38 11.04 - - 12.76 5.56 6.96 5.04 0.57 3.08 - 58.40
Number 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 3
NIR
Length (km) - - - - - - - 4.07 - - - 4.07
Number 0 1 2 0 2 1 0 2 0 1 1 10
I
Length (km) - 10.79 6.32 - 5.22 0.53 - 2.93 - 4.23 7.887 37.90
Number 2 0 4 0 4 0 1 0 3 6 2 22
II
Length (km) 17.78 - 46.19 - 43.40 - 11.07 - 40.42 26.339 21.654 185.20
Number 4 4 0 0 6 0 0 1 0 0 0 15
III
Length (km) 108.14 90.94 - - 71.10 - - 0.63 - - - 270.81
Number 3 1 0 5 1 4 1 2 1 0 0 18
IV-A
Length (km) 33.97 15.87 - 1.76 1.60 37.14 2.77 10.68 24.83 - - 128.62
Number 1 0 0 1 4 0 0 0 1 1 0 8
IV-B
Length (km) 29.01 - - 4.17 36.79 - - - 0.10 1.06 - 71.13
Number 1 4 1 0 3 0 1 2 0 0 0 12
V
Length (km) 17.01 65.94 1.47 - 26.12 - 14.23 24.20 - - - 148.98
Number 2 2 0 0 10 2 0 0 0 1 7 24
VI
Length (km) 49.43 18.85 - - 33.16 10.00 - - - 1.13 22.855 112.57
Number 3 6 0 0 13 0 0 3 0 1 2 28
VII
Length (km) 48.19 192.98 - - 24.11 - - 5.34 - 9.03 12.188 279.65
Number 1 3 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 0 0 14
VIII
Length (km) 2.31 35.70 1.20 51.74 44.68 16.58 17.62 1.40 19.22 - - 190.45
Number 0 5 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 8
IX
Length (km) - 150.36 - 3.13 135.18 - - - - - - 288.66
Number 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 7
X
Length (km) - 309.94 - - - - - - - - 8.157 318.10
Number 2 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 7
XI
Length (km) 48.91 54.89 12.55 - - 5.37 - - - 3.16 - 124.88
Number 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 0 0 7
XII
Length (km) 112.32 - - - - - - 10.21 2.04 - - 124.56
Number 0 2 0 0 2 4 0 0 0 0 1 9
XIII
Length (km) - 54.48 - - 15.93 42.83 - - - - 0.995 114.23
Number 27 40 9 9 64 24 7 33 11 16 14 254
Grand Total
Length (km) 499.62 1,056.16 67.73 60.79 549.13 118.01 52.65 82.05 87.17 48.02 73.74 2,638.37
IV. Engineering Offices
Section 25 of Executive Order No. 124, Series of 1987, provides for the establishment of
engineering offices in each of the provinces and cities throughout the country responsible for all
highways, flood control and water resource development systems, and other public works within
the district under the purview of regional offices comprised therein.
Under its present set-up, DPWH has 183 existing Regular District Engineering Offices (DEOs) and
sixteen (16) Regional Offices (ROs) making up contiguous component municipalities designated
through administrative orders and other forms of legislation.
The classification of a DEO determines its staffing pattern or workforce as determined by the
Human Resource and Administrative Service (HRAS). Each regular DEO is classified as either 1st,
2nd or 3rd class based on its equivalent road length. Presently, seventy (70), one hundred (100),
and thirteen (13) DEOs are considered under the aforementioned classification, respectively.
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Table F
Existing DEOs were established based on vital parameters such as the district’s physical and
socioeconomic features, particularly its road length, land area and population per Department
Order (DO) No. 110, Series of 2016.
A. For the creation of a new DEO, the minimum requirements are as follows:
REQUIREMENT FOR THE CREATION OF DEOs

PARAMETERS MINIMUM REQUIREMENT
NATIONAL ROAD LENGTH 100 KILOMETERS
LAND AREA 100 SQ. KM
POPULATION 250,000 INHABITANTS
FOR ISLAND COMPONENT 35,000 INHABITANTS

MUNICIPALITY
B. For the classification/reclassification of DEOs the following parameters must be followed:
PARAMETER FOR DEO CLASSIFICATION

EQUIVALENT LANE KILOMETER DEO CLASS
250 AND ABOVE 1ST CLASS
100 UP TO < 250 2ND CLASS
< 100 3RD CLASS
An updated list of existing district and regional offices including their corresponding address is
provided in the succeeding matrix.
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Table G
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS AND HIGHWAYS
LIST OF DISTRICT ENGINEERING OFFICES (DEOs) AND OFFICE LOCATION
REGION DEO OFFICE LOCATION

CORDILLERA ADMINISTRATIVE
CAR Engineer's Hill, Baguio City
REGION (CAR)
1 ABRA DEO Rizal St., Zone 7, Bangued, Abra
2 APAYAO 1ST DEO Conner, Apayao
3 APAYAO 2ND DEO San Isidro Sur, Luna, Apayao
4 BAGUIO CITY DEO Engineer's Hill, Baguio City
5 BENGUET 1ST DEO Wangal, La Trinidad, Benguet
6 BENGUET 2ND DEO Natubleng, Buguias, Benguet
7 IFUGAO 1ST DEO Poblacion North, Lagawe, Ifugao
8 IFUGAO 2ND DEO Galunugon, Aguinaldo, Ifugao
9 LOWER KALINGA DEO Purok 6, Brgy. Bulanao, Tabuk City, Kalinga
10 MT. PROVINCE DEO Lower Caluttit, Bontoc, Mountain Province
11 MT. PROVINCE 2ND DEO Paracelis, Mountain Province (Temporary Address)
12 UPPER KALINGA DEO Bulanao, Tabuk City, Kalinga, Apayao
NCR NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION (NCR) 2nd Street, Port Area, Manila
1 LAS PIÑAS-MUNTINLUPA DEO Dpwh NCR Compound, 2nd Street, Port Area, Mla.
2 MALABON-NAVOTAS DEO C-4 Road, Bagumbayan North, Navotas City
West Bank Road, Manggahan Floodway, Rosario,
3 METRO MANILA 1ST DEO
Pasig City
4 METRO MANILA 2ND DEO Bonifacio Drive cor. 8th St. Port Area, Manila
APDC-BAI Compound, R. Valenzuela Ext., Marulas,
5 METRO MANILA 3RD DEO
Valenzuela City
6 NORTH MANILA DEO Nagtahan, Sta. Mesa, Manila
7 QUEZON CITY 1ST DEO Sta. Catalina St., Brgy. Holy Spirit, Quezon City
8 QUEZON CITY 2ND DEO 790 EDSA, Diliman, Quezon City
9 SOUTH MANILA DEO Bonifacio Drive cor. 8th St. Port Area, Manila
REGION Aguila Road, Sevilla, San Fernando City, La
ILOCOS REGION
I Union
Airport Avenue, Brgy. 43, Cavit, Laoag City, Ilocos
1 ILOCOS NORTE 1ST DEO
Norte
2 ILOCOS NORTE 2ND DEO Brgy. 20, San Pablo, San Nicolas, Ilocos Norte
3 ILOCOS SUR 1ST DEO Zone 6, Bantay, Ilocos Sur
4 ILOCOS SUR 2ND DEO Brgy. Calaoa-an, Candon City, Ilocos Sur
5 LA UNION 1ST DEO Brgy. Lingsat, San Fernando City, La Union
6 LA UNION 2ND DEO Brgy. Natividad, Naguilian, La Union
7 PANGASINAN 1ST DEO Pandayan St., Poblacion, Alaminos City, Pangasinan
8 PANGASINAN 2ND DEO Alvear St., Lingayen, Pangasinan
9 PANGASINAN 3RD DEO Tomana West, Rosales, Pangasinan
10 PANGASINAN 4TH DEO Brgy. Tuliao, Sta. Barbara, Pangasinan
REGION Reg. Site Center, Carig Sur,Tuguegarao City,
CAGAYAN VALLEY
II Cagayan
1 BATANES DEO National Rd., Kayvaluganan, Basco, Batanes
12
2 CAGAYAN 1ST DEO Brgy. Minanga, Aparri, Cagayan
3 CAGAYAN 2ND DEO Libertad, Abulog, Cagayan
Nursery Compound, Bagay Road, San Gabriel,
4 CAGAYAN 3RD DEO
Tuguegarao City, Cagayan
5 ISABELA 1ST DEO Brgy. Osmeña, City of Ilagan, Isabela
6 ISABELA 2ND DEO San Antonio, Roxas, Isabela
7 SABELA 3RD DEO Brgy. Tagaran, Cauayan City, Isabela
8 ISABELA 4TH DEO Brgy. Quezon, San Isidro, Isabela
9 NUEVA VIZCAYA DEO Capitol Compound, Bayombong, Nueva Viscaya
10 NUEVA VIZCAYA 2ND DEO Malasin, Dupax del Norte, Nueva Viscaya
11 QUIRINO DEO Cabarroguis, Quirino
REGION
CENTRAL LUZON Sindalan, City of San Fernando, Pampanga
III
1 AURORA DEO Brgy. Reserva, Baler, Aurora
2 BATAAN 1ST DEO Roman Expressway, Orani, Bataan
3 BATAAN 2ND DEO Vicarville Subdivision, Tenejaro, Balanga City, Bataan
4 BULACAN 1ST DEO Tikay, City of Malolos, Bulacan
5 BULACAN 2ND DEO Cityland Subd., Pulong Buhangin, Sta. Maria, Bulacan
6 NUEVA ECIJA 1ST DEO La Torre, Talavera, Nueva Ecija
7 NUEVA ECIJA 2ND DEO Brgy. San Isidro, Cabanatuan City
8 PAMPANGA 1ST DEO Sindalan, City of San Fernando, Pampanga
9 PAMPANGA 2ND DEO San Antonio, Guagua, Pampanga
10 PAMPANGA 3RD DEO San Francisco St., Brgy. Pampang, Angeles City
11 TARLAC DEO Parsolingan, Gerona, Tarlac
12 TARLAC 2ND DEO NIA Compound, Jefmin, Concepcion, Tarlac
13 ZAMBALES 1ST DEO Iba, Zambales
14 ZAMBALES 2ND DEO Sitio Baring, San Nicolas, Castillejos, Zambales
REGION
CALABARZON EDSA, Quezon City
IV-A
1 BATANGAS 1ST DEO Kumintang Ilaya, Batangas City
2 BATANGAS 2ND DEO Kumintang Ilaya, Batangas City
3 BATANGAS 3RD DEO J. Gonzales St., Tanauan City, Batangas
4 BATANGAS 4THDEO Brgy. Marawoy, Lipa City, Batangas
Capitol Compound, Brgy. San Agustin, Trece Martirez
5 CAVITE DEO
City
Akle St., cor. Mahogany Ave., Brgy. Kaybagal South,
6 CAVITE 2ND DEO
Tagaytay City
7 CAVITE SUB-DEO Carmona, Cavite
Manuel L. Quezon Ave., Brgy. Callios, Sta. Cruz,
8 LAGUNA 1ST DEO
Laguna
9 LAGUNA 2ND DEO Brgy. Bambang, Los Baños, Laguna
10 LAGUNA 3RD DEO Mariflor Subd., San Pablo City, Laguna
11 QUEZON 1ST DEO Brgy. Abang, Lucban, Quezon
12 QUEZON 2ND DEO Dalahican Road, Ibabang Dupay, Lucena City
13 QUEZON 3RD DEO Catanauan, Quezon
Immaculada Concepcion Village, Brgy. Isabang,
14 QUEZON 4TH DEO
Lucena City
15 RIZAL 1ST DEO Brgy. Calumpang, Binangonan, Rizal
13
#16 West Bank Road, Mangahan Floodway, Brgy.
16 RIZAL 2ND DEO
Rosario, Pasig City
REGION
MIMAROPA EDSA, Quezon City
IV-B
1 MARINDUQUE DEO Bangbangalon, Boac, Marinduque
2 MINDORO OCCIDENTAL DEO Airport Rd., Mamburao, Mindoro Occidental
3 MINDORO ORIENTAL DEO Brgy. Masipit, Calapan City,l Mindoro Oriental
4 PALAWAN 1ST DEO Barangay III, Roxas, Palawan
Km.92, South National Highway, Brgy. Antipuluan,
5 PALAWAN 2ND DEO
Narra, Palawan
6 PALAWAN 3RD DEO Brgy. Sta. Monica, Puerto Princesa City, Palawan
#014 J.P. Rizal St., Tabing Dagat, Odiongan,
7 ROMBLON DEO
Romblon
8 SOUTHERN MINDORO DEO Barangay Roxas, Mindoro Oriental
REGION Regional Center Site, Rawis, Legazpi City,
BICOL REGION
V Albay
1 ALBAY 1ST DEO Airport Site,Legaspi City
2 ALBAY 2ND DEO RES V Compound, Airport Site,Legaspi City
3 ALBAY 3RD DEO Paulog, Ligao City
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. Pasig, Daet, Camarines
4 CAMARINES NORTE DEO
Norte
5 CAMARINES SUR 1ST DEO Baras, Canaman, Camarines Sur
6 CAMARINES SUR 2ND DEO Baras, Canaman, Camarines Sur
7 CAMARINES SUR 3RD DEO Caraycayon, Tigaon, Camarines Sur
8 CAMARINES SUR 4TH DEO Brgy. Sta. Teresa, Baao, Camarines Sur
9 CAMARINES SUR 5TH DEO Baras, Canaman, Camarines Sur
10 CATANDUANES DEO San Isidro Village, Virac, Catanduanes
11 MASBATE 1ST DEO Capitol Road, Brgy. Centro, Masbate City
12 MASBATE 2ND DEO Brgy. Balocawe, Dimasalang, Masbate
13 MASBATE 3RD DEO Brgy. Bayanihan, San Fernando, Masbate
14 SORSOGON DEO Daang Maharlika, Guinlajon, Sorsogon
15 SORSOGON 2ND DEO Brgy. Payawin, Gubat, Sorsogon
REGION
WESTERN VISAYAS Fort San Pedro, Iloilo City
VI
1 AKLAN DEO Toting Reyes St., Kalibo, Aklan
2 ANTIQUE DEO Preciado Street, San Jose, Antique
3 BACOLOD CITY DEO Zardonyx St., Brgy. Taculing, Bacolod City
4 CAPIZ 1ST DEO Km. 1, Roxas City
5 CAPIZ 2ND DEO Brgy. Consolacion, Dumalag, Capiz
6 GUIMARAS DEO Brgy. San Miguel, Jordan, Guimaras
7 ILOILO 1ST DEO Fort San Pedro, Iloilo City
8 ILOILO 2ND DEO Balabag, Dumangas, Iloilo
9 ILOILO 3RD DEO Brgy. Puerto Princesa, Barotac Viejo, Iloilo
10 ILOILO 4TH DEO Brgy. Bolong, Oeste, Sta Barbara, Iloilo
11 ILOILO CITY DEO Fort San Pedro, Iloilo City
12 NEGROS OCC. 1ST DEO Matab-ang, Talisay City, Negros Occidental
13 NEGROS OCC. 2ND DEO Binalbagan, Negros Occidental
14 NEGROS OCC. 3RD DEO Kabankalan City, Negros Occidental
14
15 NEGROS OCC. 4TH DEO Bago City, Negros Occidental
REGION
CENTRAL VISAYAS South Road Properties (SRP), Cebu City
VII
1 BOHOL 1ST DEO Dao,Tagbilaran City
2 BOHOL 2ND DEO Ubay, Bohol
3 BOHOL 3RD DEO Sawang, Guindulman , Bohol
4 CEBU 1ST DEO New Medellin Estate, Poblacion Medellin, Cebu
5 CEBU 2ND DEO Lawaan, Talisay, Cebu
6 CEBU 3RD DEO Sitio Khinner, Brgy. Poblacion, Toledo City, Cebu
7 CEBU 4TH DEO Poblacion, Dalaguete, Cebu
8 CEBU 5TH DEO V. Sotto St., Brgy. Tinago, Pier 3, Cebu City
9 CEBU 6TH DEO A.C. Cortes Ave., Mandaue City
10 CEBU CITY DEO V. Sotto St., Brgy. Tinago, Cebu City
11 NEGROS ORIENTAL 1ST DEO Tinaoagan, Bindoy, Negros Oriental
12 NEGROS ORIENTAL 2ND DEO Capitol Area, Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental
13 NEGROS ORIENTAL 3RD DEO Malabuhan, Siaton, Negros Oriental
14 SIQUIOR DEO Larena, Siquijor
REGION
EASTERN VISAYAS Govt. Center, Baras, Palo, Leyte
VIII
1 BILIRAN DEO Naval, Biliran
2 EASTERN SAMAR DEO Brgy. Alang-alang, Borongan City, Eastern Samar
3 LEYTE 1ST DEO Brgy. Pawing, Palo, Leyte
4 LEYTE 2ND DEO Brgy. Barugohay Central, Carigara, Leyte
5 LEYTE 3RD DEO Brgy. Suba, Villaba, Leyte
Government Center Area, Brgy. Punta, Ormoc City,
6 LEYTE 4TH DEO
Leyte
7 LEYTE 5TH DEO Brgy. Hipusngo, Baybay City, Leyte
8 NORTHERN SAMAR 1ST DEO Catarman, Northern Samar
9 NORTHERN SAMAR 2ND DEO Brgy. Burabud, Laoang, Northern Samar
10 SAMAR 1ST DEO Brgy. San Policarpo, Calbayog City, Samar
11 SAMAR 2ND DEO Brgy. Guindapunan, Catbalogan City, Samar
12 SOUTHERN LEYTE DEO Brgy. Asuncion, Maasin City, Southern Leyte
13 TACLOBAN CITY DEO Brgy. Abucay, Tacloban City, Leyte
REGION Veterans Avenue Extension, Tetuan,
ZAMBOANGA PENINSULA
IX Zamboanga City
1 ISABELA CITY DEO Tabuk, Isabela City, Basilan
2 ZAMBOANGA CITY DEO MCLL, Divisoria, Zamboanga City
3 ZAMBOANGA DEL NORTE 1ST DEO Sta. Isabel, Dipolog City, Zamboanga del Norte
4 ZAMBOANGA DEL NORTE 2ND DEO Usukan, Labason, Zamboanga del Norte
5 ZAMBOANGA DEL NORTE 3RD DEO Segabe, Piñan, Zamboanga del Norte
Rizal Avenue, Balangasan District, Pagadian City,
6 ZAMBOANGA DEL SUR 1ST DEO
Zamboanga del Sur
7 ZAMBOANGA DEL SUR 2ND DEO Guipos, Zamboanga del Sur
8 ZAMBOANGA SIBUGAY 1ST DEO Diplahan, Zamboanga Sibugay
9 ZAMBOANGA SIBUGAY 2ND DEO Ipil, Zamboanga Sibugay
REGION
NORTHERN MINDANAO Engineer's Hill, Bulua, Cagayan de Oro City
X
1 BUKIDNON 1ST DEO Capitol Site, Malaybalay City, Bukidnon
2 BUKIDNON 2ND DEO Pinamoloy, Don Carlos, Bukidnon
15
3 BUKIDNON 3RD DEO Dicklum, Manolo Fortich, Bukidnon
4 CAGAYAN DE ORO CITY 1ST DEO 10th RES Compound, Bulua, Cagayan de Oro City
5 CAGAYAN DE ORO CITY 2ND DEO Brgy. Macabalan, Cagayan de Oro City
6 CAMIGUIN DEO Poblacion, Mambajao, Camiguin
ARS Compound, Seminary Drive, Del Carmen, Iligan
7 LANAO DEL NORTE 1ST DEO
City
ARS Compound, Seminary Drive, Del Carmen, Iligan
8 LANAO DEL NORTE 2ND DEO
City
Capitol Site, Lowel Lamak, Oroquita City, Misamis
9 MISAMIS OCCIDENTAL 1ST DEO
Occidental
10 MISAMIS OCCIDENTAL 2ND DEO Juan Luna Street, Tangub City, Misamis Occidental
Purok 5, Saat State Subdivision, Brgy. 26, Gingoog
11 MISAMIS ORIENTAL 1ST DEO
City, Misamis Oriental
12 MISAMIS ORIENTAL 2ND DEO Balase Street, El Salvador City
REGION Ramon Magsaysay Ave., corner Chavez St.,
DAVAO REGION
XI Davao City
Humabon St., Poblacion Nabunturan, Compostela
1 COMPOSTELA VALLEY DEO
Valley
2 DAVAO CITY DEO L. Maria Guerrero St., Davao City
3 DAVAO CITY 2ND DEO Tirol St., Tugbok, Davao City
4 DAVAO DEL NORTE DEO Brgy. Canocotan, Tagum City, Davao del Norte
5 DAVAO DEL SUR DEO Lapu-Lapu St.,Digos City, Davao del Sur
6 DAVAO OCCIDENTAL DEO Brgy. Buhangin, Malita, Davao del Sur
7 DAVAO ORIENTAL 1ST DEO Brgy. Lucod, Baganga, Davao Oriental
8 DAVAO ORIENTAL 2ND DEO Mati-ao, Mati City , Davao Oriental
REGION
SOCCSKSARGEN Mabini St., cor. Alunan Ave., Koronadal City
XII
1 COTABATO 1ST DEO Lanao, Kidapawan City, North Cotabato
2 COTABATO 2ND DEO Villarica, Midsayap, North Cotabato
3 COTABATO CITY DEO #8 Ramon H. Rabago Sr. Street, Cotabato City
4 SARANGGANI DEO Brgy. Kawas, Alabel, Saranggani
Alunan Avenue, Brgy. 3, Koronadal City, South
5 SOUTH COTABATO DEO
Cotabato
6 SOUTH COTABATO 2ND DEO Brgy. Lagao, General Santos City, South Cotabato
7 SULTAN KUDARAT 1ST DEO Old Capitol Site, Kalawag Dos, Isulan, Sultan Kudarat
8 SULTAN KUDARAT 2ND DEO Brgy. Porikay, Sitio Kumalawit, Lebak, Sultan Kudarat
REGION
CARAGA REGION J. Rosales Ave., Butuan City
XIII
1 AGUSAN DEL NORTE DEO J. Rosales Avenue, Butuan City, Agusan del Norte
2 AGUSAN DEL SUR 1ST DEO Patin-ay, Prosperidad, Agusan del Sur
3 AGUSAN DEL SUR 2ND DEO Brgy. Karaos, San Francisco, Agusan del Sur
4 BUTUAN CITY DEO R. Palma St., Butuan City
5 DINAGAT ISLANDS DEO Brgy. Cuarenta, San Jose, Dinagat Island
6 SURIGAO DEL NORTE 1ST DEO Juese Seiing Road, Surigao City
7 SURIGAO DEL NORTE 2ND DEO Brgy. Dose, Catabaan, Dapa, Surigao del Norte
Capitol Road, Brgy. Elaje, Tandag City, Surigao del
8 SURIGAO DEL SUR 1ST DEO
Sur
9 SURIGAO DEL SUR 2ND DEO Purok 13, Mancarogo, Bislig City, Surigao del Sur
16
V. Data Analysis
A. National Road Length Per Functional Classification
TABLE H
Annual Increase of National Roads (2008 – 2019)
National National National Annual Growth
Year Primary Secondary Tertiary Total Increase Rate
(km) (km) (km) (km) (%)
2008 15,663.45 13,986.90 - 29,650.36
2009 15,730.56 14,167.53 - 29,898.09 247.73 0.84
2010 15,871.91 15,370.47 - 31,242.38 1,344.29 4.50
2011 15,986.72 15,372.40 - 31,359.12 116.74 0.37
2012 16,056.47 15,541.21 - 31,597.68 238.56 0.76
2013 16,078.72 16,148.22 - 32,226.93 629.25 1.99
2014 7,060.39 14,051.37 11,414.73 32,526.50 299.57 0.93
2015 7,066.74 14,118.49 11,448.14 32,633.37 106.87 0.33
2016 7,067.42 14,148.04 11,554.81 32,770.27 136.90 0.42
2017 7,066.58 14,248.89 11,552.60 32,868.06 97.79 0.30
2018 7,068.23 14,284.60 11,579.88 32,932.71 64.65 0.20
2019 7,071.85 14,339.06 11,607.34 33,018.25 85.54 0.26
Table H provides a summary of the development, in terms of increase in length, of the Philippine
National Road Network from 2008-2019. With the inception of the current Functional Classification
in April 2014, the length of national roads has been apportioned accordingly, as Primary and
Secondary, with the inclusion of National Tertiary Roads.
FIGURE E
Figure E gives us a clear picture of the growth rate of roads for the same given period. The
rates are 0.84%, 4.50%, 0.37%, 0.76%, 1.99%, 0.93%, 0.33%, 0.42%, 0.30%, 0.20% and
0.26% for the period of 2009 to 2019. Road length has increased gradually with a remarkable
17
surge in the year 2010. The increase was attributed to the various local roads converted into
national roads, a total of sixty-three (63) road sections through Republic Acts and nine (9)
road sections through the issuance of Departments Orders, results on the spot check
conducted on newly rehabilitated roads, road realignment, change in congressional and
district boundaries. The gap portion from K1536 + 260 to K1610 + 264, integrated through
the provisions of DO No. 13 dated February 9, 2010 of the Kapalong-Talaingod-San Fernando-
Valencia Road, with a length of 73.65 km under the jurisdiction of the Bukidnon 1 st District
Engineering Office, was the longest road section to be incorporated in the RBIA database
within the said year.
In 2012, the national road network increased by 238.56 km with a total length of 31,597.68
km. The increase was brought about by the conversion of local roads into national roads,
inclusion of newly improved gap sections, completed flyover and Y-length, modified road
configuration from single to dual carriageway. In the said year, ten (10) Department Orders
were issued reclassifying various local roads into national roads with a length of 60.79 km. On
the other hand, thirteen road sections with a total length of 32.66 km were temporarily deleted
from the List of National Roads since they no longer function as to their purpose. These roads
were either impassable due to road cut, collapsed bridges or were transferred to ARMM
jurisdiction.
Based on the most recent data for the year 2019, there has been an increase of 85.54 km or
0.26 % in the total road length attributable to newly-converted road sections, newly improved
gap sections, completed flyover and wye length and modified road configuration from single
to dual carriageway.
B. Comparative Regional Yearly Length of National Roads (2009-2019)
The data illustrated in Table 7 on page 54 show the increase or decrease of road length
according to surface type (paved or unpaved) and functional classification in all the regions
under the jurisdiction of the Department. These data give us a clear idea on the state of
national roads in the country from 2009 to 2019. The table provides information that can be
used as a gauge in monitoring the progress of road surface on an annual basis, so as to assess
and compare existing and previous road lengths which are utilized in planning and
programming of the Philippine road network.
These data are very useful information to give support to decision-makers from government
and private sectors on the future plans and programs in their area of concern to spur economic
development in accordance with national development goals and objectives.
The trend shows that from year 2009 to 2019, there has been a relative decrease in the length
of unpaved roads and consequently an increase in the length of paved roads all throughout
the regions in the country. This was due to road improvements attributable to newly improved
gap sections, road sections that were subjected to validation and road inventory and roads
requested for conversion from local road to national road evaluated by the Department, in its
commitment to provide total connectivity of national roads.
18
As a result of the inclusion of tertiary roads to the national road network, through the
memorandum that was signed by the Secretary in 2014, there has been a notable decrease
in the length of Primary and Secondary roads. Nevertheless, this inclusion has not affected
the aggregate length of national roads since roads tagged as tertiary were merely reclassified
and remain part of the road network.
C. Road Length and Percentage Per Surface Type
TABLE I
Length and Percentage of National Roads
Percentage
Surface Type Length (km)
(%)
Concrete 21,646.10 65.56
Asphalt 10,440.98 31.62
Gravel 889.21 2.69
Earth 41.96 0.13
Total 33,018.25 100.00
FIGURE F
The country’s national road network is predominantly concrete surfacing at 65.56% or

21,646.10 km out of the total length of 33,018.25 km. Asphalt roads which comprise 31.62%
of the total road network decreased, having a length of 10,440.98 km. Gravel and earth roads
are now 2.69% and 0.13% or 889.21 km and 41.96 km, respectively as shown in Figure F.
Figure G below shows the percentage of length of national roads based on surface type. For
the year 2019, Region VI has the longest concrete roads among the regions in the country,
with a length of 2,326.55 km, while NCR has the shortest at 436.05 km. Whereas, Region IV-
A has the longest aggregate asphalt road length at 1,625.79 km while Region IV-B has the
shortest asphalt roads with a length of 144.52 km.
19
Further, it is worth noting that NCR and Region IV-A have the highest ratio of paved roads or
roads composed of concrete or asphalt among all the other regions under the purview of the
Department with zero percent gravel and earth roads, respectively.
FIGURE G
D. Length and Percentage of Paved & Unpaved Roads
FIGURE H
20
TABLE J
Length and Percentage of Paved and Unpaved Roads
For the Period 2009-2019
PAVED UNPAVED
Year Total
Total % Total %
2009 22,468.67 75.15 7,429.42 24.85 29,898.09
2010 24,126.56 77.22 7,115.82 22.78 31,242.38
2011 24,834.38 79.19 6,524.74 20.81 31,359.12
2012 25,443.44 80.52 6,154.24 19.48 31,597.68
2013 26,772.93 83.08 5,454 16.92 32,226.93
2014 27,816.46 85.52 4,710.04 14.48 32,526.50
2015 28,919.17 88.62 3,714.20 11.38 32,633.37
2016 30,009.99 91.58 2,760.27 8.42 32,770.27
2017 31,035.31 94.42 1,832.75 5.58 32,868.06
2018 31,622.78 96.02 1,309.93 3.98 32,932.71
2019 32,087.08 97.18 931.17 2.82 33,018.25
TABLE K
Length and Growth Rate of Paved Roads
For the Period 2009-2019
Growth Rate
Year Length (km)
(%)
2009 22,468.67 3.65
2010 24,126.56 7.38
2011 24,834.38 2.93
2012 25,443.44 2.45
2013 26,772.93 5.23
2014 27,816.46 3.90
2015 28,919.17 3.96
2016 30,009.99 3.77
2017 31,035.31 3.42
2018 31,622.78 1.89
2019 32,087.08 1.47
Length of paved roads in the Philippines had gradually increased in the past eleven (11)
years. From a baseline length of 22,468.67 km in 2009 to 32,087.08 in 2019, an aggregate
length of 9,618.41 km had been added to the national road network.
Growth rates for the period in consideration (CY 2009 to 2019) varies considerably based on
the length of road sections that had been included in the national road network through the
process of road conversion as well as the integration of newly-improved gap sections and
completed Y-length. Table K shows the growth rate of paved roads in the Philippine national
road network from 2009-2019.
Given that the Department is close to achieving its target of 100 percent paved national road,
at its present rate of 97.18% paved road, it is expected that the growth rate would rise
gradually in the succeeding years.
21
Also, in line with the current administration’s mantra to “Build, Build, Build”, the Philippine
government intends to spend around ₱8-9 trillion in infrastructure projects to usher in a
golden age of infrastructure in the Philippines. Government spending on public infrastructure
will be increased from 5.4% of GDP in 2017 to around 7.3% of GDP by 2022. Its infrastructure
plan, which is consistent with the Master Plan on Asean Connectivity, will help facilitate
connectivity of capital, goods, and people; contribute towards increasing trade; and provide
greater access to different markets. Thus, such move shall significantly affect the Philippine
national road network.
FIGURE I
Figure I shows a noticeable increase in paved roads and decrease in unpaved roads in the
country. The line graph shows the yearly increase of paved road and the yearly decrease of
unpaved roads from 2009 to 2019. For the past eleven (11) years, there has been an increase
of 9,618.41 km of paved roads in the Philippines and consequently, a decrease by 6,498.25
km of unpaved roads. For the year 2019, out of the 33,018.25 km of national roads, 97.18%
is paved and only 2.82% remains unpaved.
FIGURE J
22
Based on the total national road network as shown in Figure J, National Capital Region (NCR)
and Region IV-A have both reached the maximum target of 100% with an aggregate length
of 1,166.24 km and 2,542.45 km, respectively. Conversely, Region IX has the lowest
percentage of paved roads at 88.79% and with a total length of 1,466.46 km.
E. Road Condition
FIGURE K
The graph provides a comparison of the assessed road condition of the national road network
in 2018 with that of 2019. The Visual Road Condition (RoCond) survey is a yearly activity
wherein the condition of the road is being assessed manually. The gathered data is being
utilized as one of the components in running the HDM-4 analysis and for prioritization of
projects. Assessors must hike the stretch of roads in order to visualize all the defects and
come-up with an accurate assessment to ensure the sustainability and viability of the collected
data. The road condition is assessed as “Good”, “Fair”, “Poor” or “Bad”. Good and fair road
conditions are subjected to routine maintenance while poor conditions are due for
rehabilitation and those with bad conditions are recommended for total
reconstruction. However, there are some road sections that were not assessed as they are
either under construction, committed for construction and bridges and/or segments with
lengths below the 50-meter gauging length.
For the year 2019, record shows that out of the 33,018.25 km total length of national road,
44.33 % is in good condition, 33.37% in fair condition, 10.17% in poor condition, 4.72% in
bad condition while 7.41% of the total road network are yet to be assessed.
23
FIGURE L
As shown in Figure K, for the year 2019, the percentage of good and fair condition at 45%
and 34% of paved roads are higher as compared to the percentage inclusive of unpaved roads
at 0.06% and 0.48%, respectively. Whereas, poor condition of the whole national road
network at 10.17% is higher than that of paved roads at 9.56%. While, the bad condition for
paved roads is 4.47% which is slightly lower than the whole network at 4.72%.
The following Visual Condition Index (VCI) value determines the condition of the segment
assessed:
TABLE K
VCI Range Values
ROAD CONDITION
CONDITION RATING
>70 - 100 Good
>40 - 70 Fair
>20 - 40 Poor
1 – 20 Bad
TABLE L
Road Condition with Recommended Treatment Measures
Road Condition Treatment Measures
Little or no maintenance required (routine
GOOD
maintenance)
Needs some partial/full depth repairs
FAIR
(preventive maintenance)
Needs extensive full depth repairs, some
POOR
full slab replacement/ Rehabilitation
Needs to rebuilt pavement (Total
BAD
Reconstruction)
24
F. International Roughness Index (IRI)
Roughness data is one of the key parameters for the operation of the Pavement Management
System (PMS) using the HDM-4 software. PMS is used for long-term, medium-term and annual
planning and programming purposes. Likewise, information on roughness is a vital data set
in reporting network performance under the Department’s Performance Governance System
(PGS), which is aligned with the administration’s initiative of coming up with strategic and
performance management tools that would allow government agencies to be assessed
objectively, in order to foster transparency and accountability in the different tiers of the
organization.
Reduced roughness is a key driver of economic benefit and therefore is crucial to the operation
of the PMS. In order to address this matter, a nationwide roughness survey of the paved road
network was outsourced.
Since initial inception in 2002, the gathering of the National Road Roughness Index (NRRI)
has been one of the key indicators used in the Pavement Management System (PMS) and
HDM-4 by the DPWH in identifying and quantifying key projects for programming. In
accomplishing the task, the Statistics Division has been leading the collection and
management of the Road Roughness Survey to be able to sustain and support the PMS of the
Department.
Aimed at sustaining the Roughness Data requirements for PMS and HDM-4, the NRRIP II (Re-
bidding) was procured through Consulting Services in 2016. The project was awarded to
RoadKorea Inc. in joint venture Cybersoft Integrated Geoinformatics Inc. (RKI jv CIGI). The
project, which started on 26 January 2017 was completed as scheduled on 25 September
2017. The project was expected to deliver 7,048,929 meters of Roughness Data along the
Nation’s Primary Road Network in Regions I, II, III, IV-A, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII, XIII,
CAR and NCR. However, actual accomplishments showed roughness data acceptance totaling
7,000.281 meters of IRI Data.
The Department, through the SD, PS has been manually conducting Road Condition
Assessment Survey annually in coordination with the District and Regional Engineering Offices
nationwide. Results generated from the said activity were used to support the requirements
for PMS and HDM-4 activities and processes. In 2017, initiatives to improve the system came
to order through semi-automation of portions of the said survey program. Hence, in line with
the said trusts, the outsourcing of the semi-automated Visual Road Condition Assessment
Program (VRCAP) went underway as a pilot project in 2017.
The program was procured through Bids and Awards Committee, Consulting Services.
RoadKorea Inc. in joint venture Cybersoft Integrated Geoinformatics Inc. was awarded, the
winning bidder from an initially failed procurement bid in 2016. The project which covers a
total of 14,112.511 km of Primary Roads Nationwide in Regions I, II, III, IV-A, V, VI, VII, VIII,
IX, X, XI, XII, XIII, CAR and NCR, has a project cost of 41,525,188.08. The program started
at 26 January 2017, however, the ten (10) month program duration which was expected to
25
end on 26 November was extended until 03 February 2018, due to unexpected turn of events
beyond the control of the project. This include, peace and order situations attributed to the
siege of Maute Groups in Marawi City in Region X (10 days), additional holidays declared
through Proclamation No. 50 (10.5 days), adjustment and transitory period on Quality
Assurance Checking of Statistics Division Staff (28 days), and others (6 days).
The Special Survey for the National Road Roughness Index is being gathered on a regular
basis to provide pertinent information to the PMS in the identification and prioritization of
future road projects of the department, hence the procurement of the National Road
Roughness Index Program Phase III (NRRIP III).
Awarded to RKI JV CIGI on 01 October, 2018, NRRIP III started the day after the issuance of
the Notice to Proceed on 21 November, 2018. The project continued to progress in early 2019
until its completion on September 21, 2019. The project required roughness data submission
totaling 12,382.813km of national road network which include 6,417.095km of all primary and
5,965.718km of selected secondary national road on cyclical frequency. In the completion of
the project, the Consultant provided a total of 12,425.909km of IRI Data to the Department.
This is 43.096km more than the contract requirement as previously identified.
Outlook for the 2019 International Road Roughness Index for the Philippine National Road
Network registered a Fair Roughness Index after generating an average of 4.68 in the rating
scale. Of the total 12.425.909km of roads surveyed for roughness index, 52% are Primary
Roads and 48% are Secondary Roads. Out of the total roads surveyed, 25% reached a “Good”
condition rating, while 31% of the road network registered a “Fair” condition and a “Poor”
road condition reflects on 31% of the road network. The rest 13% of the network recorded a
“Bad” road roughness condition.
TABLE M
26
FIGURE M
Overall Condition Scores
Among the 25% that reached “Good” road roughness condition, Region XIII demonstrated the
best road by registering a 2.11 IRI rating score, followed by Region XII (2.12 IRI rating score),
and Region V (2.13 IRI rating score).
Likewise, among the 31% of the road network that reached “Fair” condition rating, Regions IV-
A, Region V, and Region I showed to be the fairest by generating condition scores of 3.70, 3.81
and 3.92, respectively.
On the other hand, CAR (6.04 IRI rating score), Region XII (5.98 IRI rating score) and Region
XIII (5.98 IRI rating score), reflected the top three (3) bottom scores among the 31% of the
road network that recorded the “Poor” road roughness condition.
Meanwhile, among the minor 13% of the road network that revealed a “Bad” road roughness
condition rating, Regions III (8.45 IRI rating score), NCR (8.35 IRI rating score) and Region IV-
A (8.34 IRI rating score) demonstrated to have the worst road condition and were mostly located
in Secondary Roads.
IRI Regional Average shows Region IV-A to have the best road roughness condition in the
network by attaining a regional average of 3.34, followed by Regions V and III, by registering
IRI scores of 3.39 and 3.63, respectively.
Procurement of the National Road Roughness Index Program Phase IV (NRRIP-IV).
Activities to sustain the HDM-4 requirements continues through the procurement of the NRRIP
IV which is programmed under GAA 2020, through an early procurement scheme to pro-actively
augment the ill-effects of the cash based program being implemented by the administrative
government. The Program’s Term of Reference (TOR) and Approved Budget of Contract (ABC)
27
were approved on 14 October 2019 and 15 November 2019, respectively. Pre-Bid Conference
was the last activity to be conducted for the year for the Project.
G. Road Density
Road density pertains to the ratio of the length of the country's total road network to the
country's land area. The road network includes all roads in the country: motorways, highways,
main or national roads, secondary or regional roads, and other urban and rural roads. It is
considered as an appropriate index of human activity and land-use intensity. Thus, road
density is generally highly-correlated with amount of developed land surface.
A well-developed road transport sector, most especially in developing countries, is assumed

to fuel up the growth process through a variety of activities of the development endeavors of
a nation. Among these, creation of market access opportunities for agricultural products is
the most crucial.
Road transport facilities play a significant role in both the production and consumption
decisions of every household in their day-to-day activities. Besides, road transport facilities
are essential for expanding education, health service provision, trade furtherance – both within
the country and the export market, and better public as well as private service provisions,
including banking and insurance services, to the poor and marginalized rural dweller. Likewise,
roads serve as key infrastructural units, which provide linkages to other modes of
transportation like railways, shipping, and air network. Hence, it is imperative that we consider
all the factors necessary in coming up with the optimum plan to improve road infrastructure,
one of which is road density.
Table 11, as seen in page 87 provides a rundown of the road density of the country in the
regional and national level for the year 2010-2019. It encompasses the national primary,
secondary and tertiary roads; with the exclusion, however, of local roads, under the
jurisdiction of the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG).
In terms of road density, for the current year, the National Capital Region (NCR) has 188.24
km of roads per square kilometer of land area whereas Western Visayas, the region with the
second highest road density, has only 23.91 kilometer per square kilometer. Cagayan Valley
has the lowest road density at 6.73 kilometers per square kilometer. Higher income local
government units are better able to provide the road network needed in the local areas.
Overall, the Philippines’ road density is 10.62 kilometers per square kilometers.
28
HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING
1. INTRODUCTION
Highway Planning involves the estimation of current and future traffic volumes on a road
network. Highway planning is also a basic need for the highway development. Highway
engineers strive to predict and analyze all possible civil impacts of highway systems. Some
considerations are the adverse effects on the environment, such as noise pollution, air
pollution, water pollution, and other ecological impacts.
Planning is a prerequisite for any engineering activity or project; this is particularly true for
the development of a highway network or system in a country.
The objectives of highway planning are:
 Planning a highway network for safe, efficient and fast movement of people and goods.
 Keeping the overall cost of construction and maintenance of the roads in the network
to a minimum.
 Planning for future development and anticipated traffic needs for a specific design
period.
 Phasing road development programmes from considerations of utility and importance
as also of financial resources.
 Evolving a financing system compatible with the cost and benefits.
To fulfill these objectives, the following principles have to be borne in mind:
 The proposed road links should be a part of the planned road network for the
state/nation.
 The importance of the road shall be based on the traffic demand, and hence its type
should fall under the standard classification.
 The maintenance needs of the roads should receive prompt attention by setting aside
funds for this purpose.
 Statutory provisions for traffic regulation should be in place.
1.1 Background
This section describes features relating to the safety of a length of road or the road network
through the awareness of safety principles during the planning stages of a new area or of a
road project.
Planning of new areas or road projects can be considered in four stages:
 Laying out the land-use of the area. This is where for example, industrial areas can be
separated from residential areas or where consideration should be given to the
CVIL 1073 – Highway and Railroad Engineering 1
movement of people, particularly pedestrians and cyclists. The location of shopping
centers and schools should be considered carefully to facilitate the safe movement of
pedestrians and motor vehicles and in order to avoid the potential impact of adjacent
heavy through-traffic;
 Once the land-use is determined, an arterial road network should be defined to cater
for through traffic. This is then supported by a network of local roads that provide
access to the properties within the area. The separation of through traffic from local
traffic is an important principle in road safety;
 On the arterial roads, careful control and management of access can facilitate safety
and the smooth flow of traffic; and,
 Careful planning and provision of public transport facilities can ensure that the conflict
areas between pedestrians and vehicles are minimized.
2. LAND USE AND ZONING
Zoning in the Philippines has been under total control of the Housing and Land Use
Regulatory Board (HLURB), until the early 1990's when this function was gradually
decentralized to the Local Government Units by virtue of the Local Government Code. Since
then, each unit of the Local Government became responsible for zoning of their respective
jurisdictions and final land use and zoning plans were submitted to HLURB for approval. Thus,
the municipal, city, and provincial planning and development offices (MPDO, CPDO, and
PPDO) have developed comprehensive land use and development plans to control within
sustainable limits urbanism and rapid growth.
It is the intent of this manual that road safety concerns should be given emphasis in the
conduct of traffic impact assessment for new developments or any project that would
significantly affect local zoning ordinances. As experienced in Metro Manila, the emergence of
large traffic generators such as malls and similar commercial establishments has created
fragmented land use interactions that have deteriorated traffic operation of the road network.
While traffic impact assessments may have been prepared for these developments, safety
may not have been given adequate emphasis. Therefore, in the course of planning for large
traffic generators, it is imperative to consider the following:
• That big land developments must carefully follow project size threshold as identified by
the zoning administrator of the locality. The threshold may be gauged based on the total land
area of the project site, the footprint area of the building, percentage land occupancy, floor
area ratio (FAR);

• Large land developments usually are big traffic generators and should not have direct
access to a high speed road facility. This is to provide a buffer between pedestrians and
entering traffic from high volume and high speed traffic;
• The minimum local standards pertaining to access and parking requirements should be
carefully followed. It may be essential that access, parking, and lay-by facilities must be
treated separately corresponding to private cars, public utility vehicles, and cargo
trucks/delivery vans;
• Pedestrians should be given utmost consideration by providing facilities that would

segregate them from through and local traffic. A network of at-grade and elevated walkways
should be properly planned considering travel patterns and volume of pedestrians;
• Night time operation is deemed more critical than daytime as this would require further
analysis on lighting requirements and added security;
2.1 Principles in Land Use Planning and Zoning
The key principles to be adopted in land use planning and zoning are the following:
• Development and implementation of a zoning plan to separate incompatible and

conflicting land uses and the traffic they generate;
• Strong planning regulations to influence the location of new development and to

control access arrangements and parking;
• Land uses should be planned with the aim of minimizing travel and maximizing
accessibility to public transport;
• Residential development should be separated from heavy industry and major

commercial uses;
• Activities which generate substantial traffic should be located adjacent to roads most
suited to the type of traffic expected (e.g., if a primary school generates many cycle or
pedestrian trips, then it should be capable of being reached directly via a network of
bikeways or footpaths); and,
• Light industry and service establishments can be located adjacent to residential areas
but vehicular access should not be via the residential streets.

Figure 2.1 : Poor Zoning and Road Planning Interface
Figure 2.1 illustrates a residential area separated from school zone and work places by a
primary road. Pedestrians crossing the road pose safety concerns. A more adequate traffic
and land-zoning interface is shown in Figure 2.2 where all developments are located on the
same side of the primary road. This setup then would eliminate safety concerns as
pedestrians will not regularly cross the road
Figure 2.2 : Good Zoning and Road Planning Interface

2.2 Traffic Planning for Different Land Uses
2.2.1 Residential Areas
Residential roads are the prime locations where vehicles and pedestrians interact and where
the movement function fulfills an increasingly minor role amongst the most important service
and domestic activities. In order to provide a safe environment for vehicles and pedestrians:
• Residential roads longer than 100 to 200 meters should be meandering and should
have tight horizontal curves or roundabouts at local road intersections to encourage low
speeds;
• Non-access traffic needs to find it impossible, or highly inconvenient, to use residential

roads as a short cut;
• Pedestrians must be given priority, especially close to buildings and in play areas;
• Direct access to dwellings should be provided from access ways rather than distributor
roads;
• Where dwellings have vehicular access onto distributor roads, alternative pedestrian
access should be provided via segregated footpaths onto access ways;
• Pedestrians should be segregated wherever possible and crossings of traffic routes

should be convenient and safe;
• Parking should be ample and convenient but located away from areas where children
play;
• Drivers need to be made aware of the priority for pedestrians on entry and throughout
the area by the overall geometry, surface texture and threshold treatment as they enter the
area;
• Large developments should be sub-divided to minimize traffic on internal roads;
 Existing grid networks with cross roads should be modified by closures or restrictions to
create internally or externally-fed systems;
• Inter-visibility between drivers and pedestrians should be sufficient to minimize the risk
of accidents; and,
• Overnight parking of lorries, especially those with hazardous loads, should be actively
discouraged.

2.2.2 Industrial Areas
Industrial areas are very important to the economy of most countries and it is necessary for
them to be provided with safe, efficient links to national and international markets for both
raw materials and finished goods. The important factors to consider for the layout and design
of industrial estates are:
• Land zoned for industrial purposes should have direct access from the district
distributor network whenever possible;
• Each site should have sufficient off-road parking and loading areas to accommodate all
its operational, staff and visitor requirements within the site boundary;
• Roads and footpaths should provide a safe and efficient means of access for workers,
visitors and the range of vehicles which can be anticipated when a number of different
industries are grouped together;
• The internal circulatory system (to at least local distributor standard) should ensure
that no traffic queues on the network in normal circumstances; and,
• Networks of safe cycle/footpaths should be created between the industrial area and the
main areas where employees live.
2.2.3 Commercial / Retail Areas
Commercial and retail areas may vary from isolated stalls or street sellers to major shopping
centers and office developments covering large areas of land. Consequently their transport
needs may be very mixed. The main points to consider in the planning of such areas are:
• All commercial and trading areas should be away from the through traffic network. If
alongside, then service roads should be provided to service the development;
• Rear servicing, separate from pedestrian access should be provided whenever possible;
• Adequate parking and loading facilities for operational use should be provided within
the site of individual premises if possible;
• Visitor and customer parking should be provided off the road, possibly on a communal
basis;
• On-street parking should be discouraged and only permitted where it does not obstruct
general traffic movements or conflict with pedestrians;

• Good public transport provision to and within such areas can effectively reduce overall
parking demand; and,
• When rural main roads in developing countries pass through "trading centers" it may
be necessary to reduce speeds by physical measures such as road humps and raised
pedestrian crossings to protect pedestrians and shoppers.
2.2.4 Recreational/Tourism Areas
As countries develop, people increasingly find time for leisure and recreational activities. This
leads to demands for sport and recreation centers and leisure parks in addition to major
facilities for spectators' sports. Where tourist or leisure related activities are encouraged and
have become a necessary part of the economy, safe access to them and appropriate parking
facilities for them may form an important part of their success. The main considerations to
bear in mind are:
• All recreational generators should be given access from local or district distributor
roads, depending on their scale;
• Recreational land uses should be separated from residential areas, but they may be on
the fringes provided recreational traffic is directed away from dwellings;
■ Certain recreational uses may be acceptable within commercial or industrial areas,

although this should be done with care;
• Adequate provision of public transport is essential;
• All participant and spectator parking (refer to Figure 2.3) should be provided separately
within or near each facility and be sufficient to accommodate peak demands;
• Pedestrian routes between entrances/parking areas and venues should be free of

vehicular traffic and clear1y signposted:
• Where events necessitate the use of public highways, they should be clearly
segregated from general traffic (periodic closures may be justified);
• Service areas and facilities should be segregated from general traffic and if possible
should operate at different times to public use: and,
• Certain facilities such as car parks could be shared with other uses.

Figure 2.3 : Ideal Road Network Planning for Tourism Areas
3. CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS / ROAD HIERARCHY
Road network is defined as a hierarchy in terms of road types and according to the major
functions the roads will serve. The main classification is whether the road is to be used
primarily for movement or for access.
The key points to consider in network planning are the following:
• Within the hierarchy, networks should be planned such that areas are separated into
self-contained zones (often referred to as neighborhoods). The size and scale of these zones
will depend upon the importance of the road bounding them. Within these areas all non
essential traffic should be excluded. It should be possible to carry out most daily trips to
shops and schools wholly within the area;
• The natural barrier of main routes can be used to segregate and contain incompatible
uses and to reinforce local identities. The network can be such that traffic can enter zones
from an external or internal system (refer to Figure 3.1). The external system reinforces
these natural barriers and offers the safest network when well planned. Existing grid-iron
networks should be closed off or restricted to create internally or externally-fed system;

Figure 3.1 : Schematic Hierarchy of Roads
 Each class of road should clearly convey to the road user its role in the hierarchy with
respect to both traffic volume and design speed. This can be achieved by appearance and
related design standards; and,
• Each road should intersect only with roads in the same class or one immediately above
or below it in the hierarchy. In that way, anyone using the network has a clear impression of
the graduated change in conditions between the low speed access roads and the segregated,
higher speed "through routes· at the top of the hierarchy. (refer to Figure 3.2)
Figure 3.2 : Externally and Internally-fed Networks

3.1 Expressways / National Roads
3.1.1 Expressways
An expressway is proposed for a road corridor under the following situations;
 A road corridor connecting several highly urbanized centers with ribbon-type of

development of commercial, business and industrial establishment.
 A road corridor with high traffic demand.
These roads are the longer distance transport routes for motorized traffic. They provide the
transportation link between regions and provinces. Their primary function is movement and
not access.
The elements to consider when planning Expressways are:
• No frontage access:
• Development set well back from the highway;
• Grade separated intersections for extremely high flows and other intersecting
expressways;
• Number of intersections to be minimized and
• Where necessary or for emergency purposes, parking/stopping to be provided clear of

the main carriageway.
3.1.2 National Roads
National Roads are roads continuous in extent that form part of the main trunk line system;
all roads leading to national ports, national seaports, parks or coast-to-coast roads. National
arterial roads are classified into three groups from the viewpoint of function, i.e. North-south
backbone, East-West Laterals and Other Strategic Roads.
The elements to consider when planning National Roads are:
 Limited frontage access

 Development set well back from the highway;
 All access to premises provided via provincial roads;
 Number of intersections to be minimized;
 Suitable at-grade channelized intersections for minor flows and other elements
 No roadside vendors.

3.2 Provincial Roads
Provincial Roads are roads connecting one municipality with another; all roads extending from
a municipality or from a provincial or national roads to a public wharf or railway station; and
any other road to be designated as such by the Sangguniang Panlalalwigan.
The main elements to consider when planning Provincial Roads include:
• Limited frontage access. In exceptional circumstances, large individual developments

may have direct access when a high level intersection is provided
• Development set back from the highway;
• Most development to be given access via intersections with local distributor roads;
• All intersections will normally be at-grade;
• Turning traffic should be separated out from the through traffic;
• Separated pedestrians/bikeways remote from the carriageway;
• Pedestrian crossing points should be clearly defined and controlled;
 Parking on the road should not be permitted;
• Bus stops and other loading areas (only permitted in exceptional circumstances) should
be in separate well designed lay bys;
• Regular stopping places for paratransit vehicles (i.e., private, non corporately run
public transport operating vehicles smaller than buses or AUV's) should be identified and safe
stopping places established; and,
• No roadside vendors.
3.3 City / Municipal Roads
3.3.1 City Roads - these roads/ streets within the urban area of the city to be
designated as such by the Sangguniang Panglungsod.
3.3.2 Municipal Roads - these roads / streets within the poblacion area of a
municipality to be designatedas such by the Sangguniang Bayan.
City/Municipal Roads serve to feed traffic onto and off the main road network at the
beginning and end of trips. These roads serve local traffic only.
Main points to consider in planning City/Municipal roads are as follows:

• The road is only for local traffic; through traffic is adequately accommodated on an
alternative more direct main road;
• Where possible, an industrial traffic route should not pass through a residential area;
• Vehicle speeds should be kept low so long straight roads should be avoided;
• Parking is allowed, but alternative off-road provision should be made if possible;
• Non-motorized traffic is of equal importance to motor traffic and separate route should
be provided if possible;
• Where non - motorized traffic needs to use a local distributor it should be separated
from motorized traffic;
• The road width can be varied to provide for parking or to give emphasis to crossing
points depending upon traffic flows;
 Bus stops and other loading areas (only permitted in exceptional circumstances) should
be in separate well designed lay bys;
• Through-movements should be made awkward and inconvenient to discourage them;

and,
• No roadside vendors.
3.4 Barangay Roads
Barangay Roads are rural roads located either outside the urban area of city or outside
industrial, commercial or residential subdivisions which act as feeder farm-to-market roads,
and which are not otherwise classified as national, provincial, city or municipal roads. Roads
located outside the Poblacion area of municipality and those roads located outside the urban
area of a city to be designated as such by the Barangay Council concerned.
As the name implies, these roads are for access only and are primarily for residential uses
(industrial access should normally occur from a road of at least local distributor standard).
These are ultimately the streets on which people live. Design standards may vary but the
important elements to consider for barangay roads are:
• Vehicle flows to be kept to a minimum;
• All through traffic eliminated;
• Vehicle speeds to be kept low by careful and deliberate inclusion of obstructions to

create meandering alignments;
• Access roads kept short where possible;
• Cul-de-sac and loop roads to be used wherever possible to deter through traffic;
• Intersections to be three rather than four leg and kept compact to aid pedestrian
movement;
• Pedestrian and vehicles can 'share' space;
• Carriageway width can be reduced to emphasize pedestrian priority;
• Entrance/exit points of access streets should be clearly identified by threshold

treatments, e.g. changes in geometric layout, landscaping, building development or even
gateways and signing;
• Parking and stopping within the streets is permitted although adequate provision
should be provided within individual properties or separate garage areas;
• Use of fully mountable curbs for vehicles may enable reduced road width and reduced
standard alignments to be used by emergency and service vehicles, or for occasional parking;
and,
• Firepaths (emergency accesses for the engines) can be kept clear by using diagonal
closures to eliminate parking spaces or by ensuring other nearby owners gain access by the
same route so that they keep them clear.

3.5 Pedestrianized Areas/Routes
These are areas from which all motorized vehicles are excluded to improve safety. In their
broadest sense they would include all routes where non motorized traffic has sole priority.
This would include purpose-built footpaths and bikeways that often form a totally separate
network to that for motorized traffic in residential areas. In planning new pedestrian networks
and areas the key points to consider are:
• Residential, industrial and commercial areas should be linked by footpaths providing

the most direct and pleasant route between destinations.
• Any deviation from a direct route should be more attractive than a less safe option;
• All crossings with main routes should be grade separated wherever possible and if not
possible additional at-grade facilities (e.g. refuges or pedestrian crossings) should be
provided to minimize crossing problems;
• Vertical rerouting (via over bridge or underpass) is much less attractive to pedestrians
than at grade facilities;
• The vertical and horizontal alignments of pedestrian routes can include much steeper
gradients and sharper bends than for a roadway for motor traffic;
• Open aspects need to be maintained, particularly at intersections and underpasses;
• In shopping and commercial areas priority needs to be given to pedestrians;

• Where motor vehicles are displaced, adequate capacity (for loading, parking and
movement) needs to be available elsewhere on the surrounding roads but such facilities
should always be within easy walking distance;
• If no alternative provision can be made for motor traffic, consideration may be given to
pedestrianization by time of day i.e., vehicle access allowed only when pedestrian flows are
light (e.g. very early in the morning or late at night);
• Connections to bus stops, parking areas and stations are vital and should be
convenient; and,
• All pedestrianized areas must have provision for access of emergency vehicles and
refuse collecting vehicles.

School of Engineering Architecture and Information Technology Education
Electrical Engineering Department
Road Patterns:
Although road patterns in a country are historically inherited, later additions can be planned bearing in
mind the requirements of the day.
Road patterns are of great use in urban highway planning. The choice of a road pattern depends upon the
extent of land use or the distribution of residential, industrial and business areas in a city, the nature of the
terrain, and the planner’s preferences.
The main patterns in use in urban areas are:
1. Grid Iron Pattern:

This is also known as rectangular or block pattern and is perhaps the simplest (Fig. 1.5). The Romans
preferred it, as have the Americans who adopted it in many of their cities. This is easy to set out in straight
lines and rectangular co-ordinates, and is suitable for flat terrain.
The disadvantages of this pattern are monotonously long streets and the inconvenience in traffic
operation. There are also certain advantages such as bypassing any road with traffic congestion and the
convenience of imposing one-way traffic, if necessary, making alternate streets with one- way traffic in
opposite directions.

2. Radial Pattern:
In this pattern, roads emanate from a central focal area, which may be a business centre or an important
public building. In order to ease the congestion in the focal area, ring roads are provided; there can be
several such roads—inner, intermediate and outer—depending on the requirements of the traffic.
The shape of a ring road may be round, square, or elongated. Based on this, the pattern may be star and
grid, or star and circular.
The star and circular pattern, also known as the radial and circular pattern, has been adopted in certain
cases, although in a limited way.

3. Hexagonal Pattern:
The basic figure of the road network in this case is a hexagon; each hexagon has at least one side
common with an adjacent pattern, as shown in Fig. 1.8.
The hexagonal pattern can be modified by dividing the hexagon into six triangle units by link roads; this
facilitates travel from one place to any other place in the area in the minimum possible time, compared to
any other pattern. This, in fact, is known as a ‘minimum travel pattern’ and was used in certain cities to
great advantage.
Highway Planning Studies:

Highway planning involves the assessment of the length of road required for a given area, which may be a
city, district, state or a country; further, it includes the preparation of a master plan for the area taking into
consideration future needs, and phasing the programme in annual or five-year plans, based on the
priorities and utility.
For assessing the required road length for the area, field studies are to be carried out to collect the
necessary data.
These are:
(i) Economic Studies:
Details of the existing facilities, their utility, distribution of the existing population in the area, population
growth trends, existing products in the agricultural and industrial sectors, future trends of development in
these sectors, existing communication and education facilities, and the per capita income are to be
collected.
(ii) Road Use Studies:

Details of the existing road facilities, traffic volume in vehicles per day, traffic flow patterns, classes of
traffic such as passenger cars, busses and trucks, loads carried, average speeds, anticipated future
trends of traffic growth, and other traffic-related studies are to be conducted.
(iii) Engineering Studies:
These include study of the topography, soil, road life and special problems, if any, relating to construction,
drainage and maintenance.
(iv) Financial Studies:

Various financial aspects such as the sources of funding, estimated revenue from taxes on vehicles, toll
tax, and indirect benefits of raising the living standards of the people due to the proposed road network
are considered.
A systematic study of all these data will help the planner in the preparation of a Master Plan to serve the
needs of the area for a specified design period of say, 20 to 25 years.
These studies also help in fixing priorities of various routes or sectors based on their utility per unit length.
Based on the priorities and the maximum utility per unit length, the entire development plan for the design
period will be phased in 5-year intervals, depending upon the availability of financial resources. This is
known as phasing of the Master Plan for road development.
For calculating the optimum road length a system called saturation system or maximum utility system is
used.
This system is based on the principle of qualifying the utility of a proposed road network based on the
villages and towns of different populations it serves, as also the weight of agricultural or industrial
products it carries.
For example, consider the ‘utility units’ attached to villages with certain population ranges as
given below:
The total utility units for all the villages served by a proposed road may be called, based on this. Similarly,
the utility unit for 1000 tons of agricultural products may be taken as 1.00, and that for 100 tons of
industrial product as 10.00. If the break-up is not known, a suitable average value may be taken as the

utility unit for the entire productivity. The total utility units may be got by summing up the values from both
these criteria and divided by the length of the roads, to obtain the total utility per unit length. Thus, the
value for different options under investigation may be compared and the best option with the highest total
utility units chosen. This option is supposed to be utilized to the maximum extent by traffic in all stretches
of the road, reaching saturation. This system has been used extensively in the U.S.A.
The disadvantage of this system is the element of arbitrariness of the utility coefficients assigned to the
various factors; but with sound judgment and professional skill and experience, balanced weightages may
be arrived at for choosing the best option.
Highway Alignment:
The laying out of the center line of a proposed highway on the ground is called its ‘alignment’. A new road
should be aligned carefully since any change in alignment may not be possible or may be expensive at a
later stage, owing to increased land acquisition costs and roadside structures constructed after the road
has taken shape.
Requirements of an Ideal Alignment:
1. Directness:
The aligned route between end points should be as direct as possible and result in the minimum possible
length under the circumstances.
2. Ease of Construction, Maintenance and Operation:

The alignment should be such that it is easy to construct, maintain and operate the highway. The curves
and gradients should be easy.
3. Safety:
Safety for the road-users should be the primary consideration; the stability of natural slopes and man-
made slopes for embankments and cuttings should be ensured to prevent possible accidents.
4. Economy:
The overall cost of construction and maintenance of the road, as also the operation cost of the vehicles
should be as low as possible.
5. Special Considerations:
Depending upon the purpose of the highway and the characteristics of the terrain, special considerations
may be needed as in the case of hill roads or ghat roads.

Horizontal Alignment:
This is the alignment of the roadway in the horizontal plane; although it is ideal to have a straight route
between end points, it is practically impossible owing to several constraints. A change in direction
necessitates the use of horizontal curves for smooth flow of traffic.
Vertical Alignment:
Although it is ideal to have a roadway at the same elevation throughout, this is almost impractical and
gradients or slopes along the length become mandatory. A change in gradient calls for curves in the
vertical plane; vertical curves should be designed and constructed for smooth flow of traffic based on
several criteria.
The alignment may be smoothened as shown in Fig. 2.1:
Factors Controlling Alignment:
The selection of alignment of a proposed new highway route will be based on a careful
consideration of the following factors:
1. Obligatory Points:
These are the points through which the alignment has to necessarily pass for maximum utilization of the
road (Figure 2.2). While aligning a new highway route between two end points, it would be necessary to

make it pass through places of importance. This may be based on the population that can be served, or
places of business or industrial importance.
2. Topographical Features:
Topographical features like a lake or a hillock may require the alignment to be taken around them. In the
case of a big hill the option of constructing a tunnel through it for maintaining a straight alignment can be
considered. The relative costs of these options have to be studied to finalize the alignment.
Figure 2.3 shows a change in alignment around an obstruction caused by a lake and a hillock.

3. Geometric Design Aspects:
Factors such as radius of curve, longitudinal gradients, sight distances, road intersections, design speed,
lateral friction, and super-elevation govern the alignment to a considerable degree; radii of horizontal
curves and longitudinal gradients should facilitate easy maneuvering of vehicles.
4. Cross-Drainage Needs:
The alignment should be such that bridges are located at right angles to the direction of flow of the stream
or river (Fig. 2.4).
5. Deviations Dictated by Circumstances:

Although a straight horizontal road is the best option, it is highly monotonous for a driver; so, to divert
attention on a straight road and break the monotony, a slight bend or curve may be created at least once
in a kilometer or two to make the driver alert. Obstructions such as places of worship (such as established
temples and churches), monuments of historical interest, public buildings such as hospitals and
educational institutions and utility services like water supply and sewerage lines and overhead
transmission lines may necessarily have to be bypassed.
This may dictate deviation in the alignment of the roadway, leaving sufficient margin for these hindrances.
Sometimes, the alignment may have to be changed to bypass expensive private property or agricultural or
industrial area.
6. Proximity to Materials and Labor:

Proximity to the sources of materials for road-making and the availability of cheap labor may be a criterion
for fixing the alignment.
7. Economic Considerations:
Before an alignment is chosen, two or three alternative routes may have to be investigated and their
overall cost – initial outlay and maintenance cost over a design period – compared. The route with the
best economy is then selected.
8. Political Considerations:
Sometimes, political considerations may dictate the choice of alignment, setting aside even economic
considerations. Of course, the other important criteria have to be necessarily borne in mind.
Highway Project Preparation:

A highway project may be an entirely new route or it may involve re-alignment and re-design of an existing
road such as for upgrading its geometric design standards.
The work of a new highway project involves:

(a) Selection of the alignment.
(b) Geometric design.
(c) Testing and selection of the materials for the subgrade and the pavement.
(e) Pavement construction including surfacing.
(f) Rolling and compaction and curing, if necessary.
(g) Quality control during construction.
(h) Performance of review and appraisal under traffic.
Realignment of an Existing Road:
An existing road may have to be realigned under a variety of circumstances:

(i) Redesign and improvement of geometric design aspects owing to increased traffic needs.
(ii) Raising the level of a road subjected to flooding.
(iii) Reconstruction of weak culverts and bridges to take care of increased traffic needs.
(iv) Construction of over-bridges and under-bridges at road intersections and level crossing.
(v) Construction of a bypass near a busy town.
Project Report:
Any project should be submitted to the competent authority along with a report.
The report should contain the following:

i. Name of the project
ii. Authority for execution
iii. Necessity

iv. Summary of alignment details
v. Summary of geometric design aspects
vi. Traffic details including anticipated future needs for a chosen design period
vii. Details of important drainage and cross-drainage works
viii. Specifications for the materials
ix. Details of quantities required
x. Rate analysis
xi. Detailed and abstract estimated
xii. Total cost and duration of the project
xiii. Material sourcing, labor and equipment
xiv. Construction scheduling (using project analysis tools such as CPM and PERT)
xv. Temporary facilities like diversion roads, work-sheds, water supply and power
xvi. Signals and traffic signs
xvii. Lighting
xviii. Roadside arboriculture
Engineering Surveys:
Highway alignment and location are facilitated by a systematic step-by-step procedure of conducting
‘engineering surveys’.
These surveys include: 1. Study of Topographic Maps 2. Reconnaissance Survey 3. Preliminary Survey 4.
Location Survey 5. Soil Survey 6. Construction Survey.
1. Study of Topographic Maps:

Topographic maps are available from the Survey of India; these are contour maps with 15 to 30 m contour
intervals and show important topographic features like rivers, valleys, ridges, and hills. By a careful study
of these maps, it is possible to align highways bearing in mind the obligatory points. Depending upon the
elevations of the terminal points, and considering the ruling gradients and other factors, two or three
alternative routes may be chosen.
2. Reconnaissance Survey:
The objective of reconnaissance survey is to physically examine the possible alignments observed during
the study of topographical maps. This is generally carried out using simple surveying instruments such as
prismatic compass, Abney level, hand level or tangent clinometer.
Details of certain features not available from the map study are collected during the reconnaissance
survey.

Some of the details that may be gathered are:
(i) Approximate gradients, radii of horizontal curves necessary.
(ii) Obstructions such as permanent structures not shown in the maps.
(iii) Ponds, lakes, valleys, bridges, hillocks, and similar topographical features with relevant details.
(iv) Information relating to cross-drainage structures such as culverts, causeways and bridges required
along each of the possible routes.
(v) Geological features and information on soil types along the route.
(vi) Stability of slopes in the case of hilly terrain.
(vii) Sources of construction materials – borrow areas for earth materials and quarries for stones and
broken stone.
(viii) Climatic factors, hydrological information, water-table levels, water sources and maximum flood
levels in the case of streams and rivers.
(ix) Availability of labor, power and water supply along the route.
3. Preliminary Survey:
The objectives of a preliminary survey are:
(i) To compare the proposed routes chosen during reconnaissance for a good alignment.
(ii) To carry out accurate field work for detailed surveys on the chosen alternative routes
(iii) To estimate the quantities of the earth work and other materials to facilitate the preparation of detailed
and abstract estimates of the project cost.
(iv) To choose the best alignment from all angles.
Detailed Survey:
The various kinds of detailed survey carried out are:
Traverse Survey:
Open traverse are run with the help of a theodolite and tapes, the lengths of each of the lines and the
deflection angles wherever a change in direction is required are measured accurately.
Levelling:
Longitudinal section along the proposed route and cross-sections at intervals of 30 m to 100 m along the
route are to be taken, depending upon the nature of terrain – plain or rolling.
Contouring is also done in the vicinity of the route by using either tachometry or precise levelling. Bench-
marks are connected to GTS bench-marks.

Additional Details:
Drainage, cross-drainage works, hydrological data, soil data and details of existing features like buildings,
lakes, rivers, power lines and geological landmarks are collected more accurately than during
reconnaissance.
Instruments used for the conventional method of surveying include the theodolite, chain, tapes, levelling
instrument, prismatic compass, plane table and clinometers.
Where the area is large, modern methods involving the use of aerial photogrammetry, remote sensing and
photointerpretation techniques, geographic positioning system (GPS), geographic information system
(GIS), and total stations may be gainfully employed for modelling and precise determination of the
topographic features.
Environmental Impact:
With a view to assess the effects of highway projects on the environment and the surrounding areas,
environmental impact assessment (EIA) has been made mandatory by the government.
Environmental impact analysis deals with positive and negative effects of the project and presents cost-
effective preventive measures against any possible damage due to soil erosion, submergence due to
floods, loss of vegetation, forest cover and wild life ecological balance.
Economic justification needs economic analysis including cost-benefit studies with reference to IRC
specification-IRC: SP: 30.
Based on these studies, the final location of the selected route is made on paper, before being translated
on to the ground in the next stage of location survey.
4. Location Survey:
This involves the location of the final alignment on the ground and includes pegging the center-line;
establishing bench marks, and determining levels at the pegged stations and at critical points of change in
slope.
Pegging the Centre-Line:

The center-line of the final route is marked by establishing pegs on the ground. All angles are accurately
measured using a transit theodolite. The recommended spacing of the pegs depends on the nature of the
terrain. It is 50 m for plain terrain and 20 m for hilly terrain. The pegs should be fixed in relation to at least
three reference marks, so that they may be re-established in case they are disturbed.
Cross-Sections:
Cross-sections are taken at 50-100 m intervals on plain terrain, 50 m intervals on rolling terrain and 20 m
intervals on hilly terrain.

Precise Levelling:
Precise levelling has to be performed and suitable benchmarks, temporary and permanent, have to be
established.
The following dates are obtained for the implementation of the project:
(i) Right of way available along the route.
(ii) Land acquisition costs.
(iii) Date required for geometric design aspects.
(iv) Data for pavement design.
(v) Cost calculation.
(vi) Construction materials, equipment, and labor.
5. Soil Survey:
The nature and extent of the soils available in and around the chosen route have to be ascertained. The
purpose of soil survey is to identify and classify soil for use in the design and construction of the road.
Information is gathered on the presence of unstable strata or marshy areas, subsoil water level, and
demarcation of possible borrow areas along the road in accordance with IRC recommendations.
6. Construction Survey:
This consists of removing all under-growths such as shrubbery, thickets, tree stumps and rubbish along
the route, setting out the center-line and the right of way by affixing pegs at appropriate intervals, cutting a
narrow V- shaped cut called ‘Lockspit’ in between the pegs along the route and making the necessary
preparations for implementation of the project.
The final center-line and profile can be selected using the Digital Terrain Model (DTM).

4. ROUTE PLANNING THROUGH EXISTING COMMUNITIES
Bypasses around communities are counter measures aimed at improving

safety and reducing the volume of through traffic inside the community. In
the Philippines, this is a common practice particularly around the countryside.
However, building bypasses is just an alternative countermeasure of
discouraging traffic to pass within the community. Other countermeasures can
be devised depending on economic and budgetary constraints.
Where a bypass can be justified, the most important considerations are:
 The opportunity should be taken to reinforce the road hierarchy by

down-grading the old road to discourage through traffic;
 Access to the bypass should be restricted to only a few points where
safe intersections and spur roads can be provided to link to the existing
network. Direct access from frontage land should not be permitted;
and,
 Provisions should be left for future expansion or development of the
community but such developments should be served by service roads
and spur roads.
Where a bypass cannot be justified, countermeasures should be implemented

to slow down the speeds of through traffic as it passes through the
community or trading centers as follows:
 Warning signs and rumble strips can be used to alert drivers about
speed-reducing devices ahead;
• A series of road humps increasing in height from 40mm to around

80mm can be used gradually to slow down traffic in pedestrian predominated
areas;
• Road narrowing (with due regard for capacity needs) can be used to
induce lower speeds as traffic passes through the community; and,
• In order to alert drivers that they are entering a community, it is

generally regarded that some form of gateway treatment on the approaches is
beneficial (e.g., substandard curve, tree lining, or even non-rigid gate
structure).
Figure 4.1: Road Layout that Results in Conflict Between Local and Through
Traffic
Figure 4.2 : By Pass Road Deters Through Traffic from the Community
5. DEVELOPMENT CONTROL/ ENCROACHMENT
Planning is a constantly changing process. The difficulty is to control the

degree of change so that the various inter-related elements can still operate
efficiently. In land use terms this is usually achieved (with varying degrees of
success) through the control of existing or new development and prevention
of uncontrolled parking, illegal accesses and spread of unauthorized
commercial activity. The main points to consider are that:
• Strict control of roadside hoardings and advertisement boards is

required;
• Land- use and highway requirements change over time so some spare
capacity should be designed into road networks to enable such changes to be
accommodated without detrimental effects upon road safety;
• Building regulations should include 'building line' specifications to

control roadside development;
• If development control standards permit the growth of activities to

encroach onto the transport corridor, additional countermeasures may be
required to maintain a safe level of service to the community as a whole;
• Strong development control can only prevent encroachment onto roads

if there are alternative locations for commercial activities to be undertaken;
and,
• Unauthorized development such as roadside advertising boards, illegal

accesses and market stalls which create unsafe traffic conditions should be
removed as soon as possible and the sites monitored to prevent their
reappearance.
6. ACCESS CONTROL
Access control applies to both vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Local practices
have shown different practices in treating access to developments such as:
• Provision of elevated pedestrian walkways or underpasses to separate

people from road traffic. Oftentimes, these facilities have direct access to
respective developments such as shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2. This strategy
does not only improve safety but also enhance commercial attractiveness of
an establishment to its target market.
• Driveways should not lead directly to a high speed road facility as this
may create conflict and compromise safety. Good management of access to
roadside properties on arterial roads can reduce conflict between through
traffic and local traffic, for example by the provision of service roads.
• Large parking facilities should locate entrance/extis away from high-

speed roads, but with good access circulation leading to high speed roads;
• Expressway ramps should be carefully planned to reduce conflict with

local vehicle and pedestrian traffic;
• On new roads of district distributor level or higher, direct frontage
access should only be permitted in exceptional circumstances;
• The number of direct accesses onto main roads should be minimized

and service roads or collector roads used to bring traffic to a single T- junction
at the main road;
• No access should be permitted at potentially dangerous locations(e.g.,

at road intersections, or on bends with poor visibility); and,
• In all cases, each class of road should intersect only with roads in the
same class or one immediately above or below it in the hierarchy.
7. TRAFFIC IMPACT ASSESSMENT (TIA)
Recent developments in transportation research in the Philippines have

resulted in the formulation of a TIA Handbook. This handbook was prepared
by the National Center for Transportation Studies (NCTS) in order to
standardize the conduct of TIA. In addition, it is worth giving more emphasis
on road safety as well as the traditional subjects such as volume control,
traffic forecasts, demand management, and congestion mitigation.
Some interesting subjects for consideration in the TIA is the interface between
land use development and traffic, and this should be reviewed against the
guidelines of the Housing and Land Use Regulatory Board (HLURB). Parking
demand and restrictions should also be strictly followed as mandated by the
National Building Code. Preferably, parking demand should be based on local
parking indices and not on international practices since local traffic conditions
very much differ from other countries' experiences. Pedestrian considerations
should also be given more weight in the planning stage.
Road safety is given importance in the proposed TIA guidelines. The general
scope of works on the proposed guidelines covers the following:
• Transportation Improvement
• Road Geometry
• Traffic Safety
• Site Circulation and Parking
• Transportation facilities related to public transport, bicycle, and

pedestrian travel
• Transportation demand management
• Neighborhood traffic and parking management
• Funding for countermeasures
Likewise, the NCTS TIA guidelines have listed the standards of significance for
traffic impacts of a project:
• If the projected traffic will cause the existing intersection or highway

roadway levels of service to drop below an acceptable level of service;
• If the projected traffic will contribute to the increase in traffic along

arterials or at intersections currently operating at unacceptable levels.
• If the project design does not have adequate parking or circulation

capacity to accommodate an increase in traffic.
• If the traffic increase or roadway design will result in safety concerns;

or,
• If the project does not include adequate provision for bicycle,

pedestrian, or public transport access.
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR HIGHWAYS
Item 1
Below are the disadvantages of which mode of transportation?
• Speed is related to accidents and more accidents results due to higher speed.
• Not suitable for long distance travel
• Power required per tonne is more
Response: Roadways
Item 2
Which of the following belongs to the scope of the highway engineering
Response: Roads are generally constructed on small embankment, slightly above the
general ground level, in order to avoid the difficult drainage and maintenance problems
Item 3
Which one does not belong to the characteristics of Road or Highway engineering?
Response: It plays a minimal role in development of urban areas of the country.
Item 4
The first mode of transport was by _____.
Response: foot
Item 5
This is the only mode which is giving maximum service to one and all.
Response: Roadways
Item 6
Below are the advantages of which mode of transportation?
• Cheapest: Cost per tonne is lowest
• Possess highest load carrying capacity
• Leads to the development of the industries.
Response: Waterways
Item 7
Which one does not belong to the characteristics of road transportation?
Response: Road transport require a big investment for the government.
Item 8
Which among the choices is not an importance of transportation?
Response: None of the above.
Item 9
Railways have been used for long as well as for short distances and also for urban
travels.
Response: True
Item 10
The earliest large scale road construction is attributed to Greeks who constructed an
extensive system of roads radiating in many directions from Greece.
Response: False
Item 11
Aircrafts and helicopters are used.
Response: Airways
Item 12
He developed a cheaper method of construction than the lavish and locally
unsuccessful revival of Roman practice.
Response: Jerome Tresaguet
Item 13
By this, human beings and materials are used to transport from one another with the
help of ships and boats.
Response: Waterways
Item 14
Railways system of transportation is the slowest system.
Response: False
Item 15
It is a branch of transportation engineering which deals with the design, construction
and maintenance of different types of roads.
Response: Highway
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAY FACILITIES
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
 What is Geometric Design?
It deals with the dimensioning of the elements of highways, such as vertical and horizontal curves,
cross sections, truck climbing lanes, bicycle paths, and parking facilities. The characteristics of driver,
pedestrian, vehicle, and road, serve as the basis for determining the physical dimensions of these
elements.
Example:
Lengths of vertical curves or radii of circular curves are determined to assure that the minimum
stopping sight distance is provided to highway users for the design speed of the highway.
 Objective of Geometric Design:
--to produce a smooth-flowing and safe highway facility, an objective that only can be achieved by providing
a consistent design standard that satisfies the characteristics of the driver and the vehicles that use the road.
 Maximize
1. Comfort
2. Safety
3. Economy
 Minimize
1. Environmental Impacts
Design a safe and efficient system that addresses community and environmental needs.
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) serves a critical
function in developing guidelines and standards used in highway geometric design.
 What are the factors that affects highway design?
Highway design is based on specified design standards and controls which depend on the following
roadway system factors:
1. Functional classification
2. Design hourly traffic volume and vehicle mix
3. Design speed
4. Design vehicle
5. Cross section of the highway, such as lanes, shoulders, and medians
6. Presence of heavy vehicles on steep grades
7. Topography of the area that the highway traverses
8. Level of service
9. Available funds
10. Safety
11. Social and environmental factors
1. Functional Classification -is a way of grouping roadways together by the character of service they
provide.
The initial division is between:
 Location
1. Rural Roadways--are those areas outside of urban areas.
2. Urban Roadways--defined differently in various parts of the country, but one
definition is incorporated areas having a population of 5000 or
more.
Each of these may be further subdivided into other classifications defined as follows:
1. Interstate-- roadways on the federal system with the highest design speeds and the highest
design standards.
2. Freeway-- an expressway with full access control and no at-grade intersections.
3. Expressway-- a divided arterial highway with full or partial control of access and generally
having grade separations at major intersections.
4. Arterial-- a facility primarily used for through traffic, usually on a continuous route.
5. Collector--an intermediate roadway system which connects arterials with the local road or street
systems.
6. Local road or street-- a road whose primary function is to provide access to residences, businesses, or
other abutting properties.
 Functional class
1. Arterial (Principal and Minor)
2. Collector (Major and Minor)
3. Local Roads & Streets
Functional Class Example
Freeways are not listed as a separate functional class since they are
generally classified as part of the principal arterial system.
However, they have unique geometric criteria that require
special design consideration.
As you move from local roads
Some Characteristics upwards in functional
classification towards major
Lane-miles
 Principal Arterial
Accessibility
Veh-miles
Mobility
 Minor Arterial arterials, what happens to
L
 Collectors each of these 4 measures?
 Local Roads Vehicle miles and mobility
go up while Lane miles and
accessibility go down.
Mobility vs. Accessibility
Traffic data is an important foundation in highway design.
*The information used in design is usually a future forecast on the basis of existing traffic counts and
expanded on the basis of normal expected growth in the area or enhanced by estimates of future business,
commercial, or residential development.
* Most highway designs are based on what traffic demands will be 20 years from the current year. Shorter
time periods, such as 10 years, may apply to resurfacing projects or other minor repair projects. It is
important that within the same jurisdiction traffic data be forecast using the same methods and techniques,
in order to ensure similar designs for similar type roadways. This is especially true for roadways in a given
state jurisdiction.
The following types of traffic numbers are used most frequently in design:
1. Average daily traffic (ADT). The average number of vehicles using a roadway in a 24-hour period.
2. Design hourly volume (DHV). The estimated number of vehicles using the roadway in the 30th highest hour
of the year. This number is generally 8 to 12 percent of the ADT and is used extensively in determining lane
widths and shoulder characteristics of the roadway cross section.
3. Directional design hourly volume (DDHV). The estimated number of vehicles traveling in one direction of
a two-way roadway in the 30th highest hour of the year. This number must be at least 50 percent of the DHV
and is usually in the range of 50 to 60 percent. A higher value would indicate that the roadway is a major link
in the commuter network, carrying a heavy inbound load in the morning and reversing that flow in the
evening.
4. Truck percentage (T). The portion of the ADT which consists of B and C trucks. Traffic counts are usually
separated according to vehicle type:
P = passengers cars (%)

A = commercial(%), consisting of light delivery trucks, panel trucks, and pickup trucks
B = commercial (%), consisting of semitrailer and truck-trailer combinations
C = commercial (%), consisting of buses or dual-tired trucks having single or tandem rear axles
*Traffic counts sometimes group the P and A vehicles together and the B and C together.
*Heavy vehicles are defined as any vehicle having a weight (pounds) to horsepower ratio of 200 or
greater .
Highway Design Standards
What affects Highway Design?
 Human, vehicle characteristics

 Expected volume and its composition
 Topography of the area
 Functional classification
 Level-of-service to be provided
 Land use and environmental factors
 Community concerns
 Funding
Selection of the appropriate set of geometric design standards is the first step in the design of any highway.
This is essential because no single set of geometric standards can be used for all highways. For example,
geometric standards that may be suitable for a scenic mountain road with low average daily traffic (ADT) are
inadequate for a freeway carrying heavy traffic. The characteristics of the highway should therefore be
considered in selecting the geometric design standards.
1. Design Hourly Volume (DHV)
2. Design Speed
--- is defined as a selected speed to determine the various geometric features of the roadway. Design
speed depends on the functional classification of the highway, the topography of the area in which the
highway is located, and the land use of the adjacent area. A design speed is selected to achieve a desired level
of operation and safety on the highway. It is one of the first parameters selected in the design process
because of its influence on other design variables.
*Terrain/Topography is a factor that can significantly influence design features, especially in rural areas.
Categories of Terrain:
a. Level terrain. Any combination of grades and horizontal and vertical alignment permitting heavy
vehicles to maintain approximately the same speed as passenger cars. Grades are generally limited to 1 or 2
percent. Level terrain is relatively flat. Horizontal and vertical sight distances are generally long or can be
achieved without much construction difficulty or major expense.
b. Rolling terrain. Any combination of grades and horizontal and vertical alignment causing heavy
vehicles to reduce their speeds substantially below those of passenger cars, but not to operate at crawl
speeds. Rolling terrain has natural slopes that often rise above and fall below the highway grade with
occasional steep slopes that restrict the normal vertical and horizontal alignments.
*Crawl speed is defined as the maximum sustained speed heavy vehicles can maintain on an extended
upgrade. Locale describes the character and extent of development in the vicinity. It can be considered
commercial, industrial, or residential, as well as rural or urban.
c. Hilly terrain. Any combination of grades and horizontal and vertical alignment causing heavy
vehicles to operate at crawl speed. Mountainous terrain has sudden changes in ground elevation in both the
longitudinal and transverse directions, thereby requiring frequent hillside excavations to achieve acceptable
horizontal and vertical alignments.
The design speed selected should be consistent with the speed that motorists will expect to drive.
Example:
A low design speed should not be selected for a rural collector road solely because the road is located in an
area of flat topography, since motorists will tend to drive at higher speeds. The average trip length on the
highway is another factor that should be considered in selecting the design speed.
*In general, highways with longer average trips should be designed for higher speeds. Design speeds range
from 20 mi/h to 70 mi/h, with intermediate values of 5 mi/h increments.
*Design elements show little difference when increments are less than 10 mi/h but exhibit very large
differences with increments of 15 mi/h or higher.
*In general, however, freeways are designed for 60 to 70 mi/h, whereas design speeds for other arterial
roads range from 30 mi/h to 60 mi/h.
3. Design Vehicle
--- is selected to represent all vehicles on the highway. Its weight, dimensions, and operating
characteristics are used to establish the design standards of the highway. The vehicle type selected as the
design vehicle is the largest that is likely to use the highway with considerable frequency. The selected
design vehicle is used to determine critical design features such as radii at intersections and turning
roadways as well as highway grades.
The following guidelines apply when selecting a design vehicle:
• When a parking lot or a series of parking lots are the main traffic generators, the passenger car
may be used.
• For the design of intersections at local streets and park roads, a single-unit truck may be used.
• At intersections of state highways and city streets that serve buses with relatively few large
trucks, a city transit bus may be used.
• At intersections of highways and low-volume county highways or township/local roads with
less than 400 ADT, either an 84-passenger large school bus 40 ft long or a 65-passenger conventional
bus 36 ft long may be used. The selection of either of these will depend on the expected usage of the
facility.
• At intersections of freeway ramp terminals and arterial crossroads, and at intersections of state
highways and industrialized streets that carry high volumes of traffic, the minimum size of the design
vehicle should be WB-20.
4. Cross-Section Elements
---the principal elements of a highway cross section consist of the travel lanes, shoulders, and medians
(for some multi-lane highways). Marginal elements include median and roadside barriers, curbs, gutters,
guard rails, sidewalks, and side slopes.
Typical Cross Section for Two-Lane Highways
Typical Cross Section for Multi lane Highways(half section)
Roadway Cross Section
Roadway Median Roadway
Shoulder Traveled way Traveled way Shoulder

Clear Zone Clear Zone
Right of Way
Cross-Section Components:
1. Travel Lanes
 Purpose
 Width
 9-12 feet
 Arterials and freeway 12 feet
 10 ft wide, used only on low-speed facilities
 9 ft wide,used occasionally in urban areas if traffic volume is low and there are extreme
right-of-way constraints.
 Cross slope
2. Shoulders
 Purpose
-Refuge area
-Recovery area
-Pavement support
 Width
- 2-12 feet
 Slope
-2-4%
3. Median
 Purpose
-Divide traffic
-Recovery area
-Temporary lane
-Storage area
-Refuge area
-Aesthetics
-Stopping Area
-Reduce the effect of headlight glare
 Width
-Vary from a minimum of 4 to 80 ft or more
 Types
-Raised Median, frequently used in urban arterial streets because they facilitate the control of
left-turn traffic at intersections by using part of the median width for left-turn-only lanes. Some
disadvantages associated with raised medians include possible loss of control of the vehicle by the driver if
the median is accidentally struck, and they cast a shadow from oncoming headlights, which results in
drivers finding it difficult to see the curb.
-Flush Median, commonly used on urban arterials. They can also be used on freeways, but with a
median barrier. To facilitate drainage of surface water, the flush median should be crowned.
The practice in urban areas of converting flush medians into two-way left-turn lanes is
common, since the capacity of the urban highway is increased while maintaining some
features of a median.
-Depressed Median, are generally used on freeways and are more effective in draining surface
water. A side slope of 6:1 is suggested for depressed medians, although a slope of 4:1 may be
adequate.
*In general, the wider the median, the more effective it is in providing safe operating conditions and a
recovery area for out-of-control vehicles. A minimum width of 10 ft is recommended for use on four-lane
urban freeways, which is adequate for two 4-ft shoulders and a 2-ft median barrier. A minimum of 22 ft,
preferably 26 ft, is recommended for six or more lanes of freeway. Median widths for urban collector streets
vary from 2 to 40 ft, depending on the median treatment.
*For narrow raised or curbed areas, 2 to 6 ft medians are required, and for curbed sections, 16 to 40 ft. The
larger width is necessary for curbed sections because it provides space for protecting vehicles crossing an
intersection and also can be used for landscape treatment.
4. Roadside and Median Barriers
 Purpose
-Median Barrier, median barrier is defined as a longitudinal system used to prevent an errant
vehicle from crossing the portion of a divided highway separating the traveled ways for traffic in
opposite directions.
-Roadside Barrier, protect vehicles from obstacles or slopes on the roadside. They also may be used
to shield pedestrians and property from the traffic stream.
-Pavement support
5. Curbs and Gutters
Curbs
 Description
-made of either Portland cement concrete or bituminous concrete (rolled asphalt curbs) mainly used on
urban highways
-not be used in conjunction with traffic barriers, such as bridge railings or median and roadside barriers,
because they could contribute to vehicles rolling over the traffic barriers
 Purpose
-to delineate pavement edges and pedestrian walkways
-used to control drainage, improve aesthetics, and reduce right of way
 Slope
-either vertical or sloping
-range in height from 6 to 8” with steep sides, and are designed to prevent vehicles from leaving the
highway
*Vertical curbs should also be avoided on highways with design speeds greater than 40 mi/h, because at
such speeds it is usually difficult for drivers to retain control of the vehicle after an impact with the curb.
Gutters or drainage ditches
 Location
-pavement side of a curb,to provide the principal drainage facility for the highway
 Width
-1 to 6 ft wide
 Slope
-they sloped to prevent any hazard to traffic
-5 to 8 %
 Design of Cross Section
-V-type sections
-broad
-flat
6. Guard Rails
 Description
-longitudinal barriers placed on the outside of sharp curves and at sections with high fills
 Purpose
-to prevent vehicles from leaving the roadway
 Slope
-when shoulder slopes are greater than 4:1
 Location
-installed at embankments higher than 8 ft
 Design
-commonly used shapes include the W beam and the box beam
*The weak post system provides for the post to collapse on impact, with the rail deflecting and
absorbing the energy due to impact.
Steel-Backed
Timber Guardrail
7. Sidewalks
 Description
-provided when pedestrian traffic is high along main or high-speed roads in either rural or urban areas
 Purpose
-In urban areas, sidewalks should also be provided along both sides of collector streets that serve as
pedestrian access to schools, parks, shopping centers, and transit stops, and along collector streets in
commercial areas
 Width
- 4 ft in residential areas
-4 to 8 ft in commercial areas
 Location
-urban areas
-uncommon on rural areas
 Design
-have all-weather surfaces since pedestrians will tend to use traffic lanes rather than unpaved sidewalks to
encourage pedestrians to use sidewalks
8. Cross Slopes
 Description
 Slope
-1.5 to 2 % for high type pavements
-2 to 6 percent for low-type pavements
High-type pavements have wearing surfaces that can adequately support the expected traffic load without
visible distress due to fatigue and are not susceptible to weather conditions.
Low-type pavements are used mainly for low-cost roads and have wearing surfaces ranging from untreated
loose material to surface-treated earth.
9. Side Slopes
 Description
 Purpose
-serve as a safety feature by providing a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles
 Width
 Location
-embankments and fills to provide stability for earthworks
 Design
When being considered as a safety feature, the important sections of the cross slope are:
1. The hinge point should be rounded since it is potentially hazardous and may cause vehicles to become
airborne while crossing it, resulting in loss of control of the vehicle.
2. The foreslope serves principally as a recovery area, where vehicle speeds can be reduced and other
recovery maneuvers taken to regain control of the vehicle. The gradient of the foreslope should therefore not
be high. Slopes of 3:1 (horizontal:vertical) or flatter are generally used for high embankments. This can be
increased based on conditions at the site.
3. The toe of slope is rounded up in order to facilitate the safe movement of vehicles from the foreslope to
the backslope.
10. Right of Way

 Description
-total land required for the construction of the highway
 Width
-needs to be wide enough to accommodate all the elements
of highway cross section and planned widening of the highway,
and all public utility facilities to be installed along the highway
-two-lane urban collector streets, 40-60 ft
-two-lane arterials, 84 ft(minimum)
-undivided four-lane arterials,64 to 108 ft
-divided arterials,120 to 300 ft
- minimum right-of-way widths for freeways depend on the number of lanes and the existence of a frontage
road
 Location
-in some cases, the side slopes may be located outside the
right of way on easement areas
*The effect of grade on the performance of heavy vehicles & passenger cars is that the speed of a heavy
vehicle can be significantly reduced if the grade is steep and/or long.
*The selection of maximum grades for a highway depends on the design speed and the design vehicle.
*It is generally accepted that grades of 4 to 5 percent have little or no effect on passenger cars, except for
those with high weight /horsepower ratios, such as those found in compact and subcompact cars.
*As the grade increases above 5 percent, however, speeds of passenger cars decrease on upgrades and
increase on downgrades.
*Grade has a greater impact on trucks than on passenger cars.
*Truck speed may increase up to 5 percent on downgrades and decrease by 7 percent on upgrades,
depending on the percent and length of the grade.
*On the other hand, when grade lengths are less than 500 ft and roads are one-way in the downgrade
direction, maximum grades may be increased by up to 2 percent, particularly on low volume rural highways.
* Zero percent grades may be used on uncurbed pavements with adequate cross slopes to laterally drain the
surface water. When pavements are curbed, however, a longitudinal grade should be provided to facilitate
the longitudinal flow of the surface water. It is customary to use a minimum of 0.5 percent in such cases,
although this may be reduced to 0.3 percent on high-type pavement constructed on suitably crowned, firm
ground.
DESIGN OF THE ALIGNMENT
Introduction
 Highway Alignment is a three-dimensional problem represented in the x, y and z coordinates.
 Horizontal & Vertical alignments are two major components of highway geometric design.
Vertical Alignment of Highway
-consists of straight sections known as grades, (or

tangents) connected by vertical curves.
-* in design, it involves the selection of suitable
grades for the tangent sections and the appropriate
length of vertical curves.
-the topography of the area through which the road
traverses has a significant impact on the design of the
vertical alignment.
Vertical curves
-are used to provide a gradual change from one tangent grade to another so that vehicles may run smoothly
as they traverse the highway.
Length of Crest Vertical Curves
Provision of a minimum stopping sight distance (SSD) is the only criterion used for design of a crest vertical
curve.
Types of Vertical Curves

Two Possible scenarios that could control the design length:
1. Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curve (S>L) or the SSD is greater than the length of the vertical curve
2. Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curve (S<L) the SSD is less than the length of the vertical curve
where:
L = length of vertical curve (ft)

S = sight distance (ft)
H1 = height of eye above roadway surface (ft)
H2 = height of object above roadway surface (ft)
G1 , G2 = grades of tangents (%)
PVC = point of vertical curve
PVT = point of vertical tangent
PVT = point of vertical tangent
PVI = point of vertical intersection
A = algebraic difference
*where the driver eye height in a vehicle on the grade at point C is H1 ft. and the object at point D seen by the
driver is H2 ft. The driver’s line of sight is PN ft and the SSD is S ft. The line of sight, PN, may not necessarily be
horizontal, but the value used in calculations for SSD considers the horizontal projection
*SSD S is
*X1 and X2 can be determined from grades G1 and G2 and their algebraic difference A
*The minimum length of the vertical curve for the required sight distance is obtained as
Example Minimum Length of a Crest Vertical Curve
A crest vertical curve is to be designed to join a +3% grade with a -2% grade at a section of a two-lane
highway. Determine the minimum length of the curve if the design speed of the highway is 60 mi/h, S<L, and
a perception-reaction time of 2.5 sec. The deceleration rate for braking (a) is 11.2 ft /sec2 .
Solution:
(Since the grade changes constantly on a vertical curve, the worst case value for G of 3% is used to determine
the breaking distance.)
Example Maximum Safe Speed on a Crest Vertical Curve
An existing vertical curve on a highway joins a +4.4% grade with a -4.4% grade. If the length of the curve is
275 ft, what is the maximum safe speed on this curve? What speed should be posted if
5 mph increments are used? Assume a=1.2 ft /sec2 , perception-reaction time = 2.5 sec, and that
S<L.
Solution:
If a speed limit is to be posted
to satisfy this condition, a
conservative value of 30 mi/h
will be used.
Length of Sag Vertical Curves
The selection of the minimum length of a sag vertical curve is controlled by the following four criteria:
(1) SSD provided by the headlight
(2) Comfort while driving on the curve
(3) General appearance of the curve
(4) Adequate control of drainage at the low point of the curve.
1. Minimum Length based on SSD Criterion
The headlight SSD requirement is based on the fact that sight distance will be restricted during periods of
darkness whereas during daylight periods, sight distance is unaffected by the sag curve.
<<<Headlight Sight Distance

on Sag Vertical Curves (S>L)
*The headlight is located at a height H above the ground, and the headlight beam is inclined upward at an
angle b to the horizontal. The headlight beam intersects the road at point D, thereby restricting the available
SSD S.
2. Minimum Length based on Comfort Criterion
The comfort criterion is based on the fact that when a vehicle travels on a sag vertical curve, both the
gravitational and centrifugal forces act in combination, resulting in a greater effect than on a crest vertical
curve where these forces act in opposition to each other.
*where u is the design speed in mi/h, L the minimum length based on comfort, and A the algebraic difference in
grades. The length obtained from Lmin = Au2/46.5 typically about 75 percent of that obtained from the headlight
sight distance requirement.
3. Minimum Length of Curve based on Appearance Criterion
The criterion for acceptable appearance is usually satisfied by assuring that the minimum length of the sag
curve is not less than expressed by the following equation:
L min=100A
*where L is the minimum length of the sag vertical curve.
4. Minimum Length based on Drainage Criterion
The drainage criterion for sag vertical curves must be considered when the road is curbed. This criterion is
different from the others in that there is a maximum length requirement rather than a minimum length. The
maximum length requirement to satisfy the drainage criterion is that a minimum slope of 0.35 percent be
provided within 50 ft of the lowest point of the curve. The maximum length for this criterion is usually
greater than the minimum length for the other criteria for speeds up to 60 mi/h and is usually equal for a
speed of 70 mi/h.
Example: Minimum Length of a Sag Vertical Curve
A sag vertical curve is to be designed to

join a -5% grade to a +2% grade. If the
design speed is
40 mi/h, determine the minimum length
of the curve that will satisfy all criteria.
Assume a=11.2 ft /sec2 and
perception-reaction time=2.5 sec.
Solution:>>>>
• Determine minimum length for the general appearance criterion
Lmin = 100A The minimum length to satisfy

= 100 x 7 = 700ft all criteria is 700 ft.
Elevation of Crest and Sag Vertical Curves
The minimum length of a crest and sag vertical curve must be known if the elevations are to be determined.
Lay-out of a Crest Vertical Curve for Design
where:
PVI = point of vertical intersection

BVC = beginning of vertical curve(same
point as PVC)
EVC = end of vertical curve(same as PVT)
E = external distance
G1, G2= grades of tangents (%)
L = length of curve
A = algebraic difference of grades, G1 - G2
*The beginning of the curve is the BVC, and the end of the curve is the EVC. The intersection of the grade lines
(tangents) is the PVI, which is equidistant from the BVC and EVC.
where Xhigh = distance in feet from

BVC to the turning point—that is,
the point with the highest
elevation on the curve.
Design Procedure for Crest and Sag Vertical Curves
Step 1. Determine the minimum length of curve to satisfy sight distance requirements and other criteria for
sag curves (comfort, appearance, drainage).
Step 2. Determine from the layout plans the station and elevation of the point where the grades
intersect (PVI).
Step 3. Compute the elevations of the beginning of vertical curve, (BVC) and the end of vertical
curve (EVC).
Step 4. Compute the offsets, Y, as the distance between the tangent and the curve. Usually equal
distances of 100 ft (1 station) are used, beginning with the first whole station after the BVC.
Step 5. Compute elevations on the curve for each station as: elevation of the tangent +- offset from the
tangent, Y. For crest curves the offset is (-) and for sag curves the offset is (+).
Step 6. Compute the location and elevation of the highest (crest) or lowest (sag) point on the curve.
Example: Design of Crest Vertical Curve
A crest vertical curve joining a + 3 percent and a

-4percent grade is to be designed for 75 mi/h. If the
tangents intersect at station (345+60.00) at an elevation
of 250 ft, determine the stations and elevations of the
BVC and EVC. Also, calculate the elevations of
intermediate points on the curve at the whole stations.
Solution: For a design speed of 75 mi/h, K =312 use

table beside in all computations for Crest Vertical
Curve as Values of K for Crest Vertical Curves Based on
Stopping Sight Distance
All Elevations Computation:

*Computation of the elevations at different points on a sag curve follows the same procedure as that for the
crest vertical curve. For sag curves, the offset Y is
added to the appropriate tangent elevation to obtain
the curve elevation since the elevation of the curve is
higher than the elevation of the tangent.
Example: Design of Sag Vertical Curve
A sag vertical curve joins a -3 percent grade and a
+3 percent grade. If the PVI of the grades is at
station (435+ 50) and has an elevation of 235 ft,
determine the station and elevation of the BVC and
EVC for a design speed of 70 mi/h. Also compute
the elevation on the curve at 100-ft intervals.
Solution:
For a design speed of 70 mi/h, K=181, use table

below in all computations for Sag Vertical Curve as Values of K for Sag Vertical Curves Based on Stopping
Sight Distance: use the higher value
All Elevations Computation:
Horizontal Alignment of Highway
-consists of straight sections of the road (known as tangents) connected by curves.

-the curves are usually segments of circles, which have radii that will provide for a smooth flow of traffic.
-*in design of the horizontal alignment entails the determination of the minimum radius, determination of
the length of the curve, and the computation of the horizontal offsets from the tangents to the curve to
facilitate locating the curve in the field.
-**In some cases, to avoid a sudden change from a tangent with infinite radius to a curve of finite radius, a
curve with radii varying from infinite to the radius of the circular curve is placed between the circular curve
and the tangent. Such a curve is known as a spiral or transition curve.
There are four types of horizontal curves:

1. Simple Curve
2. Compound Curve
3. Reversed Curve
4. Spiral Curve
1. Simple Curves-the curve is a segment of a circle with

radius R. Lay-out of Simple Horizontal Curve
Where:
R = minimum radius (ft)

u = design speed (mi/h)
e = superelevation (ft /ft)
fs = coefficient of side friction
Arc & Chord Definitions for a Circular Curve

Formulas for Simple Curves
Field Location of a Simple Horizontal Curve
The angles are also called “deflection angles” because they are
the angle that is “deflected” when the direction of the tangent
changes direction to that of the chord.
Example: Design of a Simple Horizontal Curve
The intersection angle of a 4° curve is 55°25’, and the PC is

located at station 238+44.75. Determine the length of the curve,
the station of the PT, the deflection angles and the chord lengths
for setting out the curve at whole stations from the PC.
Solution:
*Note that the deflection angle to PT is half the intersection angle Δ of the tangents. This relationship serves as
a check of the computation. Since highway curves are relatively flat, the chord lengths are approximately equal
to the arc lengths.
2. Compound Curves- consist of two or more simple curves in succession, turning in the same direction,
with any two successive curves having a common tangent point.
-to avoid abrupt changes in the alignment, the radii of any two consecutive simple
curves that form a compound curve should not be widely different. AASHTO
recommends that the ratio of the flatter radius to the sharper radius at intersections
should not be greater than 2:1 so drivers can adjust to sudden changes in curvature
and speed. The maximum desirable ratio recommended for interchanges is 1.75:1,
although 2:1 may be used.
Length of Circular Arc for Different Compound Curve Radii

Formulas:
Example: Design of a Compound Curve
Figure below, a compound curve that is to be

set out at a highway intersection. If the point
of compound curve (PCC) is located at station
(565+35), determine the deflection angle for
setting out the curve.
Solution:
*The deflection angles for the 350 ft radius curve are turned from the common tangent with the transit located
at PCC. Since each simple curve is relatively flat, calculated lengths of the chords are almost equal to the
corresponding arc lengths.
3. Reverse Curves -consist of two simple curves with equal radii turning in opposite directions with a
common tangent. They are generally used to change the alignment of a highway.
-seldom recommended because sudden changes to the alignment may result in drivers
finding it difficult to keep in their lanes. When it is necessary to reverse the alignment,
a preferable design consists of two simple horizontal curves, separated by a sufficient
length of tangent between them, to achieve super-elevation.
4. Transition Curves -are placed between tangents and circular curves or between two adjacent circular
curves having substantially different radii. The use of transition curves provides a vehicle path that gradually
increases or decreases the radial force as the vehicle enters or leaves a circular curve.
Length of Spiral Curves

If the transition curve is a spiral, the degree of curve between the tangent and the circular curve varies from
0 at the tangent end to the degree of the circular curve Da at the curve end. When the transition is placed
between two circular curves, the degree of curve varies from that of the first circular curve to that of the
second circular curve.
Length of Super-elevation Runoff when Spiral Curves Are Not

Used
Many highway agencies do not use spiral transition curves since
drivers will usually guide their vehicles into circular curves
gradually. Under these conditions, the tangent is joined directly
with the main circular curve (called “tangent-to-curve
transition”). However, if the curve is super-elevated at a rate
of e ft /ft., an appropriate transition length must be provided.
This super-elevation transition length is comprised of
super-elevation runoff and tangent run-out. For highways
where rotation is about any pavement reference line and the
rotated width has a common super-elevation.
*Super-elevation runoff is defined as the distance over which the pavement cross slope on the outside lane
changes from zero (flat) to full super-elevation of the curve (e).
Super-elevation Runoff Lr(ft) for Horizontal curves

AASHTO Lengths and Tangent Run-outs for Spiral Curves
AASHTO recommends that when spiral curves are used in transition design, the super-elevation runoff
should be achieved over the length of the spiral curve. Based on this, it is recommended that the length of the
spiral curve should be the length of the super-elevation runoff. The run-out spiral length and run-out length
are very different are values of e increase beyond 2 percent.
Tangent Run-out Length for Spiral Curve Transition Design
Attainment of Super-elevation
It is essential that the change from a crowned cross section to a super-elevated one be achieved without
causing any discomfort to motorists or creating unsafe conditions.
One of four methods can be used to achieve this change on undivided highways.
1. A crowned pavement is rotated about the profile of the center line.
This is the most commonly used method since the

distortion obtained is less than that obtained with other
methods. The procedure used is first to raise the outside
edge of the pavement relative to the center-line, until the
outer half of the cross section is horizontal (point B). The
outer edge is then raised by an additional amount to
obtain a straight cross section. Note that the inside edge is
still at its original elevation, as indicated at point C. The
whole cross section is then rotated as a unit about the
center-line profile until the full super-elevation is
achieved at point E.
2. A crowned pavement is rotated about the profile of the

inside edge.
Center-line profile is raised with respect to the inside

pavement edge to obtain half the required change, while the
remaining half is achieved by raising the outside pavement
edge with respect to the profile of the center-line.
3. A crowned pavement is rotated about the profile of the

outside edge.
Is similar to Method 2 with the only difference being

a change effected below the outside edge profile.
4. A straight cross-slope pavement is rotated about the

profile of the outside edge.
Is used for sections of straight cross slopes.
Super-elevation is achieved on divided highways by using

one of three methods.
Method 1 involves super-elevating the whole cross section, including the median, as a plane section. The
rotation in most cases is done about the center-line of the median. This method is used only for highways
with narrow medians and moderate super-elevation rates, since large differences in elevation can occur
between the extreme pavement edges if the median is wide.
Method 2 involves rotating each pavement separately around the median edges, while keeping the median in
a horizontal plane. This method is used mainly for pavements with median widths of 30 ft or less, although it
can be used for any median, because by keeping the median in the horizontal plane, the difference in
elevation between the extreme pavement edges does not exceed the pavement super-elevation.
Method 3 treats the two pavements separately, resulting in variable elevation differences between the
median edges. This method generally is used on pavements with median widths of 40 ft or greater. The large
difference in elevation between the extreme pavement edges is avoided by providing a compensatory slope
across the median.
Curve Radii Based on Stopping Sight Distance

The minimum radius of a horizontal curve depends on the design speed u of
the highway, the super-elevation e, and the coefficient of side friction fs.
where:
m = the Horizontal
Sight-line Offset, HSO
(ft)
Example: Location of Object Near A Horizontal Curve
A horizontal curve with a radius of 800 ft connects

the tangents of a two-lane highway that has a posted
speed limit of 35 mi/h. If the highway curve is not
superelevated, e = 0, determine the horizontal
sight-line offset (HSO) that a large billboard can be
placed from the center-line of the inside lane of the
curve, without reducing the required SSD.
Perception-reaction time is 2.5 sec, and f=0.35.
Solution:
HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS
 Two main Categories:
1. Flexible Pavements
 the wearing surface of flexible pavements is constructed of bituminous materials such that they remain in contact
with the underlying material even when minor irregularities occur.
 consist of a bituminous surface under-laid with a layer of granular material and a layer of a suitable mixture of
coarse and fine materials.
 traffic loads are transferred by the wearing surface to the underlying supporting materials through the
interlocking of aggregates, the frictional effect of granular materials, and cohesion of fine materials.
2. Rigid Pavements
 the wearing surface of a rigid pavement usually is constructed of Portland cement concrete such that it acts like a
beam over any irregularities in the underlying supporting material.
DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

 3 Subgroups of Flexible Pavements:
a) High Type Pavement

- have wearing surfaces that adequately support the expected traffic load without visible distress due to fatigue and are
not susceptible to weather conditions.
b) Intermediate Type Pavement

-have wearing surfaces that range from surface treated to those with qualities just below that of high type pavements.
c) Low Type Pavement

-used mainly for low-cost roads and have wearing surfaces that range from untreated to loose natural materials to
surface treated earth.
 4 Structural Components of a Flexible Pavement
1. Subgrade (Prepared Road Bed)

- is the natural material located along the horizontal alignment of
the pavement and serves as the foundation of the pavement
structure.
-it also may consist of a layer of well compacted selected borrow
materials to prescribed specifications.
-it may be necessary to treat the subgrade material to achieve
certain strength properties required for the type of pavement being
constructed.
2. Subbase Course
-located immediately above the subgrade, the subbase component consists of material of a superior quality to that
which is generally used for subgrade construction. The requirements for subbase materials usually are given in terms
of the gradation, plastic characteristics, and strength. When the quality of the subgrade material meets the
requirements of the subbase material, the subbase component may be omitted.
3. Base Course/Granular Base

-the base course lies immediately above the subbase. It is placed immediately above the subgrade if a subbase course is
not used. This course usually consists of granular materials such as crushed stone, crushed or uncrushed slag, crushed
or uncrushed gravel, and sand. The specifications for base course materials usually include more strict requirements
than those for subbase materials, particularly with respect to their plasticity, gradation, and strength. Materials that do
not have the required properties can be used as base materials if they are properly stabilized with Portland cement,
asphalt, or lime. In some cases, high-quality base course materials also may be treated with asphalt or Portland cement
to improve the stiffness characteristics of heavy-duty pavements.
4. Surface Course
-the surface course is the upper course of the road pavement and is constructed immediately above the base course.
The surface course in flexible pavements usually consists of a mixture of mineral aggregates and asphalt. It should be
capable of withstanding high tire pressures, resisting abrasive forces due to traffic, providing a skidresistant driving
surface, and preventing the penetration of surface water into the underlying layers. The thickness of the wearing
surface can vary from 3 in. to more than 6 in., depending on the expected traffic on the pavement.
SOIL STABILIZATION
- is the treatment of natural soil to improve its engineering properties wherein when suitable subbase material is not
readily available, the available material can be treated with other materials to achieve the necessary properties.
 Two Categories of Soil Stabilization:

a) Mechanical stabilization
-is the blending of different grades of soils to obtain a required grade.
b) Chemical stabilization
- is the blending of the natural soil with chemical agents.
-the most commonly used agents are Portland cement, asphalt binders, and lime.
 Some of terms commonly used in the field of soil stabilization:

1. Cement-stabilized soil
-is a mixture of water, soil, and measured amounts of Portland cement—thoroughly mixed and compacted to a high
density and then allowed to cure for a specific period, during which it is protected from loss of moisture.
2. Soil cement
-is a hardened material obtained by mechanically compacting a mixture of finely crushed soil, water, and a quantity of
Portland cement that will make the mixture meet certain durability requirements.
3. Cement-modified soil
-is a semihardened or unhardened mixture of water, Portland cement, and finely crushed soil. This mixture has less
cement than the soil–cement mixture.
4. Plastic soil cement

-is a hardened material obtained by mixing finely crushed soil, Portland cement, and a quantity of water, such that at
the time of mixing and placing, a consistency similar to that of mortar is obtained.
5. Soil-lime
-is a mixture of lime, water, and fine-grained soil. If the soil contains silica and alumina, pozzolanic reaction occurs,
resulting in the formation of a cementing-type material. Clay minerals, quartz, and feldspars are all possible sources of
silica and alumina in typical fine-grained soils.
CEMENT STABILIZATION
- it involves the addition of 5 to 14 percent Portland cement by volume of the compacted mixture to the soil being
stabilized
The procedure for stabilizing soils with cement involves:

a) Pulverizing the soil
b) Mixing of Soil & Cement
c) Compacting the soil cement mixture
d) Curing the compacted layer
ASPHALT STABILIZATION
Asphalt stabilization is carried out to achieve one or both of the following:
a) Waterproofing of natural materials

-Waterproofing the natural material through asphalt stabilization aids in maintaining the water content at a required
level by providing a membrane that impedes the penetration of water, thereby reducing the effect of any surface
water that may enter the soil when it is used as a base course.
b) Binding of natural materials

-Binding improves the durability characteristics of the natural soil by providing an adhesive characteristic, whereby
the soil particles adhere to each other, increasing cohesion.
Lime Stabilization
-is one of the oldest processes of improving the engineering properties of soils and can be used for stabilizing both
base and subbase materials.
-in general, the oxides and hydroxides of calcium and magnesium are considered as lime,but the materials most
commonly used for lime stabilization are calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 and dolomite Ca(OH)2+MgO. The dolomite,
however, should not have more than 36 percent by weight of magnesium oxide (MgO) to be acceptable as a stabilizing
agent.
*Clayey materials are most suitable for lime stabilization, but these materials should also have PI values less than 10 for
the lime stabilization to be most effective. When lime is added to fine-grained soil, cation exchange takes place, with the
calcium and magnesium in the lime replacing the sodium and potassium in the soil. The tendency to swell as a result of an
increase in moisture content is therefore immediately reduced. The PI value of the soil is also reduced.
-Pozzolanic reaction may also occur in some clays, resulting in the formation of cementing agents that increase the
strength of the soil. When silica or alumina is present in the soil, a significant increase in strength may be observed
over a long period of time. An additional effect is that lime causes flocculation of the fine particles, thereby increasing
the effective grain size of the soil. The percentage of lime used for any project depends on the type of soil being
stabilized. The PI is most commonly used for testing the effect on plasticity, whereas the unconfined compression test,
the Hveem Stabilometer test, or the California bearing-ratio (CBR) test can be used to test for the effect on strength.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN
 In the design of flexible pavements, the pavement structure usually is considered as a multilayered elastic system,
with the material in each layer characterized by certain physical properties that may include the modulus of
elasticity, the resilient modulus, and the Poisson ratio.
 It is assumed initially that the subgrade layer is infinite in both the horizontal and vertical directions, whereas the
other layers are finite in the vertical direction and infinite in the horizontal direction.
Stress Distribution within a Flexible Pavement:

“The design of the pavement therefore generally is based on strain
criteria that limit both the horizontal and vertical strains below those
that will cause excessive cracking and excessive permanent deformation.
These criteria are considered in terms of repeated load applications
because the accumulated repetitions of traffic loads are of significant
importance to the development of cracks and permanent deformation of
the pavement.”
 Flexible Pavement Design Procedure
1. Determine the effective resilient modulus of the subgrade.

2. Select the design serviceability loss.
3. Estimate the total number of 18-kip (80-kN) equivalent single-axle loads for the design period.
4. Select a level of reliability and the overall standard deviation.
5. Determine the pavement structural number.
6. Select the layer material type and determine the layer thickness.
DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS
 Rigid Pavements
-constructed of Portland cement concrete and may or may not have a base course between the subgrade and the
concrete surface.
-“rigid pavement” and “concrete pavement” are synonymous.
*Thickness of highway concrete pavements normally ranges from 6-13 inches.
 Materials Used in Rigid Pavements

1. Portland Cement
2. Coarse Aggregates
*Soundness is defined as the ability of the aggregate to resist breaking up due to freezing and thawing.
3. Fine Aggregates
*Cleanliness is often specified in terms of the maximum amounts of different types of deleterious materials contained in
the fine aggregates.
4. Water
5. Reinforcing Steel Bars

-reduce the amount of cracking that occurs, as a load transfer mechanism at joints, or as a means of tying two slabs
together.
*Steel reinforcement used to control cracking is usually referred to as temperature steel, whereas steel rods used as
load transfer mechanisms are known as dowel bars, and those used to connect two slabs together are known as tie
bars.
6. Temperature Steel
-provided in the form of a bar mat or wire mesh consisting of longitudinal and transverse steel wires welded at regular
intervals.
-does not prevent cracking of the slab, but it does control the crack widths because the steel acts as a tie holding the
edges of the cracks together.
-helps to maintain the shearing resistance of the pavement, thereby maintaining its capacity to carry traffic load, even
though the flexural strength is not improved.
General guidelines for the minimum cross-sectional area of the temperature steel:
a) Cross-sectional area of longitudinal steel should be at least equal to 0.1 percent of the cross-sectional area of
the slab.
b) Longitudinal wires should not be less than No. 2 gauge, spaced at a maximum distance of 6 in.
c) Transverse wires should not be less than No. 4 gauge, spaced at a maximum distance of 12 in.
7. Dowel Bars
-used mainly as load-transfer mechanisms across joints.
-provide flexural, shearing, and bearing resistance.
-*must be of a much larger diameter than the wires used in temperature steel.
8. Tie Bars
-used to tie two sections of the pavement together, and therefore they should be either deformed bars or should contain
hooks to facilitate the bonding of the two sections of the concrete pavement with the bar.
-usually much smaller in diameter than the dowel bars and are spaced at larger centers.
 Joints in Rigid Pavements

-different types of joints are placed in concrete pavements to limit the stresses induced by temperature changes and to
facilitate proper bonding of two adjacent sections of pavement when there is a time lapse between their construction.
1. Expansion Joints
-usually placed transversely, at regular intervals, to provide adequate space for the slab to expand and this happens
when concrete pavement is subjected to an increase in temperature that results in an increase in length of the slab or
in short when the temperature is sufficiently high, the slab may buckle or “blow up”.
2. Contraction Joints
-placed transversely at regular intervals across the width of the pavement to release some of the tensile stresses that
are so induced and this happens when concrete pavement is subjected to a decrease in temperature, the slab will
contract if it is free to move. Prevention of this contraction movement will induce tensile stresses in the concrete
pavement.
3. Hinge Joints
-used mainly to reduce cracking along the center line of highway pavements.
4. Construction Joints
-placed transversely across the pavement width to provide suitable transition between concrete laid at different times.
 Types of Rigid Highway Pavements
1. Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement(JPCP)/Plain Concrete Pavement

-no temperature steel or dowels for load transfer
-steel tie bars often are used to provide a hinge effect at longitudinal joints and to prevent the opening of these joints
-used mainly on low-volume highways or when cement-stabilized soils are used as subbase
2. Simply Reinforced Concrete Pavement

-have dowels for the transfer of traffic loads across joints, with these joints spaced at larger distances, ranging from 30
to 100 ft.
-temperature steel is used throughout the slab, with the amount dependent on the length of the slab.
-tie bars also are used commonly at longitudinal joints.
3. Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement(CRCP)

-have no transverse joints, except construction joints or expansion joints when they are necessary at specific positions,
such as at bridges.
-these pavements have a relatively high percentage of steel, with the minimum usually at 0.6 percent of the cross
section of the slab.
-they also contain tie bars across the longitudinal joints.
 Rigid Pavement Design Procedure

1. Determine the effective modulus of subgrade reaction.
2. Select the material properties for the concrete pavement.
3. Determine the drainage coefficient for the pavement.
4. Select the design serviceability loss.
5. Estimate the total number of 18-kip (80-kN) equivalent single-axle loads for the design period(ESAL)
6. Select a level of reliability and the overall standard deviation.
7. Determine slab thickness and steel reinforcement.
PAVEMENT MANAGEMENT
Project-level pavement management
-responsible for continuous evaluation of pavement’s present serviceability, monitoring of the pavement loading rate,
determination of the cause and rate of pavement deterioration, prediction of optimal time for intervention, and
evaluation of the most economical rehabilitation strategy.
Pavement management
-can be applied at the project level or at the network level.
Network level
-applies to the whole system in a global sense. Network refers to systemwide averages and is used for system budgeting
and performance modeling.
Project-level pavement management

-considered to be more complicated and more important than pavement design.
A. Pavement Deterioration
Pavement deterioration or distress can be classified into two basic categories for all pavement types:
1. Structural Deterioration
-most serious category
-results in reduced ability to carry load and a decreased pavement life
2. Functional Deterioration
-can lead to and accelerate structural deterioration, but it is only related to ride quality and frictional characteristics
3. Environmental Deterioration
-a form of material-related distress
-affects pavement materials and will generally exhibit itself as either functional or structural deterioration
“Pavement deterioration is an important measurement for a pavement engineer. To determine the remaining life of a
pavement, or the amount of pavement repair required to extend a pavement life for a given time period, or the most
appropriate time for pavement repair, the amount and type of deterioration in a pavement must be measured. Methods
of measurement of pavement deterioration vary, but most are similar in that they all require a visual inspection of the
pavement and a somewhat subjective distress rating.”
B. Jointed Rigid Pavement Distress—Visual Rating
Jointed rigid pavement deterioration is exhibited in any combination of the following distresses:
1. Surface Deterioration
-is the result of loss of cement at the surface of the slab (scaling).
-it is generally caused by excessive surface water and finishing practice, or the loss
of both small aggregates and cement caused by abrasion from tires.
-affects the noise level of a pavement and cannot be repaired.
2. Popouts
-generally due to high steel placement, but also may be the result of poor-quality
aggregate, which disintegrates, causing cavities at the surface of the slab.
-affect the noise level of a pavement and cannot be repaired.
3. Pumping
-defined as the ejection of subbase or subgrade materials from under a pavement through a joint or crack and out onto
the pavement and shoulder. The loss of subbase or subgrade material causes loss of support and leads to corner breaks
and faulting. The existence of pumping can be determined visually by the presence of soil stains at the joints or cracks
on the adjacent shoulder.
4. Faulting
-is a result of the loss of load transfer across a joint or crack, which causes the
slab on one side of the joint or crack to be at a lower elevation than the slab on
the other side.
-is generally a result of pumping
-affects the noise level and the smoothness of a pavement
-it is generally considered excessive when faulting exceeds 1/4 in (6 mm).
-can be corrected by pavement grinding, joint or crack repair, or slab jacking.
5. Settlement
-is the result of poor construction practice. It may be due to either poor compaction over a utility, poor grade control
during the final grading of the subgrade, or possible localized soil conditions that cannot resist additional overburden
or increased loading. Settlement, which is displayed by a depression in the profile of the pavement, affects smoothness.
Repair methods consist of replacement to the corrected profile, or an overlay of some type.
6. Joint Spalling
-defined as deterioration of the concrete slab around transverse or

longitudinal joints. The deterioration is generally only to partial depth
and is visible from the surface of the slab.
-may result from poor-quality aggregates (D cracking); improperly
placed dowels, tie-bars, or dowel baskets; or excessive expansion of the
concrete (pressure). Repair of spalled joints can be accomplished by
either partial-depth joint repairs or full-depth joint repairs.
7. Transverse Cracking
-transverse cracking severity varies from hairline cracks to cracks

sufficiently wide to completely separate the slab into two distinct
pieces. Hairline cracks are expected in reinforced concrete and
pose no expected problems. In plain concrete pavement, a hairline
crack can be a sign of future problems. Without reinforcing mesh
to hold the crack together, the long-term performance of the slab
is questionable; however, as long as the crack is tightly closed
(hairline), it poses no problem. Regardless of whether the
pavement contains mesh, cracks that have separated by a distance
greater than one-half of the largest aggregate diameter are
generally considered to be failed.
8. Longitudinal Cracking
-caused by excessive lane widths, longitudinal joints that were not

sawed properly, or local conditions that increase the stress level
along the pavement. Longitudinal cracking is primarily a concern
when it occurs within the wheel track. Where a longitudinal crack
is faulted, spalled, pumping, or working and is in the wheel path, it
can become a safety hazard.
9. Corner Breaks.
-are cracks found at the corner of the slab. They usually propagate
from the transverse joint to the longitudinal joint.
-are full-depth cracks and are generally the result of loss of
support under the corner of the slab.
C. Continuously Reinforced Rigid Pavement Distress—Visual Rating
1. Settlement
-settlement as displayed by a depression in the profile of the pavement affects the smoothness of a pavement. It may
be the result of poor construction practice such as poor compaction over a utility, poor grade control during final
grading of the subgrade, or localized soil conditions that cannot resist additional overburden or increased loading.
Repair methods consist of replacement to the corrected profile or an overlay.
-transverse cracks spaced too closely (less than 3 ft (0.9 m)have a

good chance of interconnecting, because they do not form
uniformly straight and perpendicular to the centerline. Thus, as
they interconnect, spalling will occur and pavement failures will
result.
-on the other hand, transverse cracks spaced too far apart create
higher stresses than the reinforcement can tolerate, and this can
also result in pavement failures.
3. Punchouts
-is formed by the combination of intersecting transverse and longitudinal cracks

over an area of weak foundation.
D. Flexible Pavement Distress—Visual Rating
1. Raveling
-is the result of loss of small aggregates from the pavement surface. Raveling can
be caused by oxidation of the mix, improper mix design, segregation, or lack of
compaction.
2. Bleeding
-is the flushing of excess asphalt cement to the surface of the pavement. Asphalt
cement concrete mixtures are more prone to bleed with hotter pavement
surface temperatures.
-is a result of excess asphalt cement in the mix and/or low air voids in the mix.
3. Potholes
-one of the most common problems is the development of a pothole

-are small, localized, but deep pavement failures characterized by a round shape.
-are caused by weak and wet subbase and/or subgrade. In freeze-thaw
environments, potholes are generally formed during the thaw.
4. Rutting
-is the longitudinal deformation of the pavement structure within the wheel
tracks. Where found only in the uppermost portions of the pavement, it is
caused by poor mixture design and lack of stability. Where rutting is
deep-seated and found throughout the depth of the pavement structure, it is
caused by inadequate pavement structure above the founding layers or by a
weak, wet subgrade.
5. Corrugation
-are transverse waves in the pavement profile, which are found most generally
at stop lights, at stop signs, or on hills.
-are found in the wheel track and are the result of acceleration and deceleration
of heavy trucks in a regular pattern on the roadway surface. The stability of the
asphalt mix can also be a contributing factor.
6. Longitudinal Cracking.
-is most often found at paving joints established during construction. The
construction joint is most generally specified at lane lines. As weathering of the
pavement takes place, the longitudinal joint ravels and eventually spalls.
Longitudinal cracks found at locations other than paving joints are due to
thermal shrinkage from seasonal temperature changes.
-transverse cracking is best described by cracks that form across the pavement
perpendicular to the centerline.
8. Block Cracking
-is the combination of longitudinal and transverse cracking. As the cracks worsen
with time as a result of weathering, they join each other and form block cracking.
9. Wheel Track Cracking
-can be described as mostly longitudinal cracks found at the surface of the

pavement within a 3-ft-wide (0.9-m) strip considered to be the wheel track. Wheel
track cracking ranges from a single longitudinal crack to a series of interconnected
longitudinal cracks, also referred to as alligator cracking. Wheel track cracking is
commonly considered to be the most alarming distress found in a flexible pavement.
This type of cracking starts at the bottom of the pavement structure and is
transmitted to the surface. By the time alligator cracking can be detected by visual
inspection, the pavement is generally considered to be failed.
10. Edge Cracking.
-is a series of short longitudinal or irregular-shaped cracks at the outer 15 in (380 mm)
of the pavement.
-is a result of lack of support outside the pavement edge.
E. Composite Pavement Distress—Visual Rating

Composite pavement deterioration is exhibited in a combination of some flexible pavement distresses and some rigid
pavement distresses. The most prominent composite pavement distresses, which were defined under flexible or rigid
pavement, are raveling, bleeding, rutting, corrugations, pumping, and various slab distresses.
F. Investigative Methods
If a pavement exhibits structural distresses, such as cracking, patching, potholes, faulting, etc., further evaluation may
be necessary to identify the cause of the distress, the extent and the strength of the existing pavement system and
subgrade. Roadways with high traffic volumes, especially those with high truck volumes, should also be evaluated prior
to rehabilitation.
1. Pavement Coring
-the simplest and most reliable method of identifying pavement deterioration is pavement coring.
-can be used to investigate many different pavement distress factors, from rigid joint deterioration to stripping in
asphalt concrete pavement layers.
Pavement core taken at transverse joint in composite Crumbled core taken from transverse joint in rigid pavement
pavement
Core from flexible pavement indicating delamination

about 3 in(75mm) from surface
Hole in Pavement after core was drilled at transverse Crumbled core taken from transverse joint in composite pavement
crack in composite pavement pavement
2. Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP)
-is commonly used to determine the stiffness of the base and/or subgrade.
-the DCP consists of a 13/16-in (21-mm) diameter, 60° cone mounted on a
5/8-in (16-mm) rod.
-a 17.6-lb (8-kg) weight is attached to the top of the DCP in such a manner
that it can be raised 22.6 in (574 mm) and released while the cone is
resting on the base or subgrade.
3. Nondestructive Testing
-the most common of the nondestructive testing (NDT) methods is a deflection measuring device such as the falling
weight deflectometer (FWD), road rater, and Dynaflect. These devices place a load, either impulse or cyclic, on the
pavement and measure the deflection of the pavement using three or more geophones placed at various distances from
the load.
4. Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves

Spectral analysis of surface waves (SASW) is currently a research tool but may find use as an evaluation tool in the near
future.
METHODS OF PAVEMENT REHABILITATION

 Rehabilitation on Rigid Pavement
1. CPR
-the most common method of restoration for jointed pavement, both reinforced and non-reinforced, is termed concrete
pavement restoration (CPR). CPR includes load transfer, restoration, joint removal and replacement, construction of
rigid shoulders (if not already present), profile grinding to reestablish smoothness, and usually resealing joints and
sealing any cracks.
2. Repair and Overlay

-when nondestructive testing measurements indicate that the existing slab thickness is insufficient to carry future
design traffic, a common technique is to repair failed joints or pavement and add an asphalt overlay.
3. Bonded Concrete Overlay

-another technique to increase pavement structural capacity is to bond additional concrete to the surface of the existing
concrete pavement.
4. Break and Seat for JRCP

-break and seat method for jointed reinforced concrete pavement is accomplished by breaking the long slabs into
shorter slabs to distribute the expansion and contraction movement of the pavement over more cracks or joints.
5. Crack and Seat for JPCP

-crack and seat method for plain concrete pavement (non-reinforced) is accomplished by producing several transverse
cracks in each slab, thus transforming the long slabs into shorter slabs to distribute the expansion and contraction
movement.
6. Rubblize and Roll

-applicable for all types of rigid pavement.
-this method is accomplished by breaking the existing pavement into 6 in (152 mm) size or less using a resonant beam
breaker or multihead breaker. The rubblized concrete is compacted with a roller and used as a base for a new
pavement.
7. Thick Asphalt Overlay with No Repairs

-a thick asphalt overlay with no repairs is a quick and inexpensive rehabilitation strategy that can be used on any rigid
pavement beyond economical repair.
8. Unbonded Concrete Overlay
-the purpose of breaking the bond between the old pavement and the proposed overlay is to separate the distresses in
the old pavement from the new concrete overlay.
 Rehabilitation of Flexible Pavement
1. Asphalt Overlay
-the most common method of rehabilitation for flexible pavement.
2. Whitetopping
-the construction of a concrete pavement on an existing asphalt pavement is termed whitetopping.
 Pavement Preventive Maintenance

-pavement preventive maintenance extends the service life and maintains or improves the functional condition of the
system without substantially increasing structural capacity.
Preventive maintenance (PM)

-is a cost-effective strategy of early maintenance done to a pavement as a preemptive measure to preserve the
pavement by retarding deterioration.
-reduce the amount of water infiltrating the pavement structure and correct surface deficiencies such as roughness and
non-load-related distress.
1. Crack Sealing
-is the placement of a sealant into existing
cracks of a pavement.
-is used to minimize the intrusion of water
into the pavement.
-crack sealing hairline cracks in a rigid
pavement has not been shown to be cost
effective and will result in a noisier and
rougher riding pavement.
-crack sealants are expected to last 2 to 3
Secondary Cracking
years of Asphalt
before reapplication is Hairline Crack in Rigid Pavement necessary.
Concrete
2. Fog Sealing
-is an application of a diluted asphalt emulsion to a weathered asphalt surface.
-it is used to seal and enrich the surface, seal out moisture, close up hairline cracks, and prevent oxidation and raveling.
-fog seals can be expected to last as long as 3 years.
3. Chip Sealing
-is a sprayed application of a polymer-modified asphalt binder covered

immediately by a washed limestone, dolomite aggregate, or trap rock
and rolled with a pneumatic roller.
-the expected service life of a chip seal is 5 to 7 years.
Localized edge cracking must be repaired full depth before chip sealing
4. Microsurfacing
-is the application of a thin cold-applied paving mixture composed of

polymer-modified asphalt emulsion, 100 percent crushed aggregate,
mineral filler, water, and other additives.
-is used to retard raveling and oxidation, fill ruts, reduce the intrusion
of water, improve surface friction, and remove minor surface
irregularities.
Localized wheel track and edge cracking
TRAFFIC OPERATIONS
Why is there a need to study and understand traffic operations?
The traffic or highway engineer must understand not only the basic characteristics of the driver, the vehicle, and the roadway,
but how each interacts with the others. The highway or traffic engineer needs to study and understand the fundamental
elements that are important in the design of traffic control systems. Traffic flow is of fundamental importance in developing
and designing strategies for intersection control, rural highways, and freeway segments.
Five main components of the highway mode of transportation:

a) Driver
b) Pedestrian
c) Vehicle
d) Road
e) Bicycle
A. DRIVER CHARACTERISTIC
1. The Human Response Process

Actions taken by drivers on a road result from their evaluation and reaction to information they obtain from certain stimuli
that they see or hear. It has been suggested that most of the information received by a driver is visual, implying that the ability
to see is of fundamental importance in the driving task. It is therefore important that highway and traffic engineers have some
fundamental knowledge of visual perception as well as of hearing perception.
A. Visual Reception
The principal characteristics of the eye are visual acuity, peripheral vision, color vision, glare vision and recovery, and depth
perception.
i. Visual Acuity
-is the ability to see fine details of an object.
Two types of visual acuity :

a. Static Acuity - the driver’s ability to identify an object when both the object and the driver are stationary depends on his
or her static acuity.
**Factors that affect static acuity include background brightness, contrast, and time.
b. Dynamic visual acuity -the driver’s ability to clearly detect relatively moving objects, not necessarily in his or her direct
line of vision, depends on the driver’s dynamic visual acuity.
ii. Peripheral Vision
-is the ability of people to see objects beyond the cone of clearest vision.
*Age also influences peripheral vision. For instance, at about age 60, a significant change occurs in a person’s peripheral
vision.
iii. Color Vision

-is the ability to differentiate one color from another, but deficiency in this ability, usually referred to as color blindness, is not
of great significance in highway driving because other ways of recognizing traffic information devices (e.g., shape) can
compensate for it.
*Combinations of black and white and black and yellow have been shown to be those to which the eye is most sensitive.
iv. Glare Vision and Recovery
Two types of Glare Vision:

a. Direct Glare- occurs when relatively bright light appears in the individual’s field of vision
b. Specular Glare- occurs when the image reflected by the relatively bright light appears in the field of vision
Glare Recovery - is the time required by a person to recover from the effects of glare after passing the light source.
Glare vision is of great importance during night driving; it contributes to the problem of serving older people, who see much
more poorly at night.
v. Depth Perception
-affects the ability of a person to estimate speed and distance
-it is particularly important on two-lane highways during passing maneuvers, when head-on crashes may result from a lack of
proper judgment of speed and distance
-the ability of the human eye to differentiate between objects is fundamental to this phenomenon.
B. Hearing Perception
The ear receives sound stimuli, which is important to drivers only when warning sounds, usually given out by emergency
vehicles, are to be detected. Loss of some hearing ability is not a serious problem, since it normally can be corrected by a
hearing aid.
2. Perception-Reaction Process
The process through which a driver, cyclist, or pedestrian evaluates and reacts to a stimulus can be divided into four
subprocesses:
a. Perception - the driver sees a control device, warning sign, or object on the road
b. Identification - the driver identifies the object or control device and thus understands the stimulus
c. Emotion - the driver decides what action to take in response to the stimulus; for example, to step on the brake pedal, to
pass, to swerve, or to change lanes
d. Reaction or volition - the driver actually executes the action decided on during the emotion sub-process
Perception-reaction time- is an important factor in the determination of braking distances, which in turn dictates the
minimum sight distance required on a highway and the length of the yellow phase at a signalized
intersection.
3. Older Driver’s Characteristics
*As one grows older, his or her sensory, cognitive, and physical functioning ability declines, which can result in older drivers
being less safe than their younger counterparts, and with a higher probability of being injured when involved in a crash.
*As older drivers seem to be depending more on the automobile for meeting their transportation needs, it is very important
that traffic and highway engineers consider these diminished characteristics of older drivers in making decisions on highway
design and operational characteristics that are influenced by human characteristics.
*This group also suffers from narrower visual fields, greater sensitivity to glare, higher reaction times, and reduced muscle
strength, which may result in the older driver having a higher crash risk.
Specific declining abilities of older drivers include:

◆ reduced visual acuity
◆ ability to see at night
◆ flexibility and motion range
B. PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS
-may influence the design and location of pedestrian control devices
Control devices includes:

a) special pedestrian signals
b) safety zones and islands at intersections
c) pedestrian underpasses
d) elevated walkways
e) crosswalks
C. BICYCLISTS AND BICYCLES CHARACTERISTICS

-bicycles are now an important component of the highway mode, especially for highways located in urban areas.
**bicyclist is not only the driver of the bicycle, but he/she also provides the power to move the bicycle. The bicycle and
the bicyclist therefore unite to form a system, thus requiring that both be considered jointly.
Three classes of bicyclists:

a) Class A - experienced or advanced bicyclists
- consider the bicycle as a motor vehicle and can comfortably ride in traffic
b) Class B - less experienced bicyclists
-prefer to ride on neighborhood streets and are more comfortable on designated bicycle facilities, such as bicycle
paths
c) Class C - children riding on their own or with parents.
-use mainly residential streets that provide access to schools, recreational facilities, and stores
* In designing urban roads and streets, it is useful to consider the feasibility of incorporating bicycle facilities that will
accommodate class B and class C bicyclists.
D. VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
* Designing a highway involves the selection of a design vehicle, whose characteristics will encompass those of nearly all
vehicles expected to use the highway. The characteristics of the design vehicle are then used to determine criteria for
geometric design, intersection design, and sight-distance requirements.
 Criteria for the geometric design of highways characteristics of vehicles:
a) Static - include the weight and size of the vehicle

-the size of the design vehicle for a highway is an important factor in the determination of design standards for
several physical components of the highway. These include lane width, shoulder width, length and width of parking bays, and
lengths of vertical curves.
 Different types of Trucks:
a) Single Unit Trucks
b) Conventional Combination Vehicles
c) Longer Combination Vehicles
 AASHTO also has suggested the following guidelines for selecting a design vehicle:
⚫ For a parking lot or series of parking lots, a passenger car may be used
⚫ For intersections on residential streets and park roads, a single-unit truck could be considered
⚫ For the design of intersections of state highways and city streets that serve bus traffic but with relatively few large trucks,
a city transit bus may be used
⚫ For the design of intersections of highways with low-volume county and township/ local roads with Average Annual
Daily Traffic (AADT, see Chapter 4 for definition) of 400 or less, a large school bus with a capacity of 84 passengers or a
conventional bus with a capacity of 65 passengers may be used. The selection of the bus type depends on the expected
frequency of each of the buses on the facility.
⚫ For intersections of freeway ramp terminals and arterial highways, and for intersections of state highways and industrial
streets with high traffic volumes, or with large truck access to local streets, the WB-20 (WB-65 or 67) may be used.
b) Kinematic - involve the motion of the vehicle without considering the forces that cause the motion
-the primary element among kinematic characteristics is the acceleration capability of the vehicle.
c) Dynamic - involve the forces that cause the motion of the vehicle
 Several forces act on a vehicle while it is in motion:
1) Air resistance - the force required for a vehicle in motion to overcome the resistance of the air in front of it as well as the
force due to the frictional action of the air around it.
2) Grade resistance - a force where a vehicle moves up a grade, a component of the weight of the vehicle acts downward,
along the plane of the highway. This creates a force acting in a direction opposite that of the motion.
3) Rolling resistance - there are forces within the vehicle itself that offer resistance to motion. These forces are due mainly
to frictional effect on moving parts of the vehicle, but they also include the frictional slip between the pavement surface and
the tires. The sum effect of these forces on motion is known as rolling resistance. The rolling resistance depends on the speed
of the vehicle and the type of pavement. Rolling forces are relatively lower on smooth pavements than on rough pavements.
4) Curve resistance - when a passenger car is maneuvered to take a curve, external forces act on the front wheels of the
vehicle. These forces have components that have a retarding effect on the forward motion of the
vehicle. The sum effect of these components constitutes the curve resistance. This resistance
depends on the radius of the curve, the gross weight of the vehicle, and the velocity at which the
vehicle is moving.
 Power Requirements - power is the rate at which work is done. The performance capability of a vehicle is measured in
terms of the horsepower the engine can produce to overcome air, grade, curve, and friction resistance forces and put the
vehicle in motion.
E. ROAD CHARACTERISTICS
1. Sight Distance - is the length of the roadway a driver can see ahead at any particular time.
The two types of sight distance are:

a) Stopping sight distance (SSD) - for design purposes, is usually taken as the minimum sight distance required for a driver
to stop a vehicle after seeing an object in the vehicle’s path without hitting that object. This
distance is the sum of the distance traveled during perception-reaction time and the
distance traveled during braking.
b) Passing sight distance - is the minimum sight distance required on a two-lane, twoway highway that will permit a driver
to complete a passing maneuver without colliding with an opposing vehicle and without cutting
off the passed vehicle.
- also allow the driver to successfully abort the passing maneuver (that is, return to the right lane
behind the vehicle being passed) if he or she so desires.
In order to determine the minimum passing sight distance, certain assumptions have to be made regarding the movement of
the passing vehicle during a passing maneuver:
i. The vehicle being passed (impeder) is traveling at a uniform speed.

ii. The speed of the passing vehicle is reduced and is behind the impeder as the passing section is entered.
iii. On arrival at a passing section, some time elapses during which the driver decides whether to undertake the passing
maneuver.
iv. If the decision is made to pass, the passing vehicle is accelerated during the passing maneuver, and the average passing
speed is about 10 mi/h more than the speed of the impeder vehicle.
v. A suitable clearance exists between the passing vehicle and any opposing vehicle when the passing vehicle reenters the
right lane.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING STUDIES
Traffic studies may be grouped into three main categories:
1. Inventories - inventories provide a list or graphic display of existing information, such as street widths, parking spaces,
transit routes, traffic regulations, and so forth.
- may be recorded in files but are usually recorded in automated data processing (ADP) systems.
2. Administrative studies - use existing engineering records, available in government agencies and departments. This
information is used to prepare an inventory of the relevant data.
-include the results of surveys, which may involve field measurements and/or aerial
photography
3. Dynamic studies- involve the collection of data under operational conditions and include studies of speed, traffic volume,
travel time and delay, parking, and crashes.
Dynamic Traffic Studies:
1. SPOT SPEED STUDIES

- are conducted to estimate the distribution of speeds of vehicles in a stream of traffic at a particular location on a highway.
- is carried out by recording the speeds of a sample of vehicles at a specified location.
Speed characteristics determined from a spot speed study may be used to:
⚫ Establish parameters for traffic operation and control, such as speed zones, speed limits (85th-percentile speed is
commonly used as the speed limit on a road), and passing restrictions.
⚫ Evaluate the effectiveness of traffic control devices, such as variable message signs at work zones.
⚫ Monitor the effect of speed enforcement programs, such as the use of drone radar and the use of differential speed limits
for passenger cars and trucks.
⚫ Evaluate and or determine the adequacy of highway geometric characteristics, such as radii of horizontal curves and
lengths of vertical curves.
⚫ Evaluate the effect of speed on highway safety through the analysis of crash data for different speed characteristics.
⚫ Determine speed trends.
⚫ Determine whether complaints about speeding are valid.
1.1. Locations for Spot Speed Studies

1. Locations that represent different traffic conditions on a highway or highways are used for basic data collection.
2. Mid-blocks of urban highways and straight, level sections of rural highways are sites for speed trend analyses.
3. Any location may be used for the solution of a specific traffic engineering problem.
1.2. Time of Day and Duration of Spot Speed Studies

-the time of day for conducting a speed study depends on the purpose of the study.
*In general, when the purpose of the study is to establish posted speed limits, to observe speed trends, or to collect basic data,
it is recommended that the study be conducted when traffic is free-flowing, usually during off-peak hours.
*However, when a speed study is conducted in response to citizen complaints, it is useful if the time period selected for the
study reflects the naquired for statistical analysis is recorded.
Typically, the duration is at least 1 hour and the sample size is at least 30 vehicles.
1.3. Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies

The calculated mean (or average) speed is used to represent the true mean value of all vehicle speeds at that location.
Certain significant values that are needed to describe speed characteristics:
1. Average Speed - is the arithmetic mean of all observed vehicle speeds (which is the sum of all spot speeds divided by the
number of recorded speeds).
2. Median Speed - is the speed at the middle value in a series of spot speeds that are arranged in ascending order. 50
percent of the speed values will be greater than the median; 50 percent will be less than the median.
3. Modal Speed -is the speed value that occurs most frequently in a sample of spot speeds.
4. ith-percentile Spot Speed -is the spot speed value below which i percent of the vehicles travel;
5. Pace - is the range of speed—usually taken at 10-mi/h intervals—that has the greatest number of observations.
6. Standard Deviation of Speeds - is a measure of the spread of the individual speeds.
1.4. Methods for Conducting Spot Speed Studies
Two main categories in conducting spot speed studies:
a. Manual - seldom used
b. Automatic -several automatic devices that can be used to obtain the instantaneous speeds of vehicles at a location on a
highway are now available on the market.
Three main categories of automatic devices:

(1) Road detectors
-used to measure speed, they should be laid such that the probability of a passing vehicle closing the connection of the meter
during a speed measurement is reduced to a minimum.
Advantage:
◆ Human errors are considerably reduced.
Disadvantage:
◆ these devices tend to be rather expensive
◆ when pneumatic tubes are used, they are rather conspicuous and may, therefore, affect driver behavior, resulting in a
distortion of the speed distribution.
Two General Categories of Road Detectors:

i. Pneumatic road tubes - are laid across the lane in which data are to be collected.
ii. Induction loop - is a rectangular wire loop buried under the roadway surface. It usually serves as the detector of a
resonant circuit.
-it operates on the principle that a disturbance in the electrical field is created when a motor vehicle
passes across it. This causes a change in potential that is amplified, resulting in an impulse being sent
to the counter.
(2) Radar-based Traffic Sensors

-work on the principle that when a signal is transmitted onto a moving vehicle, the change in frequency between the
transmitted signal and the reflected signal is proportional to the speed of the moving vehicle.
Advantage:
Because pneumatic tubes are not used, if the equipment can be located at an inconspicuous position, the influence on driver
behavior is considerably reduced.
(3) Electronic-Principles Detectors

-in this method, the presence of vehicles is detected through electronic means, and information on these vehicles is obtained,
from which traffic characteristics, such as speed, volume, queues, and headways are computed.
Advantage:
The great advantage of this method over the use of road detectors is that it is not necessary to physically install loops or any
other type of detector on the road.
2. TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDIES

-are conducted to collect data on the number of vehicles and/or pedestrians that pass a point on a highway facility during a
specified time period.
-period varies from as little as 15 minutes to as much as a year depending on the anticipated use of the data.
-the data collected also may be put into subclasses which may include directional movement, occupancy rates, vehicle
classification, and pedestrian age.
Traffic volume studies are usually conducted when certain volume characteristics are needed, some of which follow:
i. Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)
-is the average of 24-hour counts collected every day of the year. AADTs are used in several traffic and transportation analyses
for:
a. Estimation of highway user revenues
b. Computation of crash rates in terms of number of crashes per 100 million vehicle miles
c. Establishment of traffic volume trends
d. Evaluation of the economic feasibility of highway projects
e. Development of freeway and major arterial street systems
f. Development of improvement and maintenance programs
ii. Average Daily Traffic (ADT)

-is the average of 24-hour counts collected over a number of days greater than one but less than a year. ADTs may be used for:
a. Planning of highway activities
b. Measurement of current demand
c. Evaluation of existing traffic flow
iii. Peak Hour Volume (PHV)
-is the maximum number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway during a period of 60 consecutive minutes. PHVs are used
for:
a. Functional classification of highways
b. Design of the geometric characteristics of a highway, for example, number of lanes, intersection signalization, or
channelization
c. Capacity analysis
d. Development of programs related to traffic operations, for example, one-way street systems or traffic routing
e. Development of parking regulations
iv. Vehicle Classification (VC)

-records volume with respect to the type of vehicles, for example, passenger cars, two-axle trucks, or three-axle trucks. VC is
used in:
a. Design of geometric characteristics, with particular reference to turning-radii requirements, maximum grades, lane widths,
and so forth
b. Capacity analyses, with respect to passenger-car equivalents of trucks
c. Adjustment of traffic counts obtained by machines
d. Structural design of highway pavements, bridges, and so forth
v. Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT)

-is a measure of travel along a section of road. It is the product of the traffic volume (that is, average weekday volume or ADT)
and the length of roadway in miles to which the volume is applicable. VMTs are used mainly as a base for allocating resources
for maintenance and improvement of highways.
2.1. Methods of Conducting Volume Counts
2.1.1. Manual Method

-involves one or more persons recording observed vehicles using a counter
Disadvantage:
(1) it is labor intensive and therefore can be expensive
(2) it is subject to the limitations of human factors
(3) it cannot be used for long periods of counting
2.1.2. Automatic Method

Automatic counters can be classified into two general categories:
(1) those that require the laying of detectors (surface or subsurface such as pneumatic road tubes)
(2) those that do not require the laying of detectors
2.2. Types of Volume Counts
2.2.1. Cordon Counts

-undertaken when information is required on vehicle accumulation within an area such as the central business district (CBD)
of a city, particularly during a specific time.
2.2.2. Screen Line Counts
-in screen line counts, the study area is divided into large sections by running imaginary lines, known as screen lines, across it.
2.2.3. Intersection Counts
-are taken to determine vehicle classifications, through movements, and turning movements at intersections.
2.2.4. Pedestrian Volume Counts
-volume counts of pedestrians are made at locations such as subway stations, midblocks, and crosswalks.
2.2.5. Periodic Volume Counts
-are used to determine values that are then employed in the estimation of annual traffic characteristics. The periodic counts
usually conducted are continuous, control, or coverage counts.
2.2.6. Continuous Counts
-these counts are taken continuously using mechanical or electronic counters.
2.2.7. Control Counts
-these counts are taken at stations known as control-count stations, which are strategically located so that representative
samples of traffic volume can be taken on each type of highway or street in an area-wide traffic counting program.
2.2.8. Coverage Counts
-these counts are used to estimate ADT, using expansion factors developed from control counts.
2.3. Traffic Volume Representation
2.3.1. Traffic Flow Maps

-these maps show traffic volumes on individual routes.
2.3.2. Intersection Summary Sheets
-these sheets are graphic representations of the volume and directions of all traffic movements through the intersection.
2.3.3. Time-Based Distribution Charts
-these charts show the hourly, daily, monthly, or annual variations in traffic volume in an area or on a particular highway.
2.3.4. Summary Tables
-these tables give a summary of traffic volume data such as PHV, Vehicle Classification (VC), and ADT in tabular form.
3. TRAVEL TIME & DELAY STUDIES

-a travel time study determines the amount of time required to travel from one point to another on a given route.
3.1. Applications of Travel Time & Delay Studies

• Determination of the efficiency of a route with respect to its ability to carry traffic
• Identification of locations with relatively high delays and the causes for those delays
• Performance of before-and-after studies to evaluate the effectiveness of traffic operation improvements
• Determination of relative efficiency of a route by developing sufficiency ratings or congestion indices
• Determination of travel times on specific links for use in trip assignment models
• Compilation of travel time data that may be used in trend studies to evaluate the changes in efficiency and level of service
with time
• Performance of economic studies in the evaluation of traffic operation alternatives that reduce travel time
3.2. Definition of Terms Related to Travel Time & Delay Studies

3.2.1. Travel time
-is the time taken by a vehicle to traverse a given section of a highway.
3.2.2. Running time
-is the time a vehicle is actually in motion while traversing a given section of a highway.
3.2.3. Delay
-is the time lost by a vehicle due to causes beyond the control of the driver.
3.2.4. Operational delay
-is that part of the delay caused by the impedance of other traffic. This impedance can occur either as side friction, where the
stream flow is interfered with by other traffic (for example, parking or unparking vehicles), or as internal friction, where the
interference is within the traffic stream (for example, reduction in capacity of the highway).
3.2.5. Stopped-time delay
-is that part of the delay during which the vehicle is at rest.
3.2.6. Fixed delay
-is that part of the delay caused by control devices such as traffic signals. This delay occurs regardless of the traffic volume or
the impedance that may exist.
3.2.7. Travel-time delay
-is the difference between the actual travel time and the travel time that will be obtained by assuming that a vehicle traverses
the study section at an average speed equal to that for an uncongested traffic flow on the section being studied.
3.3. Methods for Conducting Travel Time and Delay Studies
These methods can be grouped into two general categories:
(1) Methods requiring a test vehicle

Three possible techniques:
i. Floating-Car Technique
-in this method, the test car is driven by an observer along the test section so that the test car “floats” with the traffic.
ii. Average Speed Technique
-this technique involves driving the test car along the length of the test section at a speed that, in the opinion of the driver, is
the average speed of the traffic stream.
iii. Moving-Vehicle Technique
-in this technique, the observer makes a round trip on a test section where it is assumed that the road runs east to west.
(2) Methods not requiring a test vehicle
Two possible techniques:
i. License-Plate Observations
-requires that observers be positioned at the beginning and end of the test section.
ii. Interviews
-the interviewing method is carried out by obtaining information from people who drive on the study site regarding their
travel times, their experience of delays, and so forth.
4. PARKING STUDIES
-any vehicle traveling on a highway will at one time or another be parked for either a relatively short time or a much longer
time, depending on the reason for parking.
4.1. Types of Parking Facilities

(a) On-Street Parking Facilities
-these are also known as curb facilities.
-parking bays are provided alongside the curb on one or both sides of the street. These bays can be unrestricted parking
facilities if the duration of parking is unlimited and parking is free, or they can be restricted parking facilities if parking is
limited to specific times of the day for a maximum duration.
(b) Off-Street Parking Facilities
-these facilities may be privately or publicly owned; they include surface lots and garages.
4.2. Definition of Parking Terms

4.2.1. Space-hour
-is a unit of parking that defines the use of a single parking space for a period of 1 hour.
4.2.2. Parking volume
-is the total number of vehicles that park in a study area during a specific length of time, usually a day.
4.2.3. Parking accumulation
-is the number of parked vehicles in a study area at any specified time.
4.2.4. Parking load
-is the area under the accumulation curve between two specific times. It is usually given as the number of space-hours used
during the specified period of time.
4.2.5. Parking duration
-is the length of time a vehicle is parked at a parking bay.
4.2.6. Parking turnover
-is the rate of use of a parking space. It is obtained by dividing the parking volume for a specified period by the number of
parking spaces.
4.3. Methodology of Parking Studies
A comprehensive parking study usually involves:

(1) Inventory of Existing Parking Facilities
-is a detailed listing of the location and all other relevant characteristics of each legal parking facility, private and public, in the
study area.
-the inventory includes both on- and off-street facilities.
The relevant characteristics usually listed include the following:

• Type and number of parking spaces at each parking facility
• Times of operation and limit on duration of parking, if any
• Type of ownership (private or public) • Parking fees, if any, and method of collection
• Restrictions on use (open or closed to the public)
• Other restrictions, if any (such as loading and unloading zones, bus stops, or taxi ranks)
• Probable degree of permanency (can the facility be regarded as permanent or is it just a temporary facility?)
(2) Collection of Parking Data

(a) Accumulation
-accumulation data are obtained by checking the amount of parking during regular intervals on different days of the week.
(b) Turnover and Duration
-information on turnover and duration is usually obtained by collecting data on a sample of parking spaces in a given block.
(3) Identification of Parking Generators

-this phase involves identifying parking generators (for example, shopping centers or transit terminals) and locating these on
a map of the study area.
(4) Collection of Information on Parking Demand

-parking demand information on parking demand is obtained by interviewing drivers at the various parking facilities listed
during the inventory.
Information sought should include:

(1) trip origin
(2) purpose of trip
(3) driver’s destination after parking
4.4. Analysis of Parking Data

Analysis of parking data includes summarizing, coding, and interpreting the data so that the relevant information required
for decision making can be obtained.
The relevant information includes the following:

• Number and duration for vehicles legally parked
• Number and duration for vehicles illegally parked
• Space-hours of demand for parking
• Supply of parking facilities
SEATWORK!!!
Select and describe the method and equipment you will recommend for traffic volume counts for each of the road sections
given below. Give reasons for your recommendations.
(a) A private road leading to an industrial development
(b) A residential street
(c) A rural collector road
(d) A section of an interstate highway

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Introduction to Highway

1) Planning, location and development of roads.

2. I t is nearest mode of transport for people or public.

3. It offers flexibility of changes in direction of travel as per need,

5. It requires small investments and maintenance costs as

6. Road transport save time particularly for short distance travel.

Roadways are the means of

The steel tracks laid on the ground,

National Primary  A contiguous length of significant road sections extending linearly

Nos. N50 to N99 for other primary routes connecting

National Secondary Nos. 100 to 999

Expressways E1, E2, E3, etc.

III. Road Conversion

DPWH Technical Requirements and Standards for a National Road:

IV. Engineering Offices

REQUIREMENT FOR THE CREATION OF DEOs

FOR ISLAND COMPONENT 35,000 INHABITANTS

B. For the classification/reclassification of DEOs the following parameters must be followed:

PARAMETER FOR DEO CLASSIFICATION

REGION DEO OFFICE LOCATION

A. National Road Length Per Functional Classification

B. Comparative Regional Yearly Length of National Roads (2009-2019)

C. Road Length and Percentage Per Surface Type

The country’s national road network is predominantly concrete surfacing at 65.56% or

D. Length and Percentage of Paved & Unpaved Roads

Overall Condition Scores

Procurement of the National Road Roughness Index Program Phase IV (NRRIP-IV).

A well-developed road transport sector, most especially in developing countries, is assumed

Planning of new areas or road projects can be considered in four stages:

2. LAND USE AND ZONING

CVIL 1073 – Highway and Railroad Engineering 2

• Pedestrians should be given utmost consideration by providing facilities that would

2.1 Principles in Land Use Planning and Zoning

• Development and implementation of a zoning plan to separate incompatible and

• Strong planning regulations to influence the location of new development and to

• Residential development should be separated from heavy industry and major

CVIL 1073 – Highway and Railroad Engineering 3

Figure 2.2 : Good Zoning and Road Planning Interface

CVIL 1073 – Highway and Railroad Engineering 4

2.2.1 Residential Areas

• Non-access traffic needs to find it impossible, or highly inconvenient, to use residential

• Pedestrians should be segregated wherever possible and crossings of traffic routes

• Large developments should be sub-divided to minimize traffic on internal roads;

CVIL 1073 – Highway and Railroad Engineering 5

2.2.3 Commercial / Retail Areas

CVIL 1073 – Highway and Railroad Engineering 6

2.2.4 Recreational/Tourism Areas

■ Certain recreational uses may be acceptable within commercial or industrial areas,

• Adequate provision of public transport is essential;

• Pedestrian routes between entrances/parking areas and venues should be free of

CVIL 1073 – Highway and Railroad Engineering 7

3. CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS / ROAD HIERARCHY

The key points to consider in network planning are the following:

CVIL 1073 – Highway and Railroad Engineering 8

Figure 3.2 : Externally and Internally-fed Networks

CVIL 1073 – Highway and Railroad Engineering 9

An expressway is proposed for a road corridor under the following situations;

 A road corridor connecting several highly urbanized centers with ribbon-type of

 A road corridor with high traffic demand.