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UNIT 4
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
LESSON 10
CONSERVATION AND RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT
Learning Objectives

Students learn, understand and appreciate the need for conservation of

natural resources and managing them in the best way we could, given
the circumstances in which resources are exploited, used and misused,
and even wasted.

‘Wild nature is in deep distress, and whatever their occasional protestations,

the international institutions charged with Earth’s care are not managing it with an
eye on ‘sustainability’. Rising that challenge will test the limits of diplomacy and
development’, wrote Steven Sanderson, President and Chief Executive Officer of the
Wildlife Conservation Society. These words are not only true for wildlife but also for
natural resources and their management. Global losses in biodiversity and wild places
are not the stuff of ‘environmental alarmism’; rather they describe our world today.
This is detailed in volumes of scientific evidence. Although long term impact can be
computed in economic terms, the results of such computation will not be the truth: it
would represent much more.

As for wildlife, conservation science falls into two basic categories: (a) threat
assessment and (b) the analysis of small populations of animals. The two basic
categories can as well be applied to natural resources, for there is a threat to these
resources which (the threat) has to be assessed and there is need to analyse the
small, limited amounts of resources available for use and to examine the possibilities
for conservation. One of the results of the two activities above was the creation of
various kinds of protected areas. The focus of the conservation community has been
on setting aside ecologically important marine and terrestrial areas, reducing the over-
harvesting of wildlife, lessening the pollution of fragile lands and waters, and protecting
long term ecological processes.

Also fitful cooperation between scientists and inter-governmental organizations

have resulted in some important conservation achievements over the years, namely,
the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, the Atmospheric Nuclear Test Ban, Bio-safety
Protocol, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora and the Creation of World Heritage Sites. But these have not added up to
great successes, rather a tenuous grip on the global political agenda.

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The blame for little success must rest with the developing as well as the
developed countries. The former have shied away from their post-Rio de Janeiro (Brazil)
obligations but they do contribute to much future growth in fossil-fuel consumption
and natural resources use. The latter have been going out of their to capture and
use world’s natural resources for their own economic ends, knowing that diminishing
returns have been operative for long. Besides, they use natural resources far in excess
of their needs and in the bargain deprive the developing countries their right to use
their own. Having said these words, let us now turn to conservation and preservation
and look at them in a historical way.

Conservation and Preservation

History of Conservation and Resource Management: The idea that humans have
abused the planet’s natural resources and environment is not modern in origin. The
earliest writings suggesting concern for the environment date back to the time of the
ancient Greeks, when Plato described the effects of soil degradation and deforestation
on the peninsula of Attica. This brief account was followed by the accounts of many
others as they documented the negative effects of agriculture, land use change,
urbanization, and industrialization. In the first century, Columella and Pliny the Elder
warned that poor land management in the croplands around Rome could have a
negative effect on crop yields and may cause soil erosion.
Throughout the middle ages, countless accounts describe the effects of pollution
and degradation on the environment. Overpopulation and the subsequent resource
depletion are believed to be the cause of the collapse of the Mayan Civilization in the
tenth century. During the middle ages, large tracts of forests were removed for their
wood or converted into pasture and cropland in much of Europe and Asia. One of the
first examples of deliberate preservation of wildlife occurred during this period when
noblemen in Britain and Europe put aside areas of land for the purpose of hunting.
In the mid-1700s, the Industrial Revolution began in England. During this period
most of the forests had been cut down, and coal was used to replace wood as source
of energy. Burning coal produced atmospheric pollution on a local and regional scale.
John Evelyn, a naturalist, complained in 1661 of the effects of atmospheric pollution on
the air quality in London.
The Environmental Movement in Britain during the sixteenth, seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries was primarily influenced by three major forces. Scientific discovery
by naturalists provided a general understanding of how nature works. It also allowed for
the recognition that human degradation of the environment influenced the survival of
living organisms. By the 1880s, field and naturalist clubs had a combined membership
of over 100,000 people. At this time, many of the members of these organizations were
active in building collections of native birds, eggs and plants. However, the combined
effort of the collectors was having a drastic effect on species numbers. As a result of the
declining numbers of collected species, a wildlife protection movement developed. The
last major force was the growing reaction to the environmental degradation caused by

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urbanization. Urbanization resulted in air pollution, water pollution, and the conversion
of natural space into built environments.
The first significant developments in environmentalism and conservation
took place in the 19th century. In 1847, George Perkins Marsh gave a speech to the
Agricultural Society of Rutland County, Vermont. The subject of this speech was that
human activity was having a destructive impact on land, especially through deforestation
and land conversion. The speech also became the foundation for his book Man and
Nature or The Earth as Modified by Human Action, first published in 1864. In this book,
Marsh warned of the ecological consequences of the continued development of the
frontier (Also see Library of Congress - The Evolution of the Conservation Movement
1850-1920 home page).

Henry David Thoreau wrote the famous book about conservation and the
environment called Walden in 1854. In the book Walden expressed the idea that
human civilization was becoming too complex and removed from its foundations in
the natural world. Thoreau suggested that humanity should simplify its economic and
societal systems so that they are more in harmony with nature. He also suggested that
humans should strive for environmental wisdom - which is the ability to make correct
decisions and long-term planning by sorting through natural and human created facts
and information.

In 1892, the Sierra Club was incorporated in the United States with John Muir as
President. John Muir suggested that the utilitarian approach to resource management
did not go far enough to protect nature. He suggested that certain resources should
be permanently preserved and protected. As a result of his views, some areas in the
United States were put aside as National Parks.

Influenced by Marsh’s book, President Theodore Roosevelt decided to change

the way the United States Government managed natural resources. With the help
of Gifford Pinchot, his main conservation advisor, policies were developed and laws
were passed to insure that resources would be managed using utilitarian principles.
Utilitarian conservation suggests that renewable resources should be managed so
that they will never be exhausted. President Theodore Roosevelt creates first national
wildlife refuge, on Pelican Island, Florida. By 1909, the Roosevelt Government creates
200,000 square kilometres of national forests, 51 national wildlife refuges and 18 areas
of special interest, including the Grand Canyon.

In the mid-20th century, the Environmental Movement began growing at an

accelerating rate as human misuse of the Earth’s environment increased and became
more visible to the public. Some of the more important conservation and environmental
advocacy related events during the 20th century are shown in a timeline below:

 Beginning in the 1940s the United Nations and its agencies became concerned
about the global environment.

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 1951, The Nature Conservancy founded.

 1950s/60s, in Minamata, Japan, mercury pollution from industrial chemical

production contaminates humans and other organisms.

 1960s, laundry detergents were causing many streams to become covered with
foam.

 1960s/70s, number of bald eagles declined significantly in the United States due
to loss of habitat, poaching, and the effects of pesticides.

 1961, World Wildlife Fund established.

 1962, Rachel Carson published the book Silent Spring. This book alerted the
general public to the dangers of pesticides, particularly the dangers to humans.

 1963, atmospheric pollution in New York City kills about 300 and injured thousands.

 1967, people of the world witnessed through television the environmental effects
of an oil spill with the wreck of the Torrey Canyon.

 Late 1960s scientists begin to express their concerns about the state of the
environment (for example, Paul Ehrlich, Barry Commoner, LaMont Cole, Eugene
Odum, Kenneth Watt, Garrett Hardin).


1967, Environmental Defense Fund established.

 1968, Biosphere Conference in Paris examined the condition of the global

environment.

 1968 Garrett Hardin publishes his article The Tragedy of the Commons in the
journal Science.

 Early 1970s, scientific evidence suggests that acid precipitation is killing lakes in
North America and Europe.

 1970, first Earth Day was held in the United States on April 22 (also see John
McConnell’s Earth Site home page).

 1970, Natural Resources Defense Council founded.

 1971, Environment Canada established.

 1971, Founding of Greenpeace.

 1972, the book Limits to Growth was published. In this book computer models
were used to predict the exhaustion of resources and the future state of the Earth’s
environment. This book suggested that if growth trends in world population,
industrialization, pollution, food production, and resource depletion remained as
they are, the limits to growth on the Earth will be reached sometime within the next
one hundred years.

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 1972, Nixon creates the Environmental Protection Agency in the United States.

 1972, the United Nations held a conference on the Human Environment in

Stockholm. This conference examined the problems associated with growth and
development. It produced a number of important global policies.

 1972, the United Nations created the United Nations Environment Programme.

 1972, DDT banned in the USA because of its toxic effects of living organisms.

 1973, OPEC oil embargo demonstrated the necessity for conservation of finite
resources such as oil.

 1973, Cousteau Society established.

 1977, Love Canal incident taught the public about the dangers of hazardous waste.

 1979, Three Mile Island nuclear power plant almost had a meltdown.

 1980, The Global 2000 Report to the President, was submitted in the US.
 1980, James Lovelock writes Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth. In this book,
Lovelock theorizes that the Earth is a self-regulating entity that maintains optimal
conditions for the life that inhabits it. This theory is commonly known as the Gaia
Hypothesis. Several scientists have suggested that humans may be changing the
state of planet to an extent where life may not be able to return these conditions to
their optimum.

 1980s to 1990s, atmospheric monitoring at Antarctica documented seasonal

reductions in stratospheric ozone.

 1981, Citizen’s Clearinghouse for Hazardous Waste founded by Lois Gibbs

in response to the problems at Love Canal (now called Centre for Health,
Environment and Justice).

 1983, Julian Simon and Herman Kahn publish The Resourceful Earth: A
Response to Global 2000. This book took opposition to the environmental need
for reducing population growth and resource use.

 Beginning in 1983, Green Parties are elected in several European Nations.

 1985, Rainforest Action Network set up to reduce tropical deforestation.

 1986, Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant explosion released large amounts of

radioactivity into the atmosphere.

 1986, Rainforest Alliance founded.

 1987, World Commission on Environment and Development published

Our Common Future. This publication introduced the world to the concept of
sustainable development.

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 1987, Montreal Protocol was signed by 24 nations to protect the stratospheric

ozone layer by cutting back on the emission of CFC’s into the atmosphere. This
agreement has been amended three times, in London in 1990, in Copenhagen in
1992 and recently, in Montreal in 1997.

 1988, James Hansen, from NASA, explains to the United States Congress that
global warming due to an enhancement of the Earth’s greenhouse effect could
disrupt water and food supplies and raise sea levels.

 1988, Earth Share founded.

 1989, Exxon Valdez released 11 million gallons of oil into Prince William Sound,
Alaska.

 1990s, closure of numerous fisheries demonstrated the problems associated

with resource management.

 1990, twentieth annual Earth Day was held in 141 countries by an estimated 200
million people.

 1991, Envirolink is created on the Internet.

 1992, United Nations Rio Conference held in Brazil.

 1992, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change established

agreements between countries dealing with greenhouse gas emissions and the
threat of climate change.

 1998, Kyoto Protocol was signed by 67 countries. This agreement created a

framework for reducing the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

 2002, Johannesburg United National Conference on Sustainable Development.

It was here Agenda 21 to Action 21 was discussed in much greater detail.

Water Resources Management and Conservation

Human demand for water has been growing for two reasons. Firstly, it is primarily
because of the growth of the human population. Secondly, as the human standards of
living improve in the various countries of the world, the demand for water also increases
to meet new needs in industry, agriculture and domestic use. However, there is a
limited quantity of fresh water on Earth and for many nations this resource is scarce
in its availability. People in Canada and the United States, for example, believe that
clean water is available to them in an unlimited supply. Nevertheless, supplies are not
unlimited but finite and increasing demand for this resource will soon create problems
that can only be corrected by management and conservation. People are also beginning
to recognize that water is important for things other than domestic, agricultural and
industrial purposes. Water is important for maintaining fish and wildlife populations, for
recreation and for aesthetics. Governments in many countries have now established

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water resource management programmes that aim to provide a sustainable supply of

high quality water in an efficient and environmentally sound manner.

Water Conservation Techniques

A number of techniques and technologies can be used to make agricultural,

industrial and domestic water use more efficient. Reductions can easily occur in the
following areas:

Reducing Agricultural Waste: Irrigation accounts for 70 per cent of the world’s water
use. Most irrigation systems deliver water to crops by flooding the land surface, diverting
water to fields via open channels, or by sprinkler systems that apply water to the field
surface. In general, these methods are very inefficient as only 50 per cent of the water
applied is absorbed by the plants. The rest is lost to the atmosphere by evaporation.
Micro-irrigation techniques can reduce the amount of water applied to crops by 40 to
60 per cent. Other strategies that can be used to reduce agricultural water use include:
 The cultivation of food crops that require less water for growth.

 The use of lined or covered irrigation canals to reduce infiltration and evaporation
losses.

 Irrigating crops at night or early morning when evaporation potentials are low.

 Reduce water subsidies and encourage the proper pricing of this resource.

Reducing Industrial Waste: Industry is the second largest user of water supplies.
Reducing the amount of water used in industry not only makes more water available
for other purposes but it can also reduce the volume of pollution. Industry reductions
can be achieved by:

Designing industrial processes to recycle water: For example, water used for
industrial cooling purposes can be cooled down in a cooling tower and then reused.

 Increasing the cost of water to industries to encourage water recycling.

 Recycling materials themselves can also greatly reduce water demand. For
example, manufacturing a ton of aluminum from scrap rather than from virgin ore
can reduce the volume of water used by 97 per cent.

 Reducing Domestic Waste - Some strategies for reducing domestic consumption

include:

 Replace lawns in semiarid and arid urban areas with xeriscaped surfaces.

 Encourage the use of efficient irrigation systems for home garden and lawn use.

 Manufacture and legislate the use of more efficient dishwashers, washing

machines, and bathroom showers and toilets.

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 Encourage leak detection and repair for distribution systems. Distribution

systems in many of the world’s urban areas are losing between 25 and 50 per cent
of their water supplies due to leaks in pipes.

 Properly price water for domestic use. This price must reflect the environmental
cost of over consumption and resource degradation. Many studies have shown that
higher prices for water provide motivation for people to conserve. The introduction
of water meters in Boulder, Colorado reduced water use by about 30 %. In Canada,
water is metered in approximately two-thirds of the municipalities.

 Education can encourage people to reduce the amount of personal consumption.

Increasing Water Supplies

Humans have used several different methods to increase supplies of water.

Some of these techniques involve the modification of the runoff process. Dams and
reservoirs have been used for many centuries to trap runoff behind earth or concrete
walls. The stored water is then transferred via canals or aqueducts for use in agriculture,
industry, or domestic processes. Worldwide there are now over 36,000 operational
dams, some of which are also used to generate energy.

Several problems can occur with the storage of water in these human created
features. In some reservoirs, sediments can accumulate to a point where they can no
longer be used for water storage or hydroelectric production. Other reservoirs have
severe evaporation or leakage problems. Large amounts of water are annually lost
from the Aswan High Dam in Egypt because of evaporation. This problem has reduced
the planned amount of irrigation water supplied by this dam by one-half.

In recent years, many nations have increased their supply of freshwater by

exploiting the water found beneath the Earth’s surface. Groundwater contains more
than 10 per cent of the freshwater found in the hydrosphere. Saudi Arabia receives
75 per cent of its water supply from groundwater mining. In many cases, withdrawal
rates of this water greatly exceed the natural rates of recharge. Depleting groundwater
reservoirs can lead to a number of problems, including: subsidence, earthquakes,
sinkhole development, and saltwater intrusion.

Many projects have used canals, aqueducts, and diversion techniques to move
water to places of need. In the former Soviet Union, diversions on the Amu Dar’ya and
Syr Dar’ya Rivers have been used to create irrigation water for cropland. However,
these diversions are also responsible for reducing the flow of runoff water to the Aral
Sea. Because of the reduced flow, the Aral Sea has declined in area by over 50 %, has
lost two-thirds of its volume, and has greatly increased in salinity. At current rates of
reduction, the Aral Sea could be gone by 2020.

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1. Rainwater Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting may be defined as process of augmenting the natural

infiltration of rainwater or surface run off into the ground by some artificial methods. The
methods suggested are recharge through pits, trenches, bore well shafts by directly
diverting run off water into existing or disused wells or conserving the rain water by
artificial storing and using the same for human use. The choice and effectiveness
of any particular method is governed by local hydrological and soil conditions and
ultimate use of water.

Need for Rainwater Harvesting: Nature replenishes the ground water resources
annually through rainfall; by way of infiltration though soil layers. In urban areas, due
to urbanization, the soil surface exposed to natural recharge gets reduced. Therefore,
natural recharge is diminishing, resulting in drying of wells. Groundwater source has
the benefit of availability where water is needed and during emergencies and scarcity
period, the public at large or NGOs should take measures to improve the groundwater
recharge by rain water harvesting to maintain reliable and sustainable groundwater
resources (Figure 10.1).

Figure 10.1: Rainwater can be stored in tanks

Rainwater Harvests and Techniques: For many countries, particularly those with
monsoonal climates and long dry seasons, water shortages result not from a lack of
rainfall but from a seasonally uneven supply. When annual rainfall is concentrated in
a few months, storage is difficult. To illustrate, India has 2.1 trillion cubic metres of
freshwater available each year, and the United States has 2.5 trillion cubic metres. While
rain falls in the United States throughout the year, in India, which is geographically only
one third as large, most of the rainfall comes between mid-June and mid-September.
As a result, most of this deluge runs off and is quickly carried back to the sea by the
country’s rivers. Although there are thousands of dams in India, they can collectively
store only a fraction of the rainfall.

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The focus on building large dams to capture and store surface water before it
runs off dominated most of the last century. But because sites were becoming scarce
and because the construction of large dams often inundates large areas, displacing
local populations and irreversibly altering local ecosystems, this era has now largely
run its course. More and more countries are turning to local water harvesting to ensure
adequate supply.

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In Rajasthan, where water shortages constrain development and prevent people

from escaping poverty, the villagers under the leadership of a movement helped design
local water storage facilities. Once villagers helped select a site, they would organize
to build an earthen dam. All the materials, the stone and the earth, were local. So too
was the labour - sweat equity provided by the villagers. The leader would help with the
engineering and design. He told villagers that in addition to meeting their daily needs
for water, the seepage from the small reservoir would gradually raise the water table,
restoring wells that had been abandoned. He also told them this would take time. It
worked exactly as he said it would. The initial success led to the creation of a local non-
governmental organization with 45 full-time employees and 230 part-timers. Funded
by the Ford Foundation and other groups, it has not only helped build 4,500 local water
storage structures in Rajasthan, it has also raised villagers’ incomes and improved
their lives (Figure 10.2 and 10.3)

When the local topography is favourable for building successful small water
storage structures, this can be a boon for local communities. This approach works not
only in monsoonal climates, but also in arid regions where low rainfall is retained for
local use. With a modest amount of engineering guidance, hundreds of thousands of
communities worldwide can build water storage works.

Another technique to retain rainfall is the construction of ridge terraces on

hillsides to trap rainfall near where it falls, letting it soak into the soil rather than run
off. Using a plow to establish the ridges, local farmers can build these terraces on their
own, but they are more successful if they are guided by a surveyor who helps establish
the ridgelines and determines how far apart the ridges or terraces should be on the
hill. Once the terraces are established, the moisture that accumulates behind them can
help support vegetation, including trees that can both stabilize the ridges and produce
fruit and nuts or fuel wood. The terraces, which are particularly well adapted to the
hilly agricultural regions of semiarid regions of India, Africa can markedly raise land
productivity because they conserve both water and soil.

The practice of collecting rain water where it falls is several hundred years old. In
the desert areas all over the world, where there is a shortage, communities have been
collecting rain water in open tanks, in open wells and from the roof tops of buildings for
centuries.

With the coming of more so called advanced technology including sophisticated

groundwater survey and exploration equipment, with the installation of hand pumps and
piped water supply schemes, the importance of people’s technologies and community
solutions was devalued. There is thus a need to go back to learn the important lessons
from the past on how communities have solved their drinking water problems by
collecting rain water on a large scale.

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Methods of Rainwater Harvesting in Cities: Broadly the rain water can be harvested
by two methods:

 Store the rainwater in containers above or above grounds or below grounds; and

 Recharge into soil for withdrawal later by groundwater recharging basis.

Elements of typical water harvesting system: Any rain water harvesting will have
four elements:

 Catchment area;

 Conduits;

 Settlement Tank; and

 Recharge facility or storage facility.

Figures 10.1 to 10.3 show rainwater harvesting techniques and their elements.
Rainwater harvesting techniques are simple, labour-intensive and cost effective. By
collecting water where it falls (a) in underground tanks in rural primary schools,

(b) in artificial ponds deepened to collect more water and (c) in unused and
disused open wells where surface water is channeled for faster percolation into the
ground, rainwater could be usefully harvested and at much lower costs.

What will this achieve?

 it will be a long term solution to drought proof villages

 it will allow for faster percolation into the ground which will revitalise dry hand
pumps for drinking water and open wells for irrigation. It is a far more inexpensive
and economic way of providing drinking water than drilling for new sources.
 it will allow for the community of users to manage and control the water and reduce
dependency on government.

With the barefoot architects constructing the rainwater harvesting tanks using
local materials, traditional knowledge and skills, it demonstrates how there is no need
to bring urban skills from outside.

2. Inter-State River Linkages

Inter-State River Linkages are a topic of interest for India, especially for the
southern States of the Indian Union where the rivers are largely non-perennial and the
water shortages are alarming in the off-season and summer. There are similar contexts
elsewhere in the world, in almost all continents. It is in India, the topic is hot and is
being talked about intensely in the last few months.

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Do you know?

Biodiversity value of some selected organization in monetary terms.

A male lion living upto an age of 7 years can general upto $515,000 due
to its aesthetic value as paid by tourists, whereas if killed for the lion skin a
market price upto $1,000 can be fetched.

The mountain gorillas in Rwanda are fetching $ 4 million annually through

eco-tourism.

A typpical tree provides $196,2150 worth of ecological services an oxygen,

clean air fertile soil, erosion control, water recycling, wildlife habitat, toxic
gas moderation etc., Whereas its worth in only about $590 if sold in the
market as timbers.

The present scenario in the country’s water resources sector is alarmingly

dismal. While floods are wreaking havoc in the Northeast and Eastern regions and
drought is looming large in many parts of the Indian landmass, many States continue
opposing the inter-basin transfer of waters from surplus to deficit basins. Punjab has
gone one step ahead by passing unilaterally a Bill terminating all previous agreements
and accords on river waters thereby vitally affecting irrigation and drinking water supply
in the neighbouring States. Punjab’s action has triggered a whirlwind of protest and
has raised a core issue of national importance,the solution to which would determine
the future course of action on such issues.

Conflict of interest is the normal state of affairs in a reality where river flows
physically link upstream and downstream users and uses. The issues are complex and
linkages are many. But instead of sorting out the differences, of late, water endowed
States have been resorting to legal gimmickry while playing to the political galleries, in
their bid to prevent use of waters flowing through their territories by their water deficit
neighbours. Kerala has passed a Bill in this regard recently and Karnataka had issued
an ordinance on the Cauvery waters some time back. In all these cases, reference
has been made to the sovereign rights of the States as enshrined in the Constitution.
If other water surplus States take the cue from these instances and act as arbitrarily,
the consequences of such developments in terms of India’s unity and integrity would
be disastrous. Hence the demand has been gaining momentum in the last few years
for the Central government to transfer the subject of “Water” from the “State List” to the
“Union List” or “Concurrent List” to arrest further deterioration in water related issues.

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Do you know?

Disappearing Tea garden in Chota Nagpur.

This hilly region used to be a good forested area towards the turn of the
century and used to receive fairly frequent afternoon showers favouring tea
plantations. Following the destruction of forests, rainfall declined in Chota
Nagpur to such an extent that tea-gardens also disappeared from the region.

In the Constitution, “Water, that is to say, water supplies, irrigation and canals,
drainage and embankments, water storage and water power,” is a matter contained
in Entry 17, List II (State List). Hence the State legislatures have full powers to
legislate under this provision on all water related matters including their regulation and
development. However, this Entry is subject to the provision of Entry 56, List I (Union
List) which authorises Parliament to enact laws for the regulation and development of
interstate rivers and river valleys
Entry 56 under Union List reads as under:
Regulation and development of interstate rivers and river valleys to the extent to
which such regulation and development under the control of the Union is declared by
Parliament by law to be expedient in public interest.

In the past, the Centre had enacted over-riding laws using constitutional powers
on many subjects such as industry and business, which are included in the State List.
However, at present any constitutional amendment particularly in the emotive issue
of water does not seem possible. Another view which has gained currency is that
without any constitutional amendment, the Centre can deal with interstate rivers by
empowering itself under the available provisions (Entry 56, List I).
Against the above background, any change in the scheme of the Constitution
has to be ruled out and instead the Centre has to pass laws to deal with interstate
rivers more effectively as they contribute more than 85 per cent of the water resources
of the country. The National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development
Plan had also recommended such an approach (September, 1999).
Consultative Mechanism: Apart from enacting laws to empower itself for the control
and regulation of interstate rivers, there is also a need for the Centre to set up Centre-
State consultative mechanisms for effectively sorting out of water related concerns.
The purpose is to secure a proper tie between problems and their main causes on
the one hand and technology and governance perspectives of problem- solving on
the other. Further, a National Water Authority (NWA) as an apex body to concern itself
with the development and management of interstate rivers supported by a River Basin
Organisation for each interstate river needs to be set up on similar lines as in Australia
and France. The River Boards Act (1956) has to be suitably amended to create these
institutions.

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It must be remembered that the development of effective solutions to water

problems depends more on governance. Hence it is essential for the Centre to
empower itself to take over the interstate rivers for providing better regulation and
management of the water resources available in the country and put a stop to the
fissiparous tendencies recently demonstrated.

Leave Me Where I am

Leave me where I am
Deep in the earth
Comfort in the darkness

Do not touch me
If you do,
You die.

I know the rules

You don’t
Please, for God’s sake

Approaches to Resource Management

Over the last 200 years, resource managers and scientists have recognized
four different approaches to resource management:

1. Exploitation - given resource should be used as intensively as possible to provide

the greatest profit to the user (early loggers).
2. Preservation - resources should be preserved, set aside, and protected. This was
founded in the 1880s when John Muir (Sierra Club) proposed that some lands
should be converted into National Parks (that is, Yosemite and Sequoia National
Parks).

3. Utilitarian Approach - this concept suggests that renewable resources should be

managed so that they will never be exhausted.

4. Ecological Approach - embraces the concept of multiple uses. A forest is not

only a source of timber, but has many other values as well (see The Tragedy of the
Commons).

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Chaos and Resource Management

In a 1993 publication (Science 260: 17: 36), Ludwig, Hilborn and Walters noted
the general failure of natural resource managers in managing biological resources. They
suggest that the reasons for this failure are rooted in a poor scientific understanding
of how resource systems work. They also suggest that resource systems are inherently
chaotic and uncertain, while most management systems are based on linear
dynamics and principles. In conclusion, they recommend that resource managers
must confront the uncertainty of natural systems.

Learning Ourtcomes
Students have learnt the techniques of rainwater harvesting and
conservation of natural resources, and also understood the essentials
of conservation of natural resources and their management.

EXERCISES
I. Fill in the Blanks

1. Global loss in biodiversity and wild places are not the stuff of ____________.

2. The two basic categories of wildlife conservation science are ____________

and ___________.

3. Overpopulation and the subsequent resource depletion are believed to be the

cause of the collapse of the _____________ in the tenth century.
4. The first significant development in environment and conservation took place
in __________ century.

5. __________ suggested that humans should strive for environmental wisdom.

6. Irrigation accounts for ____________ percent of the world’s water use.

7. In _________ (country), water is metered in approximately two-thirds of the

municipalities.

8. India has _________ trillion cubic metres of freshwater every year.

9. ___________ River Linkages is the present talk of India.

10. The general failure of natural resource managers in managing biological

resources noted by __________ and _____________.

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UNIT V
MAP INTERPRETATION AND SURVEYING
LESSON 11
MAP INTERPRETATION

Learning Objectives

Students will learn such that they will (a) understand the basic principles
of map reading, (b) use and understand the symbols and draw symbols
on their own and even develop their own scheme of symbols, and (c)
develop the skill of understanding the relief features of the earth.

In developing map reading abilities and skills, certain basic principles must be
applied. Every map symbol must be visualized by the student as he/she learns to
read a map. The symbols introduced to the student should be those, which refer to
landscape features of which he/she already has an image. The teacher of geography
must be equally careful in seeing that the student associates the map symbols with the
actual landscape features.

In most schools, and in textbooks, the conventional map is introduced in the

fourth standard. At this age, the child begins to use maps for locating places and tracing
trips beyond his/her own local area. The children should therefore know the cardinal
directions. One of the basic functions of maps is to help us to orient ourselves to and to
locate places on the earth. Unless a child knows the cardinal directions, he/she cannot
use a map effectively.

At higher levels of education, say Plus 2 or Standard XII, the basic rules of map
interpretation is still the same. At this level of education, students must learn more
about not just maps but (a) the topographical sheets (toposheets, for short) and (b) the
weather maps and images. Constant practice, frequent re-teaching, and the review are
necessary as in the development of reading and arithmetic skills.

The Maps

What is a map? There are many definitions, and this is only one: In the words of Harley
and Woodward (The History of Cartography, 1987), maps are graphic representations
that facilitate a spatial understanding of things, concepts, conditions, processes, or
events in the human world. The maps are flat representations of the earth (Figure
11.1).

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Figure 11.1

A portion of a topographical map (toposheet)

of Survey of India

The advantages of the maps are:

a) It is easier to use, easy to carry around as it can be rolled or folded up. It provides
an easy to use reference when collected into an atlas, a collection of maps and
related material;

b) It can show the earth’s entire surface or just a small part;

c) It can show more detail; and

d) It can present information about a wide range of topics—physical and cultural

features

The disadvantages of the maps are the following:

All maps have distortions (inaccuracies) because it is impossible to represent a

three-dimensional object like the earth accurately on flat maps.

Basic Map Components (Parts)

What are the basic parts of a map and how can they be used to read maps in
order to analyse the physical and human landscapes of the world? The basic parts of
the map are:
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1. Title identifies what the map is about and what parts of the earth it shows.

2. Legend (key) explains the meaning of colours and symbols used on the map.
This may include the key to elevation, distance above or below sea level.

3. Direction indicator identifies direction or orientation on a map.

4. Map scales provide information used to measure distances on maps and

show the size of a map in relation to the size of the real world by giving the
ratio between distances on the map and actual distances on earth.

5. Grid is used to locate places on a map

Areas can be represented using a variety of scales. The amount of detail shown
on a map is dependent on the scale of the map.

Basic Principles of Map Reading

In developing map reading abilities and skills, certain basic principles must be
applied by the map-reader to translate map symbols into landscape images.

● Map Reader must have ideas about the symbol and also the Real World
(Landscapes). This is called the perception of the symbols and the Real World.

● If these two are correctly revealed, then the understanding of the map will exactly
(correctly) coincide with the Real World (Landscapes)

Principle 1: Visualizing Map Symbols

Every map symbol must be visualized by the student as learning to read a

map begins. The first symbols introduced should be those, which refer to landscape
features of which the student already has some images. The teacher must help the
student to associate his/her own experiences with the map symbols. The geography
teacher must be equally careful in seeing that the student associates the map symbols
with the actual landscape features (Figure 11.2).

One way of doing this is to make a simple map of the immediate area of the
school. This map may be drawn on the floor of the schoolroom or on a thick chart paper
laid on the floor. The students should select their own symbols for roads, highways,
houses or other buildings, a railroad, a stream, or other items of the landscape.

The teacher may also help them to visualize map symbols by the use of pictures.
The teacher should collect pictures of rivers, falls, peninsulas, capes, islands, mountain
ranges, mountain passes and other natural features. Such pictures should be large, if
possible. Charts with map symbols and accompanying pictures may also be purchased
from map companies.

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Figure 11.2 : The Cartographer’s Visual Resources

Later, when checking the student’s visualization of the map symbols, the teacher
may ask the child to sketch an island, a lake, a river with a waterfall in it, and so forth.
The teacher may also ask the students to select a set of pictures which represent
certain designated map symbols.
Principle 2: Conventional Symbols and Terms

Map symbols should be introduced as needed (they were introduced already in

Plus 1 / Standard XI Geography textbook, Lesson 12, Page 150). In most schools, and
in textbooks, the conventional map is introduced at a low level. At this age, the child
begins to use maps for locating places and tracing trips beyond his/her own local area.
The map symbols introduced at higher levels should be those needed in developing
a specific unit. The term ‘tributary’ and how to recognize a tributary on a map may
be explained by pictures and discussion. The terms ‘source’ of a river and ‘mouth’ of
a river also need illustration and discussion with pictures and sketches associated
with the symbols on the map. From time to time, additional symbols are added to the
student’s map vocabulary.

Principle 3: Knowledge of Directions

The children should know the cardinal directions. One of the basic functions
of maps is to help us to orient ourselves and to locate places on the earth. Unless a
student knows the cardinal directions, he or she may not use a map effectively. The
teaching of direction should be done in the early classes by means of Sun’s position.
But in almost every higher class some re-teaching of the same is necessary. Before
locating features using a map, north should be determined and the students should
have practice in finding this direction. Next they should learn to read direction on a
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specific map and the location of the features shown on the map in relation to one
another.

If a teacher follows the three basic principles above for teaching map symbols,
and gives constant and varied exercises in reading maps, the students will really learn
to effectively read maps.

Suggested, Sequential Learning of Map Skills

1. In the early classes, there should be a geography programme that includes

map-reading activities. Such activities are needed to give the child background
and experience before the conventional map is introduced. By the end of their
primary education, the children should know and be able to use the cardinal
directions.

2. In the later classes, the use of shadows to indicate direction may be introduced.
The best time to observe shadows is as near noon-time as possible.

3. By the end of the high school, most of the students should know the cardinal
and the intermediate directions and be able to use them. They should know
that they can use shadows to determine directions. They should know that a
map represents the features of the landscape in a certain area by means of
symbols.

4. In the higher secondary, the maps used should be simple, with relatively few
symbols. The colours should be clear, blue for water bodies, and grey,
yellow or green for land.
5. In these classes, they should be able to understand the scale (different types of
scales: representative fraction, graphical scale and scale of map in statement)
on every map they use and to compare maps of different scales. They should
use the scale of kilometres to find approximate distances between places, for
example, from their home to a large city or the length of a state’s boundary.

6. During the higher secondary years the students should show considerable
facility in map-reading. They should now have a large map vocabulary
and have had enough practice in reading descriptive facts, visualizing the
landscape, and making inferences that they should be able to use maps
with less dependence on the teacher. No doubt, some re-teaching will be
necessary and practice in certain skills should be continued.

Map-reading skills and abilities are developed gradually. Constant practice,

frequent re-teaching, and review are necessary for the development of reading. The
development of map skills should begin in the primary classes, and be carried on
consistently throughout the intermediate classes and the junior and senior high schools.
Only through such cumulative, long-term learning will maps become useful tools “for
grasping not only spatial relationships of places on the face of the earth but

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also for understanding the significance of geography in the development of the

various cultures of the world.

Weather Maps and Images Interpretation

Weather and climate of a place depend on the following factors: latitude,

longitude, altitude, proximity to large water bodies, distribution of land and water bodies,
structure and nature of the soil, anthropogenic activities, incoming solar radiation, and
the tilt of the earth’s axis. The basic elements of weather and climate are the same.
The most important of these are: temperature, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness,
sunshine, pressure, wind speed and direction. These elements are determined by the
complex interplay of a number of factors: pressure, winds and upper air circulation,
distance from the sea, relief, soil type and vegetation.

There is no aspect of life on earth, where weather and climate can be kept out of
consideration. Food, clothing, housing, transport, communication, games and sports,
recreation, religious practices, whatever it is, weather and climate have a role to play
in that field whether it is major or minor. A sensible approach to identify the significance
of it and adequately meeting demands would put the managers in the forefront among
the competitors.

Weather and climate on the one hand and the physical environment of the earth
together with the biosphere on the other have mutual interactions with one another.
The impacts of weather and climate differ essentially on time scales. Knowledge of
weather is essential for short-term planning. Knowledge of climate is essential for long-
term planning.

Evidently, faded out cities, monuments and settlements are the reminiscences
that speak about the changes that have occurred over ages. Climate change and
variability are the terms, which are heard frequently and are acquiring increasing
importance. It can also be seen that they find berth in unsolved mysteries pertaining to
ecological or other sociological phenomena.

Variability of climate affects all the sections of the society; most affected being
the agricultural sector. This tells upon the supporting and related sectors such as
fertilisers, food grains, transport industries and other various underground sectors,
particularly in developing countries.

Weather Maps

The weather map, analysis chart or synoptic chart, shows isobars (contours of
constant pressure), highs and lows (centres of maximum or minimum pressure), fronts
(boundaries of air masses) and station data (wind, weather, cloud cover, cloud type,
barometric pressure, temperature and precipitation). The amount of detail included
depends on the scale of the map, but even a simple map contains a large amount of
data. It needs considerable practice to understand a weather map, but the knowledge

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will come easily and will be very satisfying. By all means look out-of-doors at your own
location and analyse what you see in terms of your map study. Particularly interesting
is correlating the cloud forms with weather conditions. The kind of map that mainly
concerns us gives actual measurements at some definite time in the past, not a
prediction of future events, and is called an analysis chart.

Map Symbols for Weather and Clouds

The most often seen weather symbols are already given in Plus 1 / Standard
XI Geography textbook (Lesson 13, Pages 158, 160 and 161). A large S for sand or
dust has a thicker arrow cutting across it for a strong dust storm, no arrow if the dust is
suspended in the air without a wind, a vertical arrow if the dust is raised by the wind at
the time of observation. The haze symbol, looking like infinity, is for a thin dry haze. The
fog symbol is for a fog obscuring the sky. Two lines represent a light fog, and if the lines
are broken the fog is patchy. The smoke symbol is used when visibility is restricted due
to smoke. The drizzle, rain and snow symbols are used in multiple to indicate intensity.
One is light, intermittent while four is heavy, continuous. A curved line beneath the
symbol means that the precipitation is not reaching the ground (virga). The shower
symbol is combined with a precipitation symbol to indicate rain or snow shower. The
hail symbol may be combined with the thunderstorm symbol, for example, and a dot in
the triangle represents sleet. Everywhere except in the U.S., sleet is hail or snow with
rain; in the U.S., it is freezing rain with clear crystals (ice pellets).

A rain dot or snow asterisk can be used above a thunderstorm symbol to indicate
a slight or moderate storm with rain or snow. If the lightning is given an extra zigzag, a
heavy thunderstorm is indicated. The sandstorm symbol can be used if the thunderstorm
is kicking up dust. Slight, moderate and heavy intensities are distinguished, as are
intermittent or continuous precipitation. Drizzle is rain in tiny drops that cannot easily
be visually distinguished, while rain is in visually evident drops. Water is also deposited
from colloidal suspension in fogs, but this is reported under fogs.

Snow includes any kind of falling ice crystals, except for hail, which is specially
distinguished and originates in thunderstorms. The symbol for hail is an equilateral
triangle. Frozen raindrops are represented by the hail triangle with a dot in it. Freezing
rain and freezing drizzle have their special symbols with the “lazy S.” This precipitation
falls as water, but freezes on contact with the earth surface.

Cloud cover at a station is represented inside the circle from which the wind
speed arrow projects. Cloud cover is estimated in tenths of the sky covered from
cloudless, 0/10 to overcast, 10/10. “Sky obscured” means that the sky cannot be seen
due to smoke, fog or other obstruction. A ceiling is quoted as the height of the cloud
base when 6/10 or more of the sky is covered. Visibility is a “hazy” concept; it is the
greatest distance at which you can see what you need to see. It can be more precisely
defined as the distance at which a specified black shape can be seen against the
horizon by day. Visibility can be measured by some instrument over a fixed range,

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and this is then extrapolated as necessary. The best practical way is to have a series
of targets at known distances, and to note the most distant one that can be distinctly
seen.

This probably gives better practical results than any objective instrumental
method, since it uses actual vision and actual targets. The weather scientist is not
usually very concerned with cloud cover, ceiling and visibility, but many users are
critically concerned with these factors.

Cloud symbols for upper and middle-level clouds are placed above the cloud-
cover circle, and those for lower-level clouds below, so that many station reports contain
three cloud levels. The symbols are generally divided into stratiform, cumuliform and
cirriform clouds, which is usually the best classification. Stratiform clouds do not show
convective behaviour and are formed by cooling of moist air. Cumuliform clouds exhibit
convective behaviour, either the ground-based convection of cumulus clouds, or the
upper-level convection of altocumulus, or even the mixing by turbulence at very high
levels. Cirriform clouds show the typical features produced by ice crystals. Clouds
are composed of colloidal water droplets or ice crystals, and for this reason are white.
Middle clouds contain supercooled water, and sometimes ice crystals. Supercooled
water in high-level clouds changes into larger ice crystals, which then precipitate,
forming the typical cirrus shapes when blown by the winds. Supercooled water can
occur at any level, but by -40°C, the change to ice is almost irresistible.

Official cloud names are, unfortunately, based simply on appearances, while

it would be much better if they reflected atmospheric conditions, such as humidity,
instability, turbulence and convection. Names based on altitude are often misleading,
since altitude is only one factor that affects cloud formation.

Winds: The direction and speed of the wind is represented by symbols. A circle
represents the station, and is usually filled with a symbol representing the cloud cover.
The wind feather points in the direction from which the wind comes. Each long barb
represents 10 knots (about 15 m/s or 1.1 mph), and each half-barb 5 knots. If there is
only a half-barb, it is not drawn at the end of the feather, but a short distance from the
end, so it is not mistaken for a full barb. The feather shaft alone signifies a wind of 1-2
knots.

A “west wind” blows from the west, as in common usage. Study the upper-
atmosphere charts and observe the wind speed decrease at lower altitudes. A calm
wind is represented by an outer circle concentric with the cloud cover circle; clear skies
and no wind is represented by concentric circles (Figures 11.2 and 11.3).
A monsoon wind is a seasonal wind blowing from the ocean onto land in summer,
normally bringing moisture with it. The wind reverses in the winter, becoming a cold,
dry wind. The name is from the Arabic for “season.” Monsoon winds are famous in
India,

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where they bring lifegiving rains. Monsoons also occur in the United States. Monsoon
winds are probably driven by a continental high in the winter and a continental low in the
summer, which explains the seasonal reversal in direction. The southern hemisphere
does not have monsoons, since there are no continents in high mid-latitudes to heat
and cool strongly with the seasons, only the constant ocean.

Highs and Lows: The next thing to notice on the weather maps are the highs and lows,
marked by large L’s and H’s, with their centres marked by circles containing a cross,
and their central pressures given. There are local highs and lows; the pressure of a low
in one part of the chart may be higher than the pressure of a high in another part. The
winds will circle anticlockwise around a low, and clockwise around a high. The winds
around lows are usually much more intense than those around highs. In some cases,
the winds will seem to disregard the isobars, but these will be only light winds. The
lows, or cyclones, will be accompanied by considerable cloud (look for black station
circles), while the highs, or anticyclones, will generally be associated with clear skies.

Air does not take the short path and simply flow on the surface from a high to
a low. There are two reasons why this happens: pressure gradient and Coriolis force.
If we start at the North Pole, no matter which way we head the earth will be moving
anticlockwise (eastwardly) beneath us, and again our path will deviate to the right. If, in
mid-latitudes, we move directly eastward, the parallel of latitude will curve away to the
north, and we will appear to be deflected to the right. The Coriolis force in every case
gives the right answer. A special kind of low is the tropical depression, tropical storm, or
hurricane, which derives its energy from the moisture provided by warm sea surfaces.

Weather Map Interpretation

Weather maps are issued everyday, providing a synoptic report. The weather
report has a number of maps, each relating to a theme or two. The maps are full of
symbols, indicating the weather conditions of the day. The maps are easy enough to
interpret if you know what the symbols on them mean. The most important map is the
map showing the distribution of pressure, by means of isobars, and letter symbols.
Wind flow, wind speed and wind direction are all shown as well. Cloud cover - clear, fully
covered or partially covered - is also shown. There are maps shown the distribution of
temperature by means of isotherms. Rainfall or isohyetal map is also given indicating
the distribution of rain and precipitation types.

In weather interpretation these maps are used to write a summary of weather

conditions existing on a given day. It is possible to speak of weather changes over a
short duration, two or three days, from the report given along with the weather maps.

Weather forecasting is a difficult activity. In tropical weather conditions, the

prediction becomes even more difficult because of fast changing weather. Interpretation
comes easy with practice and first interpretations are often not very good ones.

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Weather Forecasting

Atmosphere is the gaseous envelope of the earth in which all its flora and
fauna survive. As weather is the statement of its physical conditions at an instant,
its forecasting is of concern to one and all living over the earth. As such, since time
immemorial weather forecasting was a subject of grave concern for the geographers
and meteorologists. But, due to extremely complex nature of various physical processes
of the atmosphere, which lead to weather, these endeavours have always been met
with limited success.

Various methods were developed and used by meteorologists for weather

forecasting. The most important methods in vogue currently are the conventional
Synoptic, and Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) methods. The former method is
human subjective and the latter is objective and deterministic. Skill of these forecasts
can be enhanced through use of GIS today by relating different features of the
atmosphere and their proper visualization.
Conventional Synoptic Method:

In this subjective method, conventional forecasting tools like, trend, persistence,

climatology and analogue of weather systems are popularly employed. Each of these
methods makes use of some basic assumptions for extrapolating the weather into the
future. The forecaster blends these extrapolations with his own experience and the
location specific weather quirks like topography and land-sea distributions.

None of these methods seems perfect, as the weather sometimes manifest

differently, deviating considerably from the basic concepts on which these methods are
founded. The inadequate human understanding of the various complex atmospheric
processes leading to the weather development itself is one of the major problems
associated with this method.

Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) Method:

To forecast weather, the NWP method makes use of numerical solutions (high
speed super computers are generally required for this task) of complex system of
mathematical equations or models representing both the physical and dynamical
processes occurring in the atmosphere. These models are commonly known as
Global Circulation Models (GCMs). In order to integrate the GCM forward in time,
the model equations need initialization with precise knowledge of the current state
or initial conditions of the atmosphere. To achieve this task, global observations of
various atmospheric parameters, for example, temperature, wind speed and direction
and humidity, made routinely at standard synoptic hours are usually assimilated into
the model using a process known as Variation Analysis. The forecaster interprets these
charts for weather forecasting at the locations of interest.

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The National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) was
established in India under the Department of Science and Technology for issuing
weather forecasts in the medium range of. 3 to 10 days in advance.

Learning outcome

Students have learnt the basic principles of map reading and developed
skills in understanding the symbols. They have also learnt how to interpret
weather maps and forcasting as well.

EXERCISES
I. Fill in the Blanks

1. All maps have ______________.

2. Maps are graphic representations that facilitate a _________ understanding

of things.

3. Monsoon winds bring ___________ rains.

4. Weather maps are issued everyday, providing a _________ report.

5. In weather interpretation, maps are used to write a __________ of weather

conditions existing on a given day.

II. Choose the Correct Answer

6. Monsoons also occur in:

(a) United States (b) Russia

(c) Nigeria (d) Chile

7. Numerical weather predictions use complex systems of mathematical

equations known as:

(a) Global circulation models (b) Weather models

(c) Medium range forecasts (d) Climate change models

III. Match the Following

8. GCM - Rainfall

9. Isohyets - Pressure systems

10. Isotherms - Weather prediction method

11. Isobars - Temperatures

12. NWP - Complex systems of

mathematical equations

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UNIT V
MAP INTERPRETATION AND SURVEYING
LESSON 12
SURVEYING

Learning Objectives

Students learn about the process and procedures of surveying and acquire
ability to handle survey instruments and develop drawing skills.

Definition of Surveying

In general terms, surveying is to inspect, view, scrutinize or examine that

phenomenon that needs to be surveyed. This is done in order to determine the condition
of the object surveyed or to assess the situation and learn about the ‘value’ of that
which is surveyed. This could be a piece of land, a stretch of road or even a legal parcel
of land.

In our context here, survey is a science and art of determining the relative
positions of points (locations) above, on or beneath the earth surface. The basic
concerns regarding a survey are spaces and locations within them. Survey essentially
take note of specific point locations for later reference.

Uses and Importance of Surveying

There are several uses of surveying, notably those given below:

 Locating or mapping resources

 Engineering design

 Layout construction or engineering projects

 Verify performance

 Acquiring reliable data

 Providing control

 Usually for location

Surveying Methods and Procedures

There are several surveying methods and procedures. It is inappropriate to

write about all specific types of surveying, for they are several and their procedures
are complex. Hence, only a list of specific types of surveying is given below.

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Specific Types of Surveying

 Property (cadastral) surveying

 Control surveying
 Mapping surveying (planimetric or topographic)
 Photogrammetric surveying
 Construction (engineering) surveying
 Route surveying
 Hydrographic surveying
Prismatic Compass

Prismatic compass survey is one that is used in land surveying. It is also one of
the easiest of survey techniques.

The Compass: A compass can be used for:

Measuring the angles in a traverse used for navigation or control purposes.

As compasses have relatively poor direction accuracy, they are typically used for
reconnaissance surveys.

Factors which Influence Use of Compasses

A linear line of sight between the user and the measured point is needed. A well
defined object is required to obtain the maximum precision. The accuracy is highly
dependent on other magnetic influences such as electric motors and natural anomalies
caused by local geology.

Survey Methods Used

Compasses are used for the measurement of angles.

Traversing

The Compass (Figure 12.1) is an instrument which indicates the whole circle
bearing from the magnetic meridian to a particular line of sight. It consists of a needle
or disc magnetised so that it will align itself with the direction of the Earth’s magnetic
flux, and some type of index scale so that numeric values for the bearing can be
determined.

Because the Prismatic Compass is held in the hand for use, and are therefore
subject to poor centring and an unstable platform. The effects of this are reduced over
long sight lines, which, when combined with the vagaries of the magnetic meridian,
combine to make the compass a reconnaissance or inventory tool only. Neither the
instruments nor the basis upon which they work are sufficiently stable for any sort of
precision work.

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Local Attraction

The needle of the compass can also be ‘attracted’ by metallic objects close to the
point of observation. These objects cause local aberrations in the direction of magnetic
flux, and give rise to an effect known as local attraction. These local disturbances in the
Earth’s magnetic field are often due to large iron masses, electric cables, fences, cars
and so on. They tend to occur locally, and if detected can sometimes be compensated
for in survey procedures. Magnetic anomalies caused by underground minerals are a
problem for surveyors, but form the basis of many mineral exploration techniques so
the news is not all bad.

Where a closed traverse consisting of compass bearings and distances has

been performed around a parcel of land (see later) it is possible to compensate for the
effects of local attraction and to distribute ‘angular misclosure’. This will be covered in
more detail later but in summary the procedure consists of:

i) measuring forward and back bearing of each line

ii) computing angles and angle misclosure (misclosure = [180°(n - 2)] - S angles)
p(n-2) - S angles})

iii) adjusting each angle by adding to each

iv) recomputing bearings from adjusted angles.

The presence or otherwise of local attraction can be determined from the

difference between a ‘forward’ bearing and a ‘reverse’ bearing observed from, and to,
a station. If I was to measure from Point A to Point B, and then from Point B back to
Point A the difference in the bearings should be 180°. Any variation in this in excess of
what would be expected from random error would be most likely due to local attraction.
Needless to say both forward and reverse bearings are always observed when using
a compass for traversing (Figure 12.1).

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Conducting a Compass Survey

Equipments required are:

1. 1 Prismatic Compass
2. 4 Ranging Poles.
3. 1 Engineer’s Chain (100 ft or 30 m)
4. 10 Small pegs or arrows for use with chain.
5. 1 Survey field book
6. Pencil
7. Eraser
8. Tripod
9. Linen Tape (50m)
10. Plumb line
11. Optical Square
12. Spirit Level

Pre-Survey Checks

1. Check for compass error.

2. Check for true length of the Chain as this can introduce cumulative errors in
measurements.

3. Ensure that you know the current magnetic declination of the area to be surveyed.
This is particularly important when going to the field with a forest boundary
schedule; as there will always be the need to add to each bearing, the Magnetic
Variation or Declination of the area

4. Ensure that the survey is tied to a point or landmark, the co-ordinates of which can
be obtained.

If the survey is to be tied to a pre-existing pillar, a tripod is placed above the

pillar and a plumb line made to fall vertically above the pinpoint of the pillar. In the
absence of a plumb line; (a piece of lead with a tapering end hung to the base of the
tripod with a thin piece of thread), a piece of stone is placed at the point of convergence
of the legs of the tripod just below the compass, and made to drop freely onto the top of
the pillar. If the stone falls right on top of the central pin of the pillar, the tripod may be
considered as being vertically above the pillar. The Compass is then fitted to the tripod
and balanced horizontally with the aid of the spirit level. A ranging pole is then placed
as far from the starting point as is convenient and visible, for the bearing of this pole to
be taken from the starting point.
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Never conduct a survey holding the compass in your hand. In the absence of a
tripod, a wooden “peg” (monopod) may be cut for use. The length of the monopod is
best at breast height of the compass reader. The top of this monopod should be about
the size of the base of the compass and made flat for ease of placing the compass
on it. Since the monopod cannot be placed conveniently on top the survey pillar, it
is fixed directly behind the pillar, with the line of sight passing over the centre of the
pillar, usually indicated by a pin. The bearing to the ranging pole is then taken after
the compass, resting on the monopod, is levelled. In this case, measurement of the
distance should be from the top of the pillar to the ranging pole and not from where the
monopod (with compass on it) is positioned.

The tripod or monopod is then moved to the location of the ranging pole and the
process repeated. The compass must always shifted to and be placed directly above
the location of the ranging pole whose bearing has just been taken, for the next bearing
to be taken.

The Magnetic North (MN):

Our Earth has a magnetic axis inclined to the line of longitude, which divides
the earth into two equal parts. This magnetic axis is the property that influences the
needle of a compass. When a compass needle is allowed to swing freely and settle,
it points to the northern pole of this axis, and the direction so indicated is referred to
as the Magnetic North. The Magnetic North therefore is the direction of the pole of
the earth’s magnetic axis from any point on the earth’s surface as indicated by the
freely suspended needle of a compass. It is important to note that the Magnetic North
forms the basis for all angular measurements with surveying instruments. Without it,
surveying with theodolite and compass would not be possible.

True North (TN)

The direction indicating the pole of the earth’s geographic axis in the Northern
Hemisphere is the True North. All other lines referenced to this are referred to as true
north bearings (Figure 12.2). The figure below shows the Magnetic North (MN), the
True North (TN), the True South, (TS) and the Magnetic South (MS).

The Azimuth

The Azimuth is the smallest bearing to a point measured Eastward or Westward

from a particular reference North. Azimuths may be measured either with reference to
the Magnetic North or to the True North and referred to as Magnetic North and True
North Azimuths respectively. The azimuth begins from 0° or 360° representing North
and runs through 90° East, 180° South, 270° West and back to 360° North.

Forward Bearing and Back Bearing

When the bearing of a line is stated in a direction from an original point to

a terminal point, it is known as a forward bearing. The back bearing is opposite in

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direction, to the forward bearing. If the difference between the forward bearing and the
back bearing is exactly 180°, then, the two stations are free from local attraction. As
an example, consider a survey line along stations A, B and C. If the forward bearing
from A to B is 95° and the back bearing to B from A is 275, the difference between the
two bearings is exactly 180° and there will be no reason to suspect any local attraction
at stations B and A. If from station B the bearing to station C is 240 (Forward Bearing)
and the back-bearing from station C to B is 61, the difference between the two bearings
will be 179°. Since it is already known that there is no local attraction at stations A and
B, then there is good reason to suspect local attraction at station C. To confirm this
suspicion a forward bearing is taken to station A from station C, and a back-bearing
taken from A to C. Since A is known to have no local attraction, if the difference between
the two bearings is not exactly 180°, then the presence of local attraction at station C
is confirmed (Figure 12.2)

Magnetic
bearing

g ht
si
Compass of
ne
Li

Figure 12.2

Procedure for Undertaking Prismatic Compass Survey

1. Collect a Prismatic Compass, a Sighting Pole and possibly a Chain for the
Fieldwork. Try not to wear too many jewellery or rings as the metals can interfere
with the compass readings.

2 Remember that Compass readings are made along straight segments of a

boundary. Irregular paths (or boundaries) should therefore be first divided into
straight segments before readings are taken.

3. To begin, pick the prismatic compass and locate the Starting Point (station 1).
Let your partner move to station 2 with the sighting pole. Your partner must then
hold the pole upright from the position marked station 2. Take a reading from
your location (marked station 1) onto the sighting pole at station 2 and record the
azimuth (angles) you get.
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4. To verify whether the forward azimuth reading you made is correct, exchange
positions with your partner (or preferably let your partner take a back azimuth
onto the sighting pole now located at station 1). As a rule, if the forward azimuth
is greater than 180o, you should subtract 180 from the forward azimuth to get the
back azimuth but if the forward azimuth is less than 180o you should add 180 to it
to get the back azimuth. With the rule, make a quick check of the forward azimuth
you made and record it if it is right. If it is wrong, redo the reading all over.
5. Record the forward azimuth you read earlier.
6. Measure the segment of the boundary between station 1 and station 2 and record
your answer beside the azimuth reading for this segment. You may use a chain or
a tape and remember to take the measurement in feet. In the absence of a chain
or a tape, you may take the measurements by pacing along the boundary and
counting the number of paces you make. Generally, a pace taken in a relaxed
mood (not running) is about a yard (three feet) for many people. If you will use this
method, you should first determine the length of your pace by marking three feet
segments on the floor and walk along them for some time.

7. Walk along the boundary segment between station 1 and station 2 and make
any other required readings such as resection or intersection then record such
measurements on the page you have already opened. Make some sketches if
necessary, to portray the features and positions you find in the field.

8. Now go to station 2 and let your partner move with the sighting pole to station 3.
Take the forward and backward azimuths as explained above and record only
the forward azimuth in your survey book. Check to make any required chain and
compass readings along the segment between stations 2 and 3 and then move on
to the next segment. Continue with the process in the same manner as described
until all stations (or segments) are measured and the measurements recorded in
your notebook.

9. Keep your note book entries for you shall use it to plot the shape of land you
measure in the field. You will also hand in your note book entries for grading.

Booking of the Field Data

Traversing involves taking bearings and distances from one station to the other
until the last station is encountered. The survey book has two parallel lines running
through the centre of each page. Booking is usually started from the last page of the
book and from the bottom to the top of each page. The stations are represented as
triangles enclosing serial numbers or letters specific to each station.

The bearing from A to B is recorded at the top of the triangle enclosing A. The
distance from A to B is recorded at the base of the Triangle enclosing B. Any feature
encountered, such as the footpath or the stream, is sketched at the point it crosses the
survey line. Its distance from the previous station is recorded just below the sketch.

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The Magnetic Declination; (MD), of the area of the survey is recorded at the
bottom right hand corner, together with the date of completion of the survey and the
names of the persons conducting the survey.

Indian Clinometer Survey

This is a simple instrument to measure the height of an object. Briefly explained,

if you know the distance ab and the angle A, you can determine the length of side bc
(or X). *Tangent is determined from a tangent chart.

Formula: ab x Tangent A = X

Example: If ab = 36 feet

A = 35o x* Tan A = 0.7002

36 feet x 0.7002 = X

X = 25.2072 feet + Height of the man or height of the stole.

*The height is approximately 25 feet.

An Example: Foresters Measure Trees the Smart Way

Calculating how much wood there might be in a forest is a bit like comparison
shopping. Foresters do not count and measure every tree in the forest. That would
simply take too long. Instead, they sample.

“We use sampling principles every day in our own lives,” says a Forester. If we’re
shopping for a stereo, he explains, we can’t always check every price in every store.
Instead, we sample a few brands and stores to get an estimate of what’s available.

Similarly, foresters measure a few bits of the forest and, on the basis of those
bits, estimate what the whole forest contains. Many of the techniques they use involve
little more than careful measuring and some high-school mathematics. The first step is
to choose which bits to sample. It is important to avoid picking samples that will give a
false picture of the forest. The solution is to choose the sample plots randomly.

You could just throw darts at a map and sample where the darts land but affordable
access is important. If your darts land well beyond the reach of roads, costs will soon
eat up the sampling budget. Personal bias can be avoided by selecting locations on
a map before going out in the field, rather than just walking through the forest and
choosing goodlooking trees. But once the locations are chosen, you have to stick with
them, no matter what you find when you actually visit them.

“If one of your plots is in a clearing with very few trees, it is tempting to move
it to an area with more trees. But you have to remember, that clearing represents lots
of other clearings in the forest.” For biological studies, the most common approach to
estimating the amount of wood is called a fixed area plot. The plots can be any shape,

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but all plots within a study must have exactly the same shape and dimensions. “For
estimating tree volume, fixed area plot size is chosen with the aim of including 12 to 20
trees.”

You can estimate a tree’s heightby C

measuring the dsitance between you
and the tree and working out the
angles to the tree’s top and base

) 35o
A B
36 Feets

Figure 12.3

The next step is to measure the trees within the plot. Although the goal is to
estimate volume, it is not easy to measure that directly without destroying the tree.
Instead, you measure the tree’s height and its diameter and use those two numbers
to calculate the volume. You can determine the tree’s height by using trigonometry. If
you measure the horizontal distance between yourself and the tree, and measure the
angles leading to the tree’s top and base, you have enough information to calculate the
tree’s height. That is where you use the instrument called the Indian Clinometer.

Learning Outcome

Students have gained an understanding of what surveying means and

how it is done. Besides, they have also learnt two of the commonly used
surveying instruments, namely, prismatic compass and Indian clinometer.

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UNIT 6
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS
LESSON 13
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
AND GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Learning Objectives

Students learn to be able and understand technological capabilities within

geography through database management systems and geographical
information systems

In the 1980s, Geographical Information Systems have been at the forefront of

geographical innovations. GIS, for short, the geographical information systems have
operationalised spatial analysis, especially mapping, with the help of the computers.
There are efforts in very many countries towards extension of the GIS. Although we
are unaware of the significance of the GIS in the school geographical studies, there is
a quite revolution in the making as for GISs are concerned, at the higher levels.

Geographical Information Systems have come into use in research centres and
the universities in India. Using them as the basic approach to research, a number of
good projects have already begun. Similarly, there are efforts underway to make the
GIS simple and easy to handle while at the same time improve the existing ones in
terms of applications. Let us see what these GISs are and to what use they could be
put to.

What is Geographical Information System?

You need an elaborate answer for this question. Geographers, practitioners and
students alike, have the ability and skill to map the landscapes in simple and aesthetic
formats for use and applications. Maps, which have been in use for centuries, are now
being constructed by instruments with the same simplicity but much more aesthetics.
With the developments in computers and computer science (graphics), it has become
possible to draw maps with great accuracy (figure 13.1)

Today, there are more than 3,000 geographical software packages in use. They
are generally called ‘Geographical Information Systems’. They have been implemented
in different platforms. There are two operational systems in computers. One is called
DOS (Disk Operating System) and the other is called UNIX. There is a third operating
system known as the WINDOWS, which is very popular in India. These are indeed
approaches to keeping computers operational. Geographical Information Systems

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have been developed for all the operating systems (DOS, WINDOWS and UNIX) and
they are in much use. LINUX is yet another operating system for which GISs have been,
and are being, developed. This operating system is not in much use but is beginning to
be used by an increasing number of people.

Figure 13.1

In fact, GISs are specialised computer softwares. They are currently very
expensive. The days are not far off for them to be available inexpensively. The
computers and other softwares are already being produced / developed inexpensively.

Geographical Information System is a software system which uses Spatial or

Geographical data or information, collected, collated, classified for use in mapping.
Mapping is made possible by the use of computers. GIS has the ability to handle digital
data relating to land, land resources, geographical phenomena and environments
(figure 13.2)

Figure 13.2 : Database Management Systems

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Database Management Systems

Databases

Software package is a programme, which is used in a computer to carry out a

specific task. For such softwares as the GISs, computer is most basic. In the same
vein, statistics is also one of the important basics. In geographical information system,
boundaries, places and attribute data are all important. It is on their basis that
mapping is done using computers.

Spatial Databases

Let us consider, for example, that we need a population density map. To map it,
we should learn to use three basic aspects:

1. Area and boundaries of the map,

2. Data on densities by areas or (by the basic unit of organisation), and

3. Scale of the map.

The map to be drawn with the assistance of computer must first be converted
into a computer database. In this database, the boundaries are very important. These
boundaries have to be filled into the database as lines or arcs and polygons. The
digital data (of places and boundaries) must be given their identities known simply
as ‘labels’ and entered into the database. Let us suppose the map we wish to draw
relates to a district. The district map will have district boundaries, taluk boundaries and
names of the taluks as fundamental data. If we fill these details into the databases, we
create a spatially referenced database.

Digitizer

The database so created is known as the spatial database. This may be created
in two ways:

1. by generating a database using a computer or

2. by generating a digital database from the boundaries and areas or places using an
equipment.

This equipment which can convert points, lines and polygons into a digital
database is known as a ‘digitizing table’.

Once a computerised spatial database consisting of points, lines and polygons

data is created, the next step is to create an attribute database for the same area. The
one important activity we must keep in mind is that labels for polygons must be filled
in both the databases (digital and attribute) so that the two databases could be linked.
Labels help with the relations to be established while mapping. In some cases, the two
databases can be created using a relational database management system (RDBMS).

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Relational Database Management Systems

To create spatially referenced digital and attribute databases, to manipulate such

databases and to operationalise digital methods, there are some software packages
known generally as the Database Management Systems (DMS). The specialised
among them are known as Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS).

Relational database management systems are a significant part of the

geographical information systems. They are capable of functioning independently as
well. With their help, several databases which are required in mapping could be related
so that mapping is perfect in all respects. It is exactly by relating various databases and
evoking the graphical capabilities of the computers that we draw the maps. It is in this
way, the population density map may be drawn as well.

Integrated Geographical Information Systems

Geographical information systems are, in a sense, management systems. Since

they are capable of mapping, they are also functioning as the cartographic softwares.
With the powers of digital and analytical methods, the geographical information systems
are in reality systems of several capabilities. As such, GISs are an integration of:

1. Database management systems,

2. Cartographic systems, and
3. Analytical systems.
These systems are also capable of handling both spatial and aspatial data.
Text data are also being used in the GISs. Graphic as well non-graphic characteristics
are also handled by these systems.
Thus, it is clear that the geographical information systems are powerful software
packages. These have another capability as well. They are capable of processing
remotely sensed satellite data (raster) as well. To perform image processing towards
mapping, there are some softwares which are generally called ‘integrated softwares’.
The GISs which are capable of both image processing and mapping, especially
overlaying, are generally called Integrated Geographical Information Systems. Let us
see how they are used in applications.

Vector Raster:
6
N 5
55L
Distance 65.2m 4
W E 3
2
1
S
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

r
ome
Cust

ings
Build

ts
Stree

ity
Real

Figure 13.3 : Vector and Raster Data and Overlay

Figure 13.3 : Vector and Raster Data and Overlay
Applications of Geographical Information Systems

Computers occupy a very significant place in GIS applications. GISs are

implemented in different platforms of computers, but mostly DOS or UNIX platforms.
Digital data as well as text data are used by these systems.

GISs are useful in resources assessment, resources planning, environmental

assessments, economic plans and management plans. In the developing countries,
land, soil, water, climate, vegetation, animals and population and the interactions among
them are all related to planning, food production and food security. Several international
organisations are concerned with growth, development, welfare and integration and
they are engaged in developmental activities at the global, regional and local levels. All
of these international organisations are now engaged in GIS applications which could
help world development (Figure 13.4).

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Figure 13.4 : A Map of Australia using AreView GIS

In fact, the uses of the GISs are innumerable. For example, an agricultural
scientist, by using the GIS, may determine exactly where a particular crop may be
grown and (s)he may also assess the nature of soils in the areas suitable for such a
crop. In this assessment, (s)he will use soil types, landforms, precipitation and a host of
other data towards analysing possibilities for cropping the specific crop with mapping.
(S)he may also determine suitable locations for cropping through overlaying maps of
different aspects.
(S)he may overlay maps such as transport map, map of distribution of labour,
map of distance to markets and the like and thus determine ‘suitable areas’. Similarly,
taking the effects of activities on environment, their impacts and the intensity of such
impacts, the areas subjected to deterioration can be identified on maps (stresses on
environment) and measures to prevent the deterioration may be suggested.

More important than all of these applications is the fact that the GISs are being
used not only in geography but also in other sciences and technological departments.
That the GISs are capable of assisting a wide range of scientific studies is a matter of
pride for all of us, who are students and practitioners of geography today.

Learning Outcomes

Students have learnt to appreciate the use of information, database

management and GIS technologies within geography and have gained
confidence in understanding concepts relative to databases, including
spatial, and GIS.

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Unit -II

Landforms

Learning Objectives

To acquaint ourselves with

™™To know the landforms which are created by river
™™To describe the landforms which are created by glacial action
™™To classify the landforms which are produced by wind action
™™To identify the various landforms about sea wave
™™To compile the landforms which are produced by the work of a river, glacier, wind and sea
waves

In the earlier class, we have learnt Landforms

that the surface of the earth is not the same
The landscape is being continuously
everywhere. The earth has an infinite variety of
worn away by two processes – weathering
landforms named mountains, plateaus, plains,
and erosion. Weathering is the breaking and
valley etc., Some parts of the lithosphere may
falling apart into small pieces of the rocks on
be rugged and some flat. These landforms are a
the earth’s surface. Erosion is the wearing
result of two processes – the endogenic process
away of the landscape by different agents like
and the exogenic process. The endogenic process
water, wind, ice and sea waves. The eroded
(internal process) leads to the upliftment and
material is carried away by water, wind, etc. and
sinking of the earth’s surface at several places.
eventually deposited. This process of erosion
The exogenic process (external process) is the
and deposition create different landforms on
continuous wearing down and rebuilding of the
the surface of the earth.
land surface.
River
Gradation is the process of levelling
of highlands through erosion and filling up of The water flowing from its source to river
lowlands through deposition. mouth, along a definite course is called a River.
Rivers generally originate from a mountain or hill.

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River Land forms

The place of origin of the river is known as its Falling of river water over a vertical
Source. The place where it joins a lake or sea or step in the river bed is called waterfall. It is
an ocean is known as the River mouth.
formed when the soft rock are removed by
The running water in the river erodes the
erosion. E.g. Coutrallam falls across the river
landscape, which creates a steep-sided valley like
chittar in TamilNadu.
the letter ‘V’ known as ‘V’ shaped valley.
The highest waterfall is
Angel Falls of Venezuela in
South America. The other
waterfalls are Niagara Falls
located on the border between
Canada and USA in North America and
Victoria Falls on the borders of Zambia
and Zimbabwe in Africa.
‘V’ shaped valley Plunge pool is a hollow feature at the base
of a waterfall which is formed by cavitation.
Tributary: A stream or river Alluvial fan is a deposition of sediment
that flows into and joins a main occurs at which the river enters a plain or the
river. foot-hills.

Distributary: A stream that

branches off and flows away from a main stream.

(4) Waterfall retreats upstream

Hard rock (2) Overhang collapses

(5) Steep, gorge-like valleys

Soft rock Meanders
(1) Undercutting (3) Plungpool develops As the river enters the plain it twists
and turns forming large bends known as
Meanders. Eg. Meanders along the River
Vellar near Sethiyathope in Cuddalore
District, Tamil Nadu.
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Due to continuous erosion and Sediment

deposit
deposition  along the sides of the meander, Lake Distributaries
Meander
the ends of the meander loop comes closer Direction
of flow
and closer. In due course of time the meander
loop cuts off from the river and forms a ­cut-
off lake, also called an Ox-bow lake.
Sea

Delta
Activity:

Find out the names of a few rivers of the world

that form a delta with the help of the Atlas.

Ox bow lake formation Glacier

A large body of ice moving slowly down a
The term ‘Meander’ slope or valley due to gravity is called a glacier.
has been named on the basis Glaciers are grouped into Mountain or Valley
of Meander River of Asia Glaciers and Continental Glaciers.
Minor (Turkey), it flows Continental Glacier: The glacier covering
through numerous curves and turns. vast areas of a continent with thick ice sheets.
E.g. Antarctica, Greenland
At times the river overflows its banks. This Mountain or Valley Glacier is a stream
leads to the flooding of the neighbouring areas. of ice, flowing along a valley. It usually follows
As the river floods, it deposits layers of fine soil former river courses and are bounded by steep
and other material called sediments along its sides. E.g. The Himalayas and the Alps.
banks. This leads to the formation of a flat fertile Glaciers erode the landscape by levelling
floodplain. The raised banks are called levees. soil and stones to expose the solid rock below.
Cirque is a glacially eroded rock basin, with a
As the river approaches the sea, the speed
of the flowing water decreases and the river steep side wall and steep head wall, surrounding
begins to break up into a number of streams an armchair-shaped depression. E.g. Corrie –
called distributaries. The velocity of the river Scotland (United Kingdom), Kar – Germany.
becomes so slow that it begins to deposit its
load. Each distributary forms its own mouth. Headwall
Glacial
Randkluft
The collection of sediments from all the mouths Bergschrund Ice
Terminal
Headwall gap Moraine
form Delta. Deltas are excellent productive
Zone of
lands. They have more minerals which favour Plucking

cultivation. E.g. Cauvery delta, Ganges delta, Tarn (lake) Zone of

Mississippi delta. will form here
when glacier melts
Abrasion

Formation of a Cirque

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Wind
Have you ever visited a desert? Try to
collect some pictures of sand dunes. An
active agent of erosion and deposition in the
deserts is wind. In deserts you can see rocks
in the shape of a mushroom, commonly called
mushroom rocks.

Cirque
As the ice melts, they get filled up the
cirque with water and become beautiful lakes
in the mountains called as Tarn Lake. When
two adjacent cirques erode towards each
other, the previously rounded landscape is
transformed into a narrow rocky, steep – sided
ridge called Aretes.
Mushroom Rock
Winds erode the lower section of the rock
more than the upper part. Therefore, such
rocks have narrower base and wider top. An
isolated residual hill, standing like a pillar
with rounded tops are called Inselbergs. E.g.
Inselberg in the Kalahari Desert of South
Africa.

Arete

U’ Shaped Valley is found beneath the

glaciers which is deepened and widened by
the lateral and vertical erosion. The material
carried by the glacier such as rocks - big
and small, sand and silt get deposited. These
deposits form glacial moraines.

Inselberg

When the wind blows, it lifts and

transports sand from one place to another.
When it stops blowing the sand falls and gets
deposited in low hill – like structures. These
are called sand dunes. The crescent shaped
Moraine sand dunes are called Barchans.

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Barchans Coastal Landforms

When the grains of sand are very fine The erosion and deposition of the
and light, the wind can carry it over very long sea waves give rise to coastal landforms.
distances. When such sand is deposited in large Sea Cliffs are steep rock faces formed, when
areas, it is called Loess. Large deposits of loess the sea waves dash against them. Sea waves
are found in China. continuously strike at the rocks. Cracks
develop. Over time they become larger and
wider. Thus, hollow like caves are formed on
the rocks. They are called Sea Caves.

Loess

Northern China loess Sea Cliff

deposits are brought from the
Gobi Desert.

Coast
A part of the land adjoining or near the
sea is called the Sea coast. The boundary of Sea cave
a coast, where land meets water is called the As the cavities of sea caves become bigger
Coast line. The coastal areas are subject and bigger only the roof of the caves remains,
thus forming Sea Arches. Further, erosion
to change due to wave erosion and wave
breaks the roof and only walls are left. These
deposition.
walllike features are called Stacks.

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Lagoon is a shallow stretch of water

partially or completely separated from the
sea. E.g. Chilka lake in Odisha, Pulicat lake
in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh and
Vembanad lake in Kerala are the famous
lagoons in India.

Sea arch and Sea stack

The sea waves deposit sediments of sand
and gravel along the shores forming Beaches.
Sand bar is an elongated deposition of sand Lagoon
or mud found in the sea, almost parallel to the
coast.
WRAP UP
™™The landscape is being continuously worn
away by weathering and erosion.
™™River, glacier, wind and sea waves are the
major agents of exogenic forces.
™™From its source to its mouth, the river is
constantly reshaping the land and giving
rise to different landforms.
Beach and Sand Bar ™™The river begins to break up into a number
of streams called distributaries.
The first longest beach in ™™Deltas are excellent productive lands which
the world is the Miami beach have more minerals.
in South Florida in U.S.A. The
™™Glacier is large body of ice moving slowly
second longest beach in the
down a slope due to gravity.
world is the Marina beach in Chennai.
™™Moraines are glacial deposition.
™™Wind is the active agent of erosion and
deposition in deserts.
™™The sea waves deposit sediments of sand
and gravel along the shores forming
beaches.

Miami Beach

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Unit -III

Population and
Settlement

Learning Objectives

™™To know the population, races and their classification

™™To learn about the different religions
™™To know about the major languages
™™To know the favorable condition for settlement
™™To understand the Rural and Urban settlement
™™To recognize the classification of settlement

Introduction permanent distinguishing characteristics that

Population Geography is a study of are inherited. The most widely found human
demographic phenomena which includes racial types are based on visual traits such as
natality, morality, growth rates etc., through head shape, facial features nose shape, eye
both space and time. Increase (or) decrease in shape and colour, skin colour, stature, blood
population indicates population distribution groups etc.,
and growth. The study of movements and The major world Human races are
mobility of population is called migration. • Caucasoid (European)
Among the human people from place to place • Negroid (African)
the ancient origin is grouped under major • Mongoloid (Asiatic)
races such us language and religion. • Australoid (Australian)

The Races Causasoid

Race has been defined as a biological The Caucasoid is known as European
grouping within the human species. The race. This group is the one with fair skin and
race is a group of people with more (or) less dark brown eyes, wavy hair and narrow nose.
The Caucasoid are also found in Eurasia.

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dominated by the three Dravidian kingdoms

of the chera, the cholas, and the pandyas.
The Dravidian languages are Tamil, Telugu,
kannada, Malayalam and Tulu almost all the
Dravidians live in the southern part of India.

Religion
Human geography is the Religion means a particular system of
study of Man and his faith and worship, which brings human being
surroundings to the natural with human society. Religion, is a symbol of
environment group identity and a cultural rallying point.

Classification of Religion
Negroid
a) Universalizing Religions
Negroid have the dark eyes, Black skin,
Christianity, Islam and Buddhism.
black wooly hair, wide nose, long head, and
b) Ethnic Religions
thick lips. They are living in different parts of
Judaism, Hiduism and Japanese
Africa.
Shintoism.
Mongoloids c) Tribal or Traditional Religions

The mongoloid race is commonly known Animism, Shamanism and Shaman.

as the Asian-American race. The mongoloid Religion Place of worship
have the light yellow to brown skin, straight Buddhism Vihara
hair, flat face, broad head and medium nose. Christianity Church
Such people are found in Asia and Arctic region Hinduism Temple
Islam Mosque
Jainism Basadi
Australoids
Juadism Synagogue
Australoids have wide nose, curly hair Zoroqstrianism Agiyari
dark skin, and short in height. They are living in
Language
Australia and Asia.
Language is a great force of
Races of India socialization. Language, either in the written
or oral form, is the most common type of
India is said to be one of the cradle
communication. Language promotes the
lands of human civilization. The ancient Indus
transmission of ideas and the functioning
valley civilization in India was believed to have
of political, economic, social and religious
been of Dravidian origin in northern India.
systems.
The Dravidian people were pushed south when
the Indo-Aryan came in later. South India was

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Languages in the world Settlement

Settlement is a place where people live and
interact through activities such as agriculture,
trading and entertainment. A rural settlement
is a community, involved predominantly in
primary activities such as agriculture, lumbering,
fishing and mining. An urban settlement
engages in predominantly in secondary and
tertiary activities, such as industries, trade and
Languages of India banking. There is often a correlation between
India has many languages and culture. the functions, size of population and population
Each state has its own language though the density. A rural settlement tends to have a small
national language is Hindi, 22 major language population and low population density. Urban
were spoken by about 97 percent population settlement often has a large population size and
of the country. India follows, kashmiri Urdu high population density.

Punjabi, Hindi Rajasthani, Gujarati, Bengali Site and situation refers to the location
and Assamese etc., these language are followed of the actual settlement. The initial choice of a
in North India. The main language of the site for a settlement depends on how it is useful
for meeting our daily needs, like water supply,
Dravidian family are Tamil, Telugu, Kannada,
availability of farmland, building material and
Malayalam etc., These languages are mainly
fuel etc.,
spoken in southern India.
Old House Types
Date Event
11th July World population day
International mother
21st February
­language day
Third Sunday in
World Religious day
January every year
The World cultural ­diversity
21st May
day

Today usage of language has changed.

It is often used as communicational skill. With
the different means of communication and fast
In the early periods of human settlement,
moving world advancement in technology helps
houses were built using local materials. The
in understanding of different languages very
form of the house was closely related to the
easily with easy access to electronic media along environment. In the agricultural regions,
with its pronunciations. These technologies houses were built with mud walls and the roof
have really brought the world closer.

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was made of stalks of paddy (or) other crops

of grass (or) thatch. Local wood was used to
provide frame for the roof. Such old houses had
wide verandahs and an open air circulation. The
size of the house depended on the economic
status of its inhabitants.

Patterns of Settlements
Settlements also be classified into Compact
settlements and Dispersed settlement
A hierarchy of settlements
Compact settlements Settlements

Compact settlement is also known as

nucleated settlement. In this type large a number
Rural Urban
of houses are built very close to each other such
settlement develop along the river valleys and
fertile plains, In India compact settlements are
Isolated Hamlet Village Small Town City Conurbation
found in the northern plains and the coastal market
plains of peninsular India.
Rural settlement

Dispersed Settlements
Rural settlements are predominantly
Dispersed settlements are generally found located near water bodies such as rivers, lakes,
in the areas of extreme climate, hilly tracts, and springs where water can be easily available.
thick forests, grasslands, areas of extensive People choose to settle near fertile lands suitable
cultivation. In these settlements, houses are for agriculture, along with the provision of
spaced far apart and after interspersed with other basic needs. Hence, they prefer to live
fields. In India this type of human settlement near low lying river valleys and coastal plains
is found in the northern kosi tract, the Ganga suited for cultivation. The availability of
delta ,the Thar Desert of Rajasthan and the foot building materials like wood, stone and clay
hills of Himalayas and the Niligris. near settlements is another advantage, for
settlements to be built.

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Factors Influencing Rural Settlement out along the sides of roads in all directions.e.g.
The Indo – Ganga plains of Punjab and Haryana
• Nature of topography
• Local weather Condition
• Soil and water resources
• Social organisation
• Economic condition

Pattern of Rural Settlement

Star like pattern Circular pattern
The pattern of settlement has been
defined as the relationship between a house or
building to another. A rural settlement pattern Pilgrim settlement
is a function of relief, climate, water supply and Pilgrim settlement may
socio-economic factor. It is broadly classified come up around a place of
under the following patterns, such as Linear, worship(or) any spot with a
Rectangular, Circular, Star like pattern etc., religious significance. E.g. Thiruverkadu
In a Linear settlement, houses are in Tamil Nadu.
arranged along the either side of a road,railway
line, river (or) canal,the edge of a valley,etc., e.g.
Wet Point Settlement
the Himalayas the Alps, the Rockies.
A wet point is a site with reliable supply of
Linear settlement
water from wells, tank, river, spring (or) pond
in an area.

The rectangular settlements are almost

Dry Point Settlement
straight, meeting each other at right angles.
Such a settlement is found in plain areas (or) A dry Point settlement is located in low-
inter montane plain. E.g.,Sutlej. Houses built lying areas in the regions of excessive dampness.
around a central area are known as Circular Dry point settlements are not affected by
pattern of settlements. Such settlement develop flooding, due to the landscape and the source of
around lakes and tanks. The Star like pattern water. Such settlements are found in the coastal
of settlement develops on the sites and places plains of Kerala and deltas along the east coast
where several roads converge and houses spread of India.

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Urban Settlements E.g. Canton, Tokyo, Delhi, Mumbai are some

of the examples of megacities.
The settlements in which most of the people
are engaged in secondary and tertiary activities
are known as urban settlements. In other words, World Health Organization
urban is related to cities and towns. The word (WHO) suggests that among
urban is often used in terms of town, city, mega other things a healthy city
city, conurbation, megalopolis. must have
• A Clean” and “Safe” environment
Classification of Urban Settlements • Meets the basic needs of “All” its

The definition of urban area varies from inhabitants
are country to another. Some of the common • Involves the “Community” in local

basis of classification are government
• Size of population • Provides easily accessible “Health

• Occupational structure service.
• Administration

Town Megalopolis

Town is a general name The word megalopolis is given for a large

for an urban place, usually a settlement meeting conurbation, when two or more large cities
a prescribed minimum population threshold. whose total population exceeds ten million. The
Population more than 5000 people. Based on region made up of cities between Boston and
the function that cities perform they can be Washington D.C is a well-known megalopolis.
classified into the following types of towns, such In India, Kolkata is the largest urban area which
as administrative, cantonment, academic etc., is a megalopolis. Gandhinagar, Surat, Vadodara,
Rajput in Gujarat are the important megalopolis
City cities in India.
The term City is generally applied to
Conurbation
large urban places with no strict definitions
to separate if from smaller town. City is a A Conurbation is a region comprising of a
nucleated settlement which multifunctional number of cities, large town, and other urban
in character, including an established central areas that through population growth and
business district. In India an urban place with physical expansion have merged to form one
more than one lakh population is considered as continuous urban (or) industrially developed
a city (Population more than 1,00,000). area. West Midland in England, the Ruhr
in Germany, Randstad in the Netherlands
Mega city are example of conurbations. Mumbai in
A mega city is a very large city typically with Maharashtra, Gurgaon, Faridabad in Haryana,
a population of more than 10 million people. Noida in Uttar Pradesh are the conurbation
A mega city can be a single metropolitan area. cities of India.

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Satellite Town Vellore, Coimbatore, Thoothukudi, Dindugul

and Erode.

Rural Urban
Rural areas have Urban areas have
p
­ redominantly domination of secondary
primary activities and tertiary activities
(agriculture) (Industries)
A satellite town is a town designed to house Sparsely populated Densely populated
the over population of a major city, but is located Villages and hamlet Cities and towns
well beyond the limits of that city. Satellite
Agriculture works Non Agricultural works
towns are generally located outside the rural
Simple and relaxed Fast and complicated life
urban fringe. In India most satellite towns are
life
purely residential in character. Satellite towns
occasionally present a look of twin towns such
Wrap up
as Dehri and Dalmianager in Rohtas district of
Bihar. They may be connected with roads. For ™™Races has been defined as a biological
e.g. Patna, Barauni, Varanasi and Hajipur. grouping within the human species,
distinguished or classified according to
Smart City genetically transmitted differences
™™Caucasoid (European) Negroid (African)
Mangoloid (Asiatic) Australoid (Australia)
are the major classification of races
™™Religion is classified into universalizing
Ethnic and Tribal religion
™™Language is a cultural form of enduring
value and a culture can survive with the
presence of language only
™™Settlement is defined as a place in which
people live and carryout various activities
In an urban region, a city which is very ™™Settlement may be classified on basis of
much advanced in terms of infrastructure, occupation as rural (village) and Urban
real estate, communication and market (town)
availability is called a Smart City. The first ten
™™Compact settlements develops along river
smart cities of India are Bhubaneshwar, Pune,
valleys and infertile plains
Jaipur, Surat, Ludhiana, Kochi, Ahmedabad,
Solapur, New Delhi and Udaipur. Tamil Nadu ™™Dispersed settlement are generally found
has 12 major cities to be transformed as smart in the areas of extreme climates, hill
cities. They are Chennai, Madurai, Tirunelveli, tracks, thick forest, grassland and in poor
Tiruchirappalli ,Thanjavur, Tiruppur, Salem, agricultural land.

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India – Location,
Relief and
Drainage

Learning Objectives
� To understand the strategic importance of India’s absolute and relative
location in the world
� To know the distinct characteristics of major physiographic divisions of India
� To compare the regions of Great Indian plains
� To understand the drainage system of India
� To differentiate the Himalayan and peninsular rivers

Introduction and Sri Lanka are separated by a narrow and

shallow sea called Palk Strait.
India is the seventh largest country in the
world and second largest country in Asia. It India and the World
forms a part of south Asia and is separated by The Indian land mass has a central location
the Himalayas from the rest of the continent. between, the East and the West Asia. India
India accounts for about 2.4 % of the total area and the southward extension of the Asian
of the world with an area of 32,87,263 sq.km. continent. The trans Indian ocean routes which
many of the India states are larger than several connect the countries of Europe in the west and
countries of the world. the countries of East Asia provide a strategic
India’s Land and Water Frontiers central location to India. Thus it helping India
to establish close contact with West Asia, Africa
India shares its 15,200 km long land and Europe from the western coast and with
frontier with Pakistan in the west, Afghanistan South East, east Asia from the eastern coast.
in the north-west, China, Nepal and Bhutan in
the north and Bangladesh and Myanmar in the India:  A Subcontinent
east. India’s longest border is with Bangladesh India along with the countries of Myanmar,
(4156 km)while the shortest border is with Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and
Afghanistan.(106 km) Sri Lanka is called a subcontinent. This region
About 6,100 km long coastline of India is separated from the rest of Asia by a chain of
is washed on three sides of the country by the mountains in the northwest, north and northeast
Indian Ocean and its two arms namely the and by seas in the south. This region also
Arabian sea in the west and the Bay of Bengal possesses a distinct continental characteristics
in the east. The total length of the coast line of in physiography, climate, natural vegetation,
India including the islands is 7,516.6 km. India minerals, human resources etc. Hence India is
known as ‘subcontinent’.

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 INDIA LOCATION IN THE WORLD N
W E
S
ARCTIC OCEAN

GREENLAND

A S I A
NORTH
AMERICA EUROPE

PACIFIC ATLANTIC PACIFIC

OCEAN OCEAN OCEAN
INDIA

AFRICA

SOUTH INDIAN OCEAN

AMERICA

AUSTRALIA

SOUTHERN OCEAN

Not to Scale
ANTARCTICA

1.1 Location and Extent • The number of Union

India extends from 8°4 'N to 37°6 'N fi nd out Territories along western coast
latitudes and 68°7 'E to 97°25 'E longitudes. and eastern coast
Hence India is located of the north Eastern • Area wise which is the smallest and largest
hemisphere state?
The southernmost point of the country • The states which do not have an international
is Pygmalion Point or Indira Point (6°45'N border or lie on the largest state
latitude) located in the Andaman and Nicobar • Classify into four groups each
Islands. The southernmost point of main land having  common frontiers with i)  Pakistan
of India is Cape Comorin (Kanniyakumari). ii) China iii) Myanmar and iv) Bangladesh
The north-south extent of India is 3,214 km
and it extends from Indira Col in Jammu and Amaravati is the new
Kashmir in the north to Kanniyakumari in the capital of Andhra Pradesh But
south. The east-west extension is 2933 km and according to Andhra Pradesh
it stretches from Rann of Kutch (Gujarat) in Reorganization Act, Hyderabad
the west to Arunachal Pradesh in the east. The will be the capital for both the
Tropic of Cancer (23°30' N) passes through the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telungana till
middle of the country dividing it into two halves 2024 (For 10 years from the act passed).
as northern temperate and southern tropical
lands. India has been politically divided into 29 1.1.1 Indian Standard Time (IST)
states and 7 union territories for administrative The longitudinal difference between Gujarat
convenience. in the west and Arunachal Pradesh in the east
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 INDIA
States and Union Territories

W E
S

LEGEND
Country Capital
State Capital
Inter naonal Border line
Thiruvanantha
State Border line
puram

Not to Scale

India - States and Union Territories

is about 30°. The Earth rotates through its axis difference in local time between these two
around 360° in 24 hours. Thus, a difference of places is 29°18' X 4' (minutes) = 1 hour
1° longitude will make a difference of 4 57 minutes 12 seconds (approximately
minutes in time. The difference in longitude 2 hours). Since Arunachal Pradesh is towards
between Gujarat (68°7  'E) and Arunachal east, it will have sunrise about two hours earlier
Pradesh (97°25  ' E) is 29°18'. Hence the than the sunrise at Gujarat which is in the west.

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 68E 72 76 80 84 88 92 94E 3. The Peninsular plateau
India Extent and Standard Meridian
36N 376’N 36N
4. The Indian Desert
N 5. The Coastal Plains
32 PAKISTAN
W
S
E
6. The Islands
32

CHINA
1.2.1 Himalayan
28 NE
PA
9725’E
Mountains
L

2933 K.m
BHUTAN
The Himalayan Mountains (Northern
t about
st to Wes
Mountains) consist of the youngest and the
Indian Standard Meridian - 8230’ E

687’E Ea
BANGLADESH

I N D I A
24
24 Tropic of Cancer loftiest mountain chains in the world because
North to south about 3214 K.m

20
20
they have been formed only few millions years
ARABIAN BAY OF
ago and also they were formed because of the
folding of the earth crust due to tectonic activity.
SEA BENGAL

16 16
It stretches for a distance of 2,500 km from
the Indus gorge in the west to Brahmaputra
12
12
gorge in the east. The width of the Northern
LAKSHADWEEP
ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS Mountains varies from 500 km in Kashmir to
8N (INDIA)
8N 200 km in Arunachal Pradesh. The Pamir Knot,
84’N SRI
72 76
LANKA 84 88 92
645’ popularly known as the “Roof of the World”
Not to Scale
I N D I A N O C E A N is the connecting link between the Himalayas
and the high ranges of Central Asia. From
the Pamir, Himalayas extend eastward in the
In order to avoid these differences, Indian form of an arc shape. The term “Himalaya” is
standard time is calculated. The local time of derived from Sanskrit. It means “The Abode of
the central meridian of India is the standard Snow”. The Northern Mountains that function
time of India. India’s central meridian as a great wall is grouped into three divisions.
is 82°30' E longitude. It passes through 1) The Trans-Himalayas, 2) Himalayas,
Mirzapur and roughly bisects the country 3) Eastern or Purvanchal hills.
in terms of longitude. The IST is 5.30 hrs
Aravalli range is the
ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).
oldest fold mountain range in
India.
1.2 Major Physiographic
Divisions of India
The majestic Himalayan peaks in the
north, the beautiful beaches in the south,
the great Indian desert in the west and the
breathtaking natural heritage in the east make
India a geographically vibrant, colourful and
truly incredible country.
There is a varied nature of physiographic
divisions in India. Though the country has many
landforms based on the major differences, it is
divided into the following five physiographic Find the Hill stations which
divisions: fi nd out
are located in Himalayan
1. The Himalayan Mountains Mountains.
2. The Great Northern Plains
85 India – Location, Relief and Drainage

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 t
r Kno
ami
sh P
Ku
Hi
nd
u
INDIA - PHYSICAL DIVISIONS N
W E
S

Shimla
GE

Kai
Mussourie
N

hR

las
AN RA

an
Garwal ge
Ranikhet
SULAIM

Almora iver
Nainital Tsangpo R

Purvanchal

Darjeeling
Guru
shikhar Mount Abu

Dhupgarh

Paradip
Konka
n coa

Vishagapanam
am
tan
lipa
chi
st

Ma

Arma Konda

Palani Hills

Not to Scale

1. The Trans-Himalayas 225 km wide in its central part. They contain

It is also known as western Himalaya’s. the Tethys sediments. The rocks of this region
It lies to the north of the great Himalayan contain fossils bearing marine sediments which
range. It lies in Jammu and Kashmir and are underlain by ‘Tertiary granite’. It has partly
Tibetian plateau. As its areal extent is more in metamorphosed sediments and constitutes the
Tibet, it is also known as Tibetean Himalayas. core of the Himalayan axis. The prominent
The Trans-Himalayas are about 40 km wide in ranges of Trans Himalayas are Zaskar, Ladakh,
its eastern and western extremities and about Kailash, and Karakoram.

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 2. The Himalayas is less effective over the Greater Himalayas as
It constitutes the core part of northern compared to the other ranges. Almost all the
mountains. It is an young fold mountain. It was lofty peaks of Himalayas are located in this
formed by the movement of Angara land mass range. The notable ones are Mt. Everest (8,848
in the north and Gondwana land mass in the m) and Kanchenjunga (8,586 m). Mt.Everest is
south. The Tethys sea found between these two located in Nepal and Kanchenjunga is located
land masses was uplifted by the compression between Nepal and Sikkim. This range is the
and the resultant landform was the Himalayas. most continuous of all ranges. It is region of
It consists of many ranges. The main divisions permanent snow cover. So, it has many glaciers.
of the Himalayas are the (i) Greater Himalayas, Gangothri, Yamunothri and Siachen are some
(ii) the Lesser Himalayas and (iii)the Siwaliks of them.

Peak Country Height in (ii) T  he Lesser Himalayas or The

metres Himachal
Mt. Everest Nepal 8848 It is the middle range of Himalayas. Height
Mt.K2 or Godwin India 8611 of this range varies from 3, 700 to 4,500 m. Its
Austen width varies upto 80 km. The major rocks of this
range are slate, limestone and quartzite. This
Kanchenjunga India 8598
region is subjected to extensive erosion due to
Makalu Nepal 8481 heavy rainfall, deforestation and urbanization.
Dhaulagiri Nepal 8172 Pir Panjal, Dhauladhar and Mahabharat are
the mountain ranges found in this part. Major
Nanga Parbat India 8126
hill stations of the Himalayas are located in this
Annapurna Nepal 8078 range. Shimla, Mussourie, Nainital, Almora,
Nanda Devi India 7817 Ranikhet and Darjeeling are the familiar ones.
Kamet India 7756
The major passes in the
Namcha Barwa India 7756 Himalayan are Karakoram pass
Gurla Mandhata Nepal 7728 (Jammu and Kashmir), Zojila
pass, Shipkila pass (Himachal
Himalaya is the home of Pradesh), Bomdila pass
several high peaks. However, it (Arunachal Pradesh), Nathala pass (Sikkim)
holds the record of having the and Jhelepla pass (Sikkim). The Khyber pass
maximum number of highest which connects Pakistan and Afanisthan, and
peaks among any mountain Bolan pass in Pakistan are important passes
range in world. Out of 14 heights peaks in of the Indian subcontinent
this world, Himalayas holds 9.
(iii) T he Siwaliks or Outer
(i) The Greater Himalayas or the Himalayas
Himadri The Siwaliks extend from Jammu and
The Greater Himalayas rise abruptly like a Kashmir to Assam. It is partly made by the
wall north of the Lesser Himalayas. The Greater debris brought by the Himalayan rivers. The
Himalayas are about 25 km wide. Its average altitude varying between 900-1100 metres
height is about 6,000 m. The Greater Himalayas elevation of this range is 1300 m. The width of
receive lesser rainfall as compared to the Lesser Siwaliks vary from 10 km in the east to 50 km
Himalayas and the Siwaliks. Physical weathering in the west. It is the most discontinuous range.

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 The longitudinal valleys found between the
3. The Central-Nepal Himalayas- Located
Siwaliks and the Lesser Himalayas are called
between the rivers of Kali and Tista.
Duns in the west and Duars in the east. These
are the ideal sites for the development of 4. The Assam Eastern Himalayas- Located
settlements in this region. between rivers of Tista and Dihang.

3. Purvanchal Hills 1.2.2  The Great Northern Plains

These are the eastern off-shoot of Himalayas. The fertile land extending across seven
It extended in the north-eastern states of India. north Indian states forms the Great Northern
Most of these hills are located along the border Plains. This extensive plain lies to the south of
of India and Myanmar while others are inside the northern mountains. This plain is one of
India. Dafla Hills, Abor Hills, Mishmi Hills, the most extensive stretches of the alluvium in
Patkai Bum Hills, Naga Hills, Manipur Hills, the world and is deposited by the rivers Indus,
Mizo Hills, Tripura Hills, Mikir Hills, Garo Hills, Ganga, Brahmaputra and their tributaries. The
Khasi Hills and Jaintia Hills are the hills which length of the plain is about 2,400 km and the
are collectively known as purvanchal Hills. width varies from 240 to 320 km. Its width
increases from east to west. It covers an area of
Importance of Himalayas over 7 lakh sq.km.
• Himalayas blocks southwest monsoon
The Great Plains of India is remarkably a
winds and causes heavy rainfall to north
homogeneous surface with an imperceptible
India.
slope. They are formed mostly by the depositional
• It forms a natural barrier to the sub-
process of the Himalayan and Vindhyan rivers.
continent.
These rivers deposit enormous quantity of
• It is the source for many perennial rivers
sediments deposited along the foothills and
like Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra etc.
flood plains. The important characteristics
• The Northern Mountains are described as
featuress of sediment deposition in the plains
the paradise of tourists due to its natural
areas as follows.
beauty.
• Many hill stations and pilgrim centres a)  The Bhabar Plain
like Amarnath, Kedarnath, Badrinath and This plain is made up of gravels and
Vaishnavidevi temples are situated here. unassorted sediments deposited by the
• It provides raw material for many forest Himalayan rivers. The porosity of this plain
based industries. is so high that most of the small streams flow
• It prevents the cold winds blowing from over this region disappear. It lies to the south
the central Asia and protects India from of the Siwalik from west to east (Jammu
severe cold. Division to Assam). Its width varies from
• Himalayas are renowned for the rich 8 to 15 km. It is wider in the western plains
biodiversity. (Jammu Division) than in the east (Assam).
This plain is not suitable for cultivation, only big
Longitudinal Divisions of trees with large roots thrive in this region.
Himalayas b)  The Tarai Tract
1. 
The Kashmir Punjab Himachal It is a zone of excessive dampness, thick
Himalayas- Located between the rivers forests and rich wild life. This tract lies to the
of Indus and Sutlej. south of Bhabar plains. The width of this belt
2. 
The Kumaun Himalayas- Located is 15-30 km. The Tarai is wider in the eastern parts
between the rivers of Sutlej and Kali. of the Great Plains, especially in Brahmaputra

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 Valley due to heavy rainfall. In many states, the of old mud, new mud and marsh. In the delta
Tarai forests have been cleared for cultivation. region, the uplands are called ‘Chars’ while the
marshy areas are called ‘Bils’.
c)  The Bhangar Plains
The Bhangar represent the upland alluvial 1.2.3  The Peninsular Plateaus
tracts of the Great Plains of India, formed by the The plateau region lies to the south of
older alluviums. The Bhangar land lies above the Great Northern Plains. This is the largest
the flood limits of the rivers. This soil is dark in physiographic division of our country.
colour, rich in humus content, well drained and It covers an area of about 16 lakh sq.km (about
useful for agriculture. half of the total area of the country). It is an old
d)  The Khadar Plains rocky plateau region. The topography consists of
a series of plateaus and hill ranges interspersed
The new alluvium tracts along the courses with river valleys.
of the rivers are known as the ‘Khadar’ or ‘Bet’
Aravalli hills mark the north-western
lands. The Khadar tracts are enriched by fresh
boundary of the plateau region. Its northern
deposits of silt every year during rainy seasons.
and north-eastern boundaries are marked by
The Khadar land consists of sand, silt, clay and
the Bundelkhand upland, Kaimur and Rajmahal
mud. It is highly fertile soil.
hills. The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats
e)  Delta Plains mark the western and eastern boundaries
The deltaic plain is an extension of the respectively. The altitude of a large portion of
Khadar land. It covers about 1.9 lakh sq.km in the plateau is more than 600 m from mean sea
the lower reaches of the Ganga River. It is an level. The peak of Anaimudi is the highest
area of deposition as the river flows in this tract point in the plateau. Its height is 2,695 m and
sluggishly. The deltaic plain consists mainly is located in Anaimalai. The general slope of
this plateau is towards east. The Great Plateau

On the basis of deposition of sediments by various rivers and topographical characteristics,

the Northern Plains of India is divided into the following four major regions:
a) Rajasthan Plains: It is located to the west of Aravalli range. It covers an area of about 1,75,000 sq.km.
Rajasthan plain is formed by the deposition of the river Luni and the long vanished river
Saraswathi. There are several salt lakes in Rajasthan. The Sambhar salt lake (Pushkar Lake) near
Jaipur is the prominent one.
b) Punjab - Haryana Plains: It lies to the north-east of the Great Indian Desert. This plain is
found over an area of about 1.75 lakh sq.km. The Punjab - Haryana plains are formed by the
deposition of the rivers Sutlej, Beas and Ravi. This plain acts as water - divide (doab). The two
major watershed it divides are Yamuna – Sutlej and Ganga – Yamuna.
c) Ganga Plains: It extends from the Yamuna River in the west to Bangladesh in the east. The total
area covered by this plain is about 3.75 sq.km. River Ganga and its tributaries such as Ghaghra,
Gandak, Kosi, Yamuna, Chambal, Betwa etc. constitute this plain by their sediments and make
a great plain in India. It is the largest plain of India. The general slope of the entire plain (upper,
middle and lower Ganga plains) is towards east and south-east.
d) Brahmaputra Plains: It is located mainly in the state of Assam. It is a low - level plain located in
the eastern part of the Great Plains of India and is formed by the deposits of river Brahmaputra.
It covers an area of about 56,275 sq.km. These plains create alluvial fans and marshy tracts.

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 is a part of the Gondwana (very ancient one) b)  Deccan Plateau
land mass. Due to the old age, the rivers in this This physiographic division is the largest
region attained their base level and developed part of the plateau region of India. The shape
broad and shallow valleys. of this plateau is roughly triangular. One of
The river Narmada divides the plateau the sides of this triangle is marked by the line
region of India broadly into two parts. The joining Kanniyakumari with Rajmahal Hills
region lying to the north of the Narmada is and this line passes through the Eastern Ghats.
called the Central Highlands and the region The second arm is marked by the Satpura Range,
lying to the south of Narmada is called the Mahadeo Hills, Maikal Range and the Rajmahal
Deccan Plateau. All the major rivers (Mahanadi, Hills. The third arm is marked by the Western
Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri etc.) lying to the Ghats. The area of this Plateau is about 7 lakh
south of the Vindhyas flow eastwards and fall square km and the height ranges from 500 to
into the Bay of Bengal. Narmada and Tapti 1000 m above sea level.
are the two rivers situated to the south of the The Western Ghats forms the western
Vindhyas flow westward. Their movement edge of the Peninsular Plateau. It runs parallel
towards west is due to the presence of to the Arabian Sea coast. The northern part
a rift valley in the region. of this range is called as Sahyadris. The height
of the Sahyadris increases from north to
a)  Central Highlands
south. Anaimudi is a sort of tri-junction of
The Central Highlands extend between the the Anaimalai Range, the Cardamom Hills
river Narmada and the Northern Great Plains. and the Palani Hills. Kodaikanal is a beautiful
The Aravallis form the west and northwestern hill resort situated on the Palani Hills. Eastern
edge of the Central Highlands. These hills extend Ghats run from southwest to northeast form
from Gujarat, through Rajasthan to Delhi in the the eastern edge of this Plateau. This range
northwesterly direction for a distance of about is also called as Poorvadri. The Eastern
700 km. The height of these hills is about 1,500 m Ghats join the Western Ghats at the Nilgiri
in southwest while near Delhi the height is hills, bordering Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
hardly 400 m. Gurushikhar with 1,722 m is the The Eastern Ghats are not continuous like
highest peak of this range. the Western Ghats. The rivers of Mahanadi,
The Western part of the Central Highland Godavari, Krishna, Pennar and Kaveri have
is known as the Malwa Plateau. It lies to the dissected this range at many places.
southeast of Aravallis and to the north of
Vindhyachal Range. The rivers Chambal, Betwa 1.2.4  The Indian Desert
and Ken drain the Malwa Plateau before they
The Thar desert, also known as the Great
join the river Yamuna. The part of the Central
Indian desert is a large arid region in the north
Highlands which extends to the east of Malwa
Plateau is known as Bundelkhand and its western part of the Indian subcontinent that
further extension is known as Bagelkhand. The covers an area of 2,00,000 km2 and forms a
eastern part of the Central High lands which natural boundary between India and pakisthan.
lies in the north-eastern part of the Indian It is the world 7th largest desert, and world 9th
Plateau is known as Chhota-Nagpur Plateau. largest sub tropical desert located in Western
It covers much of Jharkhand, adjacent parts of part of the India.
Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar and Chhattisgarh.
This region is very rich in mineral resources The desert lies in the western part of the
particularly iron ore and coal. aravalli range and covers 2/3 of Rajasthan
state. There are two major divisions in the
Thar desert. They are known as the Actual

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 desert region (Marusthali) and the semi and Tamil Nadu. These plains are formed by
desert region (Bhangar). Many different types the alluvial fillings of the littoral zone by the
of sand dunes and salt lakes (Dhands) are east flowing rivers of India. The coastal plain
seen here. consists mainly of the recent alluvial deposits.
This coastal plain has a regular shoreline with
well-defined beaches. The coastal plain between
Mahanadi and Krishna river is known as the
Northern Circars and the southern part lies
between Krishna and Kaveri rivers is called
Coromandal coast. The Marina beach on this
coast in Chennai and it is the second longest
beach in the world. Among the back water lakes
of this coast, lake Chilka (Odisha) is the largest
Thar Desert
lake in India located to the southwest of the
1.2.5  The Coastal Plains Mahanadi delta, the Kolleru Lake which lies
The Peninsula Plateau of India is flanked between the deltas of Godavari and Krishna and
by narrow coastal plains of varied width from the Pulicat Lake lies in the border of Andhra
north to south, known as the Western Coastal Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are the well known
Plains and the Eastern Coastal Plains. They were lakes in the east coastal plain.
formed by the depositional action of the rivers
and the erosional and depositional actions of the 1.2.6  The Islands
sea-waves. The Indian coastal plains are divided India has two major island groups namely
into the following two divisions: 1) The Western Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep. The
Coastal Plains and 2) The Eastern Coastal Plains. former group consists of 572 islands and are
located in Bay of Bengal, and the later one has
1.  The Western Coastal Plain 27 islands and are located in Arabian Sea. The
It lies between the Western Ghats and the islands of Andaman and Nicobar are largely
Arabian Sea. It extends from Rann of kutch in tectonic and volcanic origin. India’s only active
the north to Kanniyakumari in the south and volcano is found on Barren Island in Andaman
its width varies from 10 to 80 km. It is mainly and Nicobar group of Islands, while the islands
characterised by sandy beaches, coastal sand of the Arabian Sea are mainly coral origin.
dunes, mud flats, lagoons, estuary, laterite
platforms and residual hills. The northern part a)  Andaman and Nicobar Islands
of the West Coastal Plain is known as Konkan
Plain. The middle part of this plain is known
as Kanara. The southern part of the plain is
known as Malabar coast which is about 550
km long and 20-100 km wide. This part of the
coast is characterized by sand dunes. Along
the coast, there are numerous shallow lagoons
Andaman Islands
and backwaters called Kayals and Teris.
Vembanad is a famous back water lake found These islands are located in an elevated
in this region. portion of the submarine mountains. Since
2.  The Eastern Coastal Plain these islands lie close to the equator, the climate
It lies between the Eastern Ghats and the remains hot and wet throughout the year and
Bay of Bengal and, stretches along the states has dense forests. The area of the island group is
of West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh about 8,249 sq.km. The entire group of islands

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 is divided into two. They are Andaman in the 1.3.1  Himalayan Rivers
north and the Nicobar in the south. These These rivers are found in north India and
island groups are of great strategic importance originate from Himalayas. So, they are also called
for the country. Port Blair is the administrative as Himalayan rivers. These are perennial rivers.
capital of the Andaman and Nicobar islands.
Rivers
The Ten Degree Channel separates Andaman
from Nicobar group. The southernmost tip, the
Indira Point is a part of Nicobar Island. Himalayan
Rivers
Peninsular
Rivers
b)  Lakshadweep Islands
This is a small group of coral islands located ¾¾ Indus ¾¾ Mahanadi ¾¾ Cauvery
¾¾ Ganga ¾¾ Godavari ¾¾ Narmada
off the west coast of India. It covers an area of
¾¾ Brahmaputra ¾¾ Krishna ¾¾ Tapti
32 sq. km. Kavaratti is its administrative capital.
Lakshadweep islands are separated from the
Maldive Islands by the Eight Degree Channel. a)  The Indus River System
The uninhabited “Pitt Island” of this group has The Indus River is one of the largest rivers of
a bird sanctuary. Earlier, it had three divisions the world. It originates from the northern slope
namely Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi. It of the Kailash range in Tibet near Manasarovar
was named as Lakshadweep in 1973. Lake at an elevation of about 5,150 m. Its length
is about 2,880 km (Only 709 km is in India).
c)  Offshore Islands
The river has a total drainage area extending
Besides the two group of islands, India has
11,65,500 sq km in which 321,289 sq km areas
a number of islands along the Western Coast,
are drained in India. The river flows through
Eastern Coast, in the delta region of Ganga and
the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges and creates deep
in the Gulf of Mannar. Many of these islands
are uninhabited and are administered by the gorges. The river runs through Jammu and
adjacent states. Kashmir, turns south near Chillar and enters
Pakistan. Its major tributaries are Jhelum,
1.3  Drainage System of Chenab (Largest tributary of Indus), Ravi, Beas
and Sutlej. It enters into with the Arabian Sea.
India
A drainage system is an integrated system b)  The Ganga River System
of tributaries and a trunk stream which collects
and drains surface water into the sea, lake
or some other body of water. The total area
drained by a river and its tributaries is known
as a drainage basin. The drainage pattern of an
area is the result of the geological structure of
the respective areas. The river system provides Ganga River - Haridwar
irrigation, drinking water, navigation, power
The Ganga River system is the largest
as well as grant livelihoods for a large number
drainage system of India it extend over and area
of population. The drainage system of India is
broadly divided into two major groups on the of 8,61,404 sq km in India. The Ganga plain is
basis of their location. They are Himalayan the most densely populated place in India and
rivers and the Peninsular rivers. many towns are developed on the banks of this
river. The river Ganga originates as Bhagirathi
from the Gangotri Glacier in Uttar Khasi
District of Uttarkhand state, at an elevation of
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 7,010 m. The length of the river Ganga is about 1.3.3  East Flowing Rivers
2,525 km. Its major tributaries from the north a) Mahanadi
are Gomti, Gandak, Kosi and Ghaghra and from
The river Mahanadi originates near
south, Yamuna (largest tributary of Ganga),
Sihawa in Raipur district of Chattisgarh and
Son, Chambal etc. The river Ganga is known as flows through Odisha. Its length is 851 km.
the River Padma in Bangladesh. The combined Seonath, Telen, Sandur and Ib are its major
river of Ganga and Brahmaputra creates the tributaries. The main stream of Mahanadi gets
World’s largest delta known as Sundarbans in divided into several distributaries such as Paika,
Bangladesh before joining the Bay of Bengal. Birupa, Chitartala, Genguti and Nun. All these
distributaries form the Delta of Mahanadi
c)  The Brahmaputra River System
which is one of the largest deltas in India. The
The river Brahmaputra originates from the Mahanadi empties its water in Bay of Bengal.
Chemayungdung Glacier of the Kailash range
b) Godavari
to the east of Lake Manasarovar in Tibet at an
elevation of about 5,150 m. The total area is Godavari is the longest river (1,465
about 5,80,000 sq km but the drainage area km) with an area of 3.13 lakh km2 among the
lying in India is 1,94,413 sq km This river Peninsular rivers. It is also called Vridha Ganga.
is known as Tsangpo (Purifier) in Tibet. The It originates in Nasik district of Maharashtra,
length of this river is about 2,900 km (900 km a portion of Western Ghats. It flows through
in India). It enters into India through a gorge in the states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh namely Dihang. It has many before joining Bay of Bengal. Purna, Penganga,
tributaries. Tista, Manas, Barak, Subansiri are Pranitha, Indravati, Tal and Salami are its major
some of them. This river is called as Jamuna in tributaries. The river near Rajahmundry gets
Bangladesh. After it joins with the river Ganga divided into two Channels called Vasistha and
in Bangladesh, the river is called as Meghna. Gautami and forms one of the largest deltas in
India. Kolleru, a fresh water lake is located in
Characteristics of Himalayan Rivers the deltaic region of the Godavari.
• Originate from Himalayas c) Krishna
• Long and wide The river Krishna originates from a spring
• Perennial in nature at a place called Mahabaleshwar in the Western
• Unsuitable for hydro power generation Ghats of Maharashtra. Its length is 1,400 km
• Middle and lower courses are navigable and an area of 2.58 lakh sq km. It is the second
longest Peninsular river Bhima, Peddavagu,
1.3.2  Peninsular Rivers Musi, Koyna and Thungabhadra are the major
The rivers in south India are called the tributaries of this river. It also flows through
Peninsular rivers. Most of these rivers originate Andhra Pradesh and joins in Bay of Bengal, at
from the Western Ghats. These are seasonal Hamasaladeevi.
rivers (non–perennial). They have a large
d) Kaveri
seasonal fluctuation in volume of water as they
are solely fed by rain. These rivers flow in valleys The river Kaveri originates at Talakaveri,
with steep gradients. Based on the direction of Kudagu hills of Karnataka. Its length is 800
flow, the peninsular rivers are divided into the km. The river kaveri is called Dhakshin Ganga
West flowing and East flowing rivers. or Ganga of south Harangi, Hemavati, Kabini,
Bhavani, Arkavathy, Noyyal, Amaravathi etc
are the main tributaries of the river Kaveri. In
Karnataka the river bifurcates twice, forming

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 INDIA RIVERS
Ind N
us AND LAKES
Wular W E
Lake S
us lum
Jhe nab Beas
Ind
e
ChRavi
lej
Sut

Sambar salt Ya
l m Gh
agh a putra
Ga
Lake ba
Luni
un Brahm

Ga
am ara
ng
a

Kosi
h

nd
C
a

ak
n
So
Sa
ba

Hugli
M thi

rn
i
ah

ar
a
barm

Narmada Ma ek Sundarban
ha ha
Sa Tap na
th
Pen i
ga nga
Chilka
Lake
Go
da
va

Krishn
ri

a Kolleru
ra
ad

Lake
bh
ga

Pennaru
n
Tu

Pulicat Lake LEGEND

River
Kavery Lake
Vembanad
Lake Vaigai

Not to Scale

the sacred islands of Srirangapatnam and 1.3.4  West Flowing Rivers

Sivasamudram. While entering Tamil Nadu, a) Narmada
the Kaveri continues through a series of twisted
This river rises in Amarkantak Plateau in
wild gorges until it reaches Hogenakkal Falls
Madhya Pradesh at an elevation of about 1057 m
and flows through a straight, narrow gorge
and flows for a distance of about 1,312 km
near Salem. The Kaveri breaks at Srirangam
it covers and area of 98,796 sq km and forms
Island with two channels, river Coleroon and
27 km long estuary before outfalling into the
Kaveri. At last, it empties into the Bay of Bengal
Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Cambay.
at Poompuhar.
It is the largest among the west flowing rivers
of Peninsular India. Its principal tributaries are

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 Burhner, Halon, Heran, Banjar, Dudhi, Shakkar,
Tawa, Barna and Kolar. • The Indus River system, the Ganga
River system and the Brahmaputra
b) Tapti River system have made the agricultural
The Tapti is one of the major rivers of lands of north India as fertile land.
Peninsular India with the length of about 724 These rivers are perennial in nature.
km. It covers an area of 65,145 sq km. Tapti river • Narmada, Tapti, Mahi and Sabarmathi
rises near Multai in the Betul district of Madhya rivers confluence with the Arabian Sea.
Pradesh at an elevation of about 752 m. It is
• Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and
one of only the three rivers in Peninsular India
Cauvery are the major east flowing
that run from east to west - the others being the
rivers and drain into Bay of Bengal.
Narmada and the Mahi. The major tributaries
are Vaki, Gomai, Arunavati, Aner, Nesu, Buray,
Panjhra and Bori. It outfalls into the Arabian
Sea through the Gulf of Cambay.
GLOSSARY
Back waters: The part of a river
which are stagnant and do not reach the
In which river the
fi nd out sea as they are pushed by the current.
Gerosappa (jog) fall is
found? Distributary: A branch or outlet
which leaves a main river and does not
rejoin it, carrying its water to the sea or
Recap a lake.
Doab: A land between the two
• India has been physiographically
converging rivers.
divided into five divisions. They are
Northern Mountains, Northern Great Estuary: Mouth of a river where it
Plains, The Plateau region, Coastal enters the sea through a single channel
Plains and Islands. with a hollow.
Perennial Rivers: The rivers
• Northern Mountains are classified into
which flow throughout the year and have
three divisions as Trans-Himalayas,
permanent source of water.
Himalayas and Eastern Himalayas.
Pass: A narrow gap through the
• Northern Great Plains are divided
mountains providing a route or passage
into four as Rajasthan Plains, Punjab-
way.
Haryana Plains, Gangetic Plains and
Brahmaputra Plains. Peninsula: The land area covered with
ocean on three sides. Subcontinent:
• The Plateau region of India has two A large area of a continent that stands
divisions namely the Central Highlands distinct from the rest of the continent and
and the Deccan Plateau. possesses almost all the characteristics
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands and of a continent.
Lakshadweep are the two major island Standard Time: The local time of
groups of India. central meridian of ones country.
• The Drainage System of India is classified Tributary: A river or stream which
into the north Indian (Himalayan) and contributes its water to main river.
Peninsular rivers.

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 Unit - 2
Climate
and Natural
Vegetation of
India

Learning Objectives

„„To describe the factors controlling the climate of India.

„„To understand the characteristics of different seasons in India.
„„To know about the rainfall distribution.
„„To study the different types of natural vegetation and wild life in India.

Introduction 2.1  The factors affecting the

We drink more water during summer climate
and do not drink the same amount of water Climate of India is affected by the factors
during winter. Why do we wear cotton or of latitude, distance from the seas, monsoon
lighter clothes during summer season and wind, relief features and jet stream.
heavy woollen clothes during cold weather
2.1.1 Latitude
season in north India? Why do not we wear
woollen clothes in south India? This is Latitudinally, India lies between 8°4'N
because of the prevalence of varying weather and 37°6'N latitudes. The Tropic of cancer
conditions between north and south India. In divides the country into two equal halves. The
the previous chapter, you have learnt about area located to the south of Tropic of cancer
the landforms and drainage of our country, experiences high temperature and no severe
which dealt with the natural environment. In cold season throughout the year whereas, the
this chapter, you will learn about the climate, areas to the north of this parallel enjoys sub-
rainfall distribution, natural vegetation and tropical climate. Here, summer temperature
wildlife of our country. may rise above 40°C and it is close to freezing
point during winter.
Equable climate is also called 2.1.2 Altitude
as the British climate, Which is When the altitude increases, The
neither too hot nor too cold. temperatures decreases. Temperature decreases
at the rate of 6.50C for every 1000 metres of
ascent. It is called normal lapse rate.

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 Hence, places in the mountains are
cooler than the places on the plains. That • Weather refers to the state
is why the places located at higher altitudes of atmosphere of a place at a
even in south India have cool climate. Ooty given point of time.
and several other hill stations of south India • Climate is the accumulation
and of the Himalayan ranges like Mussourie, of daily and seasonal weather
Shimla etc., are much cooler than the places events of a given location over a period of
located on the Great Plains. 30-35 years.

Find out the temperature of onset of southwest monsoon brings down the
fi nd out
Ooty (2240m) if it is 350C in temperature of the entire India and causes
Chennai (6.7m) moderate to heavy rainfall in many parts of
the country. Similarly, the climate of southeast
2.1.3 Distance from the Sea India is also influenced by northeast monsoon.
Distance from the sea does not cause 2.1.5 Relief
only temperature and pressure variations but
Relief of India has a great bearing
also affects the amount of rainfall. A large area
on major elements of climate such as
of India, especially the peninsular region, is
temperature, atmospheric pressure, direction
not very far from the sea and this entire area
of winds and the amount of rainfall. The
has a clear maritime influence on climate.
Himalayas acts as a barrier to the freezing
This part of the country does not have a very
cold wind blows from central Asia and keep
clearly marked winter and the temperature
the Indian subcontinent warm. As such the
is equable almost throughout the year. Areas
north India experiences tropical climate even
of central and north India experience much
during winter. During southwest monsoon,
seasonal variation in temperature due to the
areas on the western slope of the Western
absence of influence of seas. Here, summers
Ghats receive heavy rainfall. On the contrary,
are hot and winters are cold. The annual
vast areas of Maharashtra, Karnataka,
temperature at Kochi does not exceed 30°C
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil nadu
as its location is on the coast while it is as
lie in rain shadow or leeward side of the
high as 40°C at Delhi, since it is located in
Western Ghats receive very little rainfall.
the interior part. Air near the coast has more
During this season, Mangalore, located on
moisture and greater potential to produce
the coast gets the rainfall of about 280 cm
precipitation. Due to this fact, the amount of
whereas the Bengaluru located on the leeward
rainfall at Kolkata located near the coast is
side receives only about 50 cm rainfall.
119 cm and it decreases to just 24 cm at
Bikaner which is located in the interior part.
2.1.6. Jet Streams
2.1.4 Monsoon Wind Jet streams are the fast moving winds
blowing in a narrow zone in the upper
The most dominant factor which affects
atmosphere. According to the Jet stream
the climate of India is the monsoon winds.
theory, the onset of southwest monsoon is
These are seasonal reversal winds and India
driven by the shift of the sub tropical westerly
remains in the influence of these winds for a
jet from the plains of India towards the
considerable part of a year. Though, the sun’s
Tibetan plateau. The easterly jet streams cause
rays are vertical over the central part of India
tropical depressions both during southwest
during the mid-June, the summer season ends
monsoon and retreating monsoon.
in India by the end of May. It is because the

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 2.2  Monsoon 2.2.1 Seasons
The word ‘monsoon’ has been derived The meteorologists
from the Arabic word ‘Mausim’ which means recognize the four distinct
‘season’. Originally, the word ‘monsoon’ was seasons in India. They are;
used by Arab navigators several centuries ago, 1. Winter or cold
to describe a system of seasonal reversal of weather season
winds along the shores of the Indian Ocean, (January - February).
especially over the Arabian Sea. It blows from 2. Pre Monsoon or summer or hot weather
the south-west to north-east during summer season (March - May).
and from the north-east to south-west during
winter. 3. Southwest monsoon or rainy season
(June - September).
Monsoons are a complex meteorological
phenomenon. Meteorologists have developed 4. Northeast monsoon season
a number of concepts about the origin (October - December).
of monsoons. According to the Dynamic
concept, Monsoon wind originates due to 1. Winter or cold weather season
the seasonal migration of planetary winds During this period, the vertical rays of
and pressure belts following the position of the sun falls over tropic of capricorn which
the sun. During summer solstice, the sun’s is far away from India. Hence, India receives
rays fall vertically over the Tropic of cancer. the slanting sun’s rays which results in low
Therefore, all the pressure and wind belts temperature. The cold weather season is
of the globe shift northwards. At this time, characterized by clear skies, fine weather,
Inter -Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) light northerly winds, low humidity and
also moves northward, and a major part of large day time variations of temperature.
Indian landmass comes under the influence During this season a high pressure develops
of southeast trade winds. While crossing over north India and a north-westerly wind
equator this wind gets deflected and takes the blows down the Indus and Ganges valleys.
direction of southwest and becomes south- In south India, the general direction of wind
west monsoon. During the winter season, is from east to west. The mean temperature
the pressure and wind belts shift southward, increases from north to south, the decrease
thereby establishing the north-east monsoon being sharp as one moves northwards in
(trade winds) over this region. Such systematic the north-western part of the country. The
change in the direction of planetary winds is mean daily minimum temperatures range
known as monsoon. from 22°C in the extreme south, to 10°C
in the northern plains and 6°C in Punjab.
The rain during this season generally
Atacama desert is the driest occurs over the Western Himalayas, Tamil
place on the earth. nadu and Kerala. Western disturbances and
associated trough in westerlies are main
rain bearing system in northern part of the
country. The jet stream plays a dominant
role in bringing these disturbances to
India. These disturbances cause rainfall in
Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh,
and snowfall in the hills of Jammu and
Kashmir. This rainfall is very useful for the
cultivation of winter wheat.

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 2. Pre Monsoon or summer or Konkan coast in early June and covers the
hot weather season whole country by 15th July. The monsoon
is influenced by global phenomenon like
During this season, the vertical rays of
ElNino.
the sun falls over the peninsular India. Hence,
there is a steady increase in temperature from Prior to the onset of the southwest
south to north. It is practically hot and dry monsoon, the temperature in north India
in the entire country in the initial part of reaches upto 46°C. The sudden approach
this season. Weather over the land areas of of monsoon wind over south India with
the country is influenced by thunderstorms lightning and thunder is termed as the
associated with rain and sometimes with ‘break’ or ‘burst of monsoon’. It lowers
hail mostly in the middle and later part. the temperature of India to a large extent.
During this season, temperature starts The monsoon wind strikes against the
increasing all over the country and by April, southern tip of Indian land mass and gets
the interior parts of south India record mean divided into two branches. One branch
daily temperatures of 30°C–35°C. Central starts from Arabian sea and the other from
Indian land mass becomes hot with day-time Bay of Bengal. The Arabian sea branch of
maximum temperature reaching about 40°C southwest monsoon gives heavy rainfall to
at many locations. Many stations in Gujarat, the west coast of India as it is located in the
North Maharashtra, Rajasthan and North windward side of the Western Ghats. The
Madhya Pradesh exhibit high day-time and other part which advances towards north
low night-time temperatures during this is obstructed by Himalayan Mountains
season. and results in heavy rainfall in north. As
Aravalli Mountain is located parallel to the
Because of the atmospheric pressure
wind direction, Rajasthan and western part
conditions, the winds blow from southwest
do not get much rainfall from this branch.
to northeast direction in Arabian Sea and Bay
The wind from Bay of Bengal branch moves
of Bengal. They bring pre monsoon showers
towards northeast India and Myanmar. This
to the west coast during the month of May.
wind is trapped by a chain of mountains
There are few thunder showers called “Mango
namely Garo, Khasi and Jaintia are mainly
Showers” which helps in quick ripening
responsible for the heaviest rainfall caused
of mangoes along the coast of Kerala and
at Mawsynram located in Meghalaya. Later
Karnataka. “Norwesters” or “Kalbaisakhis”
on, this wind travel towards west which
are the local severe storms or violent
results in decrease in rainfall from east to
thunderstorms associated with strong winds
west. Over all about 75% of Indian rainfall
and rain lasting for short durations. It occurs
is received from this monsoon. Tamil nadu
over the eastern and north eastern parts over
which is located in the leeward side receives
Bihar, West Bengal and Assam during April
only a meagre rainfall.
and May. They approach the stations from the
northwesterly direction.
4. Post monsoon or Retreating or
3. Southwest monsoon or Rainy Northeast monsoon season
Season The southwest monsoon begins to retreat
from north India by the end of September due
The southwest monsoon is the most
to the southward shifting pressure belts. The
significant feature of the Indian climate. The
southwest monsoon wind returns from Indian
onset of the southwest monsoon takes place
landmass and blows towards Bay of Bengal. The
normally over the southern tip of the country
coriolis force deflects this wind and makes it
by the first week of June, advances along the

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 South West Monsoon In India North East Monsoon In India
N N

W E W E
S S

I N D I A I N D I A

Arabian Bay of Arabian Bay of

Sea Bengal Sea Bengal

Not to Scale Not to Scale

Indian Ocean Indian Ocean

India Monsoons
to blow from northeast. Hence, it is known as
Northeast monsoon or Post-monsoon season. Hots
The season is associated with the establishment Why is Mawsynram, the wettest place
of the north-easterly wind system over the Indian in the world.
subcontinent. Andhra Pradesh, Tamil nadu,
Kerala and south interior Karnataka receive good
amount of rainfall accounted for 35% of their 2.3  Distribution of rainfall
annual total. Many parts of Tamil nadu and some The average annual rainfall of India is
parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka receive 118 cm. However, spatial distribution of
rainfall during this season due to the storms rainfall in the country is highly uneven. About
forming in the Bay of Bengal. Large scale losses to 11% area receives over 200 cm of annual
life and property occur due to heavy rainfall, strong rainfall, 21% area receives 125 to 200 cm,
winds and storm surge in the coastal regions. The 37% area receives 75 to 125 cm, 24% area gets
day time temperatures start falling sharply all over 35 to 75 cm and 7% area gets less than 35 cm.
the country. The mean temperature over north- The Western coast, Assam, South Meghalaya,
western parts of the country shows a decline from Tripura, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh are
about 38°C in October to 28°C in November. the heavy rainfall areas which get more than
200 cm rainfall. The whole of Rajasthan,
Mawsynram, the place Punjab, Haryana, Western and Southwestern
which receives highest rainfall parts of Uttar Pradesh, Western Madhya
(1141 cm) in the world. It is Pradesh, the entire Deccan Trap or Plateau
located in Meghalaya. region east of Western Ghats except for a
narrow strip along Tamil nadu coast receive a
low rainfall of less than 100 cm. The rest of the
areas receive a rainfall ranging between 100
and 200 cm.

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 N

W E
S
NATURAL VEGETATION
OF INDIA

Arabian
Sea

ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLA

Bay of
Bengal
LASKSHADWEEP

(INDIA)
(INDIA)

Tropical Evergreen Forests

Coastal Forests

Tropical Dry Forests

Desert Forests
NDS

Tidal Forests

Not to Scale Eastern Himalaya Forests

Western Himalayan Forests
Indian Ocean Alpine Forests
Cold Desert Forests

2.4 Natural Vegetation are the important environmental controls of

natural vegetation.
Natural vegetation refers to a plant
community unaffected by man either directly On the basis of the above factors the
or indirectly. It has its existence in certain natural vegetation of India can be divided
natural environment. Natural vegetation into the following types.
includes all plant life forms such as trees, 2.4.1 Tropical Evergreen Forest
bushes, herbs and forbs etc, that grow These forests are found in areas with 200 cm
naturally in an area and have been left or more annual rainfall. The annual temperature
undisturbed by humans for a long time. is about more than 22°C and the average annual
Climate, soil and landform characteristics humidity exceeds 70 percent in this region.
Western Ghats in Maharashtra, Karnataka,

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 Kerala, Andaman-Nicobar Islands, Assam, north Gujarat and south-west Punjab. They
West Bengal, Nagaland, Tripura, Mizoram, are also found in the very dry parts of the
Manipur and Meghalaya states have this type Deccan plateau in Karnataka, Maharashtra
of forests. The most important trees are rubber, and Andhra Pradesh. Babul, kikar and wild
mahogany, ebony, rosewood, coconut, bamboo, palms are common trees found here.
cinchona, candes, palm, iron wood and cedar. 2.4.4 Mountain or Montane Forest
These have not been fully exploited due to lack
These forests are classified on the basis of
of transport facilities.
altitude and amount of rainfall. Accordingly two
2.4.2  Tropical Deciduous Forest different types of forests namely Eastern Himalayas
These are found in the areas with 100 to Forests and Western Himalayas Forests.
200cm. annual rainfall. These are called i. Eastern Himalayan Forest: These are
‘Monsoon Forests’. The mean annual found on the slopes of the mountains in
temperature of this region is about 27oC and north-east states. These forests receive
the average annual relative humidity is 60 to rainfall of more than 200 cm. The vegetation
70 percent. The trees of these forests drop their is of evergreen type. The Altitude between
leaves during the spring and early summer. (Sub 1200-2400 m found in this type of forest
Himalayan - Region from Punjab to Assam, sal, oak, laurel, amura, chestnut, cinnamon
Great Plains- Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, are the main trees from 1200 to 2400 m
Bihar, West Bengal, Central India - Jharkhand, altitude oak, birch, silver, fir, fine, spruce
Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, South India - and juniper are the major trees from 2400
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra to 3600 m height.
Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Kerala states are
(ii) Western Himalayan Forest: The rainfall
notable for this type of natural vegetation.)
of this region is moderate. These forests are
Teak and sal are the most important trees.
found in the states of Jammu and Kashmir,
Sandalwood, rosewood, kusum, mahua, palas,
Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Upto
haldu, amla, padauk, bamboo and tendu are
900 m altitude semi desert vegetation is
the other trees of economic importance. These
found and it is known for bushes and small
forests also provide fragrant oil, varnish,
trees. In altitude from 900 to 1800 m,
sandal oil and perfumes.
chir tree is the most common tree. The
2.4.3  Tropical Dry Forest other important trees of this region are
These are found in the areas with 50 to sal, semal, dhak, jamun and jujube. (height
100 cm. annual rainfall. They represent a High altitude zone of forests
transitional type of forests. These are found 9000
in east Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Western
8000
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Eastern
Maharashtra, Telangana, West Karnataka and 7000
East Tamilnadu. The important species are 6000
Eternal snows and glaciers

mahua, banyan, amaltas, palas, haldu, kikar, Alpine meadows

bamboo, babool, khair etc., 5000
Sub-alpine meadows
Desert and Semi-desert Vegetation: 4000
These are also called as ‘Tropical thorn Coniferous forests
3000
forests’. These are found in the areas having Deciduous broadleaf forests
annual rainfall of less than 50 cm. They have 2000
low humidity and high temperature. These 1000
Evergreen sub-tropical forests

forests are found in north-west India which Sub-equatorial rainforest

includes west Rajasthan, south-west Haryana, 0m

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 GREEN COVER IN INDIA
Total forest and tree cover 8,02,088 sq km TOP FIVE STATES WHERE
(% of geographical area: 24.39%) FOREST COVER DECREASED
Forest cover in sq km
Year Tree cover Arunachal
2017 93,815 Pradesh
sq km Meghalaya 190
Total forest cover
116
7,08,273
sq km (% of TOP FIVE STATES WHERE
Nagaland
geographical 450
area - 21.54%) MAXIMUM FOREST COVER
INCREASED in sq km
COMPARATIVE FIGURES Tripura Mizoram
Total forest cover (& of total geographical area) 164 531
Telangana
7.2
7.08 (21.54%) 565 Odisha FOREST FIRE
7.0 885
lakh sq km Karnataka
6.8 2012 40,528
6.6 6.40 1,101 2013 25,061
(19.49%) Andhra
6.4
Kerala Pradesh 2014 26,797
6.2 1,043 2,141 2015 22,465
6.0 2016 33,664
1987 1991 1995 1999 2003 2009 2013 2017

from 1800 to 3000 m is covered with semi trees. Both the eastern and western coasts
temperate coniferous forests.) Chir, deodar, have this type of forests. The coasts of Kerala
blue pine, poplar, birch and elder are the and Goa are known for this type.
main trees of this region. 2.4.8 Riverine Forest
2.4.5 Alpine Forest These forests are found along the rivers
It occurs all along the Himalayas with on Khadar areas. These are known for
above 2400 m altitude. These are purely having tamarisk and tamarind trees. The rivers of
coniferous trees. Oak, silver fir, pine and juniper Great Plains are more prominent for this type
are the main trees of these forests. The eastern of natural vegetation.
parts of Himalayas has large extent of these forests. 2.5  Wildlife
2.4.6 Tidal Forest The term ‘Wildlife’ includes animals
These forests occur in and around the of any habitat in nature. Wild animals are
deltas, estuaries and creeks prone to tidal non-domesticated animals and include both
influences and as such are also known as delta vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds
or swamp forests. The delta of the Ganga- and mammals) and invertebrates (bees,
Brahmaputra has the largest tidal forest. The butterflies, moths etc.). India has a rich and
deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna diversified wildlife. The Indian fauna consists
rivers are also known for tidal forests. These of about 81,251 species of animals out of the
are also known as mangrove forest. world’s total of about 1.5 million species.
The faunal diversity of the country consists
2.4.7 Coastal Forest
of about 6500 invertebrates, 5000 molluscs,
These are littoral forests. Generally, 2546 fishes, 1228 birds, 458 mammals,
coastal areas have these types of forests. 446 reptiles, 204 amphibians, 4 panthers and
Casurina, palm and coconut are the dominant about 60,000 species of insects.
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 The Nilgiri
Tahr is facing
a major threat
in the Western
Ghats. Continuous
poaching activities and Eucalyptus
cultivation hampering its habitat,
the Nilgiri Tahr population is
continuously decreasing.

The Black Buck is

the state animal of
Andhra Pradesh,
Haryana and Punjab.

Our country is home to tigers, lions, of India enacted Wildlife (Protection) Act
leopards, snow leopards, pythons, wolves, in 1972 with the objective of effectively
foxes, bears, crocodiles, rhinoceroses, camels, protecting the wild life of the country and to
wild dogs, monkeys, snakes, antelope species, control poaching, smuggling and illegal trade
deer species, varieties of bison and the in wildlife and its diversities. United Nations
mighty Asian elephant. Hunting, poaching, Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
deforestation and other anthropogenic in 1992 recognizes the sovereign rights of
interferences in the natural habitats have states to use their own Biological Resources.
caused extinction of some species and To preserve the country’s rich and diverse
many are facing the danger of extinction. wildlife a network of 102 National Parks and
In view of this and the role of wild life in about 515 Wildlife Sanctuaries across the
maintaining ecological balance, conservation country have been created.
and management of biodiversity of India is
necessary at present situation. 2.5 Biosphere Reserves
The Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL) Biosphere reserves are protected areas of
was constituted in 1952 to suggest means of land coastal environments wherein people are an
protection, conservation and management of integral component of the system.
wildlife to the government. The Government

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 N
BIOSPHERE RESERVES IN INDIA W E
S

Jammu and Kashmir

Himachal Cold desert

Pradesh
Nanda Devi
Punjab U
Chandigarh ara
kh
an
Haryana d Dihand-Dibang
l
ha
Delhi ac esh
kanjanjunga u n
Ar Prad
Sikkim Dibru-Saikhowa
Rajasthan
Uar Pradesh Manas Nagaland
Assam
Bihar
Meghalaya
Nokrek Manipur

Rann of Kutch Panna Jharkhand

Tripura
West Bengal Mizoram
Madhya Pradesh
Gujarat Sunderban
Pachmarhi
Achanakmar-
Amarkantak
Diu
garh

Daman
Dadra and Nagar Odisha Simlipal
a‰s

Haveli
Chh

Maharashtra
Telangana

Goa Bay of Bengal

Andra Pradesh
Arabian Sea Seshachalam
Karnataka LEGEND
Andaman and Nicobar Islands

World Network of Biosphere

Puducherry Reserves (UNESCO)
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserves
(India)

Tamil Nadu

Lakshadweep Agasthyamalai
(India)

Gulf of
Mannar
Great Nicobar

Not to Scale
Indian Ocean

Eleven of the eighteen biosphere reserves

The Indian government has established 18
(Gulf of Mannar, Nandadevi, the Nilgiris,
Biosphere Reserves in India which protect larger
Nokrek, Pachmarhi, Simlipal, Sundarbans
areas of natural habitat and often include one or
Agasthiyamalai, Great Nicobar, Kanjanjunga
more National Parks preserves along with buffer
and Amarkantak) of India fall under the list of
zones that are open to some economic uses.
Man and Biosphere programme of UNESCO.

107 Climate and Natural Vegetation of India

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 Unit - 3

Components of
Agriculture

Learning Objectives

„„To understand the nature of India’s soil types and their distribution.
„„To know about the importance of irrigation and multi-purpose
projects in India.
„„To study about the agriculture, its types and importance.
„„To understand the livestock and fishing resources of India
„„To comprehend the problems of farming in India.

Introduction 3.1.1  Types of Soils

Soil is one of the most important natural The Indian Council of Agriculture
resources. India’s varied natural environments Research (ICAR) set up in 1953 divides the
resulted in a great variety of soils compared to soils of India into the following eight major
any other country of similar size in the world. The groups.
rich, deep and fertile soils support high density
of population through agricultural prosperity. Types of Soils in India

3.1  Soils Saline &

Alkaline Soil
Peaty &
Marshy Soil
Soil is the uppermost layer of the land Laterite Soil
1.29%

2.17%
Black Soil
surface, usually composed of minerals, 29.69%
2.62%
organic matter, living organisms, air and Arid & Desert Soil
6.13%
water. Grains in the soil are of three categories Red Soil Forest &
namely, clay, silt, and sand. Soils are generally 28% Mountain
formed by the weathering of rocks under Alluvial Soil Soil
22.16% 7.94%
different conditions. Some soils are formed
by the deposition of agents of denudation.
Soils can vary greatly from one region to the
other.

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 Soil Type Characteristics Distribution Crops growing
Alluvial Khadar – light coloured, more siliceous. Ganga and Rice,
soil Bhangar – the older alluvium composed of Brahmaputra
Wheat,
lime nodules and has clayey composition. It is river valleys;
Plains of Sugarcane and
dark in colour.
Uttar Pradesh, Oilseeds
Formation - sediments deposited by streams
Uttaranchal,
and rivers when they slowly loose
Punjab,
Chemical properties - rich in potash,
Haryana, West
phosphoric acid, lime and carbon compounds
Bengal and
but poor in nitrogen
Bihar
Nature –Sandy-loam-silt-clay
profile shows no marked differentiation
Black soils Formation - Derived from basalts of Deccan Maharashtra Cotton, Millets,
trap. and Malwa Tobacco and
Colour - black colour, due to presence of plateaus, Sugarcane
titanium, iron. Kathiawar
Chemical properties - Consist of calcium and peninsula,
magnesium arbonates, high quantities of iron, Telangana and
aluminium, lime and magnesia. Rayalaseema
region of
Rich in potash lime, Aluminium calcium and
Andhra
magnesium poor in Nitrogen Phosphoric acid
Pradesh and
and humus
northern part of
Nature - Sticky when wet Karnataka
High degree of moisture retentivity
Red soils Formation - decomposition of ancient Eastern parts of Wheat, Rice,
crystalline rocks like granites and gneisses and Deccan plateau, Cotton,
from rock type southern states Sugarcane and
Chemical properties - rich in minerals such as of Kerala, Tamil Pulses
iron and magnesium. Nadu, Karnataka
and Chota
Deficient in nitrogen, humus, phosphoric acid
Nagpur plateau
and lime.
(Jharkhand)
Nature - Light texture, porous friable presence
of limited soluble salts Clay fraction of the red
soils generally consists of Kaolinitic minerals.
Laterite Formation - formed in the regions where Assam hills, Coffee, Rubber,
soils alternate wet and hot dry conditions prevail. It hill summits Cashew nut and
is formed by the process of leaching of Kerala and Tapioca
Chemical properties - Composed mainly of Karnataka and
hydrated oxides of iron and aluminium, eastern Ghats
and region of
Nature - More acidic on higher areas poor in
Odisha
high level, cannot retain moisture while plains
they consist of heavy loam and clay and easily
retain moisture

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 Soil Type Characteristics Distribution Crops growing
Forest and Differ from region to region depending on Coniferous Coffee, tea, rice,
mountain climate. forest belts maize, potato,
soils Formation - due to mechanical weathering of Jammu barley, tropical
caused by snow, rain, temperature variation and Kashmir, fruits and
Chemical properties - are deficient in potash, Himachal various types of
Phosphorus and lime. Pradesh, spices
Uttarakhand
Nature - light, sandy, thin and found with the
and Sikkim.
pieces of rock. Their character changes with
Eastern and
the parent rocks. Very rich in humus. slow
Western Ghats
decomposition makes it acidic
Arid and Formation - Due to prevalence of the dry Rajasthan, millets,
desert climate, hightemperature and accelerated Northern barley, cotton,
soils evaporation, the soil is dry, it also lacks humus Gujarat and maize and pulses
content due to the absence of vegetative cover southern Punjab
(with irrigation)
Chemical properties - Contain high
percentages of soluble salts, alkaline with
varying degree of calcium carbonate and
are poor in organic matter; rich enough in
phosphate though poor in nitrogen
Nature - light in colour, low humus,friable
structure, low in moisture
Saline and Formation - formed due to ill drainage Andhra Pradesh
alkaline which causes water logging, injurious salts are and Karnataka.
soils transferred from subsurface to the top soil by the In the drier
capillary action, it causes the salinisation of soils parts of Bihar,
Chemical properties - liberate sodium, Uttar Pradesh,
magnesium and calcium salts and sulphurous Haryana,
acid Punjab,
Nature - Consists of un decomposed rock and Rajasthan and
mineral fragments which on weathering Maharashtra
Peaty and Formation - formed in humid regions from the Kottayam and Paddy, jute
marshy organic matter. It is found in the areas of heavy Alappuzha
soils rainfall and high humidity Peaty soils are black, districts of
heavyand highly acidic. Kerala; and
Chemical properties - deficient in potash coastal areas
and phosphate. Contain considerable amount of Odisha and
of soluble salts and 10-40 per cent of organic Tamil Nadu,
matter; and high proportion of vegetable Sundarbans of
matter. West Bengal,
in Bihar and
Nature - Contain considerable amount of
Almora district
Soluble salts and 10-40 per cent of organic
of Uttarakhand
matter; and high proportion of vegetable
matter.

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 Activity
Soil Texture (sand, silt, clay) influence on some properties of soils including water holding
capacity. Find out water holding capacity of soils which given above based on following table.
Property/behaviour sand silt clay
Water holding low Medium to high high
capacity

N
INDIA W E
MAJOR SOIL GROUPS
S

TYPES OF SOILS
Alluvial
Red
Black
Laterite
Forest and Mountain
Arid and Desert

Not to Scale Saline and Alkaline

Peaty and Marshy

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 3.2.1 Sources of Irrigation
Soil degradation
In India, different sources of irrigation
Soil degradation is an acute problem
are used depending upon the topography,
in India. According to a 2015 report of the
soils, rainfall, availability of surface or
Indian institute of remote sensing (IIRS).
groundwater, nature of river (whether
The estimated the amount of soil .erosion
perennial or non-perennial), requirements of
that occurred in India was 147 million
crops etc. The main sources of irrigation used
hectares.
in different parts of the country are
The main problems of the Indian
soils are i) soil erosion (sheet erosion, • Canal irrigation
Rill erosion, Gully erosion, Ravine • Well irrigation and
and Badland) ii) Degradation of Soil, • Tank irrigation
iii) Water-logging, iv) Saline and Alkaline,
and v) Salt Flats, types of soils are different a) Canal Irrigation
erotion.
It is the second most important source
Methods of Conservation and of irrigation in our country. Percentage of
Management of Soil area under canal irrigation in our country is
24% (source:Statistical year book 2017 during
1. Afforestation
2013-2014)
2. Constructing Dams and Barrages
3. Prevention of Overgrazing Other
4. Improved methods of Agricultural Sources 11% Tanks 3%
practices Canals 24%
Other wells 16%
• Contour method
Tube wells 46%
• Rotation of crops
• Contour bunding
• Strip cropping
• Planting of shelter belts Area under Irrigation
• Adopting the techniques of
Canals are the effective source of
sustainable agriculture are different
irrigation in areas of low level relief, deep,
conservation methods for better
fertile soils, perennial source of water and
soil management.
extensive command area. The canals are of
two types:
1. Inundation Canals: In this, water
3.2 Irrigation is taken out directly from the rivers
Watering of agricultural plants through without making any kind of barrage
artificial means is called irrigation. Being or dam. Such canals are useful for the
a hot country with seasonal and irregular diversion of flood water from the rivers
rainfall, it always needs irrigation to carry and remain operational during rainy
out agricultural activities during dry season.
period. Beside erratic rainfall, prevalence 2. Perennial Canals: These are developed
of high temperature, cultivation of annual from perennial rivers by constructing
crops and hydrophytes, commercial barrage to regulate the flow of water.
farming and porous soil make irrigation In our country, most of the canals fall
an essential one for the agriculture of our under this category. These canals are
country. useful for irrigation.
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 In India the total area under canal areas are in Ganga Plains, the deltaic region
irrigation is about 15.8 million hectares of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery
in 2014. About 60 percent of the canal and parts of Narmada and Tapti valleys.
irrigated area falls in the northern plains 2. Tube Wells: Tube wells are developed in
of India, particularly in Uttar Pradesh, the areas of low water table, sufficient
Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Bihar. In power supply and soft subsurface
south and central India, Andhra Pradesh, geological units. Tube wells are
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, predominant in the states of Gujarat,
Chattisgarh, Odisha, and Tamil Nadu are Maharashtra, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh
the important states where canal irrigation and Tamil Nadu.
is found.

b)  Well Irrigation c)  Tank Irrigation

A well is a hole or trough, usually A tank is a natural or man-made hollow
vertical, excavated in the earth for bringing on the surface developed by constructing a
groundwater to the surface. Well irrigation is small bund around it across a stream. It is
the most important source of irrigation as it used to collect and store water for irrigation
contributes about 62 percent of net irrigated and other purposes. Irrigation by tanks is
area in India. It is a cheap, dependable, and a very old system in India. It also includes
popular source of irrigation in the country. irrigation from lakes and ponds.
Well irrigation is unavoidable in the region The tank irrigation is popular in the
of low rainfall and becomes an essential one peninsular India due to the following
where the canals and tank irrigation are not reasons:
available. Wells are of two types: i) Open wells • The undulating relief and hard rocks
and ii) Tube wells make difficult to dig canals and wells.
• Natural depressions serve as reservoirs.
As per the Irrigation –
• Absence of perennial rivers.
Statistical Year Book India –
2017, the following states are • Impermeable rock structure which do
the top five with respect to the not permit percolation.
percentage of areas under well • The scattered nature of population and
irrigation during 2013-14. agricultural fields
The following table shows the five
Sl. Name Area in
leading states in tank irrigation:
No. of the State %
1. Uttar Pradesh 26.6
Sl. Name of the Area in Lakh
2. Madhya Pradesh 14.6 No. State Hectares (2013-14)
3. Rajasthan 13.1
1. Tamil Nadu 3.78
4. Gujarat 7.8
2. Andhra Pradesh 3.40
5. Punjab 7.1
Source: Irrigation-Statistical Year Book Madhya
3. 2.64
of India – 2017 Pradesh
4. Telangana 2.30
5. Karnataka 1.54
1. Open Wells: This type of irrigation
is widely practiced in the areas where Source: Irrigation – Statistical Year Book
groundwater is sufficiently available. The India – 2017

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 Modern irrigation methods Center-pivot irrigation (sometimes called
central pivot irrigation), also called water-
There are many ways in Modern Irrigation
wheel and circle irrigation, is a method of crop
among them mostly practiced and following in
irrigation in which equipment rotates around a
India are using drips, sprinklers and poly houses
pivot and crops are watered with sprinklers
central pivot irrigation
Drip System is used to watering like drops at 3.2.2 Multipurpose River Valley
near the roots of plant. It will cover a tiny area at Projects
plant, but suitable for big trees and horticulture
It is a scientific
plants too which used to grow bigger
management of water
Rain Gun: Rain gun used to spread water resources in our country.
like rain as in name and used to serve for crops Construction of dam
which used to grow upto 4 feets or high also but across rivers is aimed at
we have to adjust sprinklers height as per crop many purposes. Hence,
size. typical usage of Rain guns are in sugarcane,
maize crops.

Pivot irrigation

Irrigation Hydropower
Name of projects River Benefit States
(sq km) (Megawatts)
Damodar Valley project Damodar Jharkhand, West Bengal 5,150 .260

Bhakra-Nangal Project (highest Sutlej Punjab, Haryana and 52,609 1,500

gravity dam in the world) Rajasthan
Hirakud Project Mahanadi Orissa 1,41,600 347.5
(longest dam in the world)
Kosi Project Kosi Bihar & Nepal 8,750 19.2
‘(Sorrow of Bihar’.)
Tungabhadra Project Tungabhadra Andhra Pradesh and 1,968 35.
Karnataka
Tehri Dam: Bhagirathi Uttarakhand 6000 1,000 MW
Chambal Valley Project Chambal Rajasthan and - -
Madhya Pradesh
Nagarjuna Sagar Project Krishna Andhra Pradesh
Sardar Sarover Project Narmada Madhya Pradesh, 18,450 250
Maharashtra, Rajasthan
Indira Gandhi Canal Project Satlaj Rajasthan, Punjab and - -
Haryana
Mettur Dam Kaveri Tamil Nadu - 40

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 119 Components of Agriculture

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 it is termed as multi-purpose river valley crops with the help of family members and
projects. The various purposes of a dam consumes almost the entire farm produce with
serves are irrigation, hydro power generation, little surplus to sell in the market. Preference
water supply for drinking and industrial is given to food crops. In addition to the
purpose, controlling floods, development of food crops, sugarcane, oilseeds, cotton, jute
fisheries, navigation etc. Generally, majority and tobacco are also cultivated. Traditional
of multipurpose projects are combination of farming method results in low productivity.
irrigation and hydro-power which are the In Punjab, some parts of Rajasthan, Uttar
major aims of the projects.  Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh subsistence
farming is practiced.
3.3  Agriculture
b)  Shifting Agriculture
Agriculture is the process of producing
This type of agriculture is performed by
food for people, fodder for cattle, fiber and
tribal people in a piece of forest land after
many other desired products by the cultivation
clearing the trees through felling and burning
of certain plants and the raising of domesticated
the trunks and branches. Once the land is
animals (livestock). Though India is industrially
cleared, crops are grown for two to three years
a fast developing nation, still the agriculture
and the land will get abandoned as the fertility
in India employs more than 50 percent of the
of the soil decreases. The farmers then move
population of the country and accounts for
to new areas and the process will be repeated.
about 25 percent of the national income.
They cultivate some grains and vegetable crops
3.3.1 Determinants of Agriculture using the manual labour. It is also called as
“Slash and burn” cultivation.
Agriculture in India is determined by a
set of factors. Some of the important factors: Different names of shifting agriculture in
1. Physical factors: relief, climate and soil. different regions in India
Name Place
2. Institutional factors: Size of farm
Jhum Assam
holdings, land tenure, and land reforms.
Poonam Kerela
3. Infrastructural factors: Irrigation,
Podu Andhra Pradesh, Odisha
power, transport, credit, market,
insurance and storage facilities. Beewar, Mashan, Various Parts of Madhya
Penda, Beera Pradesh
4. Technological factors: High yielding
varieties of seeds, chemical fertilisers, c)  Intensive Farming
insecticides and machinery.
Intensive farming is an agricultural
3.3.2 Types of Farming intensification and mechanization system
Owing to variations in the physical that aims to maximize yields from available
environment and culture, a variety of farming land through various means, such as heavy
practices and cultivation systems have evolved use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers. This
in different parts of India. intensification and mechanization has also been
applied to the raising of livestock with billions
a)  Subsistence Farming of animals, such as cows, pigs and chickens,
A considerable proportion of farmers being held indoors. They have become known
in the country practice subsistence farming. as factory farms. Intensive farming is practiced
In this, agricultural land holding is small. in  Punjab, parts of  Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
As the farmers are poor, they can’t apply the and Madhya Pradesh in India.
modern inputs which cost more. They grow
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 d)  Dry Farming
PER DROP MORE
This type of farming is practiced in arid CROP : (Improving water use
areas where irrigation facilities are lacking. efficiency) - Pradhan Mantri
Crops cultivated in these areas can withstand Krishi Sinchayee Yojana
dry conditions. The crops grown generally (PMKSY)
with the help of irrigation are also grown
The Government of India has been
under dry farming. In such circumstances,
implementing Centrally Sponsored
the yields are generally low. Most of the areas
Scheme on Micro Irrigation with the
under dry cultivation entertain only one crop
objective to enhance water use efficiency
per year. This is practiced in drier parts of
in the agriculture sector by promoting
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh etc.
appropriate technological interventions
e)  Mixed Farming Agriculture like drip & sprinkler irrigation technologies
Mixed farming is defined as a system of and encourage the farmers to use water
farm which includes crop production, raising saving and conservation technologies.
livestock, poultry, fisheries, bee keeping etc. to The following are the five leading
sustain and satisfy as many needs of the farmer states which account for 78% of the
as possible. total progress under Micro Irrigation
scheme: 1.  Andhra Pradesh, 2. Karnataka,
3. Gujarat, 4. Maharashtra, and 5. Tamil
Nadu.

f)  Terrace Cultivation

This type of cultivation is practiced
specially in hilly areas, where lands are of
sloping nature. The hill and mountain slopes
are cut to form terraces and the land is used
in the same way as in permanent agriculture.
Mixed Farming Agriculture Since the availability of flat land is limited,
terraces are made to provide small patches
of level land. Soil erosion is also checked

Cropping Seasons in India

Cropping Seasons Major crops cultivated

Northern States Southern States

Kharif Season Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Rice, Ragi, Maize,

June–September Maize, Jowar, Tur Jowar, Groundnut

Rabi Season Wheat, Gram, Rapeseeds, Rice, Maize, Ragi,

October–March Mustard, Barley Groundnut, Jowar

Zaid Season Vegetables, Fruits, Rice, Vegetables,

April–June Fodder Fodder

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 due to terrace formation on hill slopes. In ii) Ploughing or drilling, and iii) Transplanting.
our country, terrace cultivation takes place Due to increased use of High Yielding Variety
in the states of Punjab, Meghalaya, Haryana, (HYV) seeds (CR Dhan 205, AR Dhan 306,
Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, and CRR 451 etc.), many of the indigenous varieties
Uttrakhand. were disappeared. In 2016, the first 10 leading
rice producing states are West Bengal (First
in India) Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Odisha,
Assam, and Haryana.

Terrace Cultivation

3.4  Major Crops Cultivated

in India
The major crops of India are divided into
four major categories as follows:
1. Food crops (wheat, maize, rice, millets,
pulses etc.).
2. Cash crops (sugarcane, tobacco, cotton,
jute, oilseeds etc.).
3. Plantation crops (tea, coffee and
rubber).
4. Horticulture crops (fruits, flowers and
vegetables).

1.  Food Crops

Due to its large population, Indian
agriculture is largely dominated by the
food crops. Food crops include cereals and
pulses, amongst which rice, wheat, jowar, Paddy Cultivation
bajra, maize, barley, ragi, gram and tur are
important. Wheat: Wheat is the second most
Rice: Rice is an indigenous crop. India is important food crop of the country, after rice.
the second largest producer of rice in the world It accounts for 22 percent of the total area
after China. It is mainly a tropical crop, growing and 34 percent of the total production of food
mainly with mean temperatures of 24°C and grains in the country. It requires 10-15°C
annual rainfall of 150 cm. Deep fertile clayey or at the time of sowing and 20-25°C at the time
loamy soils are suited well for rice cultivation. It of ripening of grains.
also needs abundant supply of cheap labour. Rice Over 85% of the India’s wheat production
in India is sown in three ways: i) Broadcasting, comes from 5 states namely Uttar Pradesh,
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 Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Madhya in vegetable protein. They are used as human
Pradesh. Apart from these regions, the black food and feeding cattle. They fix atmospheric
soil tract of the Deccan covering parts of nitrogen in the soil and hence are usually
Maharashtra and Gujarat also contribute a rotated with other crops. India is the largest
major wheat production. producer of pulses. The major pulse growing
areas are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
N
WHEAT PRODUCTION
W E
Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.
IN INDIA
S

2.  Cash Crops

The crops which are cultivated for
commercial purpose are called cash crops.
These crops include sugarcane, tobacco, fibre
crops (cotton, jute, and mesta) and oilseeds.
Sugarcane: Sugarcane is the most
important cash crop of India and is the second
Bay of Bengal
Arabian largest producer in the world. This crop
Sea
provides raw material for the sugar industry
WHEAT
which is the second largest industrial category
of our country. Besides providing sugar, gur
Not to Scale
and khandsari, it supplies molasses for alcohol
Indian Ocean industry and bagasse for paper industry.
India is ranked third in sugar production in
Jowar: Jowar is the third important food
the world after Cuba and Brazil. At the state
crop of our country. It is an indigenous plant
level, Uttar Pradesh is the leading producer
of Africa. The plant has a tendency to grow
of sugarcane followed by Maharashtra,
in adverse climatic conditions. Its grains are
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Gujarat.
rich in carbohydrates, protein, minerals, and
vitamins. Hence, it provides cheap food to the N

large section of the poor population. It is also INDIA W E

MAJOR CASH CROPS S

used as fodder in many parts of the country.

Jowar is essentially a crop of the Peninsular
India. Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Madhya
Pradesh are the leading producers of Jowar.
Bajra: Bajra is an indigenous plant of
Africa. This forms the staple food for poor
people. Its stalks are used as fodder for cattle
and for thatching purposes. Bajra is a crop of
dry region. Rajasthan is the largest producer
of bajra followed by Uttar Pradesh, Haryana,
Gujarat and Maharashtra. LEGEND

Barley: Barley is one of the important SUGARCANE

COTTON
cereals of our country. Besides, being poor JUTE

man’s diet, it is used for making barley water, OILS AND SEEDS

TEA
beer and whiskey. Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh COFFEE

are the two leading producers of Barley. Not to Scale

RUBBER
SPICES

Pulses: Pulses include a large number of

crops which are mostly leguminous and rich India - Cash crops
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 Cotton: Cotton is the most important cash varieties have been developed by mixing these
crop of India. It provides raw material to the two. India is the second largest producer of tea
largest industry of India. India ranks second after China in the world. Assam is the larger
next to China in the production of cotton. producer of tea in India. Other states are Tamil
About 79% of the total area and production Nadu, Kerala and West Bengal.
in the country were contributed by four states Coffee: Coffee is grown in shade and it
viz., Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh grows effectively in the altitudes between 1,000
and Punjab. and 1,500 m above mean sea level. There are
Jute: It is a tropical fibre crops, grows well two main varieties of coffee. They are i) Arabica
in the alluvial soil. It provides raw material for (High quality-cultivated more in India) and ii)
Jute industry. It is used for manufacturing of Robusta (Inferior quality).
gunny bags, carpets, hessian, ropes and strings, India is the 7th largest producer of coffee
rugs, clothes, tarpaulins, upholstery etc. West globally. Karnataka is the leading producer of
Bengal is the leading state both in cultivation coffee in India. It produces 71% in India, and
and production of jute. The other cultivators of 2.5 % in the world (source; coffee board of
jute are Bihar, Assam and Meghalaya. India-2018).
Oil Seeds: Oil seeds, the premier source of Rubber: Rubber plantation were first
fat in the Indian diet are derived from number established in Kerala in 1902. It needs hot and
of crops like groundnut, rapeseed, mustard, wet climatic conditions (temperature above
sesame, linseed, sunflower, castor seed, cotton 20°C and rainfall above 300cm). Most of
seed, niger seed etc. These provide oil and the land under rubber belongs to small land
oilcake which are used for making lubricants, holders. The major rubber growing areas are
varnish, medicine, perfume, candles, soaps, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Andaman
manure and cattle feed. Gujarat is India’s and Nicobar Islands.
largest oilseeds producing state. Other major Spices: India has been world famous for its
producer of oilseeds are followed by Rajasthan spices since ancient times. These spices mostly
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra used for flavouring or tampering cooked food
Pradesh. In groundnut production, India is and for preparing medicines, dyes etc. Pepper,
the second largest producer in the world after chillies, turmeric, ginger, cardamom, clove
China. and areca nut are the major spices cultivated in
India. Kerala is the leading producer of spices
3.  Plantation Crops
in India.
Plantation crops are cultivated for the
purpose of exports. These are cultivated in 4.  Horticulture Crops
large estates on hilly slopes. Cultivation near It refers to the cultivation of fruits, flowers
the coast is preferable as it facilitates exports. and vegetables. Fruits and vegetables are
Tea, coffee, rubber and spices are the major important supplement to the human diet, as
plantation crops of India. they provide essential minerals, vitamins, and
Tea: Tea is an evergreen plant that mainly fibres required for maintaining health. India
grows in tropical and subtropical climates. Tea is in the second position in the production of
is a labour intensive and grows faster under fruits and vegetables. Apple is mostly produced
light shade. Tea plants require high rainfall in Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir
but its root cannot tolerate water logging. Two and Uttarakhand. Production of banana is
major varieties of tea are cultivated in India. concentrated in Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra.
They are i) Bohea originated from China and Orange is cultivated in Maharashtra,
ii) Assamica from India. A number of hybrid Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and
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 Kashmir, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Grape is 3.5.1 Cattle
cultivated mainly in Uttarakhand, Himachal
Cattle constitute 37.3 percent of livestock
Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Maharashtra,
population in India. India has second largest
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
cattle population after Brazil at World level.
India contributes about 13% of the world’s
Among the states, Madhya Pradesh leads with
production of vegetables.
10.3 percent followed by Uttar Pradesh (10.2
percent) and West Bengal (8.7 percent). Cattle
3.5  Livestock population in India belongs to different breeds.
Livestock is an integral component of the These include: 1) Milch Breed, 2) Draught
farming system in India. The livestock sector breed, and 3) Mixed or General breed.
is socially and economically very significant
due to its multi-functional outputs and The following table shows the Livestock
contribution to socio-cultural security. It also population of India in 2012
helps to improve food and nutritional security
Sl. Name of the Population in
by providing nutrient-rich food products,
No. Livestock Lakhs (2012)
generate income and employment and act
as a cushion against crop failure, provide 1. Cattle 1.91
draught power and manure inputs to the crop 2. Goats 1.35
subsector.
3. Buffaloes 1.09
Livestock sector contributes
4. Sheep 0.65
approximately 4 percent of national GDP
(Gross Domestic Product) and 25.6 percent 5. Pigs 0.10
to agriculture GDP. As per 19th Livestock Source: 19th Livestock Census, Department
Census, conducted in 2012 (Government of of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries
India, 2014), India’s livestock sector is one of
the largest in the world with 11.6 percent of 3.5.2 Goats
world livestock population, which consists The goat is the poor man’s cow providing
of cattle (37.3 percent), goats (26.4 percent), milk, meat, skin and hair. It is the main source
buffaloes (21.2 percent), sheep (12.7 percent) of meat for the country. While looking at the
and pigs (2.0 percent) etc. current status of goat population among Indian
states, Rajasthan records first with 16 percent
Distribution of Livestock in India in 2012
followed by Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Sl. Name of the Total No. of
3.5.3 Buffaloes
No. State Livestock
in Lakhs (2012) Buffaloes are an important source of milk
supply for India. Uttar Pradesh has the highest
1. Uttar Pradesh 687.2 number of buffaloes (28.2%) followed by
Rajasthan (9.6%) and Andhra Pradesh (7.9%).
2. Rajasthan 577.3
3. Andhra Pradesh 561.0 Livestock Census: First
4. Madhya Pradesh 363.3 Livestock Census in India
was conducted with the title
5. Bihar 329.4 of Dairy Cattle Census in
Source: 19th Livestock Census, Department 1919. Following this, the 19th
of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries Livestock census was conducted in October
2012 and it takes place at every five years.

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 While looking at the meat, the total
How is livestock census production is 7.4 million tonnes. Uttar Pradesh
conducted in Tamil Nadu? is the leading producer with 1.3 million tonnes
State Government is (18.2 percent), where Maharashtra and West
conducting Livestock Census Bengal are estimated with 0.8 million tonnes
with the help of Department of Animal (11.4 percent) and 0.7 million tonnes (9.6
Husbandry at state level and Regional percent) respectively in the total country’s
Joint Director at Distric level under the production.
guidelines of Government of India Ministry The total wool production of our nation
of Agriculture and farmers welfare, is 43.5 million kilograms. The leading state
Department of Animal Husbandary in the wool production is Rajasthan with
Dairying and Fisheries. 14.3 million kilograms (32.9 percent) followed
The Livestock Census in the country by Jammu and Kashmir with 7.3 million
started in the year 1919 – 1920. Since then it kilograms (16.7 percent) and Karnataka
has been conducted once in every 5 years. So with 6.6 million kilograms (15.1 percent) in
far 19 livestock census has been conducted country’s total wool production.
and the last census was held in the year
2012. The 20 th Live stock Census – 2017
was scheduled to be conducted from 16 th 3.6  Fisheries
July and will end on 15 th October 2017. Fisheries in India are a very important
Source: Government of India – economic activity and a flourishing sector
Instruction manual 201th Livestock Census. with varied resources and potentials. Fishing
in India is a major industry in its coastal
states, employing over 14  million people.
It produces about 3 percent of World’s fish
and occupies second place among the fish
producing nations of the world after China.
It also helps in augmenting food supply,
generating employment, raising nutritional
level and earning valuable foreign exchange.
The length of Indian coastline is 7,517 km
including the coastline of the islands, however
the mainland’s length is 6,100 km. In India,
Livestock fishing is categorised into two types: they are

3.5.4 Dairy, Meat and Wool

Production
According to State / UT Animal
Husbandry Department, during 2016-17,
the total production of milk in our nation is
163.7 million tonnes. At this time, the leading
producer was Uttar Pradesh with 27.6 million
tonnes (16.8 percent) followed by Rajasthan
with 19.4 million tonnes (11.8 percent) and Fisheries
Madhya Pradesh with 13.4 million tonnes (8.2
percent) in total milk production.

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 1. Marine or Sea Fisheries: It includes coastal, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Gujarat, Kerala,
off-shore and deep sea fisheries mainly on and Tamil Nadu.
the continental shelf upto a depth of 200 m.
Among the coastal states, Kerala leads in the
marine fish production in India. 3.7  Major issues faced by
2. Inland or Fresh Water Fisheries: Rivers, farmers in india
lakes, canals, reservoirs, ponds, tanks etc. Indian agriculture and Indian farmers are
are the sources of fresh water and provide plagued by several problems; some of them are
fresh water fisheries. About 50 percent of the natural and some others are manmade.
country’s total fish production comes from
• Small and fragmented land-holdings: The
the inland fisheries and Andhra Pradesh is
problem of small and fragmented holdings
the leading producer in India.
is more serious in densely populated and
In India, the important varieties of fishes intensively cultivated states in India. About
caught by the fisherman are Cat fish, Herrings, 67 percent of operational land holdings in
Mackerels, Perches, Eels, Mullets etc. In India are marginal holdings (< 1 hectare).
2014-15, the total inland or fresh water fish
• High Costs of Inputs: Seed is a critical
production was 65.77 lakh tonnes and the total
and basic input for attaining higher crop
marine fish production was 34.91 lakh tonnes.
yields and sustained growth in agricultural
In India, the top five fish producing states are
production. Unfortunately, good quality

Major Issues of Farmers

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 seeds are out of reach for many small and shape. Due to the absence of sound marketing
marginal farmers due to their high price. facility, the farmers have to depend on local
• Infertile Soil: Indian soils have been used traders and middlemen for the disposal
for growing crops over thousands of years of their farm products which is sold at low
without caring much for replenishing. This price. Besides, there is a fluctuation in the
has led to depletion and exhaustion of soils prices of agriculture products.
resulting low productivity. • Inadequate storage facilities: Storage
• Lack of Irrigation: Only one-third of the facilities in the rural areas are either totally
cropped area falls under irrigated area. To absent or grossly inadequate. Under such
make agriculture reliable, irrigation facility conditions the farmers are compelled to sell
has to be developed. their products immediately after the harvest
irrespective of the condition of market.
• Lack of mechanization: In spite of the
large scale mechanization of agriculture • Inadequate transport: One of the main
in some parts of the country, most of the handicaps with Indian agriculture is
agricultural operations in larger parts are the lack of cheap and efficient means of
carried on by human hand using simple transportation. Even at present there are
and conventional tools. lakhs of villages which are not well connected
• Soil erosion: Large tracts of fertile land with main roads or with market centres.
suffer from soil erosion by wind and water. • Scarcity of capital: Agriculture is an
Such kind of areas must be properly treated important industry which requires a
and restored to its original fertility. huge capital. The role of capital plays a
• Agricultural marketing: In rural India, major role in the purchase of advanced
agricultural marketing continues in a bad farm machineries and equipments.

List of important Agricultural Revolutions in India

Revolution Related Product

Yellow Revolution Oil seed Production (Especially Mustard and Sunflower)
Blue Revolution Fish Production
Brown Revolution Leather / Cocoa / Non-Conventional Products
Golden Fibre Revolution Jute Production
Golden Revolution Fruits / Honey Production / Horticulture Development
Grey Revolution Fertilizers
Pink Revolution Onion Production / Pharmaceuticals / Prawn Production
Evergreen Revolution Overall Production of Agriculture
Silver Revolution Egg Production / Poultry Production
Silver Fibre Revolution Cotton
Red Revolution Meat Production / Tomato Production
Round Revolution Potato
Green Revolution Food Grains
White Revolution Milk Production

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 Unit - 4

Resources and
Industries

Learning Objectives

„„To learn about the resource and its types.

„„To understand the concept of renewable and non- renewable resources.
„„To identify the different types and distribution of industries in India.
„„To analyse the problems of Indian industries.

Introduction eral from the earth is known as mining. The mines

near the earth crust are known as open pit mines
Any matter or energy derived from the
while the deep mines are known as shaft mines.
environment that is used by living things
including humans is called a natural resource. 4.1.1  Types of Minerals
Natural resources include air, water, soil, On the basis of chemical and physical
minerals, fossil fuels, plants, wild life etc. Many properties, minerals are broadly grouped
natural resources are used as raw materials. They under two categories. They are metallic and
play a vital role in the economic development of non-metallic minerals.
any region. Natural resources are classified on
several basis. Based on continued availability, The organisations associated
the resources are categorised into two types. with minerals in India are the
Renewable Resources are those which have Geological Survey of India
natural regeneration after their utilisation. (Headquarter is at Kolkata),
Solar energy, wind energy, biogas, tidal Indian Bureau of Mines (Headquarter
energy, wave energy etc. are the renewable at Nagpur) and Non-Ferrous Material
resources. Non- Renewable resources are the Technology Development Centre (NFTDC),
sources that cannot be replaced again after located at Hyderabad. The Ministry of Mines
utilisation. Coal, petroleum, natural gas etc. fall is responsible for the administration of all
under this category. mines and minerals (Development and
Regulation Act, 1957).
4.1  Minerals
Mineral is a natural substance of organ- a)  Metallic Minerals
ic or inorganic origin with definite chemical and
Metallic minerals are the minerals which
physical properties. The process of extracting min- contain one or more metallic elements in them.
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 N composition of many rocks and minerals
W E especially from igneous and metamorphic
S rocks. The total recoverable reserves of
MINERALS OF INDIA iron ore in India are about 9602 million
tons of haematite and 3408 million tons of
magnetite. About 79% haematite deposits
are found in Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Odisha and Uttar Pradesh.
About 93% magnetite deposits occur
in Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka,
Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Karnataka alone
LEGEND contributes about 72% of magnetite
IRON
deposits of India.
MANGANESE
COPPER Jharkhand is the leading producer of iron
BAUXITE ore with 25% the country’s production.
LIMESTONE Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Dhanbad and
GYPSUM
MICA
Ranchi districts are its major producers.
GOLD
Odisha with 21% production ranks second.
Not to Scale
Sundargarh, Mayurbhanj, Sambalpur and
Keonjhar districts are its major producers.
The magnetite production of Chhattisgarh is
Metallic minerals occur in rare, naturally 18% (Rajgarh and Bilaspur are its leadings
formed concentrations known as mineral districts) and the Karnataka is 20%
deposits. These deposits consist of a variety (Chikmangalur, Chitradurga, Shimoga and
of valuable metals such as iron, manganese, Dharwad districts are its major producers).
copper, bauxite, nickel, zinc, lead, gold etc. Andhrapradesh and Karnataka produce about
5% each. Kurnool, Guntur, Cuddapah and
i)  Iron ore Anantapur districts in Andhra Pradesh and
Salem, Namakkal, Tiruvannamalai,
Iron ore is the most widely distributed
Tiruchirappalli, Coimbatore, Madurai and
elements of the earth crust, rarely
Tirunelveli districts in Tamil Nadu are notable
occurs in a free state. It enters into the
for the production of iron ore.
SAIL (Steel Authority of India
Iron ores are rocks and minerals Limited): The Ministry of
from which metallic iron can
Steel is responsible for
be economically extracted. The
planning and development of
ores are usually rich in iron
oxides and vary in colour from dark grey, iron and steel industry in India.
bright yellow, or deep purple to rusty red. The
iron is usually found in following form. ii) Manganese
Manganese is a silvery grey element. It
Form of Iron ores Iron Content (%)
is very hard and brittle in nature. It is always
Magnetite 72.4% available in combination with iron, laterite
Hematite 69.9% and other minerals. It is an important mineral
Goethite 62.9% used for making iron and steel and serves
Limonite 55% as basic raw material for alloying. It is the
Siderite 48.2% most important mineral for making iron and
steel. Nearly 10 kg manganese is required for
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 manufacturing one ton of steel. It is also used Largest reserves of copper ore is in the
in the manufacturing of bleaching powder, state of Rajasthan (53.81%) followed by
insecticides, paints and batteries. Jharkhand (19.54%) and Madhya Pradesh
(18.75%). Th e states of Andhra Pradesh,
MOIL- Manganese Ore Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
India Limited state-owned Meghalaya, Nagaland, Odisha, Sikkim, Tamil
manganese-ore mining Nadu, Telangana, Uttarakhand and West
company headquartered Bengal account for 7.9% of the total copper
in Nagpur. With a market reserves of India.
share of 50%, it was the largest producer of
manganese ore in India. Hindustan Copper Ltd
is a Government-owned-
corporation in the central
Manganese deposits occur mainly public Enterprise under the
as metamorphosed bedded sedimentary Ministry of minies, India.
deposits. Th e largest deposits of manganese is HCL is the only vertically integrated
found in Odisha(44%) followed by Karnataka copper producer in India engaged in a
(22%), Madhya Pradesh (12%), Maharashtra wide spectrum of activities ranging from
& Goa(7% each), Andhra Pradesh (4%) and Mining, Beneficiation, Smelting, Refining
Jharkhand (2%). Rajasthan, Gujarat, Telengana and Continuous Cast Rod manufacturer.
and West Bengal together constitute about 2%
of the India’s manganese resource. Nagpur, Jharkand is the largest producer of
Bhandara and Ratnagiri districts in Maharastra copper with 62% of India’s production.
and Balaghat and Chhindwara districts in Singhbhum and Hazaribagh districts are
Madhya Pradesh are the leading producers. its leading producers of copper. Odisha
Odisha is the third largest producer with 24% is the other major producer with 50.2%
(Sundargarh,Kalahandi, Koraput and Bolangir production. Rajasthan ranks third with 28%
districts are the major ones). Other producers production. Th e districts of Khetri, Alwar
are Andhra Pradesh (13%) and Karnataka and Bhilwara are notables in this state.
(6%). Srikakulam, Visakhapatnam, Cuddapah Th e states of Uttarakhand(Dehradun and
and Guntur districts in Andhra Pradesh and Garhwal districts),Andhra Pradesh (Guntur,
the districts of Shimoga, Bellary, Chitradurga Kurnool and Nellore districts), Karnataka
and Tumkur are the important districts of (Chitradurga and Hassan districts) and Tamil
Karnataka. It is the most important mineral for Nadu contributes about 7% of production
making iron and steel. India is the fift h largest each.
producer of manganese in the world.
iv) Bauxite
iii) Copper
Bauxite is an important ore from which
Copper is the first metal that prehistoric aluminium is extracted. It is found in the rock
man has started using for many purposes. consisting mainly of hydrated aluminium
Being flexible, it can be made into utensils oxides. Bauxite is widely distributed as
of any shape. Brass and Bronze are obtained surface deposits in the areas of laterite soil.
when the copper alloys with zinc and tin
respectively. Copper has been commonly
Bauxite is an oxide of
used for making cooking utensils and other
aluminium; the name has been
objects of common utility. In modern days, it
derived after the French word
is extensively used in vast variety of electrical
Le Baux.
machinery, wires and cables

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 Being light in weight and tough, aluminium has low power loss factor. Since it is a non
is used in the manufacture of aircraft s and conductor of electricity, it is exclusively used
automobile engines. Bauxite is also used in in electrical goods. It is also used in making of
the manufacture of cement and chemicals. lubricants, medicines, paints and varnishes.
The main bauxite deposits occur in The major deposits of mica are found
Odisha – 50.2%, Gujarat – 15.8% (Junagadh, in Andhra Pradesh(41%) with Nellore,
Amreli and Bhavnagar districts), Jharkhand Visakhapatnam, West Godavari and Krishna
– 11.9% (Ranchi and Gumila districts), are its major districts. Other important states
Maharashtra – 9.9% (Sindhu durg and in mica deposits are Rajasthan(21%) and
Ratnagiri), Chhattisgarh – 6.2% (Ballarpur Odisha(20%). Bhilwara, Jaipur and Ajmer
and Durg districts), and Tamil nadu – 2.7%. are the notable districts in Rajasthan and,
Being light in weight and tough, aluminium Rayagada, Bolangir and Sundargarh districts
is used in the manufacture of aircraft s and are the major producers in Odisha. Dhanbad,
automobile engines. Bauxite is also used in the Palamu, Ranchi and Singhbum districts are
manufacture of cement and chemicals. Orissa the major mica mines in Jharkhand state.
is the largest producer of bauxite in India with
approx. 1,370.5 million tonnes. India’s State ii) Lime Stone
and Central Government is very supportive Limestone is associated with rocks
in production of Bauxite and other Industrial composed of either calcium carbonate
Minerals in Orissa, Jharkand, Tamil Nadu. or the double carbonate of calcium and
magnesium or mixture of both. Limestone
National Aluminium Company Limited, also contains small quantities of silica,
abbreviated as NALCO, (incorporated alumina, iron oxides, phosphorous and
1981) has units in Odisha at places like sulphur. Limestone is used in the industries of
Angul and Damanjodi. It was incorporated chemicals for soda ash, caustic soda, bleaching
as a public sector enterprise of the Ministry powder, paper, cement, iron and steel, glass
of Mines, Government of India in 1981. and fertilizers. The major producing areas:
Andhra Pradesh produces about 20% with
major concentration in Cuddapah, Kurnool
and Guntur districts. Telengana also
accounts for about 20% of the country’s
b) Non-Metallic Minerals production with the districts of Nalgonda,
Adilabad, Warangal and Karimnagar as
These minerals do not contain metal
major producers. Rajasthan produces about
in them. Mica, limestone, gypsum, nitrate,
18% (Jodhpur, Ajmer, Bikhaner and Kota
potash, dolomite, coal, petroleum etc are the
districts), Madhya Pradesh about 12%
non- metallic minerals.
(Jabalpur and Satna districts) and Tamilnadu
about 8.4% (Salem, Kancheepuram,
i) Mica Tiruchirappalli, Thoothukkudi, Tirunelveli
In ancient time, Mica was used in and Virudhunagar districts) of limestone
ayurvedic medicine. Mica became very production of India. In terms of the reserves
popular with the development of electrical of limestone, the state of Karnataka leads
industry. Abhrak is a good quality mica. It is with 27%, followed by Andhra Pradesh
translucent, easily splitable into thin sheets, and Rajasthan (12% each), Gujarat
flat, colourless, elastic and incompressible. (10%), Meghalaya (9%), Telangana (8%),
Mica is used in making of insulating Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh (5%
properties, as it withstands high voltage and each) and the remaining by other states.
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 iii) Gypsum Coal is available in the form of
Gypsum is a hydrated sulphate of calcium sedimentary rocks. It is used in the generation
which occurs as white, opaque or transparent of thermal power. It has close association with
minerals in beds of sedimentary rocks such the industrial development of any country.
as limestone, sandstone and shale. Gypsum Since it is a valuable one, it is called as “Black
is used in the manufacture of cement, Gold”. Based on carbon content, it is classified
fertilizers, wall board, plaster of paris and in to the following types.
in soil conditioning. The state of Rajasthan Anthracite: contains 80 to 90% carbon
alone accounts for 81% of its reserves. 14% of Bituminous: contains 60 to 80% carbon
its reserves is found in Jammu and Kashmir
Lignite: contains 40 to 60% carbon
and 2% in Tamil nadu. The remaining 3%
resources are found in the states of Gujarat, Peat: contains less than 40% carbon
Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Uttarakhand, Coal is an important source of energy in
Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. India with its varied and innumerable uses. It
Rajasthan produces 82% of the country’s can be converted into gas, oil, electricity and
production. Jodhpur, Bikaner and Jaisalmer thermal power. Besides, it forms a basic raw
are notable districts. Jammu and Kashmir material for the production of chemicals, dyes,
produces 14% of country’s gypsum. Baramula, fertilizers, paints, synthetic and explosives.
Doda and Uri districts are its major producers. Indian coal is mostly associated with
The states of Gujarat (Bhavnagar and Gondwana series of rocks and is primarily
Jamnagar districts), Uttarkhand (Dehradun found in Peninsular India. The states of
and Mussourrie districts), Andra pradesh Jharkhand, odisha, West Bengal and Madhya
(Nellore, Guntur and Prakasam districts) Pradesh alone account for nearly 90% of coal
and Tamil nadu are the other producers with reserves of the country. About 2% of India’s
about 4% each. coal is of tertiary type and is found mostly in
Assam and Jammu & Kashmir.
4.2 Energy Resources
Jharkhand is the largest coal producing state
The resources from in the country followed by odisha, Chhattisgarh,
which the electricity West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh
generated are called energy and Maharashtra. The major coal fields of
resources. Electricity is Jharkhand are Bokaro, North Karanpura, South
an important component Karanpura, Giridih, Ramgarh, Daltongunj and
of our life. No day to day Rajmahal. Talcher and Ranapur in Odisha,
activity takes without the Korba and Chirmiri in Chhattisgarh, Umaria
use of this energy. It is also the key factor and Singrauli in Madhya pradesh, Tandur,
for all economic activities and industrial Singareni, Kothagudem and Ramagundam in
development. Energy resources can be
classified into renewable and non-renewable.
Coal India Limited (CIL) is
Coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear
an Indian state-controlled
minerals are the sources of non renewable
coal mining company
energy. Water, sun light, wind, bio gas, tides
headquartered in Kolkata,
etc., are the sources of renewable energy.
West Bengal, its field offices
4.2.1 Non-Renewable Energy are located at Dhanbad,
Ranchi, Bilaspur, Nagpur, Sambalpur,
a) Coal
Kothagudam and Asansol. It is the largest
Coal is an inflammable organic substance coal-producing company in the world.
composed mainly of hydrocarbons.
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 Andhra Pradesh, Wardha, Ballarpur, Chanda Crude oil and Natural Gas Production in
and Kampati in Maharastra and, Raniganj, percentage
Asansol and Mejia in West Bengal are the other 50

major coal fields of India.

47.56
Indian lignite (brown coal) deposits occur
in the southern and western parts of Peninsular 40

40.68
India particularly in Tamil nadu, Pudhucherry

37.86
38.09

37.79
Producon of Crude Oil and Natural Gas (in Percentage)

37.46

36.94

35.68
and Kerala.

36.01
35.41

33.66

32.65
The Ministry of coal has over all

31.90
32.25
30
responsibility of determining policies and
strategies in respect of exploration and
development of coal resource in India. Coal India
20
Limited (CIL), NLC India Limited (NLCIL) and
Singareni Collieries Company limited (SCCL)
are its public sector under takings.
10

b) Petroleum (or) Crude oil

The word petroleum has been derived
from two Latin words petro (meaning 0
2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18
– Rock) and oleum (meaning oil). Thus Years
petroleum is oil obtained from rocks of the CRUDE OIL (Metric Million Tons)
earth. Therefore, it is also called mineral oil. NATURAL GAS (Billion Cubic Metres)

Petroleum is an inflammable liquid that is Source: India Petroleum and Natural Gas Stascs - 2017-2018.

composed of hydrocarbons which constitute As of 2017, the total estimated crude

90-95% of petroleum and the remaining oil reserves of the country is 604.10 million
is chiefly organic compounds containing tons. From this, 324.24 million tons (54%) are
oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and traces of organ found in onshore and 279.86 million tonnes
metallic compounds. (46%) are in offshore areas.
Petroleum is used as a source of power The production of crude oil fluctuates
and fuel for automobiles, aeroplanes, ships from year to year from 2011-12 to 2017-18
and locomotives. Lubricants, kerosene, but only with marginal variations. The
vaseline, tar, soap, terylene and wax are its by change is invariably in negative. In natural gas
products. Oil in India is obtained from both production also the trend is negative except
from on-shore and off-shore areas. the last year. The change is high in the first
three years and it is low to moderate in the
remaining years.
The Ministry of Petroleum and
Natural Gas (MOP&NG) is a
ministry of the Government
of India. It is responsible for
the exploration, production,
re f i n i ng , dist r ibut ion ,
marketing, import, export, and
conservation of petroleum, natural gas,
petroleum products, and liquefied natural
gas in India.
India - Oil refinery
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 Western coast offshore oil fields Eastern coast offshore Fields
1. Mumbai high oil fields (largest 65%) Bharmaputra valley (Dibrugarh and Sibsagar
districts of upper Assam.)
2. Gujarat coast (2nd largest) Digboi oil feilds (oldest fields in country)
3. Basseim oil feild, south of Mumbai high Nahoratiya oil fields (south west of digboi)
4. Aliabet oil feild, south of Bhavanagar Moran-Hugrijan oil field (Southwest of
Nahoratiya)
5. Ankleshwar Rudrasagar-Lawa oil feilds (sibsagar districs
of assam)
6. Cambay-Luni Region Surrma valley (Badarpur, Masimpur,
Patharia)
7. Ahemedabad-Kalol Region offshore of Andaman and Nicobar, Gulf of
mannar, Baleshwar coast, Punjab, Haryana
and Uttar Pradesh.

c) Natural Gas in the manufacture of plastics and other

Natural gas usually accompanies the commercially important organic chemicals.
petroleum accumulations. It is naturally India has a very large proportion
occurring hydro carbon gas mixture consisting of tertiary rock and alluvial deposits
primarily of methane, but commonly includes
varying amounts of other higher alkanes
and sometimes a small percentage of carbon
dioxide, nitrogen and hydrogen sulphides. It
is formed when layers of decomposed plants
and animals are exposed to intense heat and
pressure over thousands of years. It is used
as a source of energy for heating, cooking
and electricity generation. It is also used as
fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock

Gail (India) Limited

(GAIL) (formerly known
as Gas Authority of
India Limited) is the
largest state-owned
natural gas processing and distribution
company in India. It is headquartered in
New Delhi. It has the following business
segments: natural gas, liquid hydrocarbon,
liquefied petroleum gas transmission,
petrochemical, city gas distribution,
exploration and production, GAILTEL
and electricity generation.

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 particularly in the extra peninsular India. gas. National Thermal Power Corporation
These sedimentary rocks, which were once [NTPC] was established in 1975. At present
under the shallow seas, hold the possibility of NTPC has 13 coal based super thermal power
harbouring oil and gas deposits. The highest projects and 7 gas / liquid fuel based combined
concentration of natural gas is found in the cycle projects in the states of Assam, Bihar,
Bombay high and basseim oil fields. Jagatia Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Mizoram and
and Gogha in Gujarat, Nahorkatiya and West Bengal. It accounts for over 90% of the
Moran in Assam, Neypaltur, Mangmadam in installed capacity. Tamil nadu produces about
Thanjavur district in Tamil nadu, Baranura 5% of the total thermal electricity produced
and Atharnure ranges in Tripura, Barmer in India. Neyveli, Mettur, Thoothukudi and
and Charaswala in Rajasthan, Miao Pung and Ennore (Chennai) are the important thermal
Laptang areas in Arunachal Pradesh, Firozpur power stations in Tamil nadu.
district in Punjab, Mausar and Maradpur
areas in Jammu and Kashmir and Medinipur b) Nuclear power
in West Bengal are the other areas where
The energy released during nuclear
natural gas reserves have been discovered.
fission or fusion is used to generate
The Gas Authority of India Ltd [GAIL] electricity.
is doing pioneer work in the field of natural Nuclear energy is generated mainly
gas exploration. Discovery of gas made rapid from the minerals of Uranium and Thorium.
strides in the 1985. Oil strikes at Cauvery Nuclear power programme in India was
offshore, at Nanda in Cambay basin and Tarot initiated in 1940’s when ‘Tata Atomic research
in Jaisalmer basin in Rajasthan were major commission was incorporated in August
discoveries during 1988-89. Recently, it has 1948. The first nuclear power station was
been found that Krishna- Godavari delta has setup at Tarapur near Mumbai in 1969 with
reserves of Natural gas. the capacity of 320 mw. Later atomic reactors
were installed at Rawatbhata (335 MW), near
Compressed natural gas Kota in Rajasthan (100 MW), Kalpakkam
(CNG) (methane stored (440 MW) and Kudankulam (2,000 MW) in
at high pressure) is a fuel Tamil nadu and Narora (235 MW) in Uttar
which can be used in place Pradesh, Kaiga in (235 MW) in Karnataka
of gasoline, diesel fuel and propane/LPG. and Kakarapara (235 MW) in Gujarat.
In comparison to other fuels, natural gas
poses less of a threat in the event of a spill,
The Nuclear Power
because it is lighter than air and disperses
Corporation of India Limited
quickly when released. Biomethane
(NPCIL) is an Indian public
– cleaned-up biogas from anaerobic
sector undertaking based
digestion or landfills – can be used.
in Mumbai, Maharashtra.
Natural gas vehicles are increasingly used
It is wholly owned by
in Delhi, Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Pune,
the Government of India
Kolkata Lucknow, Kanpur, Varanasi, etc.
and is responsible for the generation of
nuclear power for electricity. NPCIL is
4.2.2 Conventional Energy administered by the Department of Atomic
Sources Energy (DAE) is responsible for designing,
a) Thermal power constructing and operating the nuclear
power stations in India.
Thermal power is generated using fossil
fuels like coal, diesel, petroleum and Natural
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 4.2.3 Renewable or Non-
Conventional Energy
Resources

a) Hydro power
Power generated from water is termed as
hydroelectricity. Hydro power is the energy
harnessed from running water. Hydro power
is considered as one of the most economic and
non-polluting sources of energy. It contributes
nearly 7% of global electricity production.
The cost of production of hydroelectricity is
relatively low, making it a competitive source
of renewable energy. It is also a flexible mode of
power generation as the quantity of production
can either be increased or decreased very
quickly adapting to changing demands.

NHPC Limited
(National Hydroelectric
Power Corporation) is
located in Faridabad,
India

India is fortunate to have a large potential

of hydro- power potential. It is quite unevenly
distributed in India. Of the total hydro-electric solar power systems use lenses or mirrors
potential of the country, rivers of Assam, and tracking system to focus a large area of
Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Nagaland and sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaics
Tripura account for 30.4%, eastward flowing convert light into an electric current using the
rivers of the peninsular India 20.9%, westward photovoltaic effect.
flowing rivers of the western Ghats (South of
the Tapti) 10.5%, the Ganga Basin (excluding Solar Energy Corporation of India
the potential of Nepal) 11.7%, the Indus Basin Limited
16.0% and the rivers of central India 10.5%.
(A Government of India Enterprise)
The first hydro-electric head quarter is located at New Delhi.
power station in India was
established at “Darjeeling” in
1897.

b) Solar Energy
Solar Power is the conversion of The mass objectives of the solar thermal
sunlight into electricity, either directly energy programme, being implemented by
using photovoltaics (PV) or indirectly using the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy
concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated Source (MNES) are market development,
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 commercialisation and utilisation of heat d) Biomass Energy
energy requirement of different applications Bio energy may be obtained through
in domestic, institutional and industrial bio-degradable materials like animal dung,
sectors. Solar power is used in water heaters, kitchen wastes, water hyacinth, agricultural
refrigerators, drying, street lighting, cooking, residues and city wastes etc. It is clean and
pumping, power generator, photovoltaic cells, cheap source of energy. India has a potential
salon parts etc. Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, of about 18 GW of energy from Biomass.
Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh Currently, about 32% of total primary energy
are the major solar power producers. used in India is derived from Biomass.
Energy derived from biomass is mostly used
c) Wind Energy
for domestic purposes.
Wind energy is extracted from air flow
using wind turbines. It is a cheap and pollution e) Tidal and wave Energy
free source of energy. Power from wind mills There are two main sources of ocean
are used for pumping water and to sail propel energy. They are Ocean tides and Ocean
ships. Wind power is plentiful, renewable, waves. It is estimated that India possesses
widely distributed, clean and produces no 8,000-9,000 MW of tidal energy potential. The
greenhouse gas emissions during operation. Gulf of Cambay is the best suited area with
These plants occupy only a less space. about 7,000 mw potential of tidal energy. This
is followed by Gulf of Kachch (1,000MW) and
Tamil nadu has the largest sunderbans (100MW). At present a 900mw
installation of wind turbines tidal power plant is proposed to be set up in
in the country in the the Gulf of Kachch region.
Muppandal-Perungudi area Wave energy potential in India is estimated
near Kanniyakumari is the to be 40,000 MW. An wave energy power plant
largest concentrations of wind farm of 150 KW(maximum) has been installed
capacity at a single location in the world. at vizhinjam near Thiruvananthapuram. An
another plant of this kind has been set up near
The development of wind power in India Andaman& Nicobar Islands.
began in 1986 with first wind farms were set up
in coastal areas of Gujarat (Okha), Maharashtra 4.3 Industries
(Ratnagiri) and Tamil nadu (Thoothukudi) It refers to the activities which converts
with 55 KW Vestas wind turbines. The capacity the raw materials into finished products. This
has significantly increased in the last few years. sector is called as the value addition sector.
India has the fourth largest installed wind On the basis of the source of raw materials,
power capacity in the world. Industries are classified into the Agro based
industries, Forest based industries and
The National Institute of Mineral based industries.
Wind Energy (NIWE), 4.3.1 Agro based industries
Chennai was established These industries draw their raw materials
in Tamil Nadu in 1998 as from agricultural sector. The following part
an autonomous institution discusses the agro based industries in India.
under the administrative
control of the Ministry a) Cotton Textile Industry
of New and Renewable Textile is a broad term which includes
Energy. CIWE main activities include resource cotton, jute, wool, silk and synthetic fibre
assessment and testing & certification. textiles. This sector in India with 3400 textiles

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 mills with installed capacity of more than “Manchester of India”. Presence of black
50 million spindles and 842000 rotors is the cotton soil in Maharastra, humid climate,
second largest in the world. presence of Mumbai port, availability of
hydro power, good market and well developed
The first cotton textile transport facility favour the cotton textile
mill was established at Fort industries in Mumbai.
Gloster near Kolkata in 1818. The major cotton textile industries are
concentrated in the states of Maharashtra,
Gujarat, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and
Traditional sectors like hand loom, Tamil nadu. Coimbatore is the most important
handicrafts and small power-loom units are centre in Tamil nadu with 200 mills out of
the biggest source of employment its 435 and called as “Manchester of South
for millions of people in rural India”. Erode, Tirupur, Karur, Chennai,
and semi urban areas. The cotton Thirunelveli, Madurai, Thoothukudi, Salem
textile industries contribute and Virudhunagar are the other major cotton
about 7% of industrial output, textiles centres in the state.
2% of India’s GDP and 15% of the
country’s export earnings. It is one of the b)  Jute Textiles
largest sources of employment generation in Jute is a low priced fibre used mainly for
the country. With over 45 million employees, making package materials like gunny bags.
the total employment in this industry is well Today jute is blended with cotton and wool to
over 25million worker. At present there are produce textiles. India is the largest producer
1,719 textiles mills in the country. Out of of jute goods contributing 35% of the world’s
which 188 mills are in public sector, 147 in total output. This is the second important textile
cooperative sector and 1,284 in private sector. industry in India after cotton textiles. Jute is the
golden fibre which meets all the standards of
Byssinosis, also called “brown goods packing with its natural, renewable, bio
lung disease” or “Monday degradable and eco-friendly products.
fever”, is an occupational lung
disease caused by exposure National jute board
to cotton dust in inadequately ventilated is headquarter at
working environments. Kolkata.

Currently, India is the third largest

The first jute mill in India was established at
producer of cotton and has the largest loom
Rishra near, Kolkata in 1854 by the English man
arc and ring spindles in the world. At present,
George Auckland. India tops in the production
cotton textile industry is the largest organized
of raw jute and jute goods and second in
modern industry of India. About 16% of
the export of jute goods next to Bangladesh.
the industrial capital, 14% of industrial
Jute production includes gunny bags, canvas,
production and over 20% of the industrial
pack sheets, jute web, carpets, cordage, hessians
labour of the country are engaged in this
and twines. Now jute is also being used in plastic
industry.
furniture and insulation bleached fibres to blend
Ginning is the process of cotton fiber is with wool. It is also mixed with cotton to make
separated from the cotton seed. carpet and blankets. The major jute producing
areas are in West Bengal and concentrated
The higher concentration of textile along the Hooghly river within the radius of six
mills in and around Mumbai, makes it as kilometre of Kolkata. Titagarh, Jagatdat, Budge-
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 MAJOR INDUSTRIES IN INDIA W
N

E
next only to China. Sericulture is
S

a labour intensive industvry and

provides employment to 7.56
million people make to weaker
and marginalised sections of
society.
Karnataka is the largest producer of silk
with an average of 8200 metric tons every
year which is about one third of the total silk
production of India. Other major producers of
silk are West Bengal, Jammu Kashmir, Bihar,
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh,
Punjab, Assam and Tamil nadu states. India
LEGEND
exports exclusively silk fabrics, silk scarves,
COTTON
SILK dress material and sarees. It exports to the
IRON & STEEL
SUGAR principal countries like Europe, U.S.A, U.K,
PAPER
Russia, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Singapore.
Not to Scale

Development Commissioner
Budge, Haora and Bhadreshwar are the chief for Handlooms was set
centres of jute industry. Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, up as an attached non-
Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Chhattisgarh and Odisha participating office on 20th
are the other jute goods producing areas. November, 1975 under the Ministry of
Commerce. At present it
The first attempt to is functioning under the
produce iron and steel unit Ministry of Textiles having
was set up at Porto Novo in headquarters at Udyog
Tamil nadu in 1830. Bhawan, New Delhi.

c) Silk Industry d) Sugar Industry

CSTRI is the only Sugar can be produced from sugar cane,

research institute in sugar-beets or any other crop which have
the country dedicated sugar content. In India, sugar cane is the main
to the Research source of sugar. At present this is the second
& Developmental largest agro based industry of India after
activities related to silk cotton textiles. India is the world’s second
technology. CSTRI was largest producer of sugar cane after Brazil. This
established in the year 1983 by the Central industry provides employment to 2.86 lakh
Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of workers. Sugar industry is decentralized and
India having head quarter at Bangalore
located near the sugarcane growing areas as
they are weight loosing and bulky to transport.
India has been well known for the
production of silk. Since the ancient times, Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of
India is the second largest producer of raw silk sugar, producing about 50% of the country’s

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 total. Other major producers are Maharashtra, Bengal paper mills at Ballyganj near Kolkata.
Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Subsequent successful efforts were made at
Tamil nadu, Bihar, Punjab, Gujarat, Haryana Lucknow in 1879, Titagarh in 1882, Pune in
and Madhya Pradesh states. These states 1887, Raniganj in 1892, Kankinra in 1892 and
account for more than 90% of the sugar mills Naihati in 1918.The raw materials for paper
and sugar production. industry includes wood pulp, bamboo, salai
and sabai grasses, waste paper and bagasse.
4.3.2  Forest based industries
West Bengal is the largest producer of paper
Forest provide us with different types in the country followed by Madhya Pradesh,
of material which are used as raw material Odisha and Tamil nadu states.
for certain industries like paper, lac, sports
goods, plywood etc.
National Newsprint
a)  Paper industry and Paper Mills (NEPA) is
Paper Industry has emerged as a at Nepanagar in Burhanpur
diversified and specialized industry in India District of Madhya Pradesh.
that produces numerous types of papers that
comes in various use such as sheet paper, 4.3.3  Mineral based industries
paper boxes, tissues, paper bags, stationery, Mineral based industries use both
envelopes and printed-paper products such as metallic & non metallic minerals as raw
books, periodicals, and newspapers. In India materials. The major mineral based industry
the Soft wood is the principal raw material of country is the iron steel industry
used for making paper especially newsprint
and high class printing papers. Paper is the a)  Iron and steel industries
pre-requisite for education and literacy and Iron and steel industry is called a
its use is an index of advancement in these basic metallurgical industry as its finished
two fields as well as the overall well being of product is used as raw material by host of
the society. other industries. Several industries like
engineering, heavy machines and machine
tools, automobile, locomotives and railway
equipment industries use iron and steel as
their primary raw material. Due to this,
the steel producing capacity of a country is
generally taken as an indicator of its level of
industrial development.

Chennai is nicknamed as
the “Detroit of Asia” due to the
presence of major automobile
manufacturing units and allied
industries around the city.
The first paper mill of
India was started in 1812 at
The modernization of the industry was
Serampore in West Bengal.
started in 1907 with the establishment of Tata
Iron and Steel Company at Sakchi, now called
The first successful effort was made Jamshedpur. Iron and steel industry of India is
in 1867 with the setting up of the Royal mainly concentrated in the states of Jharkhand,
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 S.No Name of Industry Place Establishment Year Product
1 Tata Iron and Steel Jamshedpur, 1911 Pig Iron
Company(TISCO) Jharkhand
2 Indian Iron and Steel Burnpur,Hirapur, 1972 Pig Iron & Crude steel
Company (IISCO) Kulti, West Bengal
3 Visweshwaraya Iron Steel Bhadravati,Karnataka 1923 Alloy and Sponge steel
Ltd(VISL)
4 Hisdustan Steel Ltd (HSL) Bhilai, Chattisgarh 1957 Railway Equipments and
Collaborated with Russia Ship Building
5 Hindustan Steel Ltd(HSL) Rourkela,Odisha 1965 Hot and Cold rolled
Collaborated with sheets, Galvanized sheets
Germany and electrical plates
6 Hindustal Steel Ltd(HSL) Durgapur,West 1959 Alloy steel, Construction
Collaborated with United Bengal materials and railway
kingdom equipments
7 Hisdustan Steel Ltd(HSL) Bokaro, Jharkhand 1972 Sludge and Slog
Collaborated with Russia
8 Salem Steel Ltd Salem, Tamil Nadu 1982 Stainless Steel
9 Vijayanagar Steel Plant Tornagal,Karnataka 1994 Flat steel and Long Steel
10 Visakhapatnam Steel Visakhapatnam, 1981 Hot Metal
Plant(VSP) Andhra Pradesh

West Bengal and Odisha. Proximity to the coal manufacturers which include two wheelers,
fields of Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro and Karanpura commercial vehicles, passenger car, jeep,
and the iron ore mines of Mayurbhanj, Keonjar scooty, scooters, motor cycles, mopeds and
and Brona are responsible for this. This area also three wheelers. Major centres are at Mumbai,
has sufficient deposits of limestone, dolomite, Chennai, Jamshedpur, Jabalpur, Kolkata,
manganese, silicon and dolomite which are Pune, New Delhi, Kanpur, Bengaluru, Sadara,
required for the industry. Lucknow and Mysuru.

4.3.4  Automobile Industry Make in India program

India is set to emerge not only as a large was launched in 2014 to put
domestic market for automobile manufacturers, India on the world map as a
but also as a crucial link in the global automotive major hub for global design
chain. It is one of the most dynamic industrial and manufacturing.
groups in India.
The first automobile industry of India was Tata Motors, Maruti Suzuki, Mahindra &
started in 1947. The industry is the Premier Mahindra and Hindustan Motors are the
Automobiles Ltd located at Kurla (Mumbai). largest passenger car manufacturers of Indian
It was followed by the Hindustan Motors Ltd companies in the country. Presence of foreign
at Uttarpara (Kolkata) in 1948. At present, car companies such as Mercedes Benz, Fiat,
India is the 7th largest producer of automobile General Motors, Toyota and the recent entry

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 MAJOR for thermal power plants, generators,
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS, SOFTWARE AND AUTOMOBILE transformers, switch gears etc. are the
INDUSTRIES IN
INDIA chief products of this industry. The most
N important company in the field of heavy
W E electrical is Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd
S (BHEL). It has its plants at Hardwar, Bhopal,
Hyderabad, Jammu, Bengaluru, Jhansi and
Tiruchirappalli. This Industry covers a
wide range of products including television
sets, transistor sets, telephone exchanges,
cellular telegram, computers and varied
equipments for post and railway, defence and
meteorological department.
Bengaluru is the largest producer of
LEGEND electronic goods in India, hence it is called
SOFTWARE
as the “Electronic Capital of India”. The other
INDUSTRIES major producers of electronic goods centers
AUTOMOBILE
are Hyderabad, Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai,
INDUSTRIES Kolkata, Kanpur, Pune, Lucknow, Jaipur and
ELECTRICAL &
ELECTRONICS
Coimbatore.
Not to Scale
INDUSTRIES

4.3.6 Software Industry
India is home to some of the finest
of passenger car manufacturers BMW, Audi,
software companies in the world. The software
Volkswagen and Volvo makes the Indian
companies in India are reputed across the
automobile sector a special one. Tata Motors,
globe for their efficient IT and business related
Ashok Leyland, Eicher Motors, Mahindra &
solutions. The Indian Software Industry has
Mahindra and Ford Motors are the major Indian
brought about a tremendous success for the
companies which manfacture commercial
emerging economy.
vehicles. MAN, ITEC, Mercedes-Benz, Scania
and Hyundai are the foreign companies engage
in the manfacture of commercial vehicles. Two-
wheeler manufacturing is dominated by Indian
companies like Hero, Bajaj Auto and TVS.
The automobile industries are found in
four clusters viz; Delhi, Gurgaon and Manesar
in North India, Pune, Nasik, Halol and
Aurangabad in West India, Chennai, Bengaluru
and Hosur in South India and Jamshedpur and
Kolkata in East India.

4.3.5 Electrical and Electronic

Industries
Heavy electrical industries manufacture Tidel Park, Chennai
equipment used for power generation, In India, software industry began in
transmission and utilization. Turbines 1970 with the entry of Tata Consultancy
for steam and hydro power plants, boilers
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 Services (TCS). Along with this, L & T,
Infotech, i-Flex, Accenture, Cognizant, Recap
GalexE Solutions India Pvt Ltd and ITC • Natural resource - raw materials
Infotech are the major software industries obtained naturally from the earth.
in the country. At present, there are more
than 500 software companies all over India. • Renewable resource – the resources
It exports software service to nearly 95 that can be replenished.
countries in the world. • Non renewable resource - the energy
The main centres of IT parks that cannot be replenished easily.
are located in Chennai, Coimbatore,
• Agro based industry – the industries
Thiruvananthapuram, Bengaluru, Mysuru,
that depend on agriculture for their
Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam, Mumbai, Pune,
raw materials.
Indore, Gandhi Nagar, Jaipur, Noida, Mohali
and Srinagar. • Mineral based industries – the
4.3.7 Major challenges of Indian industries that use minerals as raw
materials.
Industries
Industries in India face many problems. • Forest based industries – the
Some major problems are listed below. industries run with the help of forest
products.
• Shortage and fluctuation in Power Supply.
• Non- availability of large blocks of land.
• Poor access to credit.
GLOSSARY
• High rate of interest for borrowed loan.
• Non- availability of cheap labourers. Biogas: The production of methane
• Lack of technical and vocational training and carbon- di- oxide from plants and
for employees. animal wastes.
• Inappropriate living conditions nearby Fossil fuel: Any naturally occurring
industrial estates.
carbon or hydrocarbon coal, oil and
natural gas.
Wealth Creation
and Sharing
Ore: It is a deposit in the earth crust
Community
Development
Create Jobs with one or more value minerals

Solar power: Heat radiation from

Balanced the sun converted into electricity.
Exports Regional Development
Thermal power station: An
Entrepreneurship
electricity generating plants which burns
coal or oil.

GDP and
Standard of Living
Per Capita Income

Challenges of Indian Industries

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 Unit - 5
India - Population,
Transport,
Communication &
Trade
Learning Objectives

„„To study the levels of urbanization and its impacts in India.

„„To know about the Human Development in India.
„„To learn the transport systems of India.
„„To understand the communication system of India.
„„To assess the nature of trade in India.

Introduction second most populous country in the world

next only to china. India covers only 2.4
The study on human population is one percent of the land area of the world, but is
of the most important aspects in geography the home of about 17.5 percent of the world’s
of any region. The human population has population. It shows that the proportion of
many components but the most fundamental population of India is far higher than the
are its number, composition, distribution proportion of its area. Thus, a little more than
and density. Therefore, it is essential to one out of every six persons in the world is
study these components. The study on these from India. Our population is almost equal
aspects also would reveal the workforce of to the combined population of the USA,
the country. Indonesia, Brazil, Pakistan, Bangladesh
The population of India as per 2011 and Japan and total population of these six
census is 1,210.19 million (1,21,01,93,422). countries is 1214.3 million.
It shows an increase of 19.31crores from
the population of 2001. Population Census
5.1.1 Census
of India provides the detailed information
Population census is the total process of
about the demography of India. Along
collecting, compiling, analysing or otherwise
with population, we will study about the
disseminating demographic, economic and
transport and communication of India in
social data pertaining, at a specific time, of all
this chapter.
persons in a country or a well-defined part of a
country. It happens in an interval of ten years.
5.1  Population The data collected through the census are used
The total number of people residing in a for administration, planning, policy making as
country at a specified period of time is called well as management and evaluation of various
the 'Population' of that country. India is the programmes by the government.

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 5.1.2 Distribution and Density of and energy resources. Socio-economic factors
Population consists of the religion, culture, political issues,
The term 'Population Distribution' refers economy, human settlements, transport
to the way the people are spaced over the earth’s network, industrialization, ur banization,
surface. The distribution of population in India employment opportunity etc.
is quite uneven because of the vast variation
in the availability of resources. Population is Hots
mostly concentrated in the regions of industrial
centres and the good agricultural lands. On the What could be the reasons for uneven
other hand, the areas such as high mountains,
distribution of population in India?
arid lands, thickly forested areas and some
remote corners are very thinly populated and 5.1.3  Density of population
some areas are even uninhabited. Terrain, P opulation density is a better measure
climate, soil, water bodies, mineral resources, of understanding the variation in distribution
industries, transport and urbanization are the of population. It is expressed as number of
major factors which affect the distribution of persons per unit area usually per sq km.
population in our country. According to 2011, the average density of
population of India is 382 persons per sq.km.
In India the first census India is one of the most thickly populated
was carried out in the year ten countries of the world. The most densely
1872. But the first complete populated state of India is Bihar and the state
and synchronous census was with least population density is Arunachal
conducted in 1881. And the Pradesh. Among the union territories, Delhi
2011 census represents the fifteenth census is the densely populated one with 11,297 per
of India. sq.km, while Andaman and Nicobar Islands
have the lowest density of population.
Uttar Pradesh is the most populous
state in the country with a population of Hots
199.5 million followed by Maharashtra What are the reasons for the rapid growth
(112.3 million), Bihar (103.8 million) West of population in India?
Bengal (91.3 million) and the combined
Andhra Pradesh (84.6 million). These five
states account for about half of the country’s
population. More than one fourth of the
population live only in the two states of U.P
and Maharashtra. Sikkim is the least populous
state of India(0.61 million). Delhi with 16.75
million population tops among the Union
territories.
The uneven distribution of population in
the country is the result of several factors such
as physical, socio-economic and historical
ones. The physical factors include relief,
climate, water, natural vegetation, minerals

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 Spatial pattern of population Density
Density Places
Very Low Density Arunachal Pradesh (17), Andaman and Nicobar Islands
( less than 150 persons per sq.km) (46), Mizoram (52), Sikkim (86) Nagaland (120),
Manipur (122), Himachal Pradesh (123), Jammu and
Kashmir (124) and Meghalaya (132)
Low Density Arunachal Pradesh (17), Andaman and Nicobar Islands
(150 to 300 persons per sq.km) (46), Mizoram (52), Sikkim (86) Nagaland (120),
Manipur (122), Himachal Pradesh (123), Jammu and
Kashmir (124) and Meghalaya (132)
Moderate Density Gujarat (308), The combined Andhra Pradesh (308),
( 300 to 500 persons per sq.km.) Karnataka (319), Tripura (350), Maharashtra (365), Goa
(394), Assam (397) and Jharkhand (414) are the states
with moderate population density. Assam has tea estates,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Jharkhand
High Density Punjab (550), Tamil Nadu (555), Haryana (573), Uttar
(500 to 1000 persons per sq km.) Pradesh (828) and Kerala (859) The union territory of
Dadra and Nagar Haveli(698)
Very High Density West Bengal (1029), Bihar (1102), Lakshadweep (2013),
(greater than 1000 persons per sq Daman and Diu (2169), Puducherry (2598), Chandigarh
km) (9252) and Delhi (11,297).

5.1.4 P opulation Growth and of population is expressed in percentage and

Change is described as the growth rate of population.
The growth rate of population is an The following table shows the decadal growth
important demographic feature. It not only rate of population from 1901 to 2011.
helps in understanding the population Growth of population in India has gone
change that a society has undergone in the through the different phases. Population of
past but also helps in predicting the future the country in 1901 was 238 million and it
demographic characteristics of an area. grew to 1,210 million over a period of little
Population growth refers to the change in the more than a century. The following are the
number of inhabitants of a country/territory different stages of population growth of India.
during a specified period of time. The growth

(Growth Rate of Populaon in India)

14.22% (31,86,60,580)

30
13.31% (36,10,88,090)
11% (27,89,77,238)
5.75% (25,20,93,390)

20
(% of Populaon)

21.54% (1,02,70,15,247)

17.64% (1,21,01,93,422)
-0.31% (25,20,93,390)

21.64% (43,92,34,771)

24.80% (54,81,59,652)

24.66% (68,33,29,097)

23.87% (84,33,87,888)
0% (23,89,96,237)

10

0
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
(Census based on every ten years)
Source: Census of India -2011

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 The Period of Stagnant Population the countries). Internal migration does not
(1901-1921): During the first phase of change the size of population of a country but
20 years (1901-1921), the population of it influences the distribution of population
India grew by 15 million. The year 1921 in a nation. It plays an important role in
registered a negative growth rate of -0.31% changing the composition and distribution
which happened only once throughout the of population. In India, the mass migration
demographic history of India and is called the is from rural to urban. Unemployment and
year of Great Demographic Divide. under employment in the rural areas are the
The Period of Steady Growth (1921- push factors and the employment opportunity
1951): During the second phase of 30 years and higher wages in the urban areas caused
(1921-1951), the population of India grew by the industrial development are the pull
by 110 million. factors of migration in the country. 45 out
of 121 crores of people in India are reported
The Period of Steady Growth (1951- to be migrants as per 2011 census. Migrants
1981): During the third phase (1951- constitute about 37% of population.
1981), the population of India grew from Migrants are 48% from female and 52%
361 million in 1951 to 683 million in 1981. from male.
Growth rate in this period is almost doubled
when compared to the previous phase of
growth rate. This period is often referred to
as the period of population explosion.
The period of High Growth with
Definite Signs of Slowing Down (1981-
2011): Population of India increased from
685 million to 1210 million during this phase.
The growth rate of population decreased
from one census to other. This marks the
beginning of a new era in the demographic
history of India. Activity
Population change refers to an
increase or decrease of population of an Collect the pictures and make an album
area from one period to another period. of various types of migration.
Population growth is influenced by the birth
rate, death rate and migration. These three 5.2.1  Population composition
make the changes in population. Population composition refers to the
Birth rate refers to the number of live characteristics s uch as age, sex, marital
births per thousand people in a year and the status, caste, religion, language, education,
Death rate refers to the number of deaths per occupation etc. The study of composition of
thousand people in a year. The rapid decline population helps us to understand the social,
in death rate is the major cause of the rapid economic and demographic structure of
growth of population in India. population.

5.2.2  Age composition

5.2  Migration
The age composition of population refers
It is the movement of people across to the number of people in different age
regions and territories. It can be internal groups in a country. It is one of the most basic
(within a country) or international (between characteristics of a population. It helps us

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 to understand the proportion of population is 74.04%. From this, the literacy rate of male
in dependent and independent category. is 82.14% and the female is 65.46%. It shows
Population of a nation is generally grouped in that still there is a vast gap (16.68%) between
to three broad categories. In India, the children the male and female literacy rates. Kerala
who has less than 15 years of age constitute ranks first in the country with a literacy
29.5% and the people above 60 years constitute rate of 93.91% followed by union territory
8.0%. So, the dependent population in India Lakshadweep with 92.28%. The lowest literacy
is 37.5%and the independent population (16- rate is found in Bihar (63.82 %).
59 yrs) is 62.5%. It shows that our country has
5.2.5  Occupational structure
enormous manpower.
The economically active part of
5.2.3  Sex Ratio a country’s popu lation is enumerated
Sex ratio is defined as the number of during the census operations and stated as
females per 1000 male population. This is workers. Workers are placed under three
an important social indicator to measure the fold categories in census record. They are
extent of equality between males and females main workers, marginal workers and non-
in a society at a given time. workers. According to the Census of India,
all those who had worked for the major
Hots part of the preceding year (at least 6 months
The sex ratio in our country is always or 183 days) are recorded as main workers.
unfavourable to females. Give reasons. Those who worked for less than six months
are recorded as marginal workers and the
According to 2011 census, the sex ratio of the people who have not worked at all comes
country is 940 females per 1000 males. This under non workers. Work participation rate
suggests that the size of female population is denotes the percentage of total workers i.e.,
lower than males. Only in the state of Kerala total main and marginal workers to the total
and the union territory of Puducherry the sex population in an area. The work participation
ratio is greater than 1000. It is 1084 in Kerala rate in India is 39.79% in 2011, out of which
and 1038 in Puducherry. The lowest sex ratio the work participation rate of male is 53.25%
is recorded in the union territory of Daman and the female is 25.51%. From the workers,
and Diu(618). main workers constitute 75.23% and the
remaining 24.77% of the people belong to
The ratio between the marginal workers.
economically active and 5.2.6  Population Dynamics
economically inactive of Human population dynamics is a field
population is termed as that tracks factors related to changes in the
Dependency Ratio. size of population and its characteristics.
Predicting population changes is an
5.2.4  Literacy Rate important aspect of population studies. The
demographic trend affects the economic,
The people who are able to read and
social, and environmental systems. An
write are known as literates. It is an important
increase in human population can affect the
indicator of quality of people. The percentage
quality of natural resources like biodiversity,
of literate people to the total population is
air, land, and water. The size of Population and
termed as literacy rate. There has been a
characteristics undergoes changes constantly.
steady improvement in the literacy levels in
These changes are reflected clearly in every
India. India’s literacy rate as per 2011 census
other aspect of our country.

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 5.2.7 P  roblems of over continues to be the most urbanized state with
Population 48.4% percent of urban population followed by
In India, growing pressure of Population Kerala (47.7%) and Maharashtra (45.2%).
on resource base, created many socio-
S. Type of Towns/ 2001 2011
economic, cultural, political, ecological and
No. UAs/OGs (in (in
environmental problems. The Population
Numbers) Numbers)
problems vary in space and time and differ
from region to region. Some of the major 1 Statutory towns 3799 4041
issues created by the overpopulation in our 2 Census Towns 1362 3894
country are overcrowding, unemployment and
3 Urban 384 475
under employment, low standard of living,
Agglomeration
malnutrition, mismanagement of natural and
agricultural resources, unhealthy environment 4 Out Growths 962 981
etc. Source: Statistical data 2011

5.3  Urbanization As per 2011 Census, there are 7,935 towns

The pr ocess
of (statutory and census) in the country. The
society’s transformation number of towns has increased to 2,774, from
from rural to urban is 2001 census. In 2011, 475 Urban agglomeration
known as urbanization. (UAs) with 981 outgrowths (OGs) have been
The level of urbanization identified as Urban Agglomerations as against
of a place is assessed based 384 UAs with 962 OGs in 2001 Census. Out of
on the size of population 468 UAs belongs to Class I category, 53 UAs have
of the towns and cities and the proportion the population of one million and above each
of population engaged in non agricultural and these urban centres are known as “Million
sectors. These two are closely linked to the Cities”. These are the major urban centres in
process of industrialization and expansion the country. Among the Million Cities, there
of the secondary and tertiary sectors of are three major Urban Agglomerations with
economy. more than 10 million population each and
are known as “Mega Cities”. They are Greater
5.3.1  Urbanization in India Mumbai UA (18.4 million), Delhi UA (16.3
The level of urbanization is measured million) and Kolkata UA (14.1million).
in terms of percentage of urban population.
The level of urbanization in the country has 5.3.2  Impact of Urbanization
increased more than three times from 1901 Urbanization and population
to 2011. The percentage of urban population concentration go hand – in – hand and are
of India was 27.82% in 2001 and it rose to closely related to each other. A rapid rate
31.16% in 2011 shows an increase of 3 % in of urbanization in a society is taken as an
a decade. indicator of its economic development.
The level of urbanization varies widely Urbanization is increasing rapidly in the
among the states. Goa is the most urbanized developing countries including India. Rural
state with 62.17% of urban population. to urban migration leads to population
Himachal Pradesh is the least urbanized state explosion in urban areas. Metropolitan cities
with 10.04% of urban population. Among the like Mumbai, Kolkata and Delhi have more
Union territories, Delhi is the most (97.50 %) population than that can accommodate.
urbanized region followed by Chandigarh The urban population of India had
(97.25%). Among the major states, Tamil Nadu already crossed the 377million in 2011, which

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 is more than the total population of USA. By adult population. iii) Income - Measured by
2030, more than 50% of India’s population is gross national income and percapita income.
expected to live in urban areas. The following
are the major problems of urbanization in 5.3.6 Human Development
India. Classification
• It creates urban sprawl. HDI classifications are based on HDI
• It makes overcrowding in urban centres. fixed cut off points, which are derived
from the quartiles of distributions of the
• It leads to shortage of houses in urban
component indicators. The HDI of less than
areas.
0.550 is used for low human development,
• It leads to the formation of slums.
0.550 - 0.699 stands for medium human
• It increases traffic congestion in cities. development, 0.700 - 0.799 for high human
• It creates water scarcity in cities. development and 0.8 or greater for very high
• It creates drainage problem. human development.
• It poses the problem of solid waste
management. 5.4  Transportation
• It increases the rate of crime.
Transport is a system in which passengers
5.3.3  Human Development and goods are carried from one place to
Dr. Mahabub-ul-haq defined as "it is a another. Transport system is considered as the
process of enlarging the range of people’s lifeline of a country. Earlier man travelled on
choice, increasing their opportunities foot or used animals for transport. With the
for education, health care, income and discovery of wheel, transport was made easier
empowerment. It covers the full range and gradually different means of transport
of human choices from a sound physical were developed. There are three major means
environment to economic, social and of transport in the world.
political freedom”.
Means of Transport
5.3.4 Human Development
Indicators: (as per UNDP)
Population trends, health outcomes, Land Water Air
education achievements, national income
and composition of resources, work and Domestic
Road ways Inland
employment, human security, human and airways
Railways waterways
capital mobility, supplementary indicators: International
Pipelines Ocean routes
perceptions of well-being and status of Airways
fundamental rights treaties are the human
development indicators. 5.4.1 Transport Network in India
Transport is one of the most important
5.3.5 Measuring of Human components of infrastructure and it is
Development essential for economic development of a
Human Development Index (HDI) is country, especially for a large country like
a composite index focusing on three basic India. India has a good transport network
dimensions of human development: i) Health of roads, railways, airways and waterways
- Life expectancy at birth ii) Education - providing necessary connectivity between
Expected years of schooling for school age different parts of the country.
children and average years of schooling for the

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 5.4.2 Roadways N N

Roads play an important role in carrying

W E W E
S S

goods and passengers for short, medium and

long distances. It is highly suitable for short
distance services. It is comparatively easy and
cheap to construct and maintain roads. Road
transport system can establish easy contact
between farms, fields, factories and markets
and can provide door to door transport
services. Roads are the most universal mode
of transport. Indian roads are cost efficient. It
is used by all sections of people in the society.
India has the second longest road network in
the world with a total length of 56,03,293 km
as of 2016. About 85% of passengers and 70 %
of freight traffic are carried by roads every year.

Sher shah suri built the shahi

Not to scale Not to scale
(Royal) road to strengthen and
consolidate his empire from India - Roads
the Indus valley to the Sonar
valley in Bengal. This road from Kolkata fi nd out
The import and National
to Peshawar was renamed as Grand Highways in India and
Trunk(GT) road during the British period. label it on the outline map of
At present, it extends from Amristar to India.
Kolkata. It is bifurcated into 2 segments:
(a) (NH)-1 from Delhi to Amristar, and (b)
NH-2 from Delhi to Kolkata.

For the purpose of construction and

maintenance, roads are classified into
National Highways (NH), State Highways
(SH), District Roads, Rural Roads (Village
roads), Border Roads and International
Highways. is responsible for the development and
maintenance of National Highways in India.
1. Classification of Roads in India The total length of the National Highways
(NHs) in India is 1,01,011 km which accounts
a) National Highways (NH) for 1.8 % of the total road network length
National Highways form the most important in 2016. The longest National highway is
system of road transportation in India. NH-7 which runs from Varanasi in Uttar
These highways are running through length Pradesh to Kanniyakumari in Tamil Nadu
and breadth of the country connecting covering a distance of 2369 km. The shortest
capitals of states, major Ports, rail junctions, national highway is NH-47A, which runs
industrial and tourist centres. Ministry of from Ernakulum to Kochi port (Willington
Road Transport and Highways of India, Island) covering a distance of 6 km.

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 b) State Highways
National Highways Authority
The state highways are usually roads
of India (NHAI) was
that link important cities, towns and
established in 1995. It is an
district headquarters within the state and
autonomous body under the
connect them with national highways or
Ministry of Surface Transport.
highways of neighbouring states. These
roads are administered and financed by state
governments. State Highway runs to the e) Border Roads
length of 1, 76,166 km as of 2016. These are the roads of strategic importance
in border areas. They are constructed and
c) District Roads maintained by Border Roads Organization. It
District Roads provide connectivity was established in 1960 for the development
between the district and taluk headquarters of the roads of strategic importance in the
with the state highways and national northern and northeastern border areas.
highways. District Roads are constructed and Border Roads Organization has constructed
maintained by the Public Works Department world’s highest road joining Chandigarh and
of the states. The total length of the road of Leh in Ladakh. This road runs at an average
this category is 5,61,940 km(16.81%) in 2016. altitude of 4,270 meters.

d) Rural Roads (Village Roads) Golden Quadrilateral: 5,846 km long road of

4/6 lanes connecting, India’s four metropolitan
cities: Delhi-Kolkata-Chennai-Mumbai-Delhi.
This project was launched in 1999.
North–South and East-West Corridors: North-
South corridor aims at connecting Srinagar in
Jammu and Kashmir with Kaniyakumari in
Tamil Nadu (including Kochi-Salem Spur) with
4,076km long road. The East-West corridor
has been planned to connect Silchar in Assam
with the port town of Porbandar in Gujarat
with 3,640km of road length. The two corridors
Rural roads connectivity is a key intersect at Jhansi.
component of rural development. These
roads are vital for providing links in the rural Hots
areas. It links the different villages with their What are the highlights and benefits of the
neighbouring towns. They are maintained by Golden Quadrilateral Highways?
Village Panchayats. The total length of rural
roads in India is 39,35,337 km as of 2016. f) Expressways
Rural roads consist of Panchayat roads, (Zilla
These are multi-lane good quality
Parishad, Panchayat Samiti, Gram Panchayat);
highways for high speed traffic. Some of the
roads of the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak
important expressways are; (i)Mumbai-Pune
Yojana (PMGSY) and those constructed by
Road, (ii) Kolkata-Dumdum Airport road
the State PWDs.
(iii) Durgapur-Kolkata road and (iv) Yamuna
expressway between Delhi and Agra.
Hots
Find out what are the functions of NHAI.

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 railways network as of 2017 is 67,368 km
with 7,349 railway stations.

The first train steamed off

from Mumbai to Thane in
1853, covering a distance of
34 km. In 1951, the systems
were nationalized as one unit
“The Indian Railways”. The headquarter
of Indian Railways is New Delhi.
Mumbai-Pune Road

g) International Highways For operations and management, the

These are the roads that link India Indian Railways is organized into 16 zones.
with neighbouring countries for promoting 1) Northern Railway - Delhi 2) North-
harmonious relationship with them. These Western Railway - Jaipur 3) North-Central
highways have been constructed with an aid Railway- Allahabad 4) North-Eastern Railway
from world bank under an agreement with - Gorakhpur 5) North-East Frontier Railway -
the Economic and Social Commission for Guwahati 6) Eastern Railway - Kolkata 7) East
Asia-Pacific (ESCAP). These roads connect coast Railway - Bhubaneswar 8) East-Central
important highways of India with those of the Railway - Hazipur 9) West-Central Railway -
neighbouring countries such as Pakistan, Nepal, Jabalpur 10) Central Railway - Mumbai (VT)
Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar. In India the 11) Western Railway - Mumbai (Churchgate)
densest road network is found in the northern 12) Southern Railway - Chennai 13) South-
plains where it is relatively easy to construct Central Railway - Secunderabad 14) South
roads. In mountainous area, it is quite difficult Eastern Railway - Kolkata 15) South-Western
to construct roads. Road density is the highest Railway - Hubball and 16) South East Central
in Kerala and lowest in Jammu &Kashmir. Railway - Bilaspur. The Northern Railway
accounts for the longest route length, followed
5.4.3 Railways by the Western Railway.
Indian railway system is the main artery Activity
of the country’s inland transport. Railways
cater to the needs of large scale movement Prepare a seminar topic about “Role
of traffic, both for freight and passenger, of Railways in Indian Economy”
thereby contributing to economic growth.
On the basis of width of the track, the
Railways are considered as the backbone
Indian railways fall under four categories.
of the surface transport system of India. It
Broad gauge with a width of 1.676 meter,
promotes national integration by bringing
Meter gauge with a width of 1 meter and
people together. It also promotes trade,
Narrow gauge with a width of 0.762 meter
tourism, education etc. Railways help in
and Light gauge with 0.610 meter.
the commercialization of the agriculture
sector by facilitating the quick movement of In recent times, many developments
perishable goods. Its role in transporting raw have taken place in the Indian railways.
materials to industries and finished goods The arrival of Konkan Railway Corporation
to markets is invaluable. Indian railways (KRC), Mass Rapid Transit System (MRTS),
network is the largest in Asia and second Metro and Sub-Urban railways provide easy
largest in the world. The length of Indian and efficient means of transport. These are

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 N
tunnel nearly 6.44 km long is in this route. The
N

W
S
E
states of Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka are
W
S
E

partners in this undertaking.

The rail link between Banihal in Jammu

region and Qazigund in Kashmir valley was
opened in 2013. This rail line passes under
the Pir Panjal Range through a 11.2 km long
tunnel.

b) Metro Railways in India

Not to scale Not to scale

India - Railways
very helpful in avoiding traffic congestion
and over crowding in urban areas.

• The first sub-urban railway

was started in 1925 in
Mumbai.
• C hennai becomes the sixth
Indian city with metro
railway.
There are 8 cities with metro rail
• Gatiman Express is the fastest
connectivity in India. They are Kolkata
operational train in India. This train
(West Bengal), Chennai (Tamil Nadu),
connects New Delhi and Agra and
Delhi, Bengaluru (Karnataka), Gurgaon
touches 160 km/h. This train takes
(Haryana), Mumbai (Maharashtra), Jaipur
a travel time of 105minutes to cover
(Rajasthan) and Kochi (Kerala). The metro
200km journey.
in Kolkata is the first one in India. It is also
called as Mass Rapid Transit System (MRTS).
a) Konkan railway As of September 2018, India has 507 km of
One of the important achievements of operational metro lines and 381 stations.
Indian Railways has been the construction of
Konkan Railway in 1998. It connects Roha in
Maharashtra to Mangaluru in Karnataka and The state of Meghalaya has no
the track measures 760 km. It is considered railway network.
as an engineering marvel. On its routes, the
railway crosses 146 rivers and streams, nearly
2000 bridges and 73 tunnels. Asia’s longest

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 5.4.4 : Pipeline transport: Haldia and Allahabad, measures 1620 km
Pipelines provided a very convenient and includes the stretches of the Ganga-
mode of transport to connect oil and natural Bhagirathi-Hooghly river system. National
gas fields, refineries and to the markets. In Waterway 2: This waterway includes the
the past, these were used to transport water stretch of the Brahmaputra river between
to cities and industries. Now solids can also Dhubri and Sadiya a distance of 891 km.
be transported through a pipeline when National Waterway 3: This waterway extends
converted into slurry. The initial cost of laying between Kollam and Kottapuram in the state
pipeline is high but subsequent running cost of Kerala. It is the first national waterway in
is minimum. It can be laid through difficult the country with 24 hour navigation facilities
terrain as well as under water. It ensures steady along its entire stretch of 205 km.
supply of goods and reduces the transshipment
b) Oceanic Routes
losses and delays are the major advantages of
pipeline transport. Oil field in upper Assam Oceanic routes play an important role in
to Kanpur, from Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar the transport sector of India’s economy. About
in Punjab and gas pipeline from the Hazira 95% of India’s foreign trade by volume and 70
in Gujarat ot Jagadispur in Uttar Pradesh are percent by value moves through ocean routes.
the three important network large network of Coastal shipping plays an important role in
pipeline in the country. transport of bulk goods in India. Shipping is not
only the most economical mode of transport,
5.4.5 Waterways it is also an environment friendly mode. The
A waterway is an important mode of sea and oceanic routes are mainly used for
transport for both passenger and cargo traffic international trade and are connected through
in India. It is the oldest and also the cheapest ports. There are 13 major and 200 minor or
means of transport and most suitable for intermediate ports in India. The major ports
carrying heavy and bulky materials from one are administered by the Central Government
country to another. It is a fuel-efficient and and minor ports are managed and administered
eco-friendly mode of transport. The water by various state governments. The major ports
transport is of two types- Inland Waterways on the east coast are Kolkata (including Haldia
and Ocean water ways(sea routes). Dock), Paradip, Visakhapatnam, Chennai,
Ennore and Tuticorin. The major ports on the
a) Inland Waterways
west coast are Kandla, Mumbai, Nhava Seva
India has an extensive network of inland (Jawaharlal Nehru Port), New Mangalore,
waterways in the form of rivers, canals, lakes Marmagao and Kochi.
and backwaters. It depends upon the depth
India has four major shipyards. Hindustan
and width of the waterways and the continuity
shipyard in Vishakhapatnam, Garden Reach
of the water flow. The total navigable length of
workshop in Kolkata, Mazagaon Dock in
our country is 14,500 km, out of which about
Mumbai, Kochi Shipyard in Kochi. India is
5,200 km length of rivers and 4,000 km length
the second largest ship owning country in
of canals can be used by mechanized crafts.
Asia and ranks 16th in the World.
The total cargo carried by inland waterways
is just about 0.1% of the total inland traffic 5.4.6  Air Transport
of India. For the development, maintenance Airways are the quickest, costliest, most
and regulation of national waterways in the modern and comfortable means of transport,
country, the Inland water ways Authority was Air transport facilitates connectivity on a
setup in 1986. The major national waterways national, regional and international scale. It has
are: National Waterway 1: It extends between made accessibility easier by connecting difficult

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 N N

W E W E
S S

Not to scale

terrains like high mountains and sandy deserts. available in the country. These airports are
It carries passengers, freight and mail. Air managed by Airports Authority of India.
transport plays a key role in times of emergency Some of them are Netaji Subhash Chandra
as well as in the event of natural and man-made Bose International Airport, Kolkata,
calamities like floods, epidemics and wars. Chennai International Airport, Chennai,
Indira Gandhi International Airport, Delhi,
Air transport in India made a beginning
Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport,
on 18th February, 1918 when Henry Piquet
Mumbai, Thiruvananthapuram International
carried a mail from Allahabad to Naini. In
Airport, Thiruvananthapuram, Sardar
1953, eight different airlines which were in
Vallabh Bhai Patel International Airport,
operation in the country were nationalised.
Ahmedabad, Bangalore International Airport,
Domestic Airways fly within the Bengaluru, Rajiv Gandhi International
boundaries of a country and International Airport, Hyderbad etc. Besides this, there are
Airways connect major cities of the world. about 80 domestic airports and about 25 civil
The Indian Air lines and Air India are the enclaves at defence air fields.
two airline services run by the government
of India. Indian Air lines provides the Hots
domestic air services and Air India provides
international air services. Presently, there Why is air travel preferred in the north
are 19 designated international airports eastern states?

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 a) Pavan-Hans Helicopter Ltd and today it covers the entire country. The
Pavan-Hans Helicopter Ltd has been Quick Mail Service functions on the basis
providing Helicopter support services to of the system of PIN (Postal Index Number)
the petroleum sector, including ONGC and code which was introduced in 1972. The
oil India Ltd. It is a public sector company premium products include the Money order,
based in New Delhi. Its operations are based e-money order, Speed Post, Express Parcel
at the Juhu Aerodrome in Vile Parle (West) Post, Business Post, Media Post, Satellite Post,
Mumbai. Pavan-Hans is a Mini Ratna–I Retail Post, Greeting Post, Data Post, Speed
category public sector undertaking. It often Net and Speed Passport Services.
provides services to various state governments In 2007, the Government of
in India particularly north east India Inter India merged the Air India and
Island, Ferry services in Andaman & Nicobar Indian Airlines under National
Islands, services to Lakshadweep Island etc., Aviation Corporation of India
b) Airports Authority of India (AAI) Limited (NACIL). In which
NACIL (A) provides international services,
Airports Authority of India (AAI) was
NACIL (I) provides domestic services and
constituted in 1995. It provides security to
services to neighboring countries in south
Indian Airports. AAI under the ministry of
east Asia and middle East.
Civil Aviation is responsible for creating,
upgrading, maintaining and managing civil Cards and envelopes are considered first-
aviation infrastructure in India. class mail and are airlifted between stations
covering both land and air. The second-
5.5   Communication class mail includes book packets, registered
newspapers and periodicals. They are carried
Communication is a process that involves
by surface mail, covering land and water
exchange of information, thoughts and ideas.
transport.To facilitate quick delivery of mails
Technology does wonders in communication
in large towns and cities, six mail channels
fields. Communication is categorized in to
have been introduced recently. They are
personal and mass communications.
called Rajdhani Channel, Metro Channel,
5.5.1  Personal Communication Green Channel, Business Channel, Bulk Mail
Channel and Periodical Channel.
The exchange of information between the
India has one of the largest
individuals is called personal communication.
telecommunication networks in Asia. Apart
It includes post and telegraph services,
from the urban areas more than two-thirds
telephone, mobile phone, short message
of the villages in India have already been
services, fax, internet, e-mail etc. Personal
covered with Subscriber Trunk Dialing
Communication system enables the user to
(STD) telephone facility, while International
establish direct contact.
communication can be made through ISD
The Indian postal network is the largest in (International Subscriber Dialing). There is
the world with 1,55,000 post offices. Of these an uniform rate of STD facilities all over India.
more than 1,39,000 post offices are located in Telephone is a form of oral communication.
rural areas. The postal service was opened to It is considered very essential for the growth
the public in the country in 1837. The first of commerce. It is the most preferred form as
Indian postal stamp was issued in 1852 in it provides instant communication. Mobile
Karachi. Collecting and delivering mail is the phone, fax and internet are the other personal
primary function of the department of posts. communication used in the country.
It introduced the Quick Mail Service in 1975

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 5.5.2 Mass Communication percent of the Indian population accessed the
Systems internet in 2015. This is a significant increase in
Mass Communication enables millions comparison to the previous years, considering
of people to get the information at the same the internet penetration rate in India stood at
time. It is a great way to provide education about 10 percent in 2011. Furthermore, men
as well as entertainment. It helps in creating dominated  internet usage in India  with 71
awareness among the people regarding percent to women’s 29 percent.
various national policies and programmes. Print Media: Newspapers are the
The Mass Communication Systems can most common but powerful means of
provide the information to people in communication come under print media.
two methods. They are Print Media and India has many newspapers which carry
Electronic Media. information on local, national and
Electronic Media: Radio broadcasting in international events to the people.
India was started in 1923 by the Radio club
of Bombay. Since then it gained immense 5.5.3 Satellite Communication
popularity and changed the social and cultural Satellite Network
life of people. It was named as All India Radio Satellite

(AIR) in 1936 and again it was renamed as

Akashwani in 1957. It broadcasts a variety of
programs related to information, education
and entertainment. Special news bulletins Corporate
Headquarters
Enterprise

are also broadcasted on special occasions like Teleport

Emergency
Response
session of parliament and state legislatures.
Internet
Business
Connuity

Television broadcasting has emerged as PSTN Router Data/Internet

Fax
the most effective audio-visual medium for Central
Voice

disseminating information and educating the Office

PSTN= public switched telephone network
Server

masses. Television network in India is known

as Doordarshan (DD) which started Common The use of Satellite in getting a continuous
National Program (CNP) services and it is and synoptic view of larger area has made
extended to the backward and remote rural this communication system very vital for the
areas. country. Satellite images are used for weather
forecasting, monitoring of natural calamities,
Internet (contraction of interconnected
surveillance of border areas etc. The
network) is the global system of
communication through satellites emerged as
interconnected  computer networks  that
a new era in communication in our country
use the  Internet protocol suite  to link
after the establishment of Indian Space
devices worldwide. Social media  are
Research Organization (ISRO) in 1969.
interactive  computer-mediated  technologies
that facilitate the creation and sharing Satellite system in India can be grouped
of  information, ideas, career interests into two-the Indian National Satellite
and other forms of expression via  virtual System (INSAT) and the Indian Remote
communities  and  networks. With over Sensing Satellite System (IRS).The INSAT,
460 million internet users, India is the established in 1983, is a multipurpose system
second  largest online market, ranked only for telecommunication, meteorological
behind China. By 2021, there will be about observation and for various other programs.
635.8 million internet users in India. Despite The INSAT series are used for relaying signals
the large base of internet users in India, only 26 to television, telephone, radio, mobile phone.

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 It is also useful in weather detection, internet Trade carried on between two or more
and military applications. countries is called International trade. It is
also called as external trade or foreign trade.
The INSAT series, GSAT series,
Export and Import are two components of
KALPANA-1, HAMSAT, EDUSAT are
International trade. Export means goods and
the major communication satellite used
services sold for foreign currency. Import
for communication purpose. GSAT–7A
means goods and services bought from
is the recent launch (December 19, 2018)
overseas producers. Waterways and Airways
for communication programs. INSAT-1B
play a vital role in this type of trade. Foreign
launched on 30th August 1983 is the first
currency is involved in international trade.
communication satellite in INSAT series.
The trade between any two countries is called
Bilateral trade. The trade between more than two
5.6   Trade countries is called Mutilateral Trade.
Trade is an important phenomenon that
decides the economic growth of a country. Hots
Trade is an act (or) process of buying, selling or Find out the major trade blocs which are
exchanging of goods and services. The primitive useful for multilateral trade.
method of trade was known as the Barter
system where goods were exchanged for goods.
5.6.2 Exports
Later on, money was introduced as a medium
of exchange in buying and selling of goods. The The major exports of India are tea, marine
difference in value between the imports and products, ores and minerals, leather products,
exports is called balance of trade. The situation gems and jewels, sports goods, chemicals and
in which the value of exports exceeds the value related products, plastics and rubber articles,
of imports is termed as favourable balance articles of stones, plaster, cement, asbestos,
of trade and the reverse position is termed as mica, glass ware, paper and related products,
unfavourable balance of trade. base metals, optical, medical and surgical
instruments, electronic items, machinery, office
Activity equipments, textiles and allied products.
Collect the names fo different types of 5.6.3 Imports
goods and differentiate it and make a table The major imports are petroleum products,
as perishable and non-perishable goods. pearls, precious stones and semi-precious
stones, gold and telecom instruments.
5.6.1  Types of Trade
Trade in general, is of two types. They Activity
are Internal and International. The trade Collect the countries names and make it as
carried on within the domestic territory of a table of Bilateral trade and multilateral
a country is termed as Internal trade. It is trade countries.
also called as Domestic trade or Local trade.
Land transport (roadways and railways) plays 5.6.4  India’s Trade Performance
a major role in this trade. Local currency is
used in internal trade. It helps to promote The volume of India’s foreign trade has
a balanced regional growth in the country increased many fold since independence.
i.e, tea from Assam, coffee from Karnataka, During 2008 -2009, the volume of trade was
Rubber and spices from Kerala, minerals from 840755 crores and it rose to 1039797 crores
Jharkhand etc., are supplied to different parts in 2016-2017. The import during 2008-2009
of our country. was 1374436 crores and was with a deficit of

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 40679 crores. The import during 2016–2017
rose to 1396352 crores and was with the deficit
of 356555 crores. It reveals that not only the EXERCISE
balance of trade is unfavourable but also the
increase in the level of deficit.
I. Choose the correct answer
1. The scientific study of different aspects of
Recap population is called
a) Photography
„„ The total number of people residing in b) Demography
a country at a specified period of time is
c) Choreography
called the size of population of that country.
d) Population density.
„„The growth of population is
determined by the birth rate, death 2. 
T he state with highest
rate and migration of people. literacy rate as per 2011 census is
„„The process of society’s transformation _________.
from rural to urban is known as a) Tamil nadu b) Karnataka
urbanization. c) Kerala d) Uttarpradesh.
„„Communication is classified into the 3. Human Development is measured in terms
personal and mass communications. of _________.
„„Trade is an exchange of goods and a) Human Resource Index
services. Internal and International b) Per capita index
trades are its types. Import and
c) Human Development Index
exports are the components of an
International Trade. d) UNDP
4. ______________ transport provides door
to door services.
GLOSSARY a) Railways b) Roadways
c) Airways d) Waterways.
Barter: A direct exchange of goods
between any two parties.No money is 5. 
The length of Golden Quadrilateral
involved in the trade. superhighways in India is
Foreign exchange: The mechanism a) 5846 km b) 5847 km
or process by which payments between c) 5849 km d) 5800 km
any two places operating under different 6. The length of navigable Inland waterways
national currency systems are effected in India is
without passing of actual money or gold, etc.
a) 17,500 km b) 5000 km
Harbour: An extensive stretch of
c) 14,500 km d) 1000 km
deep water near the seashore where
vessels can anchor securely. It is used 7. 
The National Remote sensing
for exports and imports of goods. Centre(NRSC) is located at ____________.
Port: The commercial part of a a) Bengaluru b) Chennai
harbour with the facility of loading and c) Delhi d) Hyderabad
unloading of goods and space for the
8. The transport useful in the inaccessible
storage of cargo.
areas is

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Unit VIII

Natural Disasters -
Public Awareness
For Disaster Risk
Reduction

Chapter Outline Learning Objectives:

Learning Objectives:
8.1 Introduction • Define the terms – Disaster Risk
8.2 Public awareness for disaster Reduction, Resilience and Public
risk reduction Awareness.
8.3 Disasters and rules of action for
• Understand the need for public
disasters
awareness for disaster risk
8.4 Earthquake
8.5 Landslide reduction.
8.6 Cyclone • Explain the rules of actions for
8.7 Flood disasters.
8.8 Drought • Learn and experience the various
8.9 Lightning mock drills for disasters.

8.1 Introduction Recognizing the importance of

Disaster Risk Reduction in 2005, 168
On an average, 232 million people are governments and all leading development
affected by different types of disasters and humanitarian actors signed the Hyogo
every year. In recent years disaster risks Framework for Action (HFA), committing
have been on the rise due to factors themselves to a ten-year multi-stakeholder
such as population growth, unplanned and multi-sector plan to invest in disaster
urbanization, environmental degradation, risk reduction as a means to building
conflicts and competition for scarce disaster-resilient societies.
resources, climate change, disease
Public awareness campaigns can be
epidemics, poverty and pressure from
started modestly and tailored to meet
development within high-risk zones.
the needs of specific populations and
Hence, disaster risk reduction is the need
target groups. These approaches can
of hour.
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be integrated into almost all existing the awareness of public for disaster risk
initiatives, whenever and wherever they reduction. Every school has to setup the
take place. They can build on and support following school disaster committees:
existing volunteer mobilisation and peer- 1. Coordination Committees
to-peer communications. To support
2. Awareness generation Team
this, it requires strong and unified
disaster reduction messages and clear 3. Search Rescue and Evacuation Team
and targeted information, education and 4. Site safety Team
communication materials. 5. First Aid Team
6. Warning and Information Team
8.2 Public awareness for disaster risk
7. Bus safety Team
reduction
8. Water / Food Arrangement Team.
There are four key approaches to public
awareness for disaster risk reduction: All the teams should participate in the
Campaigns, participatory learning, mock drill.
informal education, and formal school-
based interventions. Mock drills
Let’s take formal school based Mock drills form a vital part of the
interventions to learn in detail. school disaster management process,
Formal school-based interventions: and provide an intensive learning
The focus of formal school-based experience. They should be followed
interventions cover two areas: school by reflection and assessment by all
disaster management and disaster risk members of the school community.
reduction in school curricula. These Lessons learned are incorporated into
are considered to be formal because the school disaster management plan,
accountability and responsibility for and goals set for improvement next
school safety and curricula belong time. Depending on hazards faced,
exclusively to education authorities, there are several major types of drills
so they require support for long-term that can be practiced:
planning and capacity building.
School disaster management: The
Disasters and Rules of actions during
primary goals of school disaster management
disasters
are to ensure the safety of students and staff.
Sustained school disaster management 8.3.1 Earthquake
requires the familiar participatory and An earthquake is sudden, rapid shaking of
ongoing process of identification of hazards the ground caused by the shifting of rocks
and risks, mitigation and reduction of risks, beneath the earth’s surface. Earthquakes
and developing response capacity. strike suddenly without warning and
A school disaster management plan, can occur at anytime. The impacts of the
developed at the school level, should earthquakes include deaths, injuries and
be the living document that expresses damage of property. You have learned
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Nepal – India Earthquake

The April 2015 Nepal Earthquake (also known as the Gorkha Earthquake) killed
nearly 9,000 people and injured nearly 22,000. It occurred on 25 April, with a
magnitude of 8.1 Richter scale. Its epicentre was east of Gorkha District at Barpak.
It was the worst natural disaster to strike Nepal since 1934 Nepal–Bihar earthquake.
The earthquake triggered an avalanche on Mount Everest, killing 21 people making
April 25, 2015 the deadliest day on Nepal’s history. The earthquake triggered another
huge avalanche in the Langtang Valley, where 250 people were reported missing.

Figure 8.1. Nepal Earthquake, 2015

Rules of actions during an earthquake:

Students’ activity
1. Stay calm, do not panic.
Mock drill: Earthquake. 2. If you are in a building, sit down on
the floor under a table or any other
In case we are inside the class when furniture and firmly hold on to it until
earthquake occurs, instruct loudly the earthquake has stopped.
“earth quake position – drop, cover,
3. If there is no table nearby, cover your
and hold on”. Drop down on your
face and head with your hands and sit
knee. Cover your head, neck and face.
on the floor in a corner of the room.
Go under a table to protect your head.
4. Keep away from glass windows, glass
doors and things that can fall down.
about occurrence of the earthquake and 5. Do not try to leave the building quickly;
other related information in the earlier during earthquakes people mostly
part of the book. die because they try to run out of the

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building and become trapped under

ruins if the building is destroyed.
6. Do not go to the staircase, a balcony or
an elevator.
7. If you are in the street, keep away from
buildings; try to get into an open space
and avoid power transmission lines.
8. If you are at home, turn off electrical
equipment and gas quickly.
9. If you are in chemistry class or a Figure 8.2. Drop, Cover, Hold-Mock drill
laboratory where chemicals are stored,
try to leave the room because chemicals
may cause injuries; influence of gravity. Landslides can be
caused by rainfall, snowmelt, stream
After earthquake:
erosion, and flood, earthquakes, volcanic
1. First check if you have any injuries, activity, disturbance by human activities,
and then check the condition of the or any combination of these factors.
surrounding people. If you cannot do
Landslides  cause property damage,
this, wait for the rescue team;
injury and death and adversely affect a
2. After the earthquake when you leave variety of resources. For example, water
the shelter, do not return for 2-3 hours supplies, fisheries, sewage disposal
because the quakes may repeat (an systems, forests, dams and roadways can
aftershock). be affected.
3. Check if there is fire; in case of a mild
During a Landslide
one try to extinguish it.
1. Listen for any unusual sounds that
4. Be cautious about the possibility of
might indicate moving debris, such as
gas leakage and damage caused to
trees cracking or boulders knocking
electrical wiring.
together.
5. Be careful while opening wardrobe
2. If you are near a river, be alert for
doors to take necessary items;
any sudden increase or decrease in
6. Use only lanterns; do not use an oil water flow and for a change from clear
lamp or a candle. to muddy water. Such changes may
7. Listen to the radio to receive indicate landslide activity upstream, so
information about the earthquake. be prepared to move quickly.
3. Be alert especially when driving.
8.3.2 Landslide Embankments along roadsides are
A landslide is defined as the movement particularly susceptible to landslides.
of a mass of rock debris down a slope. 4. Disconnect the power supply in the
Landslides are caused by the direct areas of landslide.

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After the Landslide Nicobar and Lakshadweep are also prone

1. Stay away from the slide area. There to cyclones.
may be danger of additional slides Districts in Tamil Nadu which are
2. Check for injured and trapped persons frequently affected by cyclones: All the 13
near the slide, without entering the coastal Districts of Tamil Nadu are affected
direct slide area. by cyclonic storms which occur during May-
3. Direct rescuers to their locations. June and in October-November months.
These Districts are: Tiruvallur, Chennai,
4. Listen to local radio or television for
Kancheepuram, Villupuram, Cuddalore,
the latest emergency information
Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Thanjavur,
5. Watch for flooding, which may occur Pudukkottai, Ramanathapuram, Tuticorin,
after a landslide or debris flow. Tirunelveli and Kanniyakumari.
On an average, about five or six tropical
8.3.3 Cyclone
cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal and
The major natural disaster that affects the Arabian sea and hit the coast every year.
coastal regions of India is cyclone and as Out of these, two or three are severe.
India has a coastline of about 7516 km; When a cyclone approaches to the
it is exposed to nearly 10 percent of the coast, a risk of serious loss or damage
world’s tropical cyclones. occurs from severe winds, heavy rainfall,
About 71 percent of flood prone areas storm surges and river floods. The effect of
are in ten states (Gujarat, Maharashtra, a storm surge is most pronounced in wide
Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and shallow bays exposed to cyclones such
Pondicherry, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and as in the northern part of Bay of Bengal.
West Bengal). The islands of Andaman, Most cyclones occur in the Bay of Bengal

Figure 8.3. Forces of Cyclonic wind

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Figure 8.4. Effects of Cyclone

followed by those in the Arabian Sea and During a cyclone

the ratio is approximately 4:1. During the 1. If you are in a building during a strong
cyclonic of cyclonic storms, wind speed is gust, it is necessary to close and fasten
between 65 km/h and117 km/h. windows and doors. It is better to stay in
Rules of action before a cyclone the rooms.
1. Go to high-lying places from low-lying 2. Turn off all electrical devices.
areas 3. Protect yourself with your hands or a
2. Those residing in old buildings should scarf. Protect the eyes, nose and mouth
temporarily relocate to safer buildings; from dust.
Jewels and documents should be kept 4. If you are in a wildlife area, try to find
in safe custody. a place protected from the wind. If
3. Battery-operated radio, plastic torch- there is no such place nearby, lie down
light, lamp, kerosene, match-box on the ground.
should be kept safely for future use.
5. If you are in a car it is better to stay
4. Keep in ready all the first-aid kit and there and close the windows. Do not
material available with you. park the car under unstable objects
5. Keep in stock foodstuffs, material, fuel, that can break down and fall on the
drinking water and life-saving drugs car.
needed for the next week.
After cyclone
6. It is also important to take cattle and
other pets to safer places. 1. Turn off electricity, gas and water and
unplug all electric appliances.
7. It is important to know that if we see
quickly approaching storm clouds it 2. Beware of snakes and other animals
is possible to predict strong winds immediately after the cyclone.
several minutes in advance. 3. Do not go for sightseeing.
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4. Stay away from damaged power lines,

falling trees and flood water. Mock Drill means
Practicing of some-
5. Boil and purify water before drinking.
thing that can happen
8.3.4 Flood in future so that it can
be easily dealt with in.
Flood destructions have always brought
miseries to numerous people, especially in
rural areas. Flood results in the outbreak namely, the monsoon, the highly silted
of serious epidemics, specially malaria river systems and the steep highly erodible
and cholera. Simultaneously, scarcity of mountains, particularly those of the
water also arises. It has a drastic effect on Himalayan ranges. The average rainfall
agricultural produce. Sometimes, water in India is 1,150 mm with significant
remains standing over large areas for long variation across the country. The annual
span of time hampering the Rabi crops. rainfall along the western coast and the
India is one of the most flood prone Western Ghats, Khasi hills and over most
countries in the world. The principal of the Brahmaputra valley amounts to
reasons for flood lie in the very nature of more than 2,500 mm. Twenty-three of
natural ecological systems in this country, the states (29) and union territories (6)

Fact File
Tropical Cyclone Vardha hit Chennai  on 12 December, 2016. National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA) reports that at least 10 people have died in Tamil Nadu.
Maximum sustained wind speeds of over 130 km/h were recorded, and the storm
has caused severe damage to parts of the city of Chennai. Over 4,000 trees have been
uprooted, power lines downed and buildings damaged.

NDRF teams clear up damage after Cyclone Vardha. Photo: NDRF

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in the country are subject to floods and Do’s before flood

40 million hectares of land, roughly one- 1. Keep furniture and electrical
eighth of the country’s geographical area, appliances on beds and tables
is prone to floods. The National Flood 2. Put sandbags in the toilet bowl and
Control Program was launched in the cover all drain holes to prevent sewage
country in 1954. back flow.

Statewise water reservoir levels in India

W E

-41%
48% Departure from 10-year average
-42%
water reservoir levels

10% 92%

45% 234%
75% 60%
16%
20%
38%
-13%

42%

-67%
-41%

-81%
-31%
Not to Scale

Figure 8.5. Statewise water reservoir levels in India

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3. Keep your mobile charged

4. Listen to radio or watch television for
the latest weather bulletin and flood
warnings.
5. Keep strong ropes, a lantern, battery
operated torches, extra batteries ready.
6. Keep umbrellas and bamboo sticks
with you for protection from snakes.

8.3.5 Drought
Figure 8.7. Drought condition
The above map shows most the acute
shortage of water in Tamil Nadu in 10
years. ( 2017) percent areas receive rainfalls less than
750 mm is considered to be chronically
drought prone.
Rules of action before, during and after
Drought
Before drought:
1. Rainwater harvesting should be
followed.
2. Sewage water should be recycled and
used for domestic purpose.
3. Building canals or redirecting rivers
Figure 8.6. Crops affected by Drought for irrigation.
4. Utilise water economically.
Drought is a period of time (months or
years) during which a part of the land has During drought:
shortage of rain, causing severe damage 1. Wear cotton clothing and a hat.
to the soil, crops, animals, and people. 2. In case of overheating, immediately
It sometimes causes even death. During move to a shady area.
drought high temperature is experienced.
3. Consume adequate amounts of
Such conditions may affect our health.
water stay.
The primary cause of drought is
deficiency of rainfall and in particular, the After drought:
timing, distribution and intensity. 1. If anyone faints after sunstroke,
In India around 68 percent of the emergency medical measures should be
country is prone to drought. Of the taken.
entire area 35 percent receives rain falls 2. Contact local government agencies to
between 750 mm and 1,125 mm which receive information about disaster and
is considered drought prone while 33 assistance for the population.
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8.3.6 Lightning
• Lightning flashes
Lightning is an atmospheric electrostatic more than 3 million
discharge (spark) accompanied by times a day or 40 times
thunder, which typically occurs during a second worldwide.
thunderstorms, and sometimes during
• An average lightning bolt can
volcanic eruptions or dust storms.
release enough energy to operate a
Lightning generates 10-20 ampere current
100-watt light bulb for more than
three months straight (about 250
• You can hear kilowatt-hours of energy).
thunder from about
16 km of its starting
point. a tree branch. The heat travels through the
tree, vaporizing its sap and creating steam
• Lightning bolts travel at the speed that causes the trunk to explode.
of up to 80,000 km / second.
Before lightning
• The average length of a single
1. If you are planning to go to the
lightning bolt is 3-4km.
countryside, check the weather
forecast.
and it is therefore fatal. It is especially 2. If a thunderstorm is expected it is
dangerous for people in an open area. better to postpone the trip.
Lightning strikes often have fatal 3. It is good if you can estimate the distance
consequences. On an average, 2000 people to the front line of a thunderstorm. In
die from lightning in the world every year. order to do this you must check the
Lightning mostly strikes tall things, such time interval from the moment you see
as trees that break down and catch fire the lightning until you hear thunder.
or it may strike power transmission lines Lightning always precedes thunder.
and antennas fastened We know that the sound speed travels
on roofs and buildings on average about 1km every 3 seconds.
which causing fire. The Reduction of the time interval between
air temperature, when the sight of lightning and the resulting
lightning occurs, is as thunder means that the danger is
hot as 9982.2 °C. approaching and protective measures
Thunder is the sound caused by must be taken. If there is no interval
lightning. A charged, superheated between lightning and thunder means,
lightning bolt creates a “resonating tube” it means that the cloud is already over
as it travels. The air in the tube rapidly your head.
expands and contracts causing vibrations During Lightning:
that we hear as the rumble of thunder. 1. If you are in a building it is necessary
Lightning strikes can explode a tree. to close windows, doors, ventilation
Imagine 15 million volts of electricity hitting pipes and chimneys.
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Figure 8.8. Lightning

2. It is necessary to turn off the telephone, It is dangerous to stand or lie down on

TV set, and other electrical equipment the ground, because this increases the
because lightning may strike electrical exposure area.
cables and pass through wiring. 8. It is necessary to get rid of metal items
3. Do not take a shower because both such as a bicycle, coins etc.
water and metal conduct electricity. 9. Do not stand under an umbrella.
4. Do not light the fireplace because the
10. Do not run during the occurrence
heat coming from the chimney may
of lightning; move slowly towards
attract lightning.
a shelter because the air flow may
5. It is better to stay away from electric attract lightning;
wires, lightning rods, water pipes,
11. If you are in a car, do not get out. It is
antennas and windows.
better to close the windows and turn
6. If you are in an open area during a
of the antenna. Do not park your car
thunderstorm, do not stand under a
under tall trees or any structures that
tall tree. Lighting is most damaging
may fall down and hit you.
for tall trees. It is better to stay
30-40 meters away from them. Avoid 12. If there is an injured person next to
trees that are standing separately. you, remember that the victim may
Remember that lightning does not lose consciousness. It is necessary to
strike bushes. provide first aid.
7. If the area is open, it is better to find a 13. Cover your mouth with a wet cloth in
lower place or a cavity and squat there. order to protect your lungs.

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 UNIT

1
Population
Geography

Unit Overview Learning Objectives

➢ Know the attributes

1.1 Introduction
of population.
1.2 Distribution of population
➢ Understand the
1.3 Density of Population
distribution of the
1.4 Growth of world population world population.
1.5 Composition of Population ➢ Judge the cause and
1.6 Migration effect of population growth.
1.7 Overpopulation ➢ Estimate the problems of over
1.8 Measures to control overpopulation population.
➢ Elucidate the pull and push factors of
1.1. Introduction migration.
Do you know that 3,60,000 persons born
every day in the world? Four births take place
every second in the world. 'Professor Stephen study of human population. It includes the study
Hawking thinks the human species will have of size, structure and distribution of population
to populate a new planet within 100 years if it as well as changes in time and location in
is to survive,' the BBC confirmed. response to birth, migration, aging and death.
‘Population explosion’ is one of the greatest
'With climate change, overdue asteroid
challenges that we are facing today.
strikes, epidemics and population growth, our
own planet is increasingly precarious,' the
news outlet continued. 1.2 Distribution of world
Human being is an important element of the population
environment and is probably the latest occupant People have inhabited the earth for several
of the earth, as its evolution took place less than thousands of years, but for a long period of
two million years ago. Although distribution time, their numbers remained limited. It is
and growth of human population are influenced only during last few hundred years that human
greatly by the physical environment, they have population has increased at an alarming rate.
tremendous capacity to modify the physical
Population is spread unevenly across the
environment. Demography is the statistical
continents. Only a few areas support large

TN_GOVT_XII_Geography_chapter 01.indd 1 21-02-2019 11:51:41

 concentration of people while vast areas support than areas which are dry or suffer from regular
few people. A large number of factors influence drought. Well watered regions of the Great
the distribution and growth of population over Northern plains of India are densely populated
the earth’s surface. whereas drought prone areas of Sahara are
sparsely populated.
The factors influencing the distribution 4. Soil
of population
Fertile alluvial soils of river valleys
1. Relief throughout the world have encouraged dense
Rugged mountains pose various settlement of population because they support
obstacles such as unsuitable conditions for agricultural activities. The high density of
the construction of rail-roads and highways, population in parts of East and South-East
unfavourable conditions for agricultural Asia is dependent mainly on fertile soil. For
crops because of short growing season, lack example, dense population is found in the
of cultivable land and snowy winters do not Ganges valley of India, in Indus valley of
encourage large settlement areas. Hence, the Pakistan and Hwang-Ho valley of China. On
mountainous areas support a few people. On the the other hand, desert soil of Sahara region is
other hand, a large concentration of population sparsely populated.
is found in the fertile lowlands such as the 5. Economic and political factors
Ganges and Brahmaputra in India, Hwang-Ho Unfavourable economic condition,
in China and plains of North-Western Europe unemployment, religious intolerance, conflicts
and the USA. This is mainly due to flat level and wars do not favour more population.
land which is fertile, favourable conditions for
agriculture, long growing seasons and suitable
The patterns of Population Distribution
condition for the settlement.
The analysis of the pattern of population
2 Accessibility
distribution and density is fundamental to
Areas with well developed transport the study of demographic characteristics of
infrastructure and links through road, rail, any area. The population distribution refers to
shipping, canals and air are likely to be more the way the people are spread over the earth’s
densely populated than areas which are poorly surface. The population distribution is uneven
connected with transport network. worldwide. Ten most populous countries of
In earlier times, in the absence of water the world together make up nearly 60% of the
transport, all islands remained virtually world’s population.
uninhabited. One of the reasons why
1.3 Density of Population
mountains are not inhabited by people is lack
of accessibility. Absolute numbers do not give any
indication of the impact of population on the
3. Adequate water supply
land and its resources. The number of persons
Population distribution is affected very living per unit of land areas gives a better
much by the presence or absence of water in picture. This is expressed in the form of density
any region. Water supply is essential for human of population per sq.km of land area.
survival and development. Areas which have
Density of population =  Total population
sufficient water tend to have denser population
Total area of the country

XII Geography 2

TN_GOVT_XII_Geography_chapter 01.indd 2 21-02-2019 11:51:41

 It is obtained by dividing the total land which are densely populated due to
area by the total population, the quotient being the concentration of manufacturing
the number of people per square kilometre. industries.
Compared with simple arithmetic density,
physiological or nutritional density is a more HOTS
refined method of calculating man-land ratios.
Physiological or Nutritional density is the Why has Singapore the highest
ratio between total population and total cropped physiological/nutritional density of
area. The total arable land in the world is 13.3% population in the world?
and the nutritional density of the world is 325
per sq.km of land. The total percentage of 2. 
Moderate density areas of
arable land is 48.83 in India and its nutritional population
density is 753 per sq.km of land. Singapore has
The areas of moderate density of
the highest nutritional density of population of
population have between 10 and 80 persons
440,998 per sq.km of land the world. The areas
per sq.km. The areas of moderate density of
of density of population can be divided into
population include Central part of the United
three as follows:
States of America, Tropical Western Africa,
1.  High density areas of population Western blocks of Russia, Eastern Europe,
Fertile plains with favourable climate Deccan Plateau of India, Central China,
and highly industrialised and urbanised areas Southern portion of the Plateau of Mexico,
are generally densely populated. There are North-Eastern Brazil and Central Chile, The
four major areas of high density of population above areas are characterised by the well
with more than 100 persons per sq.km. Areas developed agricultural activities, favourable
include: climate, fertile soils, fishing, etc,.

a. Eastern Asia, including china, Japan and 3.  Low density areas of population
Republic of Korea. About half the area of the world has
b. 
Southern Asia, comprising India, population less than 10 persons per sq.km.
Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Certain vast areas remain completely
c. North-Eastern part of the United States uninhabited. The main areas are
of America. a. Amazon forest region of South America
d. Central and North-Western Europe. and Congo forest region of Africa.

Of the four regions given, the first b. Arctic area of Canada, Greenland and the
two i.e. Eastern Asia and South Asia Polar regions.
have high density of population due to
c. 
Great deserts of the world i.e. Sahara,
favourable environmental conditions
Kalahari, Arabia, Great desert of Australia,
such as favourable climate, fertile soil
Atacama Desert of South America, desert
and large areas of plains which encourage
regions of Western United States and Thar
the growth of agriculture. The plains
Desert of India.
and river valleys of India and China
are densely populated. In the last two d. 
High mountainous regions in all
groups i.e. North Eastern United States continents.
of America and North – Western Europe e. Antarctica.

3 Population Geography

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 WORLD POPULATION DENSITY N
W E
S

XII Geography

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4
LEGEND
POPULATION DENSITY

Low density populaon

Moderate density of populaon

Not to Scale High density of populaon

21-02-2019 11:51:41
  ustralia with an average density of
A 7. Dependency ratio:
population of 2 persons per sq.km is one Number of dependents in a population
of the most sparsely populated countries of divided by the number of working age
the world. However, inhabitants of these people. It’s a calculation which groups those
areas have high standard of living. The
aged under 15 with those over 65 years as the
reasons for low density of population are
‘dependants’ and classifying those aged 15-64
a. 
Bad and unfavourable environment years as 'the working-age population'.
conditions for human settlement.
Growth Rate: = CBR – CDR +/- Net
8. 
b. Lack of economic activities.
Migration Rate/ 1000
c. Lack of transport and communication.
d. Government policy. S outh Sudan has the highest population
growth rate of 3.83% in 2017.

Terms related population R ate of Natural Increase (RNI) =

9. 
1. Population: A group of individuals of CBR-CDR (No Migration)
the same species occupying a particular CBR>CDR = ↑ population
geographic area.
 NI usually expressed as %
R
People: The members of a particular
2.  e.g., 2% = 2/100 = 20/1000
nation, community, or ethnic group.
3. C
 rude Birth rate (Natality Rate): Number  NI ≠ population growth if migration
R
of live births per thousand people in a year. significant
Crude Death Rate (Mortality Rate):
4.  10. Adult Literacy Rate: The Adult literacy
Number of deaths per thousand people in index (ALI) is a statistical measure used
a year. to determine how many adults can read
Net Migration Rate: the formula for net
5.  and write in a certain area or nation. Adult
migration rate is simple: literacy is one of the factors in measuring
N = 1000 × (I – E) / P the Human Development Index (HDI) of
N= net migration rate each nation, along with life expectancy,
E= number of people emigrating out of education, and standard of living. Burkina
the country faso has the lowest literacy rate of 21.8%
I= number of people immigrating into ( 2015). How does literacy rate affect the
the country standard of living of a country?
P= the estimated mid-year population 11. Life expectancy rate: Life expectancy
6. Fertility Rate: is the number of live equals the average number of years a
births expected per 1000 women in their person born in a given country is expected
life times in a specified geographic area to live. As of 2015, the country with the
and for a specific point in time, usually
highest life expectancy is Monaco at 89.52
a calendar year. Niger has the highest
years; the country with the lowest is Chad
fertility rate of 6.49 while Singapore has
at 49.81 years.
the lowest fertility rate of 0.83. Can you
guess why there is variation between these
countries?

5 Population Geography

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 1.4  Growth of world population billion inhabitants) and India (1.3 billion
inhabitants) remain the two most populous
After the introduction of agriculture
countries, comprising 19% and 18% of the
about 8,000 to 12,000 years ago, the size of
total global population respectively. In roughly
population was small, roughly 8 million. In the
seven years, or around 2024, the population of
first century (C.E) it was below 300 million. The
India is expected to surpass that of China.
expanding world trade during the sixteenth
and seventeenth century, set the stage for rapid Among the ten largest countries
population growth. Around 1750, at the dawn worldwide, Nigeria is growing the most rapidly.
of Industrial Revolution, the world population Consequently, the population of Nigeria,
was 550 million. World population exploded currently the world’s 7th largest, is projected to
in the eighteenth century after the Industrial surpass that of the United States and become
Revolution. Technological advancement the third largest country in the world shortly
achieved so far helped in the reduction of before 2050.
birth rate and provided a stage for accelerated
Most of the global increase is attributable
population growth.
to a small number of countries.
The current world population of 7.6
From 2017 to 2050, it is expected that
billion is expected to reach 8.6 billion in 2030,
half of the world’s population growth will be
9.8 billion in 2050 and 11.2 billion in 2100,
concentrated in just nine countries: India,
according to a new United Nations report being
Nigeria, Congo, Pakistan, Ethiopia, the United
launched. With roughly 83 million people
Republic of Tanzania, the United States of
being added to the world’s population every
America, Uganda and Indonesia (ordered by
year, the upward trend in population size
their expected contribution to total growth).
is expected to continue, even assuming that
fertility levels will continue to decline. The group of 47 least developed countries
The current world (LDCs) continues to have a relatively high level
population, according to UN of fertility, which stood at 4.3 births per woman
Department of Economic in 2010-2015. As a result, the population of these
and Social Affairs, Feb, 2019, countries has been growing rapidly, at around
is 7,685,036,620. 2.4 % per year. Although this rate of increase is
expected to slow significantly over the coming
The new projections include some notable decades, the combined population of the LDCs,
findings at the country level. China (with 1.4

2050
9.7 Billion (est)
WORLD POPULATION

2047
9.5 Billion (est)
2012
1999 7 Billion
1987 6 Billion
1974 5 Billion
4 Billion

YEAR

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 roughly one billion in 2017, is projected to Population in the world is currently ( 2019)
increase by 33 % between 2017 and 2030, world growing at a rate of around 1.09% per year
population will reach 9.7 billion in 2050. (down from 1.12% in 2017 and 1.14% in 2016).
Similarly, Africa continues to experience It is estimated to reach 1% by 2023, less than
high rates of population growth. Between 0.5% by 2052, and 0.25% in 2076. In 2100, it
2017 and 2050, the populations of 26 African should be only 0.09% or an addition of only
countries are projected to expand to at least 10 million people to a total population of
double their current size. 11.2 billion. World population will, therefore,
continue to grow in the 21st century.
The concentration of global population
growth in the poorest countries presents a Doubling Time of population
considerable challenge to governments in
implementing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Doubling time is the amount of time it
Development, which seeks to end poverty takes for a given quantity of population to double
and hunger, expand and update health and in size at a constant growth rate. We can find
education systems, achieve gender equality and the doubling time for a population undergoing
women’s empowerment, reduce inequality and exponential growth by using the Rule of 70. It
ensure that no one is left behind. is because the population of a country becomes

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 double in 70 years if the growth rate is 1%. Thus, Mongolia, Indonesia and many other Africa and
we divide 70 by the growth rate and we get the South American countries, where the growth rate
doubling time of population growth rate. For of nearly 2 % is also included among these countries
example if the growth rate is 2.08, divide 70 by though the growth rate here has started declining.
2.08 and we get 33.6 years as the doubling time 3. Areas of High Growth Rate
of population. Countries like Mexico, Iran, Colombia,
World population has doubled in 40 years Venezuela, Peru, Libya, Algeria, Sudan, Kenya
from 1959 ( 3 billion) to 1999 ( 6 billion). It is and Kuwait make this category. In fact, most of
now estimated that it will take another nearly the African countries with a growth rate of 3%
40 years to increase by another 50% to become fall in this category.
9 billion by 2037. The latest world population
Population Concepts
projections indicate that world population will
reach 10 billion persons in the year 2055 and 11 i) O ver population: situation whereby the
billion in the year 2088. population is considered too large for the
available resources.
World Population Milestones
ii) U
 nder – population: a situation where
According to the United Nations, the 6 the population is less than the available
billion figure was reached on October 12, 1999 resources of a country.
(celebrated as the Day of 6 Billion). World
population reached 7 Billion on October iii) Optimum – population: a situation where
31, 2011. The current world population is the number of people that can be supported
is the same as the available resources.
7.7 billion as of Feb 2019 according to the
most recent United Nations estimates. The
United Nations projects world population Fact File
to reach 8 billion in 2023 and 10 billion in the India - Population
year 2056.
•  e current population of India is
Th
Regional division on the basis of 1,363,413,725 as of Feb 19, 2019,
growth rate based on the latest United Nations
On the basis of the growth rate of estimates.
population the world can be divided into the • I ndia population is 17.74% of the
following three types of areas: total world population.
1. Areas of Low Growth Rate • I ndia ranks number 2 in the list of
Developed countries like US, Canada, countries (and dependencies) by
Japan, Australia, New Zealand and countries population.
of western Europe have a low growth rate of
population in these countries is due to low •  e population density in India is
Th
birth rates and low death rates. The difference 455 per Km2.
between the birth rate and the death rate in • 3 3.6 % of the population is urban
these countries is the lowest. (460,249,853 people in 2019)
2. Areas of Moderate Growth Rate
This category includes the developing
countries like Pakistan, Afghanistan, Brazil, Bolivia,
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 1.5  Composition of Population other shapes. Population pyramids usually have
males on the left side and females on the right.
Composition of Population includes sex
ratio, literacy rate, age pyramids etc. There is also a vertical line in the middle of the
graph that separates the males from the females.
Sex Ratio
The sex ratio is the ratio of males to females Fact File
in a population. Latvia, country with the highest sex
ratio in the world.
Fact File Latvia is a former Soviet Union country
Qatar-315 Males per 100 females (2019) and experienced a great decline in male
population during World War two. By
With an astounding ratio of 315 males to a
2015, there were 84.8 males for every 100
100 females, Qatar holds the number one spot
females. The proportion of the female was
among countries with the highest male to
54.10% of the total population. Men in
female ratio in the world in 2018.
Latvia have a high mortality rate due to
issues such as alcoholism, smoking, and
As of 2014, the global sex ratio at birth is careless car driving. Around 80% of suicides
estimated at 107 boys to 100 girls (1000 boys in Latvia are committed by men, often
per 934 girls). because of unemployment and unrealized
financial goals. Women enjoy a longer life
The sex ratio of India is 933 females for expectancy living 11 years more than men.
every 1000 males according to 2011.
Kerala has the highest sex ratio in the
country with 1084 females for 1000 males Literacy Rate
followed by Puducherry with 1037 females for Total number of literate persons in a given
1000 males and Tamil Nadu with 996 females age group, expressed as a percentage of the total
for 1000 males. population in that age group.
Literacy rates continue to rise from one
Cisgender (often generation to the next. Yet according to new
abbreviated to simply cis) data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics,
is a term for people whose there are still 750 million illiterate adults, two-
gender identity matches thirds of whom are women. These numbers
the sex that they were are a stark reminder of the work ahead to meet
assigned at birth. It is the opposite of the term Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 4 and 5
transgender. and the Education 2030 targets.

What Are Population Age Pyramids? Literacy rate variations between states
Population pyramids are graphical in India
representations of the age and sex of a population. India's literacy rate is at 74.04%. Kerala has
For this reason, population pyramids are also achieved a literacy rate of 93.91%. Bihar is the least
referred to as age-sex pyramids. We refer to these literate state in India, with a literacy of 63.82%.
graphs as pyramids because they are usually shaped Several other social indicators of the two states are
like triangles and population pyramids also take

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 correlated with these rates, such as life expectancy
at birth (71.61 for males and 75 for females in
Kerala, 65.66 for males and 64.79 for females in
Tripura literacy success
Bihar), infant mortality per 1,000 live births (10
Presently Tripura has the highest literacy
in Kerala, 61 in Bihar), birth rate per 1,000 people
rate in India, 94.65 percent. According to
(16.9 in Kerala, 30.9 in Bihar) and death rate per
the 2011 census, literacy level was 93.91
1,000 people (6.4 in Kerala, 7.9 in Bihar).
percent in Kerala and 91.58 percent in
Six Indian states account for about Mizoram, among the most literate states
70% of all illiterates in India: Uttar Pradesh, in the country. The national literacy
Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra rate, according to the 2011 census, was
Pradesh and West Bengal. Slightly less than half 74.04 percent. The Tripura success story
of all Indian illiterates (48.12%) are in the six is attributed to the involvement of local
Hindi-speaking states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, government bodies, including Gram
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and panchayats, NGOs and local clubs under
Chhattisgarh. the close supervision of the State Literacy
Mission Authority (SLMA) headed by
the chief minister. Tripura attained 87.75
Age - Sex pyramids percent literacy in the 2011 census, from
the 12th position in the 2001 census to the 4th
There are three types of Age - Sex pyramids:
position in the 2011 census. Among projects
expansive, constrictive, and stationary.
implemented by the state government to
Expansive Age - Sex pyramids depict increase literacy in the state are
populations that have a larger percentage of
• 10,000 anganwadi centres have 100
people in younger age groups. Populations
percent enrollment.
with this shape usually have high fertility rates
with lower life expectancies. Many third world • Policy of no fail till class VIII to prevent
countries have expansive Age - Sex pyramids. children from dropping out.
Such a population pyramid is a characteristic of • Midday meals in all schools with an
newly developing countries such as Afghanistan, eclectic menu for all days of the week
Bangladesh, Kenya, and some countries of Latin to attract more students.
America. • No tuition fee in government colleges.
Constrictive Age - Sex pyramids are The holistic education system, implemented
named so because they are constricted at the with equal interest in Agartala, remote areas
bottom. There is a lower percentage of younger and the tribal autonomic areas makes sure
people. Constrictive Age - Sex pyramids show that people in Tripura do not just become
declining birth rates, since each succeeding literate but educated, officials emphasized.
age group is getting smaller and smaller. The One pointer to the government's interest in
United States has a constrictive Age - Sex education is the near-total absence of child
pyramid. labour in Tripura.

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 Male BANGLADESH 2016 Female

100 +
95 - 99
90 - 94
85 - 89
80 - 84
75 - 79
70 - 74
65 - 69
60 - 64
55 - 59
50 - 54
45 - 49
40 - 44
35 - 39
30 - 34
25 - 29
20 - 24
15 - 19
10 - 14
5-9
0-4

9 7.2 5.4 3.6 1.8 0 0 1.8 3.6 5.4 7.2 9

Populaon (in millions) Age Group Populaon (in millions)

Expansive Age - Sex pyramid

Male UNITED STATES 2016 Female

100 +
95 - 99
90 - 94
85 - 89
80 - 84
75 - 79
70 - 74
65 - 69
60 - 64
55 - 59
50 - 54
45 - 49
40 - 44
35 - 39
30 - 34
25 - 29
20 - 24
15 - 19
10 - 14
5-9
0-4

15 12 9 6 3 0 0 3 6 9 12 15

Popula on (in millions) Age Group Popula on (in millions)

Constrictive Age - Sex pyramid

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 Male AUSTRIA 2016 Female

100 +
95 - 99
90 - 94
85 - 89
80 - 84
75 - 79
70 - 74
65 - 69
60 - 64
55 - 59
50 - 54
45 - 49
40 - 44
35 - 39
30 - 34
25 - 29
20 - 24
15 - 19
10 - 14
5-9
0-4

365 292 219 146 73 0 0 73 146 219 292 365

Populaon (in millions) Age Group Populaon (in millions)

Stationary Age - Sex pyramid
Stationary Age - Sex pyramids are those Immigration leads to an increased growth
that show a somewhat equal proportion of the rate of population, emigration lowers the
population in each age group. There is not a growth rate of population in the source region.
decrease or increase in population; it is stable. Mexico’s emigration problem is a unique one,
Austria has a stationary Age - Sex pyramid. with more than 98% of all Mexican migrants
living in the U.S.A, the country with which
The Purpose of the Age - Sex Pyramid
Mexico shares a border that runs 3110 km in
The purpose of making this Age - Sex length. The Mexican emigration rate increased
pyramid is to find out the comparison between substantially since the 1960s and, with more
the number of men and women, the number of than 11% of Mexicans living abroad, Mexico
workers, and the structure of the population in a is the country with the largest number of
country quickly. In addition, the creation of the emigrants in the world. According to estimates
Age - Sex Pyramid also has a purpose to assist from the UN 2015 report, in 2013, the United
the government in taking development policies. States, Germany and Russia had the largest
1.6 Migration number of immigrants of any country, while
Migration means the movement of people Tuvalu and Tokelau had the lowest immigrant.
from one place to the other. It is an important Types of migration
control of population growth after fertility and
1 Net Migration
mortality. Migration of people into an area from
outside is called immigration or in-migration Net Migration is the difference between
while movement out of an area to other regions immigration (in-migration) and emigration
is called emigration or out-migration. (out-migration).

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 Positive value of net migration is that more of migrants, people in the situations of divorce
people coming in and population growth, for or separation.
example, 44% of North America and 88% of
Brain Drain
Europe. Negative value of migration is more
people coming out and population decline. Brain drain is related to educationally specific
selective migrations. Some countries are losing the
2 International Migration most educated segment of their population. It can
Emigration is an indicator of economic and be both a benefit for the receiving country and a
or social failures of a society. It is a crossing of problem to the country of origin.
a national boundary. It is easier to control and
monitor. There are laws to control or inhibit these Receiving country: it is getting highly
movements. Between 2 million and 3 million people qualified labor which is contributing to the
emigrate each year. Between 1965 and 2000, 175 economy right away. It promotes economic growth
million people have migrated: it accounts for 3% of in strategic sectors: science and technology. It does
the global population. not have to pay education and health costs, for
example, 30% of Mexicans with a PhD are in the
3 Internal Migration US.
It occurs within a country. It is crossing
of population within domestic jurisdictional Country of origin: Education and health
boundaries. It is the movement of people costs are not paid back to the country of origin. It
between states or provinces. There is little is losing potential leaders and talent: Between 15
government control over internal migration. and 40% of a graduating class in Canada will move
to the US. It has long term impact on economic
4 Local Migration growth. It has the possibility of getting remittances.
Local migration is the migration of the people Many brain drain migrants have skills which they
within state or district. No state boundaries are crossed can’t use at home: The resources and technology
in the local migration. It happens for several reasons may not be available there. The specific labor
such as buying a new house in the same town or city, market is not big enough.
difficult to research since they are usually missed in
census data. It is based on change of income or lifestyle. Causes of Migration
Americans change residence every 5 to 7 years. We can divide factors causing migrations into
5 Voluntary migration two groups of factors as push and pull Factors.
Voluntary migration is where the migrant
Push and Pull factors
makes the decision to move. Most migration is
voluntary. Push and pull factors are those factors which
either forcefully push people into migration or
6 Involuntary migration
attract them. A push factor is forceful, and a factor
It is a forced migration in which the
which relates to the country
migrant has no role in the decision-making
from which a person migrates.
process. It includes mostly slavery. It is
A pull factor is something
estimated that about 11 million African slaves
concerning the country to
were brought to the Americas between 1519
which a person migrates. It is
and 1867. In 1860, there were close to 4
generally a benefit that attracts
million slaves in the United States. People
people to a certain place. Push and Pull factors
involve in the involuntary migration are
are usually considered as north and south poles
refugees due to military conscription, children
on a magnet.

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 Push Factors: Not enough jobs, few 2. Accelerated Habitat Loss
opportunities, desertification, famine/
The increased loss of the ecosystems
drought, political fear/ persecution, poor
including wetlands, wildlife, rainforests, coral
medical care, loss of wealth, natural disasters,
reefs, aquatic life forms, and grasslands are highly
death threats, slavery, pollutions, poor
influenced by overpopulation. For example,
housing, landlords, bullying and poor chances
rainforests originally covered 14% of the entire
of finding courtship
earth’s surface. Today, rainforest only cover
Pull Factors: job opportunities, better about 6% of the earth’s surface and scientists’
living conditions, political and or religious project it may even become less in the next four
freedom, enjoyment, education, better medical decades judged by the current rate of vegetation
care, security, family links, industry, better removal, logging, and deforestation. Besides, due
chances of finding courtship. to environmental pollution, 30% of the ocean
reefs have been lost because of acidification and
1.7 Overpopulation global warming since 1980. Also, more than half
of the original wetlands have been lost.
Overpopulation is the state whereby the
human population rises to an extent exceeding 3. Amplified Climate Change and Global
the carrying capacity of the ecological setting. In Warming
an overpopulated environment, the numbers of The more the number of people, the more
people might be more than the available essential the number of vehicles and industries would
materials for survival such as transport, water, be. Furthermore, more population tends to
shelter, food or social amenities. This regularly increased use of energy sources such as coal
contributes to environmental deterioration, and firewood which contributes to increased
worsening in the quality of life, or even the greenhouse gas emissions.
disintegration of the population.
Hence, because of the accumulation of
Due to immigration, the decline in human generated green house gases and carbon
mortality rates, medical breakthroughs, footprint in the atmosphere, the planet has
and increased birth rates, populations will continued to witness amplified global warming
always increase and eventually gives rise to and climate change. The effects of climate change
overpopulation. and global warming are resulting in extreme
hunger, drought, flooding, and loss of habitat.
Impacts of Overpopulation
4. Loss of Biodiversity
Overpopulation thus contributes to some
of the most compelling environmental problems Overpopulation has caused encroachment
which encompass: into frontier forests and destruction of natural
ecosystems that has led to the mass extinction
1. Depletion of Natural Resources
of species. The number of threatened species
As human population keeps on increasing, persists to multiply in number whereas some
exhaustible natural resources such as arable have completely gone extinct. This is because of
land, coral reefs, fresh water, fossil fuels, and human activities such as acidifying water, over
forests continue to drop sharply. This creates exploitation of natural resources, pollution, over
competitive demands on the vital life-sustaining fishing, poaching, and destruction of natural
resources and contributes to an incredible systems which are necessary for the survival of
decline in the quality of life. different species.

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 5. Decrease of fresh water for attaining basic resources and necessities
such as food, good living standards, and wealth.
The unrelenting nature of overpopulation
Violence and conflicts arise when people start
on the earth has destroyed most of the world’s
competing for the available limited resources.
fresh systems. Most of the lakes, streams, rivers
and ground water making up fresh water have 8. Increased Intensive Farming
been polluted. According to the global outlook As population has grown over the years,
of water resources, these activities influenced farming practices have evolved to produce
by over population have only left less than 1% enough food to feed larger numbers of people.
of the planet’s fresh water readily accessible for However, intensive farming methods also cause
human utilization. damage to local ecosystems and the land, which
Water vulnerability is already affecting may pose problems in the future.
many overpopulated nations, especially in
some developing countries, as the demands 1.8 Measures to control
for water tend to be more than the accessible overpopulation
water. Millions of fish species from freshwater Here are some unique solutions to
ecosystems are on the verge of extinction. Thus, overpopulation:
as human inhabitants rise in number, so will the
problem of quality freshwater accessibility. 1. Creating Awareness Campaigns
Using both social and mainstream media,
6. Lower Life Expectancy and Diminished we can clearly tell people around the world the
Quality of Life truth about overpopulation crises and what
Overpopulation lowers the standards must be done to solve them the right way.
of living since it creates stress on the vital 2. Promotion of Adopting child
resources for survival and increases the
Adoption become a consideration for
difficulty of accessing the consistent supply
family planning, particularly among socially
of quality food, water, energy, health, security
conscientious communities. And today, it has
and shelter. Consequently, it makes the poor
become a de-facto solution for people who
to become poorer, and they often opt for poor
are interested in starting a family, yet having
living conditions to survive.
concerns about overpopulation.
Eventually, it gives rise to lower life 3. Aiming for Single-Child Families
expectancy. The situation is serious in developing
According to statistics, hundreds of
nations such as southern Asia and sub-Saharan
thousands of people are being added to the
Africa where most of the poor populations
planet every day, which is an unsustainable
submit to inadequate and poor diets.
rate. Hence, it is need of hour we should aim for
7. Rise in Unemployment, Crime Rate, single-child families.
and Violence 4. National Security issue
In overpopulated nations, the available jobs Over populated countries should treat
are fewer than the overall job seeking population. population boom as an issue of national security.
This contributes to high levels of unemployment. As you can see, similar to food insecurity
In turn, lack of unemployment leads to elevated and climate change, uncontrolled and rapid
crime rates because of theft, drug cartels, and population growth can be a national security
militia groups which are exploited as options threat in a way that it results to instability.

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 5. Changing Social Norms 6. Providing Tax Benefits or Concessions
Some couple choose not to have children Governments of various countries
and we have to respect their decision. This way can come up with various regulations and
we will be able to help curb the problem of policies related to tax exemption to help solve
overpopulation. overpopulation. For example, they can waive
certain parts of income tax or lower income tax
rates for couples who have one or two children.

1. L
 ife expectancy: average number of years a 7. Census: an official count or survey, especially
person is expected to live. of a population.

2. Global warming: unusual increase of earth’s 8. G

 ender equality: It is the vision that men and
temperature due to the heat trapped in the women should be treated equally in social,
atmosphere by green house gases. economic and all other aspects of society, and
to not be discriminated against on the basis
3. Arable land : land under cultivation.
of their gender.
4. Social Norms: Pattern of behavior in a
9. Sustainable development: is a way for
particular group, community, or culture,
people to use resources without the resources
accepted as normal and to which an individual
running out.
is accepted to conform.
10. Population explosion: a sudden, large
5. Overpopulation: population exceeding the
increase in the size of a population.
carrying capacity of its ecological niche.

6. Worldometers: show estimated current

numbers based on statistics and projections
from the most reputable official organization.

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 Unit - 1

Rocks and Soils

Learning Objectives

▶ To understand the nature of rocks, their types and uses.

▶ To learn to identify the different types of rocks.
▶ To study about the nature of soil and its composition
▶ To understand the importance of soil conservation

Introduction Find out

Have you ever noticed any mountains What is the base of the house made up of ?
or rocks nearby your location or during your
travel? Have you ever been to any hill station
during your vacation? Do you know how
Rocks
they originated on the earth surface? Do you The rocks are the solid mineral materials
know what kinds of material are used in the forming a part of the surface of the earth and other
construction of temples, buildings, roads, similar planets. The earth’s crust (Lithosphere) is
flyovers etc. In this lesson, we will learn about composed of rocks. A rock is an aggregate of one
rocks and soils. or more minerals. Rock is an important natural
In lower classes, we have studied about resource and is found in solid state. It may be
four realms of the earth, namely lithosphere, hard or soft in nature. An estimation reveals that
hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. there are 2,000 different types of minerals found
Lithosphere is the upper most and significant on the earth surface out of which only 12 are
layer of the earth. It is composed of solid the basic minerals commonly found all over the
rocks and unconsolidated materials. The earth. Minerals are chemical substances which
literal meaning of lithosphere is “The sphere exist in nature. They may occur either in the
of rock”. form of elements or compounds.
Classification of Rocks
Petrology is a branch of According to the mode of formation the
geology which deals with the rocks are classified into three types as follows.
study of rocks. ‘Petrology’ is
derived from the Greek word 1. Igneous Rocks
“Petrus” refers to rock and 2. Sedimentary Rocks and
“Logos” refers to study
3. Metamorphic Rocks

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 ROCKS

IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC

INTRUSIVE EXTRUSIVE INORGANIC

ORGANIC THERMAL DYNAMIC
IGNEOUS IGNEOUS CHEMICAL/
MECHANICAL

Igneous Rocks earth on its surface. After reaching the earth

The igneous rocks surface the molten materials get solidified
are formed by the and form rocks. Rocks formed in such a way
solidification of molten on the crust are called Extrusive igneous
magma. These rocks rocks. These rocks are fine grained and glassy
are also called as the in nature due to rapid solidification. Basalt
‘Primary Rocks’ or found in the north western part of peninsular
‘Parent Rocks’ as all India is the example for this type of rock.
other rocks are formed 2.  Intrusive Igneous rocks
from these rocks. Igneous rock
The molten magma sometimes cools down
deep inside the earth’s crust and becomes solid.
The word Igneous is derived The rocks formed this way is called ‘Intrusive
from the Latin word ‘Ignis’ Igneous Rocks’. Since they cool down slowly,
means ‘fire’ they form large grains. Intrusive Igneous rocks
are of two types. The deep seated rocks are
called ‘Plutonic rocks’ and the ones formed at
Characteristics of Igneous Rocks
shallow depths are called ‘Hypabysal rocks’.
1.  These rocks are hard in nature Granite, Diorite and Gabbro are the examples of
2.  These are impermeable plutonic rocks and Dolerite is an example of
3.  They do not contain fossils hypabysal rocks. Since the intrusive Igneous
4. They are associated with the volcanic rocks consist of large crystals, they are also
activities called as ‘Crystalline rocks’.
5. These rocks are useful for construction
Both magma and lava form Igneous rocks Extrusive. Extrusive
works basalt Igneous
Rocks
Types of Igneous Rocks obsidian

Igneous Rocks are of two types. They are:

1. Extrusive Igneous Rocks granite
Intrusive
2. Intrusive Igneous Rocks Igneous
Rocks

1.  Extrusive Igneous Rocks

Can you visualize the lava comes out from
a volcano? Lava is actually a fiery red molten Extrusive & Intrusive Igneous rocks
magma comes out from the interior of the

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 Some major Active Volcanoes: Mount Oldest sedimentary rocks
Vesuvius, Mt. Stromboli and Mt. Etna in of the world has been identified
Italy and Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea in in Greenland and estimated as
Hawaii Islands. 3.9 billion years old.

Sedimentary Rocks
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
The word
‘S e dimentar y ’ 1.  Organic Sedimentary Rocks
has been derived These rocks are formed as a result of the
from Latin word decomposition of dead plants and animals. It
‘ S e d i m e n t u m’ contains fossils. Chalk, Talc, Dolomite and
means settling Limestone rocks are of this category.
d o w n . T h e
Sedimentary Rocks
sedimentary 2.  Mechanical Sedimentary Rocks
rocks are formed by the sediments derived These rocks are formed from the
and deposited by various agents. Due to high disintegration of igneous and metamorphic
temperature and pressure, the undisturbed rocks. The natural agents erode and transport
sediments of long period cemented to form these rocks and deposit them at some places.
sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks After a long period of time, they cemented to
consist of many layers which were formed by form rocks. Sandstone, Shale and Clay are the
the sediments deposited at different periods. examples of rocks of this type.
As it consists of many strata, it is also known
as ‘Stratified rocks’. 3.  Chemical Sedimentary rocks
These are formed by precipitating of
Sedimentary rocks are minerals from water. It is formed usually
the important source of through evaporation of chemical rich
natural resources like coal, oil solutions. These rocks are also called as
and natural gas. evaporates. Rock Salt is an example of this
kind.
Characteristics of Sedimentary Metamorphic Rocks
rocks The word Metamorphic is derived from
1. They have many layers. two Greek words “Meta” and “Morpha”, Meta
2. They are non-crystalline rocks. means change and Morpha means shape.
3. They contain fossils. When Igneous and sedimentary rocks subject
to high temperature and pressure, the original
4. They are soft and get eroded easily
Weathering and Erosion of Rocks rocks get altered to form a new kind of rock
called metamorphic rocks. Metamorphism
Transportaon of materials
is of two types. They are 1.Thermal
Deposion in the sea
Metamorphism: If the change in the rocks
Sea level
is mainly caused by high temperature, the
Stones process is called as thermal metamorphism. 2.
Dynamic Metamorphism: If the change in the
Gravel Sand Mud Silt
rock is mainly caused by high pressure, the
conglomerate sand stone clay or shale process is called as Dynamic Metamorphism.
Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

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 influence of temperature and pressure. The
One of the world metamorphic rocks are also get disintegrated
wonders Taj Mahal in India and deposited to form sedimentary rocks.
was built by White Marble in Formation of igneous rocks take place when
a metamorphic rock. there is an outflow of molten materials. Like
this, the rocks of the earth crust keeps on
changing from one form to another form
under various natural forces and agents. The
endless process is referred as Rock Cycle.

Quartzite and Marble are

the rocks commonly used for
construction and sculpture
works. Marbles are widely
used for making beautiful
statues and decorative items such as vase,
Metamorphic Rock
tiny gift articles and grinded marble is used
Formation of Metamorphic Rocks to produce plastics, paper etc.,
from Igneous rocks
1. Granite into gneiss caused by dynamic Uses of rocks
metamorphism. Rocks have been used by mankind
2. Basalt into slate caused by thermal throughout the history. Rocks are highly
metamorphism. valuable and important to almost all aspects
of our economy. The minerals and metals in
Formation of Metamorphic Rocks rocks have been found essential to human
from Sedimentary rocks civilization. Rocks are used for many purposes
in our life and some of them are given below
1. Sandstone into quartz caused by thermal
metamorphism. Rocks are useful for making
2. Shale into slate caused by thermal 1. cement
metamorphism.
2. Writing chalk
Characteristics of Metamorphic 3. Fire
Rocks 4. Building materials
1. Metamorphic rocks are mostly crystalline 5. Bath scrub
in nature.
6. Kerb stone
2. They consist of alternate bands of light
and dark minerals. 7. Ornament
8. Roofing materials
  Rock cycle 9. Decorative materials
Igneous rocks are the primary rocks 10. These are valuable source of minerals
formed first on the earth. These rocks are such as gold, diamond, sapphire etc.
weathered, eroded, transported and deposited
at some places to form sedimentary rocks.
The Igneous and Sedimentary rocks are
changed into metamorphic rocks under the

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 ROCK CYCLE
Heat and Metamorphic Rock
Pressure Melng

Sedimentary Rock Magma

Weathering Heat and

and Erosion Pressure

Compacng Weathering Melng Cooling

and Cemenng and Erosion

Weathering
and Erosion
Sediment Igneous Rock

Rock Cycle
Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals,
ACTIVITY
gases, liquids and organisms that together
Collect different types of rocks and support life. Soil minerals form the basis of soil.
display them in the class room It forms on the surface of the earth. It is known
as the ‘skin of the earth’. Soils are produced from
rocks (parent material) through the processes
of weathering and natural erosion. Water, wind,
  Soil and its Formation temperature change, gravity, chemical interaction,
living organisms and pressure differences all
help break down parent material. It leads to the
formation of loose material. In course of time,
Parent
material they further break down into fine particles. This
process release the minerals locked in the rock
fragments. Later on, the vegetative cover which
Climate
develop in that region forms humus content in
the soil. This way the soil gets matured gradually.
Topography Processes

Soil World Soil Day is

Organisms properties
observed on 5th December,
every year
Time

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 Soil Composition Alluvial soil
The basic components of soil are mineral, These soils are found in the regions of
organic matter, water and air. It consists of river valleys, flood plains and coastal regions.
about 45% mineral, 5% organic matter, 25% These are formed by the the deposition of silt
of water and 25% air. It is only a generalized by the running water. It is the most productive
fact. The composition of soil varies from of all soils. It is suitable for the culitivation
place to place and time to time. of sugarcane, jute, rice, wheat and other food
crops.

Black soils
These soils are formed by whethering of
igneous rocks. Black soil is clayey in nature.
It is retensive of moisture. It is ideal for
growing cotton.

Red Soils
These soils are formed by wheathering
of metamorphic rocks and crystalline rocks.
The presence of iron oxide makes this soil
brown to red in colour. It is usually found in
semi-arid regions. It is not a fertile soil. It is
suitable for millet cultivation.
Laterites soils
These are the typical soils of trophical
regions. These soils are found in the regions
which experienced alternate wet and dry
condition. As these soils are formed by the
Soil Composition process of leaching, it is in fertile. It is suitable
for plantation crops of tea and coffee.
Soil profile
The soil profile is defined as the vertical Mountain soils
section of the soil from the ground surface These soils are found over the slopes of
and extends downwards. mountain. Soils in these regions are thin and
acidic. However characteristic of soil differs
ACTIVITY from region to region based on the altitude.
Collect samples of soil from your place
and exhibit in the class room. Desert soils
These are sandy soil found in the hot
Classification of soils desert regions. These soils are porous and
Soils are classified on the basis of their saline. Since it is infertile agriculture in these
formation, colour, physical and chemical soils are not so successful.
properties. Based on these, soil is classified Soil Erosion
into six major types. They are: Alluvial soil, Soil erosion is the removal or destruction
Black soil, Red soil, Laterite soil, Mountain of the top layer of soil by natural forces and
soil, Desert soil human activities. Soil erosion reduces the

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 LAYERS OF SOIL

Organic Layer O-Horizon or

Humus
Topsoil A-Horizon or
Top Soil

E-Horizon or
Subsoil Elevated layer
B-Horizon or
Sub-soil

C-Horizon or
Parent Material Parent Rock

Bedrock R-Horizon
Parent Rock

Layers of Soil

Layers of soil
This layer is dominated by organic material (leaves, needles, twigs,
O-Horizon or Humus
moss and lichens).
It is a part of top soil, composed of organic matter mixed with
A- Horizon or Top Soil
mineral matter.
E-Stands for elevated layer. This layer is significantly leached of clay,
E- Horizon or Elevated layer
iron, and aluminum oxides, which leaves a concentration of ore
This layer reflects the chemical or physical alteration of parent
B- Horizon or Sub-soil material. Thus iron, clay, aluminum and organic compounds are
found accumulated in this horizon.
C- Horizon or Parent Rock Partially weathered parent material accumulates in this layer.
R- Horizon Parent Rock This layer consists of unweathered part of bed rock.

fertility of soil which in turn reduces the Soil conservation

agricultural productivity. Running water and Soil conservation is the process of
wind are the major agents of soil erosion. protecting the soil from erosion to maintain
Sheet erosion, Rill erosion and Gully erosion its fertility. The methods that are widely
are the major types of soil erosion. practiced for conserving soil are afforestation,
controlled grazing, construction of dams,

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 � It is used in making of ceramics or
How long does it take to form soil? pottery.
The time needed to form a soil depends � It is a source of material for
on the Climate. The environments which is construction and handicraft works.
characterized by mild climate, takes 200- � It acts as natural filter of water and
400 years to form one cm of soil and in wet purifies it.
tropical area, soil formation is faster and takes
� Soil supports ecosystem and play an
upto 200 years. To become a well matured
soil, it takes about 3000 years.
important role in land management.

Rocks and soils are the important

renewable natural resources. Both of them
Crop rotation, Strip farming, contour play an important role in everyday life of
ploughing, terrace farming, checking shifting human beings as well as economic development.
cultivation, wind break etc., Nowadays rock-based companies are in increase
which provide employment to a sizeable
Uses of soils
population. Soils attract human settlement
Soil is one of the important natural and other economic activities. As India is an
resource. It is a basic requirement for plant agricultural country, the proper management
growth and supports various life forms on the of soil resource will lead to sustainable food
earth. production besides its use for various other
� The minerals present in the soil purposes. So, the soil resources must be
enhance and nourishes the crops and conserved.
plants.

Recap
� A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals.
� The word ‘Sedimentary’ has been derived from Latin word ‘Sedimentum’ means settling down.
� Igneous rocks are the primary rocks formed first on the earth.
� Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids and organisms that together support life.

GLOSSARY
Crust Outermost layer of the earth புவியின்மேல�ோடு
Lava Hot molten rock erupted from a volcano. மேல�ோடு
Hot fluid or semi-fluid material found
Magma எரிமலைக் குழம்பு
beneath the earth crust.
A rock formed by the alteration of igneous
Metamorphic
and sedimentary rocks caused by the உருமாறியப் பாறை
rock
metamorphic rocks.
The continuous process of transformations
Rock cycle பாறை சுழற்சி
of rocks from one form to another.
Rock is formed by the deposition of
Sedimentary rock படிவுப் பாறை
sediment.

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 Unit - 2

Weather And Climate

Learning Objectives
▶ To understand the importance of weather and climate
▶ To learn about the nature of the elements of weather and climate.
▶ To know the instruments used for measuring weather elements
▶ To be able to recognize the kind of weather and climate of a place

Introduction in which we live and work, farming, sailing,

fishing, modern transport and even our play
Climate is one of the basic elements in time etc. Hence one should have knowledge
the natural environment. It affects landforms, about the weather and climate. So, in this
soil types, fauna and flora. It influences man chapter we are going to learn about weather
to a large extent. and climate, its elements and how they
In a small village in Dharmapuri district, influence our lifestyle.
Tamil nadu, in the month of May, Yuktha
enjoys her vacation with her brother and Weather
family. She always wears cotton cloths. Her Weather is the day today conditions(state)
mother makes food like porridge, buttermilk, of the atmosphere at any place as regards
lemonade, watermelon etc which suits to sunshine, temperature, cloud cover, Wind
summer. At the same time (In May month) fog condition, air pressure, humidity,
Tiya who lives in Auckland, New Zealand precipitation and such other elements. It
with her father and mother wear fleece jacket, refers to short periods like a day, a week,
jeans, gloves and socks. Her mother makes hot a month or a little longer and as such the
food like sandwich, salmon, oatmeal, soups weather changes from time to time in a day
etc. Yuktha celebrates Christmas with friends and one period to the other in an year. In the
in winter, where as Tiya celebrates Christmas
during summer. Can you think of why? Earth's atmosphere is a layer of
Yuktha and Tiya stay in two different gases surrounding the planet
hemispheres and have different way of life. earth and retained by the earth's
This is because of the difference in weather gravity. It contains about 78%
condition of those places. nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.97%
Weather and climate influence man’s argon, 0.03% carbon dioxide and 0.04% trace
activities like what we eat, wear, the house amounts of other gases and water vapour.

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 Find out Scientific study of weather is
called Meteorology and the
Do all the planets in the solar system have
scientific study of climate is
atmosphere?
called climatology.
morning the weather might be sunny with a
clear sky in a place and evening there might hence the climate is very hot and almost no
be clouds and rain. Similarly the weather is winters. The difference in temperature makes
cool in winter and hot in summer. the air and water move in currents. Warm air
We often hear people saying “Today the rises and creates more space for air beneath,
climate is good or bad”. It is incorrect to say while cool air settles down.
like that. Instead it has to be said that the
weather is good or bad. We could observe ACTIVITY
the television news readers saying weather
Discuss in the class room how
report and not the climate report for e.g.
altitude, distribution of land and
cricket match have been postponed due to
water bodies, direction of mountain
bad weather etc.
ranges, air pressure, winds and ocean
currents affect weather/climate.
Climate
Climate is generally defined as the
average conditions (state) of the weather of  lements of weather and
E
a place or a region. The average atmospheric climate
conditions are determined by measuring the
Temperature, rainfall,
weather elements for a long period of time
pressure, humidity and wind
which is usually for 35 years. The elements of
are the major elements of
weather and climate are the same. The climate
weather and climate.
does not change often like weather.

The word Climate is derived a)   Temperature

from the ancient Greek
word "Klimo" which means
"Inclination".

Controlling factors of weather

and climate
Angle of the sun’s rays, the length of
daytime, altitude, distribution of land and
water bodies, location and direction of
mountain ranges, air pressure, winds and
ocean currents are the major factors which Thermo Meter
affect the weather and climate of a region. Temperature is one of the key elements
The earth is spherical in shape. So, the of weather and climate. The earth and its
sun’s rays fall unevenly on the earth’s surface. atmosphere get heated from the sun through
The Polar regions receive slanting sun’s rays. insolation. The degree of heat present in the
Hence there is little or no sunlight, thus there air is termed as temperature. Apart from
is an extreme cold winters. Vertical sun’s ray’s sun’s rays, the heat in air also depends
fall directly on regions around the equator, the atmospheric mass to a small extent.
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 Distribution of weather elements are shown by means of Isolines on maps. Isolines
are those which join the places of equal values. Isolines are given different names
based on the weather element they represent.

Isotherm Equal temperature

Isocryme Equal lowest mean temperature for a specified period
Isohel Equal sunshine
Isollobar Equal pressure tendency showing similar changes over a given time
Isobar Equal atmospheric pressure
Isohyet Equal amount of rainfall

Temperature varies with time due to changes c)   Measuring Temperature

in the level of radiation which reach the earth The temperature of a unit volume of
surface. This is due to motions of the earth air at a given time is measured in scales
(The rotation and revolution) and inclination like Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin.
of the earth’s axis. Meteorologist measures the temperature
The temperature influences the level by the Thermometer, Stevenson screen and
of humidity, the process of evaporation, minimum and maximum Thermometer.
condensation and precipitation. The energy received by the earth through
Heat energy from solar radiation insolation is lost by outgoing radiation.
is received by the earth through three Atmosphere is mainly heated by outgoing
mechanisms. They are radiation, conduction radiation from 2 to 4pm .So the maximum
and convection. The Earth's atmosphere is temperature is recorded between 2 and 4
heated more by terriestrial radiation than pm regularly and minimum temperature is
insolation. recorded around 4 am before sunrise.

Temperature varies both Mean Temperature

horizontally and vertically. The average of maximum and minimum
Temperature decreases with temperatures within 24 hours is called mean
increasing height is known as Lapse daily temperature [(87oF+73oF)/2=80oF].
rate which is 6.5 degree celsius per Diurnal range of temperature is the
1000 meters in troposphere . difference between the maximum and
minimum temperatures of a day. Annual
range of temperature is the difference
b)  Factors affecting the between the highest and lowest mean monthly
distribution of temperature temperatures of a year. The distribution of
temperature is shown by means of Isotherms.
Latitude, altitude, nature of land, ocean
Isotherms are imaginary lines which connect
currents, prevaling winds, slope, shelter and
the same temperatures of different places.
distance from the sea, natural vegetation and
soil are the major factors which affect the
distribution of temperature. d)   Heat zones of the earth
The fact that the earth is spherical in
shape results in different parts of the earth

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 getting heated differently.Based on the heat Frigid Zone
received from the sun, Earth is divided into The frigid zone lies between the Arctic
three heat zones. They are circle and the North Pole and between the
Antartic circle and the South Pole.This
Torrid Zone
region also known as Polar region.Since
It is a region between the tropic of cancer it receives the extremely low temperature
and the tropic of Capricorn. This region throughout the year,these regions are covered
receives the direct rays of the sun and gets with snow.
the maximum heat from the sun.This zone
Highest Temperature
known as the torrid or the tropical zone
ever recorded
Temperate zone The highest temperature ever recorded on the
This zone lies between the Tropic of earth is 56.7°C (134°F). It was recorded on
cancer and the Arctic circle in the Northern 10th July 1913 at Greenland Ranch of Death
Hemisphere and between the Tropic of Valley, California, USA.
Capricorn and the Antartic circle in the
southern Hemisphere.This zone gets the Lowest Temperature
slanting rays of the sun and the angle of the ever recorded
sun’s rays goes on decreasing towards ds the The lowest temperature ever recorded on the
poles.Thus this zone experiences moderate earth is −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F; 184.0 K). It was
temperature. recorded on 21st July, 1983 at Soviet Vostok
Station in Antarctica.
180 165 150 135 120 105 90 75 60 45 30 15 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180

HEAT ZONES OF THE WORLD N

W E
S

Frigid zone
75 75

Arcc circle (66

30’)
60 60

45 Temperate zone 45

30
Tropic of cancer (23
30’) 30

15 Torrid zone 15

0 Equator(0
) 0

Torrid zone
15
Tropic of capricorn (23
30’) 15

30 30

45
Temperate zone 45

Antarcc circle (66

30’)
Frigid zone
180 165 150 135 120 105 90 75 60 45 30 15 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
Not to Scale

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 Rainfall The weight of air above a given area on the
earth’s surface is called atmospheric pressure
Rain is a liquid water in the form of droplets or air pressure. The air pressure is measured by
that have condensed from atmospheric water Barometer. The standard air pressure at sea
vapour and then become heavy enough to fall level is 1013.25mb. At the earth’s surface the
under gravity. Rain is a major component of the pressure is 1.03kg.per sq cm. The variation in
water cycle and is responsible for depositing standard atmospheric pressure is found both
most of the fresh water on the Earth. It is horizontally and vertically. Based on the level
the source of water for all purposes. There is of pressure, it is categorised into low pressure
a close relationship between the temperature and high pressure. Low pressure area is an area
and rainfall distribution. Generally rainfall is in the atmosphere where the pressure is lower
high in the equatorial region and decreases than its surrounding areas. In this situation, the
gradually towards poles. Rainfall is measured wind from the surroundings blow towards the
by Raingauge. centre of low pressure. High pressure is an area
of atmosphere where the barometric pressure
is higher than its surrounding areas. In this
case, the wind from the centre of high pressure
blows towards the surrounding low pressure
areas. Low pressure system is marked as “L”
on weather map, where as the high pressure
system is marked as “H”. Low pressure systems
are also called as a depression and cyclones.
High pressure system is called anti cyclones.
Low pressure leads to cloudiness, wind, and
precipitation. High pressure leads to fair and
calm weather. Isobar is used to show the
distribution of air pressure.
Highest pressure ever
recorded.
Raingauge
The highest ever air pressure at
Air Pressure sea level was recorded at Agata,
Russia on 31st December, 1968. The pressure
was1083.8mb
Lowest pressure ever recorded
The lowest pressure of 870mb was recorded at
Typhoon Tip, near Guam, Mariana Island in
Pacific Ocean on 12th October, 1979.

Humans are not sensitive to small

variation in air pressure. But the small
variations in pressure that do exist largely
determine the wind and storm patterns
of the earth. The distribution of atmospheric
pressure is controlled by altitude, atmospheric
Aneroid Barometer temperature, air circulation, earth rotation,
water vapour, atmospheric storms etc.
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 Measuring air pressure Absolute Humidity is the mass or weight
of water vapour present per unit volume of
Meteorologist uses barometer/aneroid
air. It is expressed usually in grams per cubic
barometer to measure the air pressure.
meter of air.
Barograms are used for recording continuous
variation in atmospheric pressure. Relative humidity is a ratio between
the actual amount of water vapour present
Why Do Your Ears Pop in Airplanes? in the air and the maximum amount of water
As you go up in an airplane, the atmospheric vapour it can hold at a given temperature. It is
pressure becomes lower than the pressure expressed as a percentage.
of the air inside your ears. Your ears pop Generally, warm air holds more water
because they are trying to equalize or match vapour than the cold air. When relative
the pressure. The same thing happens when humidity reaches 100%, the air gets saturated.
the plane is on the way down and your In this condition the temperature is said to be
ears have to adjust to a higher atmospheric at dew-point. Further cooling will condense the
pressure. water vapour into the clouds and rain. Relative
humidity affects human health and comfortness.
Very high and very low humidity are injurious
to health. It also affects the stability of different
Humidity
objects, buildings and electrical applications.
Humidity refers to the degree of water
vapour present in the atmosphere in gaseous Measurement of Humidity
form in particular time and place. It ranges Hygrometer is used to measure the
from 0-5 percent by volume in atmosphere. humidity. (which comprises wet and dry bulb-
Climatically it is an important constituent of plate side by side in the Stevenson screen)
the atmosphere and its quantity depends on the
level of temperature. So, the level of humidity Find out
decreases towards poles from equator. Humidity The effect of low and high humidity over
is expressed in different ways. Human beings in particular.

With decreasing air

pressure,the availability
of oxygen to breath also
decreases. At very high
altitudes, atmospheric
pressure and available oxygen get so low
that people can become sick and even
die.  Mountain climbers use bottled oxygen
when they ascend very high peaks. They
also take time to get used to the altitude
Hygrometer as the quick move from high pressure to
low pressure can cause  decompression
Specific humidity is a ratio of the water
sickness.  Aircraft  create artificial pressure
vapor content of the mixture to the total air
in the cabin which makes the passengers
content on a mass basis. It is expressed in
remain comfortable while flying.
grams of vapour per kilogram of air

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 Wind Measuring wind direction and
speed
The horizontal movement of air is called
wind. Vertical movement of air is said as air Meteorologist measures wind direction
using wind vane or weather cock. Wind
current. The winds move from high pressure to
speed is measured by anemometer. Wind
low pressure. Unlike other elements a wind is
rose is a diagram used to depict the direction
made up of a series of gusts and eddies which and periods (No. of days) of prevailing winds
can only be felt and not seen. Winds get their on map. Meteorograph or triple register is
name from the direction from which they an instrument which records wind speed and
blow i.e, wind blows from south west is called direction, sunshine and precipitation. It also
southwest wind. provides graphic representation.
The wind systems are broadly categorized
into three as follows.
� Planetary winds
� Seasonal winds
� Local winds
Planetary Winds are the ones which
blow almost in the same direction throughout
the year. So, they are called as Permanent or
planetary winds. Trade winds, Westerlies and
polar easterlies are the types of prevailing
winds. Seasonal winds are those which Anemometer
change their direction according to season Brazil has a large area where
in a year. They are called as monsoon winds. the average wind speed is
These winds blow from sea to land during low. Gabon, Congo and DR
summer and land to sea during winter. Local Congo in Africa, Sumatra,
winds are the winds blow over a small area Indonesia and Malaysia are
the least windy places on earth.
only during a particular time of a day or a
short period of a year. Land and sea breezes
are example of these winds. Recap
The Beaufort scale is a scale for measuring �  eather is the day today condition of the
W
wind speed. It is based on observation rather atmosphere at any place. Climate is the
than accurate measurement. It is the most average weather condition (state) of a place
widely used system to measure wind speed for a long period and is usually for 35 years.
today. The scale was developed in 1805 by �  emperature, precipitation, pressure,
T
Francis Beaufort, an officer of the Royal Navy humidity and wind are the major elements of
and first officially used by HMS Beagle. weather and climate.
� Temperature is the degree of heat present in
Al-Balakhi, an Arab the air.
Geographer collected climatic �  e weight of air above a given area on the
Th
data from the Arab travellers earth’s surface is called atmospheric pressure
and prepared the First climatic or air pressure.
Atlas of the world
� Horizontal movement of air is called wind.
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 Unit - 3

Hydrologic Cycle

Learning Objectives

▶ To understand the status of water on the earth.

▶ To learn the basic concepts of Hydrologic cycle.
▶ To study the different components of hydrologic cycle.

Introduction present on the earth is about 326 million

cubic miles. It is hard to visualise this
Water is one of the most important massive quantity of water. Most of the
elements on earth. All plants and animals water on the earth is saline and is found in
need water for survival. Apart from drinking, seas and oceans. The salt water constitutes
water is required for domestic, agriculture, about 97.2% and the fresh water is only
industrial purposes etc. Water is very about 2.8%. Out of this 2.8%, about 2.2%
essential for carrying out almost all economic is available as surface water and the
activities. So, water is an indispensible remaining 0.6% as groundwater. From this
element without which life form on the earth 2.2% of surface water, 2.15% is available
is not possible. in the form of glaciers and icecaps, 0.01%
Water on the Earth in lakes and streams and the remaining
0.04% is in other forms. Only about 0.25%
About 71% of the earth's surface is of the total ground water of 0.6% can be
covered by water. The quantity of water

Others 0.9%

2.8%

97.2%

Water on the Earth

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 economically extracted with the present Evaporation takes place from the surface
drilling technology. water and transpiration from the plants.
Water resources are useful or potentially Water vapour gets condensed at higher
useful to humans. Water in India is available altitudes by condensation nuclei and form
in three sources. They are precipitation, clouds (resulting in droplet growth). The
surface water and groundwater. clouds melt and sometimes burst resulting
Table 1: Estimated Volume of Water on the in precipitation of different forms. A part of
Earth’s Surface water from precipitation flows over the land
is called runoff and the other part infiltrates
Water Volume of Percentage
into the soil which builds up the groundwater.
Source water to Total
(Cubic Miles) Water Hydrologic cycle is a circulation of water.
Oceans, Seas, 321,000,000 96.54 It is a continuous process and takes place
& Bays naturally. The three important phases of the
Ice caps, 5,773,000 1.74 hydrologic cycle are: 1) Evapotranspiration,
Glaciers, & 2) Precipitation and 3) Runoff.
Permanent
Snow
Groundwater 5,614,000 1.69
Soil Moisture 3,959 0.001
Ground Ice 71,970 0.022
& Permafrost
Lakes 42,320 0.013
Atmosphere 3,095 0.001
Swamp 2,752 0.0008
Water
Rivers 509 0.0002 Hydrologic Cycle
Biological 269 0.0001
Water Components of Hydrologic
(Source: Shiklomanov, 1993) Cycle
There are six main components
Hydrologic Cycle or Water Cycle
in hydrologic cycle. They are:
Hydrology is the science which deals 1)  Evapotranspiration, 2) Condensation,
with the various aspects of water such as its 3) Precipitation, 4) Infiltration, 5) Percolation,
occurrence, distribution, movement and and 6) Runoff.
properties on the planet earth. Availability
Evapotranspiration
of water on the earth is not uniform. Some
places are very rich in water resources while It is defined as the total loss of water
some other places are poor in water resources. from the earth through evaporation from
Hydrologic cycle is a global sun-driven the surface water bodies
process where water is transported from and the transpiration from
oceans to atmosphere, from atmosphere to vegetation. In cropped area,
land and from land back to oceans. The water it is difficult to determine
cycle can be considered as a closed system for the evaporation and
the earth, as the quantity of water involved in transpiration separately.
the cycle is invariable, though its distribution Therefore it is collectively
varies over space and time. called as evapotranspiration.

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 The rate of evaporation
increases with
• Increase in wind speed
• Increase in temperature
• Decrease in humidity and
• Increase in areal extent of surface water
bodies.

Transpiration
Transpiration refers to the process by which
the water content in the plants are released into
the atmosphere in the form of water vapour.
Much of the water taken up by plants is released
Evapotranspiration through transpiration. The rate of transpiration
is also affected by the temperature, wind and
Evaporation
humidity. The soil water content and the ­ability
Evaporation refers to the process in of the soil to conduct water to the roots, the
which the liquid form of water changes nature of the plant parts including barks and
into gaseous form. Water boils at 100°C leaves also determine the transpiration rate.
(212°F) temperature but, it actually begins to In case of agriculture, the crop characteristics,
evaporate at 0°C (32°F); and the process takes its environment and cultivation practices also
place very slowly. Temperature is the prime affect the transpiration process.
element which affects the rate of evaporation.
There is a positive relationship between these Condensation
two variables. Areal extent of surface water, It refers to the process in which the
wind and the atmospheric humidity are gaseous form of water changes into liquid
the other variables which affect the rate of form. Condensation generally occurs in the
evaporation. atmosphere when warm air rises, cools and
Many studies reveal that the oceans, loses its capacity to hold water vapour. As a
seas, lakes and rivers provide nearly 90 % result, excess water vapour condenses to form
of the moisture in the atmosphere through cloud droplets. Condensation is responsible
evaporation and the remaining 10 % is for the formation of clouds. These clouds
contributed by plants through transpiration. produce precipitation which is the primary
On a global scale, the amount of water gets route for water to return to the earth’s surface
evaporated is about the same as the amount of in the water cycle. Condensation is the
water delivered to earth as precipitation. This opposite of evaporation.
process varies geographically, as the evaporation Forms of Condensation
is more prevalent over the oceans than
precipitation, while over the land, precipitation Dew, Fog and Clouds are the three major
routinely exceeds evaporation. The rate of forms of condensation
evaporation is low during the periods of calm a) D
 ew: It is a water droplet formed by the
winds than during windy times. When the air condensation of water vapour on a relatively
is calm, evaporated water tends to stay close to cold surface of an object. It forms when the
the water body. During windy, the water vapour temperature of an object drops below the
is driven away and is replaced by dry air which dew point temperature.
facilitates additional evaporation.
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 Frost: The ice crystals formed by deposition Forms of Precipitation
of water vapour on a relatively cold surface
The form of precipitation in a region
of an object is known as frost. It forms
depends on the kind of weather or the climate
when the temperature of an object drops
of the region. The precipitation in the warmer
below the freezing point of temperature.
parts of the world is always in the form of rain
b) F
 og:   Fog is the suspended tiny water or drizzle. In colder regions, precipitation
droplets or ice crystals in an air layer next may fall as snow or ice. Common types of
to the earth's surface that reduces the precipitation include rain, sleet, freezing rain,
visibility to 1,000 m or lower. For aviation hail and snow.
purposes, the criterion for fog is 10 km or Rain: The most common kind of
less. precipitation is rain. The precipitation in
Mist: Mist  is the tiny droplets of water
 the form of water droplets is called rain.
hanging in the air. These droplets form The precipitation in which the size of rain
when the water vapour in the air is rapidly drops are <0.5 mm in diameter is known
cooled, causing it to change from invisible as drizzle and the rain drops with >0.5 mm
gas to tiny visible water droplets.  Mist  is in diameter is known as rain. Generally
less dense than fog. drizzle takes place from stratus clouds.
c) C
 louds: Clouds consist of tiny water Sleet: The precipitation which takes place
droplets/ice particles which are so small in the form of mixture of water droplets
and light in weight. Clouds are formed by and tiny particles of ice(5mm in diameter)
microscopic drops of water or by small ice is known as sleet. Sometimes raindrops
crystals. The size of the droplets generally fall through a layer of air below 0°C, the
range from a couple of microns to 100 freezing point of water. As they fall, the
microns. This is the limit beyond which raindrops freeze into solid particles of ice.
cloud drops become rain drops. So, the mixture of water droplets and ice
particles would fall on the earth surface.
• C ondensation occurs
Freezing Rain: At other times raindrops
when the air get saturated.
falling through cold air near the ground do
Warm air can hold more
•  not freeze in the air. Instead, the raindrops
water vapour than the freeze when they touch a cold surface.
cool air. This is called freezing rain and the drops
Saturation occurs when the
•  of water are usually greater than 0.5 mm in
temperature drops down. diameter.
Hail: The precipitation which consists of
Precipitation round pellets of ice which are larger than 5
mm in diameter is called hail or hailstones.
Precipitation refers to all forms of water
Hail forms only in cumulonimbus clouds
that fall from clouds and reaches the earth’s
during thunderstorms. A hailstone starts
surface. For the occurrence of precipitation,
as an ice pellet inside a cold region of a
cloud droplets or ice crystals must grow
cloud. Strong updrafts in the cloud carry
heavy enough to fall through the air. When
the hailstone up and down through the
the droplets grow large in size, they tend to
cold region many times.
fall. While moving down, by collecting some
small droplets, they become heavy enough to Snow: Often water vapour in a cloud is
fall out of the cloud as raindrops. converted directly into snow pieces due to
lowering of temperature. It appears like a

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 powdery mass of ice. The precipitation in
the form of powdery mass of ice is known
as snowfall. It is common in the polar and Less infiltraon in
Precipitaon
high mountainous regions. non-porous soils and rock
More infiltraon in
porous soils and rock

River

Water table
RAIN SLEET Infiltration Process
Percolation

FREEZING RAIN

Percolation Process
HAIL SNOW
Percolation is the downward movement
Different forms of Precipitation of infiltrated water through soil and rock
layers. Infiltration occurs near the surface of
Infiltration the soil and delivers water from the surface
Water entering the soil at the surface into the soil and plant root zones. Percolation
of the ground is termed as infiltration. moves the infiltrated water through the soil
Infiltration allows the soil temporarily to profile and rock layers which leads to the
store water, making it available for plants use formation of ground water or become a part
and organisms in the soil. Infiltration is an of sub-surface run-off process. Thus, the
important process where rain water soaks into percolation process represents the flow of
the ground, through the soil and underlying water from unsaturated zone to the saturated
rock layers. Some of this water ultimately zone.
returns to the surface through springs or low Runoff
spots down hills. Some of the water remains Runoff is the water that is pulled by
underground and is called groundwater. gravity across land’s surface. It replenishes
The rate of infiltration is influenced by the groundwater and surface water as it percolates
physical characteristics of the soil, vegetative into an aquifer (it is an underground layer
cover, moisture content of the soil, soil of water-bearing rock) or moves into a
temperature and rainfall intensity. The terms river, stream or watershed. It comes from
infiltration and percolation are often used unabsorbed water from rain, snowmelt,
interchangeably.
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 irrigation or other sources, comprising a surface runoff. The sub-surface runoff is
significant element in the water cycle as well usually referred as interflow.
as the water supply when it drains into a iii) Base Flow: It is a flow of underground
watershed. water from a saturated ground water zone
Runoff is also a major contributor to the to a water channel. It usually appears at a
erosion which carves out canyons, gorges and downstream location where the channel
related landforms. The amount of runoff that elevation is lower than the groundwater
can happen depends on the amount of rainfall, table. Groundwater provides the stream
porosity of soil, vegetation and slope. Only flow during dry periods of small or no
about 35% of precipitation ends up in the sea precipitation.
or ocean and the other 65% is absorbed into
the soil. Units of the Measurement
pertaining to Hydrology
• Evaporation /interception -
inches (or) cm
• Infiltration - inches (or) cm / hour
• Precipitation - inches (or) mm ( or) cm
• Run off - inches (or) mm (or) cm
• Run off rate - cubic feet per second
• Run off volume - acre feet (or) cubic feet
• Storage - cubic feet (or) acre feet

Recap
 ater is one of the most important elements
�W
Runoff Process on earth. All plants and animals need water
for survival.
Types of Runoff
 bout 71% of the earth's surface is covered
�A
Based on the time interval between the by water. Out of this, only about 2.8% is fresh
instance of rainfall and generation of runoff, water and the remaining 97.2% is saltwater
the runoff may be classified into following found in seas and oceans.
three types
 ydrological cycle is a global sun-driven
�H
i) Surface Runoff: It is the portion process where water is transported from
of rainfall, which enters the stream oceans to atmosphere, from atmosphere to
immediately after the rainfall. It occurs, land and from land back to oceans.
when the rainfall is longer, heavier and  ere are six main components in hydrologic
� Th
exceeds the rate of infiltration. In this cycle. They are evapotranspiration,
condition the excess water makes a head condensation, precipitation, infiltration,
over the ground surface, which tends to percolation, and runoff.
move from one place to another following
 e precipitation in the warmer parts of the
� Th
land gradient and is known as overland
world is in the form of rain or drizzle. The
flow. When the overland flow joins the
common types of precipitation include rain,
streams, channels or oceans, it is termed
sleet, freezing rain, hail, and snow.
as surface runoff or surface flow.
� I nfiltration occurs near the surface of the
Sub-Surface Runoff: The water that has
ii)  soil and delivers water from the surface into
entered the subsoil and moves laterally the soil and plant rooting zone. Percolation
without joining the water-table to the moves it through the soil profile and rock
streams, rivers or oceans is known as sub- layers to form groundwater.
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UNIT
HYDROSPHERE
1

Learning Objectives
„„To understand the importance of water
„„To differentiate fresh and salt water
„„To compare the major seas and oceans
„„To know about the relief features of the ocean floor
„„To recognize the movements of ocean water
„„To understand marine resources and the need for conservation

The hydrosphere is the watery part of the 1   Hydrosphere

earth. In this unit, we discuss about the origin
One of the most indispensable natural
of the major oceans and seas of the world.
resources on earth is water. The Earth is also
The relief features of the ocean floor and
called the Blue planet, as it holds water in
formation of waves, tides and ocean currents
abundance and thus stands unique among all
are also illustrated. This lesson is concluded
other planets. Hydrosphere consists of water in
with understanding the importance of marine
various forms found on the earth. Over 97% of
resources and the need for conservation.
the water on the Earth’s surface is confined to
We know that, our planet Earth consists oceans. Less than 3% of water is held on land
of four spheres. They are the Lithosphere, as glaciers, ice caps, groundwater, rivers, lakes,
Atmosphere, Hydrosphere and Biosphere. and also as the water vapour in air.
In the earlier chapters, we have studied about
the Lithosphere and Atmosphere. We shall
now learn the other two spheres namely the
Hydrosphere and the Biosphere.

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1.1   Hydrological Cycle

The Earth’s water is
not static. It is always in
motion. This continuous
movement of water on,
above and below the
earth’s surface is called
the Hydrological Cycle.
The three major processes involved in the
water cycle are evaporation, condensation
and precipitation. Water changes its form
constantly i.e. Ice, water and water vapour.
This process happens in the blink of an eye
or even over millions of years.
Global Distribution of Water Resource

Geo Connect
வான்சிறப்பு: குறள் – 17
நெடுங்கடலும் தன்நீர்மை குன்றும் தடிந்தெழிலி
தான்நல்கா தாகி விடின்.
விளக்கம்:
மேகம் கடலில் நீரை முகந்து க�ொண்டு, மீண்டும் அந்நீரையே மழையாகப்
பெய்யவில்லையென்றால், கடலிடத்துள்ள செல்வங்களும் குறையும்.
Translation in English:
If clouds restrain their gifts and grant no rain,
The treasures fail in ocean's wide domain.
Meaning:
Even the wealth of the wide sea will be diminished, if the cloud that has drawn
(its waters) upgives them not back again (in rain).

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Water resources of the Earth can be broadly The continents and oceans are however,
divided into fresh water and salt water. not evenly distributed in the northern and
the southern hemispheres. The northern
2   Fresh Water hemisphere holds 61% of land whereas the
southern hemisphere holds 81% of water. It
Rain water is considered to be the purest
is because of this pattern of land and water
form of water, as it contains very less proportion
distribution, the northern hemisphere is
of salts when compared to the oceans and
called as the land hemisphere and the
seas. Hence it is called fresh water. A major
southern hemisphere is called as the water
part of fresh water is found in the frozen state
hemisphere.
in the form of ice caps and glaciers. Around
1% of it is found in the liquid state as rivers,
streams, lakes, ponds etc. Surface water may
also penetrate through porous rocks and gets
collected beneath the Earth’s surface. This is
called groundwater.

Fact
Finland is known as the land of thousand
lakes. There are 1,87,888 lakes in Finland.

Land and Water Hemispheres

Water table is a level below the
ground, where water is found collected
beneath the Earth’s surface. Hots
Aquifers are porous rock strata
filled with water, found below the earth’s „„71% of the earth is covered by water, but
surface. very little can be used by humans. Why?
„„The oceans are salty. Why?
Oceans and seas are considered as resource
3   Oceans bowl of the earth because of the immense
availability of food, minerals etc., Present
The ocean is a continuous body of salt
distribution of the world’s oceans and major
water that forms the major part of hydrosphere.
seas are illustrated in the map.
Geoscientists believe that the oceans were
formed on Earth nearly three billion years ago. 3.1   Relief Of The Ocean Floor
It is difficult to believe that in the beginning
The ocean floor is not flat as it was believed
there was no water on our planet. In due course
to be in the earlier days. It comprises of many
of time, when the Earth started cooling, steam
complex and varied relief as observed on the
escaped from the interior and entered the
earth’s surface. The ocean floor also has high
atmosphere to form clouds. At first, the clouds
mountains, deep trenches and large flat plains.
brought incessant rains. The rain water filled the
These features are formed due to the tectonic,
depressions for tens of thousands of years and
volcanic and depositional activities.
eventually a super ocean was formed.

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Major Oceans and Seas

N

Sylvia Earle is a famous American
oceanographer . She was named as the first,
‘Hero for the Planet’ by Time magazine for
her efforts towards marine life protections.

Jacques-Yves Cousteau (1910-1997)
was a famous French Ocean explorer,
who conducted extensive under-sea
investigations .
He belonged to the information
service of the French Navy, and was sent
on missions to Shanghai and Japan (1935–
1938) and in the USSR (1939).
Honours
„„Cross of War 1939–1945 (1945)
„„U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom
(1985)

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 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MAJOR OCEANS OF THE WORLD

Average Deepest Point

1. HYDROSPHERE
Ocean Location Depth (Below mean Important Seas Important Islands

TN_GOVT_IX_Std_Geography_Ch01_Rev.indd 72
(m) sea level)

Bering Sea, Sea

Bounded by North and South Challenger Deep in of Japan, Okhotsk
Mariana Trench Hawaii, Vancouver,
Pacific America on the east, Asia and Sea, Yellow Sea,
Shakalin, Fiji
Ocean Australia on the West and 4,028 (10,924 m) South China Sea,
Antarctica on the south. Coral Sea

Extends from Greenland in the Baltic Sea, Black

North to Antarctica in the South Puerto Rico Trench Sea, Caribbean Canary Island, New
and located between North and Sea, North Sea, Found Land, Azores,

72
Atlantic
South America in the west and 3,926 (8,605m) Mediterranean Sea, Greenland, Iceland
Ocean
Europe and Africa in the East. Norwegian Sea
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Bounded by Asia in the north, Java Trench in Red Sea, Persian Andaman and Nicobar
Africa in the west, Australia Sunda Deep Gulf, Arabian Sea, Islands, Lakshadweep
Indian
in the east and Antarctica 3,963 Andaman Sea, Bay Islands, Sri Lanka,
Ocean (7,258 m)
in the south. of Bengal Pamban Islands
o Weddell Sea, Trinity Islands, Barry
Found to the south of 60 4,000
South Sandwich Amundsen Sea, Islands, Wednesday
Southern South latitude and encircle to
Trench (7,235 m) Davis Sea, Ross Islands, Saddle Islands,
Ocean Antarctica. 5,000
Sea Tasmania
Amsterdam Islands,
Beaufort Sea,
Surrounded by Europe, Asia, Fram Basin Monumental Islands,
Hudson Bay, White
North America, Greenland, and by 1,205 (4,665 m) Hyde Parker Islands,
Sea
Arctic Ocean several islands. Shoe Islands

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Major Relief Features of the Ocean

The ocean basins are characterised by the The continental shelf is of great significance for
following major relief features: the following reasons:
✓ Continental shelf • They are shallower, thus enables sunlight
✓ Continental slope to penetrate through the water. This
✓ Continental rise encourages abundant growth of grass, sea
✓ Deep sea plain or weeds and plankton. Hence these zones
Abyssal plain become the richest fishing grounds
✓ Oceanic deep in the world. Eg. The Grand Banks of
✓ Oceanic ridge Newfoundland.
• The continental shelves have extensive
(A) Continental Shelf deposits of minerals and mineral fuels.
A shallow and gently sloping platform extending Hence, this zone becomes accessible for
out from the adjoining continental land mass into oil drilling and mining activities. E.g.
the sea is called Continental Shelf. It is almost a Mumbai High in Arabian Sea.
uniform zone of sea bed with a gentle gradient.
N

W E
Hypsometric Curve
)
ins
pla
S

or s(
eri elf
int sh
tal tal Deep
8
ns en en
n tai t i n t i n trenches
6 u n n
Mo Co Co
4
Ocean floor
2
Elevation (km)

INDIA −2
0
−4
−6
−8

Bay of Bengal −10

0 20 40 60 80 100
% of Earth’s surface

A Hypsometric Curve is a graphic

representation which shows the height
of a certain place found on land and the
Map not to scale
Continental Shelf
height of ocean features at sea.
Continental Shelf 'Hypso' means height in Greek.

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Geo Connect and it appears as a uniform flat and featureless

plain. These plains are usually covered by the
ONGC: Oil and Natural Gas Corporation thick layer of sediments composed of clay, silt
is India’s largest oil and gas exploration and sand, brought by the rivers. These are often
and production company. Its latest characterized by features like abyssal hills, sea
estimate is that about 20 million tons of mounts, guyots, coral, atoll etc.
oil reserves are found west of Mumbai
High off shore.

Abyssal plains in the Atlantic and

Indian Oceans tend to be extensive than
the Pacific Ocean because, majority of the
world’s largest rivers empty their sediments
into either Atlantic or Indian Ocean. E.g.
Amazon, Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers.

(E) Oceanic Deeps

Trenches are the deepest part of the oceans and
(B) Continental Slope occupy about 7% of the total relief of the ocean
A steep slope which descends from the edge of floor. The ocean temperature in the trench is
the continental shelf to the deep ocean-bed is slightly cooler than the freezing temperature.
called continental slope. It forms a boundary As they are sediment free, most trenches are
between the Continental Crust and the oceanic V-shaped with steep sides. Epicentre of the
crust. This zone is free from deposits as they great earthquakes are all found in the trenches.
are steep. The most important characteristic
of continental slope is the presence of deep
canyons and trenches. Due to the low
penetration of sunlight, the slope has nearly Dragon Hole is the deepest known
freezing temperature. Hence aquatic life has underwater sink hole in the world. The
very slow rate of metabolism. local fishermen call it the ‘eye’ of the South
China Sea.
(C) Continental Rise
At the base of the continental slope is a gently
sloping layer of sediments which merge into the
deep-sea floor. This underwater feature found
between continental slope and abyssal plains
is called the continental rise. It consists of
submarine fans which are similar to the alluvial
fans found on land.
(D) Deep Sea Plains or Abyssal Plains
The deep sea plains or abyssal
(F) Oceanic Ridge
plains are underwater plains
Oceanic ridge is a continuous submarine
found on the deep ocean floor.
mountain chain. They are made of young
These plains extend from
basaltic rock formed when two tectonic plates
continental rise to the mid
moves apart. The mid-ocean ridge is probably
oceanic ridges. The gradient
the most extensive single feature of the earth’s
of the slope is very gentle
topography. Two of the most well known mid-

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ocean ridges are the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Geo Connect
East Pacific Ridge. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is
The Bermuda Triangle, also called the
the largest unbroken oceanic ridge.
Devil’s Triangle, is a loosely defined
region in the Western part of the North
Atlantic Ocean, where a number of
aircraft and ships are said to have
disappeared. Collect recent news about
Fathoms  A nautical measurement of
this triangle and have a discussion
the depth of water in the ocean.
about the same in your class room.
Isobath  An imaginary line on a map
joining the points of equal depths. N

Isohaline  An imaginary line on a

W E

NORTH
map joining the points of equal salinity in AMERICA
NORTH
oceans. ATLANTIC
OCEAN

B
E
R
M
U
D
A

A
ID
OR BERMUDA
FL TRIANGLE

CO
RI
R TO
PUE

THE
PACIFIC
OCEAN SOUTH
AMERICA

Map not to scale

temperature of the ocean water in equatorial

regions is about 21o C and almost drops down
to freezing point at the polar region.
The degree of concentration of salts in
the sea water is called salinity. It is usually
expressed in terms of parts per thousand (ppt
or ‰). Salinity varies both horizontally and
vertically. The influence of temperature on
ocean salinity depends upon the heating up of
the surface water, which varies from tropics to
polar regions. When the sun heats up the surface
layer of water in the tropics, the salt content is
left out in the oceans after evaporation. Thus
salinity is maximum at the tropics and lower at
Mid Atlantic Ridge
the equator and the poles.

Hots
3.2   Ocean Temperature and Salinity
„„Why is the salinity at the equator less even
Like land masses, ocean waters also vary though it experiences high temperature?
in temperature from place to place, both at the
„„Though Caspian Sea is enclosed, its
surface and at its depths. As the warming and
salinity is just 14 to 17 parts per thousand.
cooling of water is slower than the land, the
why is it so?
annual range of temperature in any part of the
ocean is very much lower. The mean annual

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TYPES OF TIDES
SPRING TIDE

The sea / ocean water does not contain

calcium in great quantities. Many of
the aquatic animals with shells use the Sun

dissolved calcium in the sea water to build full moon new moon
their protective shells. solar tide lunar tide

3.3   Movement of the Ocean Water NEAP TIDE first-quarter moon

lunar tide
The ocean water is dynamic. Temperature,
salinity, density, external forces of the sun, Sun

moon and the winds keep the ocean waters in solar tide

movement, both horizontally and vertically.

Waves and currents are in horizontal motion third-quarter moon
while tides have vertical motion.
(A) Waves
Of all the movements of the oceans, sea waves When the sun and the moon are at right
are considered to be the strongest. Sea waves are angles, their gravitational forces work against
ripples on water caused when winds blow over each other, causing a low tide called neap tide. A
the sea. The height of these waves depends on neap tide occurs between two spring tides i.e.,
the speed of wind, its duration and the direction twice a month, when the first and last quarter
from which they blow. Sometimes waves are also moon appears.
caused by tremors felt on the ocean floor. Such
waves are quite destructive and called Tsunami.

Potential tidal energy

zones of India are the
The energy of the falling wave water Gulf of Khambhat, Gulf of
is used to turn hydro turbines to generate Kutch and Sundarbans.
power. Wave energy power plants have been
installed at Vizhinjam in Kerala coast and
Andaman and Nicobar islands of India.
MARITIME BORDERS
(B) Tides
The periodic rise and fall of sea water due to Maritime boundary of most the
the gravitational pull of the sun and moon Countries is fixed to be 12 nautical
on earth are called tides. They are classified miles from the baseline. This was fixed
broadly into Spring tides and Neap tides. by the U.N. Convention on the Law of
the sea 2013 where as Jordan and Palau
When the Sun, Moon and Earth are aligned have 3 nautical miles as their maritime
in the same line, the collective gravitation pull of boundary and Benin, Republic of Congo,
the sun and moon on earth’s water strengthens to EI Salvador, Peru and Somalia have 200
form a high tide known as spring tide. Such tides nautical miles.
always occur on full moon and new moon days.

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CASE STUDY
Tides and Border Security Force(BSF)
The strategic role played by the
Border Security Force (BSF) to
guard the creek of Rann of Kutch
is an enormous one.
Firstly, most of the creek area
gets submerged due to high tide
and at times of low tide, the creek
emerges out along with poisonous
creatures like snakes, scorpions,
etc. Even the landscape view differs
in the morning and in the evening due to tidal effects twice a day. Secondly, the turbulence here
in the creek area is more violent than the open sea. Thirdly, the salt marshy terrain and the
humid weather conditions affect the health of the soldiers. Strong winds, scorching heat waves,
high salinity of the coastal
waters and mirages also affect
the eyes of the soldiers.

Natural factors like

currents, tides, shifting sand
bars and lack of permanent
landmarks on the boundary,
lead to great difficulty in
safeguarding this sensitive area
under military domain.

(C) Oceans Currents from the low latitudes (tropical zones) towards
The movement of oceanic water on the surface high latitudes (temperate and polar zones)
and at the depths in a definite direction is called is called warm current. Eg. Gulf Stream in
ocean current. Ocean currents are in clockwise Atlantic Ocean, North Equatorial Current in
motion in the northern hemisphere and in Pacific Ocean.
the anti-clockwise motion in the southern
hemisphere.
The factors that generate ocean currents are:
• Earth’s rotation NIO (National Institute of
• Prevailing winds and Oceanography) was established in 1st
January 1966. The headquarters of NIO
• Differences in temperature and salinity of
is located at Dona Paula, Goa. It Conducts
ocean water.
research and observations to understand
On the basis of temperature, ocean oceanic features, Ocean engineering,
currents are classified as warm currents and marine Archaeology etc.
cold currents. The movement of ocean currents

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 Major Ocean Currents of the World

1. HYDROSPHERE

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N
4
.. ASIA W E
5
1 S

9
NORTH EUROPE 3
10 .
AMERICA

7 6

78
AFRICA

2 SOUTH
AMERICA
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AUSTRALIA

Map not to scale Map not to scale ANTARCTICA

1. Labrador 3. Hokkaido 5. Port Severodvinsk 7. California 9. Newfoundland Warm current

2. Peru 4. Port Murmansk 6. Florida 8. Alaska 10. Grandbank
Cold current

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DISTRIBUTION OF MAJOR OCEAN CURRENTS AND EFFECTS

Ocean Name of the Current Effects

Leads to foggy conditions along the coast
South Atlantic Ocean Benguela Current [Cold] of Namibia. Helped in the development of
Namibian & Kalahari deserts

Canaries [Cold] Influences the extension of Sahara Desert

Its confluence with the Labrador current

produces heavy fog along the coast of
Gulf Stream [Warm] Newfoundland, obstacles the navigation.
Hence, Newfoundland is one of the major
fishing grounds of the world.
North Atlantic Ocean
It keeps the ports at higher latitudes
North Atlantic Drift ice-free throughout the year. Eg. Port of Rorvik
[Warm] (Norway), Murmansk and Severodvinsk
(Russia)
Its confluence with Gulf Stream creates fog
Labrador [Cold]
and hinders navigation.

Helped in the desertification of the Atacama

Peruvian / Humboldt desert. El-Nino effects the weather in western &
South Pacific Ocean
Current [Cold] S. America. It also affects timely
arrival of Indian monsoon
It plays a vital role in carrying large amount of
Kuroshio Current
heat to the adjacent land areas and forms
[Warm]
cloud cover that cause rainfall.
Its confluence with the Kuroshio current
produces heavy fogs around Hokkaido, which
Oyashio / Kurile Current
become potential hazards for navigation.
[Cold]
Hence, Hokkaido acts as the major fishing
North Pacific Ocean
ground of the world.
Keeps the seaports of Alaska open
Alaska Current [Warm]
throughout the year.

Leads to foggy conditions along the coast of

California Current
California. It helped in the development of
[Cold]
Arizona & Sonata deserts.
Leads to foggy conditions along the western
West Australian Current coast of Australia. It helped in the genesis of
Indian Ocean
[Cold] west Australian desert.

The movement of ocean currents from cold currents. Eg. Labrador Current in
high latitudes (temperate and polar regions) Atlantic Ocean and Peruvian Current in
to low latitudes (tropical regions) is called Pacific Ocean.

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4   Marine Resources
Hots
The biotic and abiotic „„What will happen if the seas and
resources found in the oceans contain only fresh water?
oceanic water and at the
bottoms are called marine
resources. The ocean’s
resources play a vital role 4.1   Conservation Of Marine
in sustaining the needs of Resources
society. A diverse array of marine organisms
Oceans are the life blood of planet earth
is used for food, medicine, cosmetics, and a
and mankind. The humankind depends on
wealth of industrial applications. The world’s
the marine resources for its survival. They
demand for energy, minerals and water have
are also essential for the economic prosperity,
become increasingly dependent on non-living
social well-being and quality of life. Oceans
marine resources.
have extensive deposits of oil reserves. Besides
a major fishing ground, it helps in generating
non-conventional energy, development of many
ports and harbours for trade activities. Coastal
tourism also attracts people around the world,
thereby contributing to the economy of many
countries.
The marine environment is faced with a
number of increasingly severe threats. These
include loss of biodiversity, loss of habitats,
contamination through dangerous substances,
and the impacts of climate change. Yet the
marine resources are not deteriorating , it is
Biological Resources necessary to find better ways of managing it.
Eg: Fishes, plankton, sea
M grass, Coral etc.
a
r
i
n
e Mineral Resources
R Eg: Petroleum, Naturalgas,
e Metallic Minerals, sand,
gravel etc.
s
o
u
r
c Energy resources The Gangetic Dolphin was declared
e the National Aquatic Animal in 2010. This
s Eg: Energy fuels, Tidal
has become an endangered species. Are the
energy, wave Energy etc.
Dolphins really at risk? If so, list out the
reasons.

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„„The five major oceans of the world are

the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Indian, the
Southern and the Arctic ocean.
The Great Barrier Reef
„„The major relief of the ocean floor are
The Great Barrier reef is the world's largest
continental shelf, continental slope,
coral reef system composed of 2,900
continental rise, abyssal plains, ocean
individual reefs and 900 islands stretching
deeps and ocean ridges.
for about 2,000 kilometres. It covers an
area of about 3,50,000 km. The reef is „„Ocean water is dynamic in nature.
Ocean temperature and ocean salinity
are the two major factors that influence
INDIAN OCEAN CORAL
SEA
Th

N
e
Gr

the movement of ocean waters.

W E
ea
tB

S
ar
rie
rR

AUSTRALIA „„Marine resources are nothing but the

ee
f

biotic and abiotic resources found in

the oceans.
Tasman sea

„„Oceans are the lifelines of Earth and

INDIAN OCEAN

Map not to scale

mankind. Hence, they need to be

conserved.

located in the Coral sea, off the coast of GLOSSARY

Queensland,Australia. The Great Barrier
Reef can be seen from the outer space. Ocean floor is the bottom of the ocean,
This sprawling coral reef system is one of also called sea bed.
the most biologically diverse places on the Gradient is a degree of steepness i.e., of
planet.Coral reefs are built by billions of a relief feature.
tiny organisms, known as Coral polyps.
rench is a very long narrow depression
T
CNN labelled it as one of the seven natural
on the ocean floor.
wonders of the world.
Sea mount is an underwater mountain
that rise from the sea floor due to undersea
volcanic activity.
Recap Guyot is a flat topped under water
volcanic mountain.
„„Hydrosphere, the third sphere of Earth,
is a collection of all forms of water on Atoll is a ring shaped coral reef or island
the earth. found in tropical and sub tropical seas and
oceans.
„„Hydrological cycle is the continuous
movement of water on Earth. Ridge is a long narrow chain of hills or
an elevated land.
„„Water is available on Earth as fresh and
salt water. Over 97% of the water on the nherent energy is a continuous or
I
Earth’s surface is confined to oceans. permanent generation of energy.

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UNIT
BIOSPHERE
2

Learning Objectives

„„To understand the scope and meaning of biosphere.

„„To understand the meaning of ecosystem, its components,
functions and biodiversity.
„„To understand the major biomes of the world.
„„To know the need for conservation of biomes.

surface. This layer on earth encompasses the

This unit deals with the meaning of ecosystems
Lithosphere, Hydrosphere and Atmosphere.
and its components. The energy flow among
It includes flora and fauna that thrive on or
the biotic and abiotic environment is
near the earth’s surface. The vertical range
discussed. It also explains the significance of
of the biosphere is approximately 20 km,
biodiversity and its loss. Both terrestrial and
which is measured from the ocean floor to
aquatic biomes are dealt in detail.
the troposphere. However, most plants and
animals live in a very narrow section for about
Biosphere, the fourth sphere of the Earth, is a
1 km above and below the Mean Sea Level
life supporting layer that exists on the earth’s
(MSL). Biosphere is made up of different

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ecosystems and biomes. All living things, large

Activity
or small, are grouped into species.The area in
which an animal, plant or micro organism lives Narrate the forest ecosystem in your
is called its habitat. A wide variety of plants own words.
and animals live in a particular habitat known
as biodiversity.
VERTICAL RANGE OF BIOSPHERE ON EARTH
8000 Tallest mountains

6000

4000
Area where most
2000
living things live
sea level
2000 Average ocean
floor depth
4000

Depth(in meters)

1   ECOSYSTEM „„The branch of science that deals about

An ecosystem is a community, where ecosystem is called Ecology.
all living organisms live and interact with „„A person who studies ecology is
one another and also with their non-living referred to as an Ecologist.
environment such as land, soil, air, water etc.
Ecosystems range in size from the smallest 1.1 Components of ecosystem
units (Eg: bark of a tree) that can sustain life
An ecosystem consists of
to the global ecosystem or ecosphere. (Eg:
three basic components,
Cropland, Pond ecosystem, Forest ecosystem,
namely
Desert ecosystem etc.). Biosphere harbours all
A) Abiotic components
ecosystems on the earth and sustains life forms
B) Biotic components and
including mankind.
C) Energy component
A) Abiotic Components
Abiotic components include the non-living,
inorganic, physical and chemical factors in the
environment. Eg. Land, Air ,Water, Calcium,
Iron etc.
B) Biotic Components
Biotic components include plants, animals and
micro organisms. Biotic components can be
classified into three categories :
Producers are self nourishing components
• 
of the ecosystem. Hence they are called

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Autotrophs. They are found both on land distribution and circulation of the organic and
and water. Eg. Plants, Algae, Bacteria etc. inorganic matter within an ecosystem. Energy
C onsumers are those that depend on
•  flow generally takes place in a hierarchical
producers, directly or indirectly. Hence they order in an ecosystem through various
are called Heterotrophs. levels. These levels are called trophic levels.
The chain of transformation of energy from
The common category of consumers are: one group of organisms to another, through
✓  Primary consumers depend on producers various trophic levels is called a food chain.
for their food. They are exclusively A system of interlocking and interdependent
herbivores. Eg. zebra, goat etc. food chains is called a food web.

Secondary consumers are small carnivores

✓ 
i.e., they consume herbivores. Eg. lion,
snake etc.
Tertiary consumers are top carnivores that
✓ 
prey on both herbivores and carnivores. Eg.
owl, crocodile etc.
Decomposers are some organisms that
• 
are incapable of preparing its own food.
They live on dead and decaying plants and
animals. Hence they are called Saprotrophs.
Eg. fungus, mushrooms etc.

C) Energy Components
All organisms in the biosphere use energy
to work and convert one form of energy into
another. The Sun is the ultimate source of
energy for the biosphere as a whole. The solar 2   BIODIVERSITY
energy gets transformed into other forms of
Biodiversity or biological diversity refers
energy through the various components in
to a wide variety of living organisms (plants,
the ecosystem. The producers, consumers
animals and other micro organisms) which live
and the decomposers contribute a lot to the
in a habitat. It is highly influenced by topography,
energy flow in an ecosystem.
climate as well as human activities. It represents
the strength of the biological resources of a
Activity place on earth. In biodiversity, each species,
Find the etymology of Herbivores, no matter how big or small, has an important
carnivores, omnivores and scavengers role to play in the ecosystem. It maintains the
using dictionary. ecological balance and facilitates social benefits
such as tourism, education, research etc. over
an area.
1.2 Functions of an ecosystem
The living organisms form an interacting 2.1 Loss of biodiversity
set of flora and fauna which are organized into The extinction of species (flora and fauna)
trophic levels, food chains and food webs. The due to human and natural influences is called
functioning of an ecosystem depends on the loss of biodiversity. The biodiversity loss has
pattern of the energy flow, as it helps in the a great impact on mankind and also affects

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land, water, air etc. Habitat destruction due to 3   BIOMES

deforestation, population explosion, pollution
and global warming are the major cause for A biome is a geographically extensive
loss of biodiversity. Sometimes, habitat loss is ecosystem where all flora and fauna are found
so severe or happens so quickly that it results collectively. It is the total assemblage of plant
in a species being eliminated from the planet. and animal life interacting within the biosphere.
Scientists are still trying to decide what caused Biomes are defined by abiotic factors like, relief,
the mass extinction of dinosaurs. climate, soils and vegetation. They are classified
into two broad categories, terrestrial biomes
A healthy eco system provides clean water, and aquatic biomes.
pure water, enriched soil, food, raw materials,
medicines etc. Hence stable biosphere has to be 3.1 T  ERRESTRIAL BIOMES
conserved. Terrestrial biomes is a group of living
organisms that live and interact with one another on
land. They are mainly determined by temperature
and rainfall. Some of the major terrestrial biomes
of the world are
A. Tropical Forest Biomes
„„An ecological region that has lost more B. Tropical Savanna Biomes
than 70% of its original habitat is C. Desert Biomes
considered a hotspot. D. Temperate Grassland
„„Hotspots in India are the Himalayas, Biomes
Western Ghats, Indo Burma Region E. Tundra Biomes
and Sundaland. https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/
terrestrial-biomes-13236757

CLASSIFICATION OF BIOMES
Natural: Terrestrial

Grassland Forest Desert

Natural: Aquatic

Marine: Oceans Freshwater

Artificial or Manmade

Aquarium Crop Land

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A. Tropical Forest Biomes B. T  ropical Savanna (Grasslands)

The tropical forest biome is comprised of several Biomes
sub-biomes, including evergreen rainforest, Tropical grasslands are generally found between
seasonal deciduous forest etc. tropical forests and deserts. Tropical Savanna
This biome extends between 10° N and biomes are found between 10o to 20o N and S
10° S of the Equator. Central and South America latitudes. These grasslands are generally flat and
possess half of the world’s tropical forests. The are found in the Sahel, south of Sahara in East
climate in these biomes shows little seasonal Africa and in Australia. This biome is generally
variation with high annual rainfall and relatively hot and dry and experiences moderate to low
constant, high temperature. This unique weather rainfall. So, the grass which grow here are tall
condition favours thick vegetative cover. and sharp. Hence the chief occupation of the
people found here is herding. The primitive
people living here are nomadic.

Tropical forests have the highest biodiversity

and primary productivity of any of the terrestrial The common animals found here are the
biomes. The Amazon basin, Congo basin and lion, leopard, tiger, deer, zebra, giraffe etc. Flora
Indonesian islands are the major regions of this such as Rhodes grass, red oats grass, lemon
biome. These regions have very dense forests grass etc. are found in this biome.
and so have great economic importance. Human
settlements are found scattered here. They sustain
their livelihood through food gathering, fishing,
Of late, parts of the Savanna
lumbering and shifting cultivation. Due to the
grasslands are being converted into
humid nature of this biome, the people get afflicted
farmlands, which pose a great threat
to tropical diseases like malaria, yellow fever etc.
to the wide range of fauna. For Eg. The
The chief trees found here are rubber, bamboo,
population of the big cats like cheetah,
ebony, etc. Bats, pheasants, jaguars, elephants,
lion etc. are dwindling drastically.
monkeys etc. are the important birds and animals
found here.
C. Desert Biomes
Deserts are usually found on the western
margins of the continents between 20°

and 30° N and S latitudes. The annual
The U.S. National Cancer
Institute has identified
rainfall is less than 25 cm in these regions.
about 70% of the plants Due to the lack of rainfall and arid conditions,
used for treating cancer. these regions do not possess any vegetation but
Which are found only in have special vegetation type called Xerophytes.
rain forests. Eg. Lapacho.
As the soil is sandy and saline, deserts remain

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agriculturally unproductive. Drought resistant grassland in these regions strongly depends upon
thorny scrubs and bushes, palms are found here. precipitation. Higher precipitation leads to tall
and soft grass and lower precipitation leads to
short and soft grass. These regions favour wheat
cultivation. Extensive mechanised agriculture is
practised due to lack of farm labour. Pastoral
industry becomes the main occupation, thereby
facilitating slaughtering of animals, packing of
raw and processed meat, dairy products etc. The
common birds and animals are grass hopper,
wolf, bison, prairie dog etc.

Tribal people who live here practice

food gathering and hunting. They move their Temperate grasslands are called
temporary settlements frequently in search of differently in different parts of the world.
pastures. Transportation becomes very difficult Prairies -- North America
here and is carried on by camels. Reptiles Steppes -- Eurasia
like snakes, lizards, scorpions etc., are most Pampas -- Argentina and Uruguay
commonly found here. Veld -- South Africa
Downs -- Australia and Newzealand

E. Tundra Biomes
These vast lowlands are found where the
ground remains frozen. Greenland, Arctic
and Antarctic regions and Northern parts of
Asia, Canada and Europe fall in this biome.
An oasis is a fertile fresh water source found in These regions are also called Barren lands.
deserts and semi-arid regions. Oases are fed by This biome experiences long severe winter and
springs. Crops like date palms, figs, citrus fruits, short cool summer. Due to the prevailing of low
maize etc. are cultivated near these oases.
temperature and short growing seasons, the
net primary productivity is very low in tundra.
D. Temperate Grassland Biomes People are nomadic. Hunting and fishing are
Temperate Grasslands are usually found in the their major occupations. The population here
interior of the continents and are characterized is extremely sparse and the harsh environment
by large seasonal temperature variations, with makes them change their settlement frequently.
warm summer and cold winter. The type of

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They live in igloos in winter and in tents during

summer. Arctic moss, Arctic willow, lichens etc.
grow here. Fauna like the polar bear, wolverine,
reindeer, snowy owl are found here.

3.2 AQUATIC BIOMES

Aquatic biome is a group of living organisms
that live and interact with one another and its
aquatic environment for nutrients and shelter.
Like terrestrial biomes, aquatic biomes are
influenced by a series of abiotic factors.It is
broadly classified as fresh water biomes and B. Marine Biomes:
marine biomes. They are the largest aquatic biomes on earth.
They are continuous bodies of salt water and
A. Fresh water Biomes: provide a wide range of habitats for marine
It comprises lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, plants and animals. Coral reefs are a second
wetlands etc. It is influenced by various kind of marine biomes within the ocean.
abiotic components such as the volume of Estuaries, coastal areas where salt water and
water, water flow, composition of oxygen, fresh water mix, form a third unique marine
temperature, etc. Humans rely on freshwater biome. As water provides maximum mobility
biomes for drinking water, crop irrigation, to marine organisms, nutrients are circulated
sanitation and industry. Water lily, lotus, more quickly and efficiently here than the
duck weeds etc. are the common plants found terrestrial biomes. Apart from animals, plants
here. Trout, salmon, turtles, crocodiles etc. such as kelp, algae, phytoplankton etc. also grow
are the animals found here. in water. Aquatic biomes are not only important

Difference between Aquatic and Terrestrial ecosystem

Aquatic Ecosystem Terrestrial Ecosystem
✓ Aquatic ecosystem exists on water ✓ Terrestrial ecosystem exists on land
covering 71% of the earth surface. covering 29% of the earth surface.
✓ Aquatic animals use 20% of energy to ✓ Terrestrial animals use only 1-2% of
obtain oxygen. energy to obtain oxygen.
✓ In this ecosystem there is abundant of ✓ In this ecosystem there is less availability
water with limited oxygen supply. of water, greater availability of gases and
temperature fluctuation.
✓ The small drifting photo synthetic ✓ The primary producer is the plant that
organisms of the ocean called photo produce food through photosynthetic
phytoplankton are regarded as the major process.
primary producer.
✓ Aquatic environment is more stable with ✓ Terrestrial environment is quite unstable
smaller fluctuation in temperature and as the land surface is affected by great
other variable. risks from external impacts.

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for plants and animals, but also for humans. important role in maintaining the flow of
Humans use aquatic biomes for water, food and energy in the biosphere. At the same time, the
leisure activities. Some of the threats and issues primary cause of today’s loss of biodiversity is
to aquatic biomes are overfishing, pollution and habitat alteration caused by human activities.
rise in sea level. The ever increasing population results in
over exploitation of biological resources. This
has an adverse impact on flora and fauna on
earth. There are places on earth that are both
biologically rich and deeply threatened. Hence
it is man’s duty to conserve and care for the
earth and make it a better place to live in.

„„A Biosphere Reserve is a special

ecosystem or specialized
environment with flora and
3.3 CONSERVATION fauna that require protection and
The biosphere extends from the deep ocean nurturing. There are 18 Bioshpere
trenches to lush rain forests. People play an Reserves in India.

CASE STUDY-BIOSPHERE II
Scientists have created an artificial Biosphere called Biosphere-2, to understand the Earth which is
refered as Biosphere-1.
Facts and Numbers
• Biosphere-2 covers 3.15 acres and is located in Arizona, America.
• It is 91 feet at its highest point.
• It is sealed off from earth below by 500 ton welded stainless steel liner.
• A host of instruments constantly monitors the air, soil and water.
• The 25 foot ocean contains a million gallons of salt water.
• Biosphere-2 contains five biomes - a rain forest, desert, savanna, marsh and ocean.
• It has more than three thousand species of living organisms.
• The habitat is opened for public tours.
(To visit biosphere-2 log on to www.biosphere2.org)

2.  BIOSPHERE 94

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Recap „„Biomes are broadly classified as terrestrial

and aquatic biomes.
„„The biosphere is a thin layer on, above and
„„Biosphere has to be conserved, as it is
beneath the earth where life exists.
considered to be an asset to planet earth.
„„The place on earth where living organisms
live and interact with one another and
with their physical environment is called Glossary
an ecosystem. Environment - everything that
„„The three major components of around us.
ecosystem are biotic components, abiotic Extinction - the loss of species by human
components and energy flow. activities or nature
„„Biotic components are classified into Assemblage - collection or gathering of
producers, consumers and decomposers. things or people
„„The functioning of the ecosystem depends Terrestrial Biome - plants, animals
on the energy flow through various levels and species on land
called trophic levels. Lumbering - cutting down of trees into
„„The wide variety of living organisms logs
that are found on the planet is called Pastoral - grazing sheep or cattle for
biodiversity. food
„„The extinction of such biological diversity Estuary - the mouth of a river or stream
due to human influences or nature is along the coastline, with less deposits of silt
called loss of bio diversity. Limnology - is a study about freshwater
„„The geographically extensive ecosystem ecosystem
where living organisms are collectively Etimology - the study of the sources,
found is termed as biome. development and history of a word.

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 Unit -I
Resources

Learning Objectives

™™To know the importance of resources

™™To describe the renewable resources
™™To understand the non-renewable resources
™™To identify the fossil fuel resources

Introduction survival. Resources always cannot be consumed

A country’s social, economic and political in their original form, but they must be processed
strength lies in the distribution, utilization and into usable commodities and usable things.
conservation of its resources. Anything which Importance of resource
can be used for satisfying the human needs is
Natural resources satisfy daily needs of
 
called resource. Natural resources are resources
man such as food, clothing and shelter.
that exist without action of humankind. Natural Natural resources also contribute
 
resources are obtained from environment. immensely to boost up a nation’s
Many natural resources are essential for human economy.

NATURAL RESOURCES

Basis of origin Basis of renewability

Biotic resources Renewable resources

Abiotic resources Non-renewable resources

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 On the basis of origin, resources may be 1. Renewable resources
divided into two types. They are: A renewable resource is a resource which
1. Biotic resources can be used repeatedly and replaced naturally.
2. Abiotic resources Renewable resources harvested and used
1. Biotic resources rationally will not produce pollution. The use
of renewable resources and energy sources is
Biotic resources are
increasing worldwide.
found in the biosphere which
are obtained from living and Example: solar energy, wind energy, and
organic materials. It includes forests, crops, hydropower.
birds, animals, fishes, man and materials that Solar energy
can be obtained from them. Fossil fuels such
The sun produces energy in the form
as coal and petroleum are also included in this
of heat and light. Solar energy is not harmful
category because they are formed from decayed
to the environment. Photovoltaic devices or
organic matter.
solar cells, directly convert solar energy into
2. Abiotic resources electricity. Individual solar cell in group panel
Abiotic resources are the non-living can perform small applications from charging
parts of an environment. Examples of abiotic calculator, watch batteries, to large such as to
resources include land, water, air, sunlight and power residential dwellings. Photovoltaic power
heavy metals including ores such as gold, iron, plants and concentrating solar power plants are
copper, silver etc. the largest solar applications covering acres.
On the basis of renewability, resources can India, China, Japan, Italy and States of America
be divided into two types. They are: are major utilizers of solar energy in the world.

1. Renewable resources
2. Non - renewable resources

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 Kamuthi solar power project is Wind energy
one of the largest solar power Wind power is clean energy since wind
projects in the world. It is turbines does not produce any emissions. In
recent years, wind energy has become one of
situated in Ramanathapuram
the most economical and renewable energy
District in Tamilnadu. The Kamuthi solar
technologies. The Classic Dutch windmill
power project was completed on 21st harnessed the wind’s energy hundreds of years
September 2016. Investment of this project is ago. Modern wind turbines with three blades dot
around 4,550 Crores. The installed capacity the landscape today, turning wind into electricity.
of this project is 648 MW. Major wind energy producing countries are
United States, China, Germany, Spain, India,
United Kingdom, Canada and Brazil.

Kamuthi solar power plant

Wind mill
Major wind farms in India
S. No. Wind Forms District State Installed Capacity
(MW)
1. Muppandal Kanyakumari Tamil Nadu 1,500
2. Jaisalmer Jaisalmer Rajasthan 1,064
3. Brahmanvel Dhule Maharashtra 528
4. Dhalgaon Sangli Maharashtra 278
5. Damanjodi Damanjodi Odisha 99

Hydropower and Japan are some countries producing

Water is considered as a great source of hydroelectricity. China is the largest producer
energy. At present, water is used for producing of hydro-electricity.
hydroelectric power. Hydroelectricity is
generated from moving water with high
velocity and great falls with the help of turbines
and dynamos. Hydroelectricity power is the
cheapest and most versatile source of energy out
of all the known energy. Hydroelectric power is
a renewable resource. China, Canada, Brazil,
Itaipu Dam, Brazil and Paraguay
United States of America, Russia, India, Norway

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 S. No. Hydro - electricity project Installed Capacity State
(MW)
1. Tehri Dam 2,400 Uttarakhand
2. Srisailam Dam 1,670 Andhra Pradesh
3. Nagarjuna Sagar Dam 960 Andhra Pradesh
4. Sardar Sarovar Dam 1,450 Gujarat
5. Bhakra Nangal Dam 1,325 Punjab
6. Koyna Dam 1,960 Maharashtra
7. Mettur dam 120 Tamil Nadu
8. Idukki dam 780 Kerala

S.No. Name of the Project Country River Installed Capacity

in MW

1. Three gorges Dam China Yangtze 22,500

2. Itaipu Dam Brazil and Paraguay Parana 14,000

3. Xiluodu Dam China Jinsha 13,860

4. Guri Dam Venezuela Caroni 10,235

5. Tucurui Dam Brazil Tocantins 8,370

Three Gorges Dam in China Non-renewable resources

is the largest hydroelectricity Natural resources that once consumed and
project in the world. It’s cannot be replaced is called non-renewable
construction started in 1994 resources. Continuous consumption of
and ended in 2012. The installed capacity of non-renewable resources ultimately leads
the dam is 22,000MW. to exhaustion. Examples of non-renewable
resources include fossil fuels such as coal,
petroleum, natural gas and mineral resources
such as iron, copper, bauxite, gold, silver
and others. Non-renewable resources can be
divided into three types. They are:

 Metallic resources
 Non - Metallic resources
 Fossil fuel resources
Three Gorges Dam, China

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 Metallic resources Iron ore is mined in about 50 countries.
Metallic resources are the type of resources Among the iron ore producing countries
that are composed of metals. These are hard China, Australia, Brazil, India and Russia are
substances, which are the good conductors the principal producers accounting for 85%
of heat and electricity. Example for metallic of the world’s total output of iron ore. These
resources are iron, copper, gold, bauxite, silver, countries have 70% of the total reserves of the
manganese, etc. world. Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and Goa account for
Iron over 95 per cent of the total reserves of India.
Iron is the fourth most common element in Iron ores found at Kanjamalai in Tamil Nadu.
the Earth’s crust and the most widely available
Copper
metal. Magnetite and hematite are the common
ore for iron, which occurs normally in the rocks Copper is one of the first metals known and
of the crust. Iron ore is the key raw material in used by man. Copper ranks as the third most
making steel and 98% of the iron ore extracted consumed industrial metal in the world after
is used to make Steel. Pure iron ore is very Iron and Aluminium. Copper is good conductor
soft, but its strength is increased many folds by of heat and electricity. About three quarters
adding small amount of carbon and manganese. of copper is used to make electrical wires,
It’s low cost and high earth strength makes telecommunication cables and electronics.
it usable in engineering applications, such as Chile is the world’s number one country
the construction of machinery and machine in the production of copper. Other copper
tools, automobiles, construction of large ships, producing countries are Peru, China, United
structural components of building, bridges etc. States, Congo and Australia.

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 Gold creates superior alloy than pure aluminium.
It is a rare and precious metal. Hence, it E.g: Duralumin.
has high demand in world markets. Formerly, Australia is the world’s leading bauxite
it was used for minting coins, but now it is used producer. Apart from that, China, Brazil,
for making ornaments and in dentistry. It is India, Guinea, Jamaica and Russia also play
regarded as a symbol of prosperity and a form an important role in bauxite production. One
of wealth. fourth of the bauxite mineral deposits found
China is the world’s largest producer of gold. in Guinea alone. Odisha, Gujarat, Jharkhand,
Also, Australia, Russia, United States, South Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu and
Africa and Canada are the major producers Madhya Pradesh are the main bauxite producing
of gold. Among these countries, Australia has states in India. The bauxite deposits are mainly
9500 tons reserves of gold ore and it is world’s found in the Shervaroy hills of Salem district,
leading country in gold ore reserves. Karnataka Tamil Nadu.
is the largest producer of gold in India. Kolar Silver
Gold Field is one of the deepest mines of the Silver is also a precious metal like gold. It
world. has a wider variety of uses than gold. It is used
in making jewellery, dentistry, photographic
goods, electroplating industry and in the
manufacture of luxury goods. About two-third
of silver is used for monetary purposes. Like
gold, silver also resists corrosion.

Mexico is the world’s leading silver

producer. Following Mexico, Peru, China,
Kolar Gold Field
Russia, Australia and Chile produce more silver.
Bauxite More than 50% of silver is found only in South
Aluminium is produced from bauxite ore. American countries.
There are several ores that contain aluminium Manganese
but bauxite contains more aluminium.
Manganese is a steel-greyed, hard, shiny and
Aluminium has wide range of uses compared
brittle metal. The common ores of manganese
to other metals. Aluminium is light in weight,
are Pyrolusite Manganese, Psilomelane and
tough and cheaper, which makes it popular metal
Rhodochrosite. Manganese is essential for the
for constructional purpose. It is mainly used in
production of good quality Steel. Manganese
the construction of aircrafts, ship, automobiles,
is used in making electrical batteries. It is also
railway coaches and etc. Aluminium is a good
used as colouring material in bricks, pottery,
conductor of electricity and heat, hence, it is
floor tiles. Manganese compounds are used in
used for making electrical cables. It is highly
making disinfecting liquids, bleaching powder,
resistant to corrosion. By the addition of small
fertilizers etc.
quantities of other metals to aluminium, it

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 South Africa is the world’s leading producer China produces more than half of
of manganese. The significant producers of limestone production in the world. Beside
manganese in the world are China, Australia, this, United States, India, Russia, Brazil and
Gabon, Brazil and India. All these producers Japan also produce more Limestone. Madhya
have large reserves of manganese and are Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat,
significant exporters in the world. Chhattisgarh and Tamil Nadu Produce over
three-fourths of the total limestone of India. In
Non-metallic resources
Tamil Nadu, Large scale limestone reserve found
Non-metallic resources can be described
in Ramanathapuram, Tirunelveli, Ariyalur,
as the resources that do not comprise of metals.
Salem, Coimbatore and Madurai districts.
These are not hard substances, and are not good
conductors of heat and electricity. Example for Fossil fuel resources
non-metallic resources are mica, limestone, Fossil fuel resources are normally formed
gypsum, dolomite, phosphate, etc. from the remains of dead plants and animals.
They are often referred to as fossil fuels and are
Mica
formed from hydrocarbon. When fossil fuels
Muscovite and Biotite are the common ores are burned, they become a great source of heat
of Mica. It is one of the indispensable minerals energy. Example for fossil fuel resources are
used in electrical and electronics industry. It coal, petroleum and natural gas.
is used as an insulating material in electrical
Coal
industry. In powder form, it is used for making
This is the most abundantly found fossil
lubricating oils and decorative wallpapers.
fuel that forms when dead plant matter is
China is the world’s top producer of mica. converted into peat. It is used as a domestic
Russia, Finland, United States, Turkey and fuel, in industries such as iron and steel, steam
Republic of Korea also play a major role in the engines to generate electricity. Electricity
production of mica. About 95 per cent of India’s produced from coal is called Thermal Power.
mica is found in just three states of Andhra Coal is classified into four types based on carbon
Pradesh, Rajasthan and Jharkhand. content. They are:
Limestone 1. Anthracite
Limestone is a sedimentary rock,
2. Bituminous
composed mainly by skeletal fragments of
marine organisms such as coral, foraminifera 3. Lignite
and molluscs. About 10% of sedimentary rocks
4. Peat.
are limestones. Mostly limestone is made into
crushed stone and used as a construction The leading coal producers of the world
material. It is used for facing stone, floor tiles, is China. Beside this, India, USA, Australia,
stair treads, windows sills and many other Indonesia and Russia also produce more coal.
purposes. Crushed limestone is used in smelting The coal producing areas of India are Raniganj
and other metal refining process. Portland in West Bengal, Neyveli in Tamil Nadu, Jharia,
cement is made from limestone. Dhanbad, and Bokaro in Jharkhand.

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 derivatives are called Black Gold as they are
very valuable.

The chief petroleum producing countries

are Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq and Qatar. The other
major producers are USA, Russia, Venezuela,
Kuwait, UAE and Algeria. The leading producers
Neyveli coal field in India are Digboi in Assam, Bombay High in
Most of the coal deposite that Mumbai and the deltas of Krishna and Godavari
we use now, where formed rivers.
about 300 million years ago.
Much of the earth was covered
with steamy swamps. As the plants and
trees are dead, their remains were buried
underneath the swamps. Eventually, they
were transformed into coal beneath the
ground due to excessive heat and pressure.

Petroleum
Petroleum is found between the layers Bombay High oil field
of rocks and is drilled from oil fields located Natural gas
in Offshore and coastal areas. This is sent to Natural gas is found with petroleum
refineries which process crude oil and produce deposits and is released when crude oil is brought
variety of products like diesel, petrol, kerosene, to the surface. It can be used as a domestic
wax, plastics and lubricants. Petroleum and its and industrial fuel.
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 More than 50% of the global natural gas Solar energy is not harmful to the
 
reserves are found in United States of America, environment.
Russia, Iran and Qatar. Hydroelectricity is generated from moving
 
In India, Krishna and Godavari Delta, water with high velocity and great falls
Assam, Gujarat and some areas of offshore in with the help of a turbines and dynamos.
Mumbai have natural gas resources. Metallic resources are iron, copper, gold,
 
bauxite, silver, manganese etc. 
Wrap up
Non-metallic resources are mica, limestone,
 
Natural resources are obtained from
 
gypsum, dolomite, phosphate, etc.
environment. 
Fossil fuels resources are normally formed
 
Renewable resources can be used repeatedly
 
from the remains of dead plants and
and replaced naturally.
animals.
Non-renewable resources once consumed,
 
cannot be replaced.

Glossary
1. Biotic resources obtained from living and organic materials உயிரியல் வளங்கள்

2. Abiotic resources obtained from non-living, non-organic materials உயிரற்ற வளங்கள்

3. Hydroelectricity generated from moving water with high velocity நீர் மின் சக்தி
and great falls with the help of turbines and
dynamos

4. Metallic resources resources that are composed of metals உல�ோக வளங்கள்

5. Non-metallic resources that do not comprise of metals உல�ோகம் அல்லாத

resources வளங்கள்

6. Duralumin a hard, light alloy of aluminium with copper and துராலுமின்

other elements

7. Fossil fuel formed from the remains of dead plants and படிம எரிப�ொருள்
animals

8. Thermal Power Electricity produced from coal அனல் மின் சக்தி

9. Black Gold Petroleum and its derivatives கருப்புத் தங்கம்

10. Precious metal a metal that is valuable and usually rare விலை மதிப்பற்ற
உல�ோகம்

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 UNIT

3
Resources

Unit Overview Learning Objectives

3.1 Introduction ➢ Understand the

classification of
3.2 Classification of Resources resources.
3.3 Mineral resources
➢ Estimate the world
3.4 The world distribution of minerals reserves of the
3.5 Energy Resources resources.

3.6 Conservation of Resources ➢ Reason out why there is an uneven

distribution of resources.
➢ Describe the methods of conserving the
resources.
3.1 Introduction
Have you heard about Voyager 1 launched in
1977 still is travelling at the speed of 62140 km/
hour or 17 km/sec.? Do you know what fuel is
primarily because of the variation in the
used in it? It is hydrazine. What, do you think,
availability of natural resources. The US and
would be the future fuel? It is certainly going
west European countries are economically
to be hydrogen. Think about how hydrogen
prosperous because they possess vast natural
stands as an important future fuel.
and human resources and technology. On the
A resource is a naturally occurring other hand, in most parts of Africa and Asia,
exploitable material that a society perceives though they are naturally rich in resources, due
to be useful to its economic and material to their lack of knowledge, the resources are
wellbeing. Willing, healthy and skilled workers unutilised and they are not used in the service
also constitute a valuable resource, but without of man.
access to materials such as fertile soil or
petroleum, human resources are limited in their
3.2 Classification of Resources
effectiveness.
Resources are classified on various bases.
Resources are the basis of the economic Based on the continual availability,
development of any nation. Different countries resources are classified in to renewable and
are at different levels of economic development non renewable resources.

TN_GOVT_XII_Geography_chapter 03.indd 46 21-02-2019 12:09:21

 The resources which can always be used technology and level of their feasibility.
again and again are known as renewable Petroleum resource from Mumbai High is an
resources. It means these resources have example of Developed resources.
natural regeneration and are inexhaustible. Apart from the above classifications, the
Air, water, solar energy etc are examples of resources which are available in nature are
renewable resources. Non renewable resources known as natural resources and the one created
are available in finite quantities and cannot by man is known as man-made resource.
be obtained once if they are utilized. If these Similarly the air like resources which exist
resources are used in large scale, they will get everywhere is called as ubiquitous resources
exhausted soon and as such these resources are and the resources which are concentrated
called as exhaustible resources. Coal, oil and only at specific places are known as localised
minerals are examples of this type. resources. This kind of resource may exercise
On the basis of origin, the resources are great influence on the economic development
classified in to biotic and abiotic resources. When of the respective regions.
a resource is originated from living organism,
the resource is known as biotic resource. Coal, 3.3  Mineral Resources
mineral oil and forests are examples of biotic A homogeneous, naturally occurring substance
resources. Abiotic resources are composed of which has a definite chemical composition
non-living inorganic matter. Air, land, water and is called a mineral. They can be identified
minerals are examples of this type. by their physical properties and chemical
On the basis of status of development, the components. Minerals exist in different types
resources are classified in to potential resources based on their formation. Minerals play an
and developed resources. Potential resources indispensable part of our daily activities.
are those which are known to exist and may Almost everything we use, from a tiny particle
be used in the future. Until the resource is to a huge building or a big ship all, is made
extracted and put in to use, it remains a potential up of minerals. Minerals are one of the most
resource. Developed resources are those which valuable resources of the earth. All the stages
have been surveyed and their quality and of human development or progress have been
quantity have been determined for utilisation. named after them. For example, stone age,
The development of resources depends on copper age, bronze age and Iron Age.
47 Resources

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 They are exhaustible or non renewable. Mode of Occurrence of Minerals
Besides, they are distributed very unevenly. Minerals are generally found in ‘Ores’. It is
They are generally found in the form of ores. actually an accumulation of any mineral mixed
The ore contains several impurities. Minerals with other elements. Minerals generally occur
are separated from the ores involving a number in many forms. They are
of distinct processes.
1. Veins and lodes
A country’s economic development is Minerals generally occur in the cracks,
depending on the minerals. There are several crevices, faults and joints of the igneous and
types of minerals, but according to their metamorphic rocks. Minerals in smaller
characteristics and commercial use. occurrence are called a ‘Vein’ and a larger
occurrence is called a ‘lode, for example,
Uses of Minerals Copper and Gold are found in lodes and veins.
Minerals are basic and essential raw
materials in our daily lives and are vital
for economic, social and technological
development. They are used,
• In the construction of buildings, bridges
and settlement.
• As raw materials in industries
• As fuels
• In the manufacture of defence equipments.
• In the field of communication like
manufacturing telephone, wires, cables,
electronic devices etc.
• In making of alloys for various purposes.
• In making of ornaments.
• In the manufacture of fertilizers, pesticide,
fungicides etc. Copper Lodes

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 Residual mass of weathered particles
When the decomposed rocks are washed
away by water, the soluble particles are
removed, leaving a mass containing ores. Such
occurrences are called residual mass. E.g.
Bauxite

3. Alluvial deposits or placer deposits

These are the deposits found in the sands of
valley floor and at the foot hills. These deposits
consist of the minerals such as Gold, Silver
and Platinum.

Gold veins
2. Beds or Layers
Minerals that are formed as a result of deposition,
accumulation and concentration generally occur
in horizontal layers. E.g. Coal, Potash, etc.

Platinum

3.4 The world distribution of minerals

Metallic Minerals
The minerals which contain metal in them
are called as metallic minerals.
Iron - Ore
It is the basic mineral and the backbone of
industrial development of the world. Iron
Ore is the most widely distributed element of
Coal the earth’s crust and it rarely occurs in a free
state. It is found as the composition of many
rocks and minerals. Iron-ore makes up 4.6%
of the earth crusts. Iron is found in the form of
Iron - ore. They are classified into 4 categories.
(i) Magnetite: It is red in colour and has
72% of pure Iron
(ii) Hematite: It is black in colour and has
70% of pure Iron
(iii) Limonite: Its colour varies from dark
brown to yellow and has 50% of pure iron.
(iv) Siderite: It is brown in colour and
contains only 30% of pure iron is present.
Bauxite
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 The iron content of these ores is highly variable. Major Iron ore fields in the world
If the iron content is less than 30% in an ore, Country Iron ore fields
it is considered to be uneconomical. Iron is
Australia Mt. Bruce, Mt. Goldsworthy, Mt.
mixed with fixed proportions of Manganese,
Whaleback, etc.
Nickel, Chromium or Vanadium to make
China Manchuria Region, Shandong,
different varieties of steel.
Sinkiang region, etc.
Distribution of Iron ore Brazil Itabira in south east region.
India Chhattisgarh and Bastar region,
Iron - ore is unevenly distributed in the world. Odisha, Chitradurg, Kudremukh,
Good quality Iron ore is found in Australia, Mayurbbanj region, etc.
Brazil, Russia, China, USA, Ukraine, Canada, Russia Ural region, Kuzbas, Angara, etc.
etc. Russia has the largest proven reserves of U.S.A Mesabi range, Marquette range,
iron ore in the world. Cornwall, Albama, Appalachian
region, etc.
Australia is the largest producer of Iron Germany Rhur basin.
ore in the world. Other leading producers are Ukraine Krivoi rog.
China, Brazil, India and Russia. The Majority of
Iron ore is (84%) produced by 5 countries alone. Manganese ore
It is a kind of Ferro-alloy used to manufacture
Iron ore the special quality steel. A little manganese
Rank Country Production Share added to iron, removes gases and acts as a
(Metric Ton) (%) ‘Cleanser’ in the manufacturing process.
1 Australia 531,075,350 33.72 Nearly 6 Kg of manganese is used for making
2 China 345,841,000 21.96 one ton of steel.
3 Brazil 271,275,900 17.22 Manganese is used for special quality
4 India 124,852,650 7.93 steel making; it makes steel anti - corrosive,
5 Russia 55,550,000 3.53 hard and clean. It helps to increase toughness,
Others 15.64 strength and durability to resist oxidation in
SOURCE: World mining data -2018
blast furnaces. It is used to produce alloys
with Copper, Bronze, and Nickel. It is used for
producing heavy machinery, tools, bleaching
IRON ORE PRODUCTION - 2016
powder, insecticides and paints.
SHARE IN %
Distribution and production of
1. Australia Manganese ore
South Africa, Australia, China, Gabon,
15.64 2. China Kazakhstan, Brazil, India, Ghana, Ukraine
3.5 and Mexico are the major countries possessing
3 33.72 3. Brazil manganese ore. South Africa is the largest
7.93 producer of manganese ore in the world,
17.22 4. India followed by Australia. The other leading
manganese producers are China, Gabon and
21.96 5. Russia Brazil. India is the 8th largest producer of
manganese in the world though it possesses
6. Others the largest reserves of manganese in the world.

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 Manganese -ore production in 2016 Copper
Rank Country Production Share Rank Country Production Share
(Metric Ton) (%) (Metric Ton) (%)
1 South Africa 4,754,560 30.84 1 Chile 5,552,600 27.20
2 Australia 2,388,500 15.50 2 Peru 2,353,859 11.53
3 China 2,150,000 13.95 3 China 1,851,000 9.10
4 Gabon 1,658,500 10.76
4 United States 1,430,000 7.00
5 Brazil 1,141,684  7.41
Others 21.54 5 Congo 1,035,631 5.07
SOURCE: World mining data -2018 Others 40.13
Copper SOURCE: World mining data -2018

It is a non - ferrous, soft brown metal. It is a good COPPER PRODUCTION

conductor, with high luster, density and melting SHARE IN %
point. Copper occurs in three forms as native
1. Chile
metal in its pure state, as oxides and as sulphide.
The chief ore of copper is copper pyrite. 2. Peru
It yields nearly 76% of the world production 27.2
40.13 3. China
of copper. Copper is extracted by the process
of crushing, concentration, roasting, smelting 11.53 4. Unites States
and refining. It was discovered in the earliest 9.1
5. Congo
stage of civilization. Copper is one of the first 5.07 7
0

metals known and used by man. It is found in 6. Others

the igneous and metamorphic rocks. Copper
is unfortunately very soft, but by mixing with Bauxite
tin, bronze can be obtained and mixing with
Bauxite is an important ore which is the main
zinc, brass can be obtained which is harder and
source of Aluminum. It is an impure raw
tougher than pure copper. Copper is used in
material. It generally occurs as an ingredient
(i) Electrical Engineering of chemical compounds in highly complex
(ii) Metallurgical Industries minerals such as Cryolite, Corundum and
(iii) 
Making of alloys and making tubes, Kaolin. Bauxite occurs quite near the surface
pipes, pumps, radiators and boilers. and is generally mined by open cast method.
They are also used in the production of a It has a wide range of applications which
wide range of ornamental materials. include construction of buildings, utensils
and airplane parts.
Production and distribution of
Copper Production and world distribution of
Copper deposits are found in almost every Bauxite
country. The main producers are Chile, Peru, The main Bauxite producers are Australia,
China, USA and Congo. Chile is the largest China, Brazil, Guinea and India. The World’s
producer of Copper in the world. It produces greatest Bauxite producers and exporters
27.20% of the world Copper, followed by Peru, are the countries located in the tropical and
which produces 11.53%. India holds 35th rank sub tropical region. Australia is the largest
and it produces only 0.15% of the world’s producer of bauxite in the world. India is the
production. 5th largest producer of bauxite in the world.

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 BAUXITE (ORE)
Fool’s Gold refers to pyrite of
Rank Country Production Share Iron Sulphide because of its
MT in% similarity in shape and colour
1 Australia 83,516,578 29.31 to actual gold.
2 China 65,000,000 22.81
3 Brazil 39,244,200 13.77 Platinum
4 Guinea 31,117,131 10.92
Platinum is a rare metal. It is costlier than
5 India 24,664,632 8.66
gold. It has a very high melting point. It is
Others 14.53
a heavy, malleable, ductile, highly inactive,
Gold silverish, white transaction metal. It is one
Gold is a precious metal which occurs in of the densest metal almost twice as dense as
alluvial or placer deposits or as reefs or lodes lead. Platinum is found with other rare metals
in the underground. Gold is used extensively such as osmium, Palladium, Iridium and
for jewellery and also in dentistry, glass rhodium. Platinum is also used in industrial
and porcelain dyes, in medicines and other applications. South Africa is the largest
industries. The purity of gold is expressed in producer of platinum in the world. The other
terms of carat. China, Australia, Russia, USA leading producers are Russia, Zimbabwe,
and Canada are the leading producers of gold Canada and USA.
in the world. India ranked 33rd position in the
Platinum
gold production in 2016.
Rank Country Production Share
Kg in%
Gold 1 South Africa 133,241 71.75
Rank Country Production Share 2 Russia 21,860 11.77
MT in% 3 Zimbabwe 15,110 8.14
1 China 453,500 14.11 4 Canada 9,300 5.01
2 Australia 282,421 8.79 5 USA 3,891 2.10
Others 1.33
3 Russia 262,380 8.16
4 United states 222,211 6.91 Non- metallic minerals
5 Canada 165,034 5.13
Others 56.90 The minerals which do not contain metal in
them are called as non metallic minerals.
Mica
GOLD PRODUCTION
SHARE IN % Mica is a Latin word micare means to shine,
1. China to flash or to glitter. Mica has a crystalline and
layered structure and can be split into very thin
2. Australia
sheets. It does not react to water, acids, oil or
14.11 3. Russia solvents. It is lightweight, flexible and strong.
8.79 It can resist extremely high temperatures or
8.16 4. Unites States
56.9 sudden changes in temperature and is able
6.91 5. Canada to withstand high voltages and insulate with
5.13 low power loss. It can absorb or reflect light,
6. Others
which enables a decorative effect and protects
against ultra-violet (UV) light.

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 Major Uses of Mica
Agencies involved in the
Mica has several applications. There are
exploration of minerals in
several main sectors where the use of mica
India. GSI, ONGC, MECL,
is identified. They are the paint and coatings
NMDC, IMB, BGML, HCL,
sector, Cosmetics and personal care companies,
NALCO are the departments involved in
Plastics and printing ink manufactures, the
mining in different states of India.
electronics sector, the automotive sector, the
construction industry and the oil industry.
3.5  Energy Resources
Resources may be classified into renewable and
non renewable resources. Mineral resources
like coal, Petroleum and natural gas are the
exhaustible or non renewable resources. They
cannot be replaced once they are consumed.
Coal and petroleum are the fossil fuels, on
which the modern culture relies so much.
Energy gives motion to our industrial
machines and vehicles. It is the primary input
in the production of goods and services. The
wheel of progress moves with the flow of energy.
Mica
The energy resources may be classified into two
Phosphate types.
Phosphate occurs in the sedimentary rocks or
as phosphate nodules. Another source is bird (i) Non renewable sources of Energy
dropping of Guano. It is the most important Once these resources are used, they
source of phosphorus. It is mainly used in cannot be regained again. In other words,
fertilizer. China is the largest producer of they are exhaustible. They are coal, Petroleum
Phosphate in the world. The other leading natural gas and atomic fuels.
producers are Morocco, USA, Russia and Peru. Coal
The Guano deposits are found in Peruvian and Coal is a fossil fuel. It is a flammable, black
Chilean deserts in South America. India is the or brown sedimentary rock and is mainly
20thlargest producer of Phosphate in the world. composed of carbon. It is the altered remains
of prehistoric vegetation that originally
Phosphate (2016)
accumulated in swamps and peat bogs. The
Rank Country Production Share dense forest plants were converted into coal
MT in% due to intense pressure and heat inside the
1 China 43,319,400 51.58 earth by the process of carbonization. Most
2 Morocco 8,601,000 10.24 of the coal resources of the world were
formed during the carboniferous period (280
3 USA 7,615,000 9.07
to 350 million years ago). The quality of the
4 Russia 48,36,000 5.76 coal is determined by its carbon content. The
5 Peru 4,013,220 4.78 following types of coal have been identified
on the basis of their physical properties.
Others 18.57 They are,

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 (i)  eat is the first stage of transformation of
P Steam Coal
wood into coal and it has only 30 to 35%
Rank Country Production Share
of carbon. (Metric Ton) in%
(ii) L
ignite or Brown coal is the inferior 1 China 2,491,793,000 47.42
quality and contains 35-45% carbon 2 India 601,131,000 11.44
(iii) B
ituminous or coking coal is the 3 United States 553,936,000 10.54
second best variety of coal and contains 4 Indonesia 459,469,000 8.74
70-90% of carbon. It is the most widely 5 South Africa 253,452,000 4.82
spread and most widely used variety Others 17.04
of coal. It is the most popular coal in
STEAM COAL PRODUCTION
commercial use. SHARE IN %
(iv) Anthracite is the best quality coal, which 1. China
contains more than 95% of carbon. It is 17.04 2. India
very hard but emits very less smoke and 4.82
47.42 3. Unites States
leaves very less ash. However its deposits 8.74
are limited. 4. Indonesia
10.54
Production and world distribution of 11.44 5. South Africa

Coal 6. Others
Coal reserves are found in more than 70
countries of the world but the major coal HOTS
reserves occur in the USA, Russia, China and
South Africa. China is the largest producer Why is hydrogen used as fuel in rockets?
of steam coal in the world followed by India.
The other leading producers of steam coal China was the largest producer of coking
are USA, Indonesia, and South Africa etc. coal in the world in 2016 followed by Australia.
Steam coal – It is used for producing steam The other leading producers of coking coal are
and it has high sulphur content Russia, India and USA.
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 Coking Coal forms. Liquid petroleum may be in the form
Rank Country Production Share of crude oil. The solid form may be mineral
MT in% waxes or asphalts. The gaseous form is natural
gas. It is a main source of energy in the World
1 China 591,998,000 54.67
due to its multiple uses. The human activities
2 Australia 189,302,000 17.48 are directly or indirectly depend on the use of
3 Russia 83,800,000 7.74 petroleum or its sub products.
4 India 61,661,000 5.69
Formation and occurrence of mineral oil
5 United States 50,645,000 4.68 It is formed by slow chemical and bio chemical
Others 9.74 decomposition of the remains of organic
matter in sedimentary rocks. It is found in the
Major coal mining centres pores of the sedimentary rocks. Oil is lighter
Country Mining centres than water hence, floats over water. Drilling of
China Shansi, Shantung, Fushun, oil wells is the hole drilled in the earth’s crust
Shenyang, etc. and when it reaches the rock cap, the natural
gas comes out first with a great pressure. When
India Bokaro, Jaria, Korba,
Ranikanch, Singreni, etc. the pressure of gas subsides, petroleum starts
flowing out when the pressure of natural gas
U.S.A Arkansas, Colorodo, Illionois,
Indiana, Michigan etc. is released.

Australia Bowen Basin, Brisbane, Petroleum reserves of the world

Canberra, Sydney, New-castle, The west Asia or Middle East is has the largest
Tasmania, etc.
petroleum reserves, which is about 60% of the
Russia Moscow-Tula region, Chokot world’s oil reserve. The total estimated world’s
Basin, Ob basin, etc.
oil reserves in 2008 were 1,243 (109 bbl). Saudi
Trade Arabia, Canada, Iran, Iraq and Kuwait have
The main exporters of coal in the world are large reserves of petroleum.
Australia, Indonesia, Russia, Colombia and
Production and world distribution of
South Africa and the main importers are
petroleum
China, India, Japan, Korea and Germany.
The petroleum producing countries of the
Uses of Coal world can be grouped in to five geographical
Man has used coal for hundreds of years. But regions:
it has gained importance only after industrial (i) West Asia (or) middle East region
revolution. It contributes about 25% of global (ii) American region
energy demand. Coal is used for various (iii) Russian region
purposes. It is used as a source of steam energy, (iv) East & south Asian region and
electrical energy, domestic fuel, metallurgical (v) African region
coke, chemical industries and byproducts Saudi Arabia is the largest oil producer
such as Ammonium sulphate, Naphthalene, of the world with 13.62% of the world output
Phenol, Benzene, etc. of oil. Russia is the second largest producer
Petroleum (or) Mineral oil in the world. India is placed at 24th position
Petroleum is a mineral that exists under the in petroleum production in the world. The
surface of the earth in liquid, solid and gaseous distribution of oil is naturally uneven; Middle

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 WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS N
W E
S

XII Geography

TN_GOVT_XII_Geography_chapter 03.indd 56
Cu Al Ni Sn
Zn Pt C Pt
Au Ag Fe
Zn Ni Zn Pt Cr
Fe Ti
Au Al Ni Pt Cr
Ti Au
Pb Cu Pb Fe Ti Zn Cu Zn Fe
Au Ag Ni Al
Cu Zn Fe Au
Pb Fe Ag Sn
Au Sn Ti Au
Zn Zn Fe Pb Au Fe Mn
Ni Au Fe Ti Zn Mn Cu Zn
Au Ag Fe Cu Fe Sn
Pb Ni Ag Pb Mn
Ni Fe Cu Pb Cu
Cu Zn Zn Al Mn Pb Sn
Ag Sn Fe Al Pb Ni

56
Au Cu Au Cu
Au Zn Ag Cr Al Cu Fe
Ag Al Fe Ti
Au Zn Pb Cu Pb Cr Zn
Ag Cu
Pb Zn
Ag Cr Zn Al Al Pb
Cu Pb Ag
Mn Fe
Ag Cu Zn Fe Zn
Cu Fe Au Au
Ag Cu Au Mn Al
Pb Au Fe Au Cu Al Pb Cu
Au Al Zn Cr Au
Au C Au Sn Ni
Fe Al C Cr Fe Au Ti Au
Cu Au Fe Al Mn Ti Cu
C Cu C Au Sn Au
Ni Mn Fe
Pt Sn Al Ni Au Ag
Au Al Fe
Pb Zn Sn C Sn
Sn C Al C Cu
Au Cr C Au
Ag Au Sn Ni Cu
Zn Cu Cu Sn
Cr Au Ni Al Al
Ag C
Au C C Pt Ti Au Mn
Ni
Pb Fe Au C Fe C Au Ni
Cu Ag Sn C
Cu AgZn Au Pb
Au Pb Au Fe Ni Au Ag Al
Ag Pt Fe Al Pb
Fe
Fe
Pb
Not to Scale
Ag Legend
Au

Zn Mn Pt Planum Sn Tin Au
Zinc Manganese Al Bauxite Cu Copper Gold
Pb Ni Cr Chromium Ag Silver C Diamonds Ti Titanium Fe Iron
Lead Nickel

21-02-2019 12:09:27
 East contains 60% of global reserves and rest of Major Petroleum production centres
the world only 40%. Country Production centres
Petroleum Saudi Arabia Ghawar, Abquiaq, Abuhadriya,
Rank Country Share in% etc.
1 Saudi Arabia 13.62 Russia Volga- Caspian region,
2 Russia 12.72 Kamchatka- Sakhalin region,
3 USA 12.62 Ob – Lena basin.
4 Iraq 5.09 U.S.A Tennessee- New york, ohio,
5 Iran 5.03 Indiana, Pennsylvania,
6 China 4.64 Texas, Mississippi, Gulf of
Others 46.28 California, etc.
Iraq Kirkuk, Mosul, Daura, etc.
PETROLEUM
SHARE IN % China Taching, Chinchou, yemen,
1. Saudi Arabia South china sea, etc.
2. Russia
13.62 Natural Gas
3. Unites States
46.28 12.72 4. Iraq It is the cheapest source of energy. It is
found along with or without petroleum. It is
12.62 5. Iran considered as an environment friendly fuel
6. China because of its low carbon dioxide emissions.
5.09 Therefore, this is the only fuel for the present
4.64 5.03 7. Others
century and it is also called green energy. A
powerful odorant, ethanethiol is added, so that
Trade leaks can be detected easily. It is prepared by
The world leading exporters of petroleum are refining petroleum or wet natural gas.
Saudi Arabia, Russia, Iraq, UAE and Canada
Natural gas reserves and Production
and the main importers are USA, China,
India, Japan and Korea. The known natural gas reserves in the
world is about 6254 trillion cubic feet. Most
of these reserves are found in Russia, Iran,
OPEC is the short form of the Qatar, UAE, Saudi Arabia, USA etc. USA has
“Organisation of Petroleum the largest reserve and is the leading producer
Exporting Countries. It was of natural gas in the world followed by Russia.
India is the 28th producer of natural gas in the
formed in 1960 at Bagdad convention.
world. It is widely used as a fuel in industries
Initially it comprised of Saudi Arabia, Iran,
and domestic cooking purposes. Petrochemical
Iraq, Kuwait and Venezuela. Later on added
industries use it as fuel and raw material. It
in eight countries Libya, Algeria, Qatar, UAE,
is also used in chemical industries, artificial
Nigeria, Ecuador and Angola, Indonesia left rubber, plastic, fertilizers, ink, and carbon and
from OPEC in recently. as artificial lighting.

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 Natural gas
Most devastating nuclear
Rank Country Production Share accidents
(Metric. (%)
1. 
Three mile Island- March
Ton)
28, 1979 USA
1 United States 755,010 20.56
2. 
Chernobyl - April 29,1986,Russia
2 Russia 641,000 17.45 3. Fukushima Daiich- March 11,2011,Japan
3 Iran 202,440 5.51
4 Qatar 181,250 4.94
Renewable sources of Energy:
5 Canada 157,179 4.28
All regions of the world are facing the twin
Other 47.26
problems of fast increasing demand for energy
Trade and limited supplies and rapidly depleting
Russia, Qatar, Norway, Canada and Algeria conventional sources of energy. Under these
are the leading exporters of Natural gas in the circumstances, non conventional sources of
world. Japan, Germany, China, Italy and Turkey energy are getting more importance. These
are the leading importers of natural gas. sources are renewable, clean and non-polluting.
They are solar, wind, geothermal, wave, tidal
Nuclear Energy
It is commonly said, this energy holds energy, bio-gas etc.
the key of future. Energy contained within the Hydel Power
nucleus of an atom is called nuclear energy.
Hydro electricity is produced by using the
Heavy metals like Uranium, Thorium, Radium,
potential energy of water falling from a certain
Plutonium and Lithium are the main sources of
height. The falling water spins the turbine blades
nuclear energy. However Uranium is the most
and energy is produced. It is a clean eco friendly
important source of nuclear energy. The nuclear
and renewable source of energy. It contributes
energy production was started first in USA in
nearly 7% of the world electricity production.
1950. Nuclear energy now provides about 11%
China has the largest potential followed by
of the World’s electricity. At present there are
more than 450 operable fission reactors in the Brazil, Indonesia, Canada and Zaire. China is
world. The world’s first commercial nuclear the largest producer of Hydro electricity in the
power station Calder Hall at Wind scale, world, followed by Canada.
England was opened in 1956.
Solar energy
Uranium (U3O8) It is based on mechanical conversion
Rank Country Production Share of solar energy into electricity. It is available
(Metric. (%) in abundance but only in the recent period it
Ton) gets more importance due to technological
development. Solar energy is used for various
1 Kazakhstan 29,113 38.89
purposes.
2 Canada 16,666 22.26
3 Australia 7,352 9.82 Noor Complex is the world’s
4 Namibia 4,308 5.75 largest concentrated solar power
5 Niger 4,101 5.48 (CSP) plant, located in the Sahara
Desert.
Others 17.80

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 Kamuthi, the World’s largest single solar power plant!

Kamuthi Solar Power Project is a photovoltaic power station spread over an area of 2,500
acres (10 km2) in Kamuthi, Ramanathapuram district. The project was commissioned by Adani
Power. With a generating capacity of 648 MW at a single location, The Kamuthi Solar Power Project
was completed on 21 September 2016. Around 8,500 workers installed an average of 11 MW of
capacity per day to complete the project within 8 months. The entire solar park is connected to a
400 kV substation of the Tamil Nadu Transmission Corp. The solar panels are cleaned daily by a
self-charged robotic system.

USA is the major producer of solar cells at Wind Energy

present. It is simply the energy provided by The wind is a clean, free and readily available
the sun, which makes production of solar renewable energy source. Wind turbines are
electricity possible. Solar power in India  is a capturing the wind’s power and converting it to
fast developing industry. The country's solar electricity. Wind power has become a pillar in
installed capacity reached 26 GW as of 30
their strategies to phase out fossil and nuclear
September 2018. India expanded its solar-
energy. Wind energy is now the second fastest
generation capacity 8 times from 2,650 MW on
growing source of electricity in the world. It
26 May 2014 to over 20 GW as on 31 January
fulfils about 5% of world’s electricity demand.
2018. The country added 3 GW of solar capacity
in 2015-2016, 5 GW in 2016-2017 and over 10 The world’s largest wind farm is in Altamont
GW in 2017-2018, with the average current pass in California. India is emerging as a major
price of solar electricity dropping to 18% below wind power producer of world. The important
the average price of its coal-fired counterpart. wind farms in India - (i).The largest wind farms

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 in India are Muppandal in Kanyakumari District mangrove, are the 3 sites identified as potential
of Tamil Nadu and Jaisalmer wind park in areas for tidal power generation in India.
Rajasthan. They are the first and second largest
wind farms of India. Based on the location of its Geo Thermal Energy
generation it is classified into Geo thermal energy is derived from the
natural heat of the earth. The United States is
1. Onshore wind energy and
the world's largest producer, and the largest
geothermal development in the world is The
2. Offshore wind energy
Geysers north of San Francisco in California,
1. Onshore wind energy –Energy generated the U.S.
from the plants located on the land is known
as onshore wind energy. Onshore wind has the
advantage of being one of the most affordable
renewable energy sources. It is cheaper than any
other renewable source of energy but it requires
more area to install than any other energy.

2. Offshore wind energy –It refers to the use In India, exploration and study of
of wind farms developed in seas and oceans. The geothermal fields started in 1970. The GSI
largest offshore wind farms are currently in the (Geological Survey of India) has identified 350
U.K and Germany. These two countries installed geothermal energy locations in the country. The
2/3 capacity. London Array is the largest offshore most promising of these is in Puga valley of
wind farm in the world. The first offshore wind Ladakh. The estimated potential for geothermal
farm is planned near Dhanuskodi in Tamil Nadu. energy in India is about 10000 MW.  There
are seven geothermal provinces in India: the
Tidal energy - It is a renewable energy Himalayas, Sohana, West coast, Cambay, Son-
powered by the natural raise and fall of ocean Narmada-Tapti (SONATA), Godavari, and
water. Its production is very small. The first tidal Mahanadi. 
power station was located in La Rance in France.
The largest tidal power station is at Sihwa Lake 3.6  Conservation of Resources
in South Korea and it is the largest tidal power It takes millions of years for the formation
producer in the world. There are three different of minerals. Compared to the present rate
category of sources from which the tidal energy of consumption, the replenishment rate of
is generated. The sources are tidal streams, minerals is very slow. Hence, mineral resources
barrages and tidal lagoons. are finite and non- renewable. Due to this, it is
important to conserve the mineral resources.
India’s first attempt to harness tidal power Ways of Conserving Resources
for generating electricity would be in the form • Controlling population growth will
of a 3MW plant at the Durgaduani creek in reduce the demand for resources.
sunderbans delta of West Bengal. The Gulf
• Creating social awareness regarding
of Kutch and Cambay in Gujarat and the
the importance of conservation of
Ganges delta in sunderbans, the world’s largest
resources.

XII Geography 60

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 www.tntextbooks.in

UNIT Disaster Management:

Responding to Disasters
3

Learning objectives

„„To know the phases of disaster management.

„„To understand how to respond to disaster such as Tsunami,
earthquake, riot and fire.
„„To describe the measures to manage riots and such as disaster.

Case Study - Tsunami off the coast of Sumatra. Final total put the
islands’ death toll at 1,879 alone with another
Shortly before 8 am on 26 December 2004, 5,600 people missing. The islanders who had
the cicadas fell silent and the ground shook in heard the stories about the Laboon or similar
dismay. The Moken, an isolated tribe on the mythological figures survived the tsunami
Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean, knew essentially unscathed. Most of the casualties
that the Laboon, the ‘wave that eats people’, that occurred in the southern Nicobar
had stirred from his ocean lair. The Moken Islands were outsiders, leaving them with no
also knew what was next: a towering wall of indigenous tsunami warning system to guide
water washing over their island, cleansing it them to higher ground.
of all that was evil and impure. To heed the
So, humans have passed down stories
Laboon’s warning signs, elders told their
through the ages that helped cultures to cope
children, run to high ground. ‘If the water
when disaster inevitably struck. These stories
recedes after an earthquake, run immediately
were fodder for anthropologists and social
to high ground’
scientists, but in the past decade, geologists
The tiny Andaman and Nicobar Islands have begun to pay more attention to how
were directly in the path of the tsunami indigenous people understood and prepared
generated by the magnitude 9.1 of earthquake for disaster. These stories, which couched myth

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in metaphor, could ultimately help scientists

prepare for cataclysms to come. In this lesson,
you will learn about how to respond to certain
disasters to become resilient.
A disaster is “a catastrophe that causes
great damage or loss of life and property”.

Disaster Response
Disaster response entails restoring
physical facilities, rehabilitation of affected
population, restoration of lost livelihoods Disaster Management Cycle
and reconstruction efforts to restore the The traditional approach to disaster
infrastructure lost or damaged. The Response management has a number of phased
Phase focuses primarily on emergency relief: sequences of action or a continuum. These
saving lives, providing first aid, restoring can be represented as a disaster management
damaged systems (communications and cycle. We mainly focus on the way how the
transportation), meeting the basic life community should respond to disasters.
requirements of those impacted by disaster
(food, water and shelter) and providing mental Earthquake
health and spiritual support and care.
An earthquake is a sudden vibration of the
Who are the first responders? part of the earth caused by plate movements.
It occurs along the plate boundaries. The
No matter how large or small, local
place inside the earth where an earthquake
communities are expected to provide
originates is focus. The point on the earth’s
immediate disaster response. On a daily basis,
surface above the called a focus is called
police officers, firefighters, and emergency
an epicentre. The damage caused by the
medical technicians are a community’s first
earthquake is the highest near the epicentre.
responders, whether during fire, flood or acts of
The earthquake is measured by an instrument
terrorism. Mental health professionals and the
called a Seismograph. It is recorded in Richter
community’s hospitals may also be activated in
scale. Let us now see how the communities can
those early minutes and hours after disaster.
better respond to earthquakes.
Disaster management includes
Prevention, Mitigation, Preparedness, How to respond to earthquake?
Response and Recovery. Disaster management
involves all levels of government. Non-
governmental and community based
organizations play a vital role in the process.
Modern disaster management goes beyond
post-disaster assistance. It now includes pre-
disaster planning and preparedness activities,
organizational planning, training, information
management, public relations and many other
fields. Crisis management is important, but is
only a part of the responsibility of a disaster
manager.

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2. I f you are in open space, stay there until the

1. Japan is in a very active shaking stops. The greatest danger exists
seismic area and it has the densest seismic directly outside buildings at exits and
network in the world. alongside exterior walls. Most earthquake-
2. Which country actually has related casualties result due to collapsing
the most number of earthquakes? Indonesia walls, flying glass and falling objects.
is in a very active seismic zone also, but If in a moving vehicle
because it is larger than Japan, it has more 1. Stop as quickly as safety permits. Avoid
earthquakes. stopping near or under buildings, trees,
overpasses and utility wires.
3. Which country has the most
earthquakes per unit area? This would 2. Proceed cautiously once the earthquake
probably be Tonga, Fiji or Indonesia, since has stopped. Avoid roads, bridges or
they are all in extremely active seismic areas ramps that might have been damaged by
along subduction zones. the earthquake.

Activity
What to do during an earthquake?
Mock drill: Earthquake.
Be aware that some earthquakes are It is important that we know what
actually foreshocks and a larger earthquake to do if an earthquake occurs. In case we
might occur later. Minimize your movements are inside the class when it occurs, instruct
to a few steps that reach a safe place nearby and loudly “earth quake position – drop, cover,
stay indoors until the shaking has stopped and and hold on”. Drop down on your knee.
you are sure exiting is safe. Cover your head, neck and face. Go under
a table to protect your head and neck.
If indoors
Tsunami
1. D
 ROP to the ground; take COVER by A tsunami can kill
getting under a sturdy table or other piece or injure people and damage
of furniture and HOLD ON until the or destroy buildings and
shaking stops. If there is no table or desk infrastructure as waves
near you, cover your face and head with come forth and recede.
your arms and crouch in an inside corner A tsunami is a series of
of the building. enormous ocean waves
caused by earthquakes, underwater landslides,
2. P
 rotect yourself by staying under the lintel volcanic eruptions or asteroids. Tsunamis can
of an inner door, in the corner of a room, travel 700-800 km per hour, with waves 10-
under a table or even under a bed. 30 meter high. It causes flooding and disrupts
3. Stay away from glass windows, outside transportation, power, communications, and
doors and walls and anything that could water supply.
fall (such as lighting fixtures or furniture).
4. S tay inside until the shaking stops and go
outside.

If outdoors
1. M
ove away from buildings, trees,
streetlights and utility wires.

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How to respond to Tsunami? Riot

1. You should find out if your home, Though riot may seem dramatic, an
school, workplace or other frequently angry mob can be just as dangerous and
visited locations are in tsunami hazard unpredictable as just about any natural
areas along the sea-shore. disaster. Thousands of people are killed
2. Plan evacuation routes from your home, in riots all over the world each year, and
school, workplace, or any other place you these riots erupt from a number of racial,
could be, where tsunamis poses a risk. religious, economic, political, or social causes
3. Use a weather radio or stay tuned to a that cannot be predetermined. As per Pew
local radio or television station to keep Research Center analysis of 198 countries on
informed of local watches and warnings. April 11, 2015. Syria tops in riot in the world
4. Discuss tsunamis with your family. followed by Nigeria, Iraq and India.
Everyone should be aware of what to If you've found yourself in the middle
do when tsunami strikes. Discussing of a riot, you may not be able to run away
tsunamis ahead of time will help immediately, but you can take some measures
reduce fear and save precious time to protect yourself from harm. If you want to
in an emergency. Review flood safety know how to survive a riot, just follow these
and precautionary measures with your steps.
family.
What to do after a Tsunami?
1. You should continue using a weather
radio or staying tuned to a Coast Guard
emergency frequency station or a local
radio or television station for updated
emergency information.
2. Check yourself for injuries and get first
aid if necessary, before helping injured or
trapped persons.
3. If someone needs to be rescued, call
professionals with the right equipment to
help.
4. Help people who require special assistance, Surviving a Riot
like Infants, elderly people, those without
transportation, large families who may At Travel Destination: What to Do
need additional help in an emergency
1. K
 eep abreast of the current news if you
situation, people with disabilities, and the
are in a volatile area.
people who care for them.
5. Stay out of a building if water remains 2. If you come across a demonstration,
around it. Tsunami water, like floodwater, don't become inquisitive, just leave the
can undermine foundations, causing area and find another route to your
buildings to sink, floors to crack, or walls intended destination.
to collapse. 3. A
 void any place where police or security
6. Check for gas leaks. If you smell gas or forces action is in progress.
hear a blowing or hissing noise, open a
window and get everyone outside quickly.

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If caught in a riot: eruption of volcanoes and man-made fires

arising from deliberate arson or accidents.
A side-effect of wildfires which also
threatens inhabited areas is smoke. Fires create
large quantities of smoke, which can be spread
far by wind and poses a respiratory hazard.
On an average, in India, every year, about
25,000 persons die due to fires and related
causes. Female accounts for about 66% of
those killed in fire accidents. It is estimated
that about 42 females and 21 males die every
day in India due to fire.
1. If you find yourself caught up in a
demonstration, keep to the edge of Think why
the crowd where it is safer. At the first
opportunity, break away and seek refuge Smoke kills more than fire.
in a nearby building or find a suitable
doorway or alley and stay there until the
crowd passes.
2. When leaving the fringe of the
demonstration, just walk away – don't
run as this will draw attention to you.
3. In the event that you are arrested by the
police/military, do not resist. Go along
peacefully and contact your law advisor
to help you resolve your predicament. Fire Safety Do’s and Don’ts
4. If you are caught up in the crowd, stay 1. Know your building’s evacuation plan.
clear of glass shop fronts, moreover,
2. Evacuate calmly and quickly, whenever
move with the flow.
a fire alarm or carbon monoxide alarm
5. If shooting breaks out, drop to the sounds.
ground and cover your head and neck,
3. Before opening a door, feel it with the
and lie as flat as you can.
back of your hand. If the door is hot, do
Fire not open it.
Wildfires occur when vegetated areas are 4. If you encounter smoke during your
set alight and are particularly common during evacuation, stay low to the floor.
hot and dry periods. They can occur in forests, 5. Know the outside rally point for your
grasslands, bush and deserts, and with blowing building.
wind, can spread rapidly. 6. Know the locations of fire extinguishers,
Fires can lead to the destruction of fire alarm pull stations and exits.
buildings, wooden bridges and poles, power,
Activity
transmission and telecommunication lines,
warehouses containing oil products and other Mock Drill :
fuel. It causes injury to people and animals. To escape a fire, stop, drop, and roll. In
case your clothes burn, stop running, drop on
The most common causes of fires are
the floor and roll to stop the fire spreading.
lightning strikes, sparks during arid conditions,

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UNIT 3
HUMAN-MADE ECOSYSTEMS I
LESSON 6
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Learning Objectives

Students learn about the fundamental characteristics of the transport and

communication systems and appreciate and understand the importance
of the transport and communication systems in today’s life and living.

In our daily life, travel, movement and exchange have become significant
aspects. When we travel on vacation, move commodities from one place to another
and exchange information, and in all of these, there are certain basic ideas that emerge.
These are determined based on the fundamental characteristics of transport such as
the distance, time and cost of travel.

We can understand well the association between travel and movement through
an explanation of transport. Through transport development, the vehicles and the
modes have been shortening the travel distances in the last few years. The Concorde
aircraft travelled at great speed to cover the 6,000 km between New York and London
in 3 hours. The 462 km distance between Paris and Lyons is covered in 2 hours at a
speed of 270 km/hour by the super speed train known as the TGV. The TGV has been
in operation since 1983. Another milestone in the history of French Railways is a train
being run by a computer and without driver. Such developments lessen the value of
travel distance day by day.

Transport as an activity is being carried out mostly by roads, railways, sea routes,
river ways, air routes and by the telecommunications. The landscape characteristics
of a place determine the nature of vehicles and modes of travel. The travel costs vary
with the types of vehicles and modes of travel. This cost may be divided into travel cost
and freight cost. These charges are collected from us towards meeting the expenses of
travel and transporting goods to places by the transport sector or agency. The agency
expenditure is of three types:

1. Costs of administration and salaries to the personnel.

2. Costs incurred in the utilisation and management of transport vehicles and modes.

3. Fuel and other input costs.

The money paid towards travel is the travel cost (ticket cost). We pay some
charges for the ‘luggage’ we take with us; but we do so when its weight exceeds a
certain ceiling. The two costs differ with the travel distance. For short distances, these
costs are low and for long distances, they are high. The rate of these costs decrease

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with increasing distances. With the modes, they are differently charged. Freight charges
collected by the railways are slightly smaller than those collected by other modes.

There are incidental (other than travel) expenses, incurred by the travellers
when they are on trips. These incidental charges also differ with different modes of
travel. In general, a part of this cost is collected as transport tax. At the sea ports and
the airports, this is collected as taxes. The costs incurred while on travel are also
included in such costs; for example, the expenditure incurred in getting to the railway
station or the bus stand towards a travel.

Transport Systems

It is a practice amongst us to look at the information displayed at the bus and

the railway stations. Normally, in the display are the route numbers, the time table for
trips and the maps showing the routes and their distances. Such information display
provides us with knowledge of the transport network of the region. Transport often
operates between the demand and supply points. Transport development of an area
depends very much on the social, economic and political infrastructures.

Transport Network. That pattern of roads or rail lines or any routes which facilitates
travel, movement and information exchange besides connecting several places with
one another is generally referred to as a ‘transport network’. In the network, the nodes
and the edges (lines, routes) are fundamental.

Nodes and Routes: In the analysis of any transport work (road, rail), there are three
primitive concepts:

1. The Junctions the origin.

2. Routes Connections.

3. The Junctions the destination.

These may be generally referred to as nodes and routes (Figure 6.1).

The transport network differs with different modes. Some transport networks
(road and rail) can be seen and understood as such. For example, the network of
roads, railways, communication links such as the post offices and the telephone
exchanges may be seen and understood as regards their functions. Sea and air
transport besides sound and light have specified routes, even if they cannot be seen
completely. Depending upon the nature of the network, the national and international
transport and exchange will occur.

Transport Types

Transport may be divided into three essential types. They are: passenger
transport, commodity or cargo transport and information exchange.

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Passenger Transport: People travel between places in accordance with their needs.
Travel distance, time and mode change in tune with the demand. Particularly, a large
number of people use the roads and railways commensurate with their needs.

Figure 6.1 : A Sample Map of Transport Network

Road Travel: Transport developments occur towards meeting their demand for travel on
a day to day basis. To avoid heavy traffic, multiway transport, ring roads, expressways
and freeways have been constructed. In places such as Madras, multi level routes
have been laid to avoid traffic jams. Flyovers have been constructed to reach one
level from another. Anna (Gemini) Flyover at Chennai is an example. There are such
flyovers in cities like Tirunelveli, Tiruchirappalli, Coimbatore and Salem in Tamil Nadu.
Besides these, there are ring roads around most cities, alternate routes and bypasses
in all of them. ‘Hundred Feet Roads’ are a concept being implemented too. There are
immense road (automobile) transport networks in countries like the United Kingdom,
Germany, Italy and France.
The most important motorway in the United Kingdom is M25. This is laid around
the city of London. With this, the centre of London which has heavy traffic all the time
is avoided. It is estimated that travel time decreases by about 60 per cent for certain

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vital locations in London, primarily due to M25. This route connects the three important
airports in the United Kingdom (Heathrow, Gadwick and Standstead). Likewise, there
are several expressways connecting the European countries. Particularly, along the
border between Italy and France, a tunnel for 15 km has been made to facilitate road
transport.

Train Travel: Like the roads, the railways play a vital role in passenger transport.
The railways have fast passenger and high speed trains, catering to the needs of
the people. There are special and permanent trains, which are faster, between some
towns or cities. The Vaigai and the Pandian Expresses between Chennai and Madurai
and the Satabhthi between Chennai and Mysore are examples of fast and comfortable
trains between these cities. There are some trains which operate between 36 and
50 hours and thus are long distance trains. The trains from Chennai to Mumbai and
Chennai to Delhi are those that belong to this category.

The recent development in the rail traffic is the opening of the ‘sea tunnel ways’.
The best example is the one between London and Paris beneath the English Channel,
running for 40 km. This tunnel way, in fact, functions in three tunnels and not just one.
In one, the trains are run at 300 km/hour while in the second there is the transport of
vehicles crossing the channel. The third is the service tunnel for both. This rail transport
began in 1994. This ‘beneath the sea rail transport’ is also an example of human
ingenuity and technology. In the cities and mega cities, the railways offer yeomen
services to the people. Metro rail transports are either trams services or electrical
locomotive units. Trams are still in vogue in Kolkata. They are operating in cities like
Toronto of Canada, too. They supplement the road transport. In most cities of India, the
suburban railways connect the city centres with the suburban areas. In Chennai alone,
the suburban trains carry as many as 2 million passengers a day. It is estimated that in
a few years it would touch 3 million.

Air Travel: To travel long distances in short travel times, aircrafts are used. There are
planes which could travel at the speed of 6,000 km per hour. There are ‘air buses’
and ‘jumbo jets’ which are carriers of a large number of people. They are ushered into
certain special services for their versatility. They are being used in the transport of
armies and medical supplies and experts to distant areas. They are useful in any kind
of landscapes.
The airline traffic connects areas inaccessible to land (road and rail) transport.
Aircrafts help in reaching such areas as the Amazon forests and the distant islands of
Andamans and Nicobar. The very heavy air traffic in the world is that between the city
of New York and Los Angeles. There is also heavy passenger traffic in the route of New
York London Paris. In the same way, there is heavy passenger traffic between India
and the Gulf countries, Singapore and Malaysia.
In recent times, there has been a change in the way people travel by air, with
the introduction of cheap air travel. While there has been a competition among the

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international airlines, it has also resulted in prices being cut drastically by some airlines
to improve their performance. Some new airlines have sprung up offering ‘rock bottom’
prices for air travel, while slashing down on services, which now need to be bought.
The new, cheap airlines do not for example hospitality services as part of the ticket fare
but rather demand such services be paid for by the passengers making the travel by
airlines.

Sea Travel: Some years in the past, there was little sea traffic. Yet, the long distance
travel had to be done only through the sea. Only after the advent of the air traffic as a
result of technological development along the way, the sea traffic of passengers has
come down drastically. There are still some sea traffic, for recreation and relaxation by
the rich individuals.

The ships involved in sea traffic have their importance determined by their
volume and the structures. They are in effect floating hotels. There are swimming
pools, dance halls and special rooms with high amenities and services. While there
are ships that could carry as many as 2,000 passengers, there are also ferries and
boats/yachts which could carry only a few passengers. Ships that travel at a speed of
50 km/hour to 100 km/hour are in use. As of today, most sea travel is for recreation and
tourism. In North America and the island rich European continent, sea travel accounts
still for large bulk of the passenger traffic. Otherwise, only the freight traffic and the
cargo carriers are the most important of the sea traffic.

The Cargo Traffic: The commodity transport is dependent upon the world trade. The
carriers differ with the size of cargoes, their weight and their volume. The light and
perishable commodities are transported through the airways. For example, the jasmine
flowers harvested in the districts of Erode and Dharmapuri are transported by the trucks
to the nearby Bangalore. The flowers are then sent to the Gulf countries, immediately
from there. Likewise, vegetables and meat are being sent to the Gulf countries from
most parts of the country. Heavy commodities are sent through roadways and sea
routes while the liquids and gases are being sent through the pipelines.

The vehicles or carriers are structured according to the nature of commodities.

They are sent mostly through tankers (oil) and containers for safety.

In recent times, a new method of transport of cargoes has been in vogue. This
is what is called the ‘containerisation’ of cargoes. In this method, all commodities are
put into the containers and sent as contained cargoes. This is safe and more compact
for transport. These containers are often transported by roadways to the ports. You
may have seen the trucks and lorries that carry them. Finished products and consumer
products are often sent through containers. Not only in the case of ports, but also in the
transport of commodities in the interior of the country, the containers are very useful, in
the export and import.

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The commodities so transported are taxed at the origin of commodities traffic

and then sent to the customers or consumers. In this method of cargo traffic, various
products from several customers are placed into one and the same container and are
then transported to the ports, after due precautions for safety by sealing and fastening.
The containers are then exported to the overseas markets. Similarly, the containers
are transported to the interior locations as they were received from the imports. They
are mostly transported by land transports. The customs and excise officials levy taxes
for some of these commodities before they are delivered to the addressees.

There are some merits to this form of transport:

1. Commodities are carried safely from the interior locations and cities to the ports.

2. Transport costs are reduced by sending the commodities from several exporters in
the same containers.

3. The exporters and the importers could perform their exporting and importing
functions from their own places of residences.

4. In loading the commodities onto the ships, containers help with large quantities
being contained for export or import.

Liquid commodities such as milk, water and petrol are being transported in the
cylindrical tankers. They are taken to many places on the roads and rails. Petroleum
and natural gases are transported to the ports and refineries through the pipelines.
Efforts are underway to transport grains through the pipelines using pressure as a
force for moving.

We have grown to such an extent that we could be proud of our scientific

knowledge and skill. In both scientific learning and corresponding technological
gadgetry, we have forged ahead to a large extent. From the researches we have
undertaken on the solar system and the planetary dynamics, we have been able to
receive clear and intelligent information from the telecommunication equipment through
technological advancements. As we have understood the import of telecommunication
development, we have moved forward, step by careful step. We have thus developed
new techniques. As the lilies multiply in a pond, quickly, so does our knowledge through
the use of these techniques and equipment.

In the last few years, the diffusion of human knowledge has occurred as never
before. This has been possible primarily because of the telecommunication links. With
the technological development, books were published. These books helped with the
education of most people. Newspapers, radios and television and such communication
devices unite almost all the people in the world today.

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Information and Communication Systems

Production of and trade in commodities are the bases of the economy of any
country. For these to go on, smoothly and with efficiency, the most basic need is the
information exchange. The amount of information exchange depends very much on
the economic development. With the increase in demand for more information and
exchange, the means of exchange also develop. Letters are a vital element in the
exchange of information for long. The means of transport of letters depend on the
distances to which they are transported. For short distances, they are sent through the
roads. For distant places, they are sent by the railways. And for still farther distances,
they are sent either by sea or by air.

Speedposts and the letters that should reach in a short while are being sent
through the air. Until now, letters were carried in India by the Government Department
alone. Now, there are private courier services, too. The Government Postal Services
have introduced ‘speed post’ to facilitate quick delivery of letters to distant places.
Information exchange is not only through letters but also through various other means
such as the telephones, electronic equipments such as the telefaxes.

In sum, people, products and information are transferred through roads, postal
services, sea routes and airways. Transfer is done through one or more of the transport
modes. Therefore, there is a competition between the carriers or interdependence
among them. As such, development in one leads to developments in another. This is
because there are merits and demerits to each of these transport modes and vehicles.

Information Explosion: Information explosion is very much like the population

explosion of recent times. Several geographical information systems have been
developed to store the data from the information explosion, index and analyse them for
development purposes. It has become possible to handle different types of data easily
through computers. Thus, there is no doubt now that the communication techniques
and information revolution have acted in union to prove the idea that ‘knowledge is
power’.

What are their impacts? How did they make for a change in geography? What
developments occurred in geography as a result of these changes?

Technological, Technical Development: The world around us is changing fast. This

change has made transformations on the earth possible. Methods have been devised
in the geographical science which analyses this change towards an understanding
of the earth phenomena. These have ushered in new perspectives and paradigmatic
understanding in geography. In the 1950s, for example, number and quantity brought in
a scientific revolution in geography. Measurements and gathering of statistical data for
understanding the world and to resolve problems that face the earth had become day-
to-day activities. In course of time, mapping, cartographic research and mathematical
methods have come into use. In the beginning of the 1960s, there were several

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descriptions and explanations which have now become established geographical

ideas.

Continuous developments in information technologies, increased field based

activities, voluminous data collected at the local and regional levels, the use of
computers and mathematical algorithms - all have impacted to increase the information
manifold. Information has multiplied ten times, hundreds of times and million-fold.
In order to take advantage of the exploding information, there came other, forward
looking developments during the 1970s and 1980s. Although remotely sensed data
have been received from the aerial photographs even before, satellite images have
now supplemented even better information. The traditional tool of cartography has now
provided support in integrating human skill with the computing skills of the computers
and this has developed into the modern geographical information systems.

Computers have now turned into devices, directly storing data from the fieldwork.
They have now become not only the instant processors of arithmetic solutions and
maps but also print them out as hard copies.

Space and satellite telecommunications, manual and computer mapping

technology and analytical mathematical algorithms have all been pooled to provide
us with the Geographical Information Systems (GIS) that could accommodate and
meet with the challenges of information explosion in the world in the 1990s. In several
western countries, hundreds of the GISs have come into use. It is estimated that there is
now a total of 2,000 such GISs in use in the world. They have already been in intensive
use in the departments of development and management. They have come into use,
in our own country as well. In the wings of Survey of India and in the Departments of
Universities, they have now been used to the extent we could cope with the information
explosion.

Importance of Information Technology: The developments in information technology

have now paved way for the new axiom ‘New scales, new worlds’. Relations between
data need, provision and handling have risen as a reflection of technological
development. Nevertheless, the technology and the techniques are within certain
limits, in operational terms. Particularly, there is still a limit to the quantum of data that
can be handled. The value of information technology depends upon the following is
beginning to dawn in our midst:

1. Nature and type of sensing of information.

2. Its spatial and temporal resolution.

3. Our capability for processing data into information, storing and handling them in
terms of computer facility.

4. The analytical capability with us and the corresponding interpretative capability

amongst us.

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5. Classifying the conclusions and solutions from the information obtained by us and
bringing them into use in a beneficial manner.

The five above, there is no doubt, will give us a clarity of what we know of the
world.

It is always a question in the area of communication as to how to deliver the

news and ideas that arise from these to a majority. In today’s world, there are several
communication equipments in daily use. It is also true that some of them are still beyond
the reach of a majority of people in this country because of their prices. For example,
it is humanly impossible to make available the newspapers to every citizen of India.
Similarly, radios and televisions cannot be made available to all of them, either. But
there is no doubt that the impact of these media is widespread, throughout the world.
According to one source, radios provide vital information to 90 per cent of the Indian
population. Television acts in a way useful to 70 per cent of the Indians. They play
a vital role in entertainment. Telephones have started functioning in remote villages,
besides the towns and cities. But in the western countries, the telecommunications
have already become the basic needs. The day is not far off for it to happen in India, as
well. Let us now turn to learning the developments that have come about in the fields
of telecommunication and its technologies.

Communication Revolution: The world is under the grip of a ‘communication

revolution’ is seen in many ways. This revolution is considered as the ‘third wave’ of
global revolution. The ‘first wave’ of revolution is the ‘green revolution’ while the ‘second
wave’ of revolution is that of the ‘industrial revolution’. The two revolutions (agricultural,
industrial) have made a revolutionary change in the development of humankind. It is
expected that the third revolution of communication would bring about changes in the
world that would surpass all changes that occurred in the earlier revolutions. It has
made possible the belief that it is ‘One World’. It would also integrate people of all
world, in all directions, is talked about throughout.

As the first impact of the appropriate activities of the information technology,

the world has begun to shrink. It has now become possible to send the information
contained in ten books in a few seconds to a distant place: broadcasting has given way
to narrow-casting.

How has this been possible? Let us now look at the historical developments
in information and telecommunications, as they are useful to us. Never before in
human history has knowledge been so enormous. Also, we have never possessed
such communication abilities as we do now. We may consider these information and
telecommunications technologies as the problem-solving strategies and facilities. It is
even possible to integrate the wealthy North countries with the povertystricken South
countries in the good cause of amenity expansion, catalysing development, increasing
literacy, alleviation of poverty through altruism, nature restoration, world management,
promoting peace and humanising the world through these technologies.

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Language and New Technologies: In human history, the languages were split and
developed as the populations spread and multiplied. Some cultures have gifted their
cultures and languages to the outsiders and brought to themselves laurels. Language
has alone become the vehicle of communication. Some of these languages have now
become the languages of law, administration and the official use through speech,
writing and printing.
Telecommunication Technologies
In some cultures, the languages have been identified as the ‘human identities’.
English, French, Spanish, Russian, Chinese and Arabic are being used by the multitude.
Similarly, some of the regional and local dialects are being used as the languages of
communication among the peoples. All of these languages offer information through the
newspapers, radios and television. All new innovations in technology use languages
as the interfaces in the information exchange. Some signal languages are used in the
communication with the computers (Figure 6.2).

Ancient Telecommunications: In telecommunications, all information is conveyed

through symbols. The African drummers communicated messages through sound.
Smoke signals were in use among some tribes as a means of telecommunications.
Flags and pictorials were used as auxiliaries to telecommunications.

Printing Revolution: Then came printing techniques. The machinepublished books

became the primary sources of information besides reaching most of the world
population. The 19th century steam driven printing press gave way to the machines
which operated with the electricity and depended on composing. Next came lithopress.
Photocopying created a revolution in copying. This is even now in use. In this computer
age, printing has become simple through desktop publication. The book in your hands
has been published using the computer publishing.

Telegraph and Telephones: The first ever electrically operated telegraphic equipment
came into use in the year 1837. Subsequently, in 1867, the telephone was born. These
have served humankind for more than a century in the exchange of information.
Joining with the computers and satellites in telecommunications, the telephones have
revolutionised the internal and international information exchanges. As a ‘two-way
communication’ and a ‘communication without codes’, telephones have become a
communication link with no match to its versatility.

Radio: Radio broadcasting - especially continuous one - came into vogue in the year
1922. Radio has acquired the epithet ‘the vehicle of social change’ in a few years’
time. It had a very distinctive role in the green revolution of the developing countries.
It is also being used as the primary communication link in the population control. It
is not only useful to the educated, but even more so to the uneducated. But this is
under the Government control. In some western countries, it is also being used as the
communication medium in the private sector radio broadcasting. With the telephone,
this has made history in individual related communication, too.

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Television: Sound and light based communication was first begun in 1936. This is
the television era, which has made possible a ‘reception room revolution’, using the
cinematographic techniques. Yet, in some countries it has earned the name ‘the idiot
box’, which it does not deserve. This is now an instrument changing the perception of
the world population. However, television has coverage of a mere 15 per cent of the
population in the poor South countries which hold 75 per cent of the world population.
In the North countries, it is rare to see a place or a home without television. In some
countries, the telecast is through more than 100 channels. The necessary information
they provide, recreational and entertainment fares they offer and the knowledge based
telecasts are numerous. Yet, where the cinema impacts more readily on the population
as in the developing countries, the hold of the television on the population is minimal.

Deep Sea Telegraphic Lines: These are a communication link among the many
countries which have developed quite fast in both telegraphic and telephonic
communication. A deep sea line in 1980 carried some 5,000 telephonic links. Now
there have been several developments. Many countries are not only connected by the
deep sea telegraphic lines but they use them in an important way, too.

The Satellite Power: The first ever satellite is Sputnik 1. This was launched in 1957.
It is estimated that over 15,000 satellites have orbited the earth in space. Some have
burnt themselves while returning to the earth, in the atmosphere. The 180 satellites
sent up by the United States of America are all in use. The 100 satellites sent up by the
former Soviet Union are still in operation. Among the 16 satellites launched by India,
none failed. They have completed successfully their mission, besides helping with the
resources appraisal and in international communication.

As for geography, the images received from these satellites play a vital role in
the assessment of resources. They form the spatial database for mapping through
the GIS. It is not only easy to analyse the problems that the country faces but also
develop solutions using the products of maps and their interpretations. In the operation
of satellites, computers have a significant role. It would be otherwise difficult to receive
images from the satellites and process them in the lab, were it not for the development
of computers. In resources appraisal, the images that we receive from the satellites
have a large role to play.

Generations of Computers: Computers have been developed in a very rapid

succession. Present day computers are considered the Fifth Generation computers.
The first used simple valves. The second generation computers used the transistors.
The third has been developed using integrated circuits. And the fourth uses microchips.
The microchips are still being used in the fifth generation computers; there are also
other technologies in the field of computers.

Computers are useful in telecommunications in two important ways.

1. They act as storages and retrieval media when required.

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2. They have a major role in international information exchange through Electronic

Mail (E-mail) and international telecommunications.

One World, One People

The world, the flora and fauna and humans are all intricately intertwined in
a relationship. There is no gainsaying the fact that one depends on the other. Yet,
strangely, it is a Divided World. It is divided and differentiated as the North and the
South, Developed and Developing and the Rich and the Poor.

We have no appropriate allies for eliminating these differences than the very
telecommunication media. In recent times, the idea that ‘We are a single people, All
belong to this world, There is only One World and the People will be integrated’
is gradually taking roots in the world.

Learning Outcome

Students have learnt that transport and communciation systems have

shrunk the world so much that the days are not far off when the world
will become a single world and people will become a single people

EXERCISES
I. Fill in the Blanks

1. Transport is between ________ and ________ centres.

2. In a transport network, there are ________ and ________.

3. The recent development in railway transport is the _______ traffic.

4. __________ is useful for travelling long distances in a short while.

5. The most intensive air passenger transport is between ________ and _______.

6. Broadcasting has given way to ______________.

7. _____________ are being used in the local and regional communications.

8. In telecommunication, the information is exchanged through ________________.

9. The first ever man-made satellite of the world is _________.

10. _______________ are used in telecommunications in two important ways.

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 UNIT

5
Cultural and
Political
Geography

Unit Overview Learning Objectives

➢ Understand
5.1 Introduction the existence of
5.2 Cultural Realms of the World cultural diversity
5.3 Races and cultural traits
5.4 Tribal Distribution of the World around the world.
5.5 Political Geography - Concept of ➢ Describe the world
Nation and State distribution of the tribes.
5.5.1 Frontiers and Boundaries ➢ Explain the concept of nation and state.
5.5.2 Geopolitics: Global Strategic views ➢ Distinguish between Boundaries and
5.5.3 21st Century Geopolitics of the Frontiers
Multipolar World Order ➢ Understand political relevance of
Heartland theory and Rimland theory
5.1. Introduction to the present world.
An interesting traditional Chinese custom
says that a husband should carry his bride
Culture is the total way of life that
over a pan of burning coals before crossing the
characterizes a group of people. There are
threshold of their home as husband and wife.
According to tradition, the ritual ensures that thousands of cultures existing today and
the wife will have an easy and successful labour. each contributes to global diversity. There are
Fire walking is also performed by some Chinese so many ways that people can be culturally
people as a means to prevent natural disaster’. different. Specifically, a culture consists of
‘In Cypriot culture, do not give white lilies numerous cultural components that vary
as they are used at funerals. It is polite to from one culture group to the other. Some of
finish everything on your plate. If you have the cultural parameters are religion, language,
not finished eating, cross your knife and fork architecture, cuisine, technology, music, dress,
on your plate with the fork over the knife’. gender roles, law, education, government,
It indicates you have finished eating by agriculture, economy, sport, values, and many
laying your knife and fork parallel across the more.
right side of your plate’. Do you know some
interesting custom practiced in our culture?

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 Culture Region (iii) An “associative cultural landscape” which
A culture region is a portion of Earth may be valued because of the “religious,
that has common cultural elements and has artistic or cultural associations of the
distinct cultural authority from other regions. natural element”.
Any number of cultural components may be
Cultural Interaction
used to define culture regions. A map of world
Cultural interaction focuses on the
religions, for example, includes a shaded area in
relationships that often exist between cultural
South Asia where Hinduism is dominant.
components that characterize a given
Culture regions differ greatly in size. community. Different factors interact with each
Some are exceedingly large, like the Islamic other and give rise to prevalent trait.
culture region that encompasses millions of
What language do you speak? What dress
square km of North Africa and Southwest Asia.
do you wear? What food do you like? What is
Some are very small, like Spanish Harlem,
the structure of the house you live in? For the
which encompasses about three square km of
above question by searching the answer we can
Manhattan. Many others are of intermediate
learn the culture of a human society.
size, like the Corn Belt, which occupies a
portion of the mid western United States. Culture shapes our identity and influences our
behaviours. Culture refers to the sharing language,
Cultural Diffusion beliefs, values, norms, behaviours and material
Cultural diffusion is the spread of cultural objects, which are passed from one generation
beliefs and social activities from out group of to the next generation. Cultural geography is the
people to another. Mixing of world culture branch of human geography which deals about
through different ethnicities, religions and the areal organization of various cultural aspects
nationalities has only increases with advanced in relation to total environment. Some of the
communication, transport and technology. cultural aspects are as follows:

Cultural Landscape Language

Cultural Landscapes have been defined Language plays great force in socialization
by the World Heritage Committee as “cultural and historical transmission, which is the
properties representing the combined works of primary instrument for transmitting culture.
nature and of man”. Human can bind any group of people through
the network of interaction. Languages are in
The World Heritage Committee has written or oral form. India (780) has the world's
identified and adopted three categories of second highest number of languages, after
cultural landscape. The three categories Papua New Guinea (839).
extracted from the Committee’s Operational
Guidelines, are as follows: Customs
Custom in law is the established pattern of
(i) 
“A landscape designed and created
behavior that can be objectively verified within
intentionally by man”.
a particular social setting. A claim can be carried
(ii) An “organically evolved landscape” which out in defense of what has always been done
may be a “relict (or fossil) landscape” or and accepted by law. It becomes characteristic
a “continuing landscape”; of the group of people performing the act.

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 Habit is a similar word which is adopted by an Cultural Heritage types
individual and it has been adopted by most of Cultural Heritage can be distinguished in: 
the people of the ethnic group or society. Built Environment (Buildings, Townscapes,
and Archaeological remains), Natural
Norms
Environment (Rural landscapes, Coasts and
Norms refers to attitude and behaviours shorelines, agricultural heritage) and Artefacts
that are considered normal, typical or average (Books & Documents, Objects, and Pictures).
within the group. Cultural norms are the
standards we live by. They are the shared Cultural diversity
expectations and rules that guide behaviour Cultural diversity refers to having different
of people within social groups. Cultural cultures, respect to each other differences.
norms are learned and reinforced from Cultural diversity is important; because of
parents, friends, teachers and others while work place and show increasingly consist of
growing up in a society. Norms often differ various cultural, racial and ethnic groups.
across cultures, contributing to cross-cultural We can learn from one another but first we
misunderstandings. must have a level of understanding. Cultural
diversity exists in many countries around
Values the world, but it can be challenging and, at
Values refer to intangible quality or beliefs times, problematic. Through this lesson, you
accepted and endorsed by a society. A culture's will learn how to define cultural diversity and
values are its ideas about what is good, right, explore some of the ways in which it influences
fair, and just. Sociologists disagree, however, society.
on how to conceptualize values. Conflict
theory focuses on how values differ between Cultural Traits
groups within a culture, while functionalism A cultural trait is a characteristic of
focuses on the shared values within a culture. human action that's acquired by people
socially and transmitted via various modes of
Cultural Heritage communication. Cultural traits are things that
allow for a part of one culture to be transmitted
Cultural Heritage is an expression of the
to another. There are millions of culture traits,
ways of living developed by a community
a trait can be an object, a technique, a belief
and passed on from generation to generation,
or an attitude. Culture traits are interrelated
including customs, practices, places, objects,
with each other, their collective function forms
artistic expressions and values. Cultural
culture complex.
Heritage is often expressed as either Intangible
or Tangible Cultural Heritage. As part of 5.2  Cultural Realms of the World
human activity Cultural Heritage produces
tangible representations of the value systems, Cultural realm refers to a type of cultural
beliefs, traditions and lifestyles. As an essential region. Cultural region is a continuous
part of culture as a whole, Cultural Heritage, geographical area characterized by cultural
contains these visible and tangible traces form homogeneity. It may be classified into three
antiquity to the recent past. categories as macro, meso and micro region.
Cultural realm is classified based on the
attitude, religious belief, language, racial

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 group, technological development, etc. There tropics and is underdeveloped. It became a
are twelve Cultural realms in the modern part of the occidental culture as a result of
world. Let us discuss some of them briefly. conversion of tribes into Christianity. The
colonial languages, Spanish and Portuguese,
Occidental Realm have become the state languages. Regional
Occidental culture is the culture of architecture has been influenced by the
the European society. It is influenced, to a Spanish and Portuguese styles. Practically all
great extent, by Christianity. It has regional countries maintain economic, cultural and
modifications on the basis of varying levels social ties with the Mediterranean countries.
of industrialisation, political and economic
thought, colonisation, commercialisation, Islamic Cultural Realm
urbanisation, and development of transport The Islamic Cultural Realm is influenced
system, land development of social, political by Islamic values. It covers a vast geographical
and economic institutions. area from Morocco in the west to Pakistan in
In many parts of the occidental culture, the east. The population is sparsely distributed
the impact of non-religious factors, particularly due to inhospitable environment. The coasts,
the effect of modernisation, is so great that the river basins and oases have been the cradles of
religious values are sidelined. Post- industrial Arabian culture in this realm. The British call
Europe is fast emerging as a society where it the Middle-East while the Germans call it a
traditional values are nearly abandoned. The region of oriental culture. This cultural realm
occidental culture covers a vast area. It is further lies between the traditional Indian culture in
divided into six sub-regions considering the the east and the modernised European culture
impact of regional environment. in the west.

(I) West European is the most industrialised Islamic culture is highly orthodox and
and urbanised culture. based on traditional beliefs, the impact of which
can be seen in high female illiteracy rates. These
(ii) Continental European culture is influenced countries have very high per capita incomes,
by different political and economic thoughts, but the level of modernisation is very low.
while Christianity remains an important
influence. Indie Cultural Realm
(iii) Mediterranean Europe includes countries Indie Cultural Realm is the culture of the
lying to the south of the Alps. It is the region Indian sub-continent. Baker called it a sub-
of dominance of Christianity. continental culture, while D. Stamp used the
term paddy culture. This cultural realm is well-
(iv) Anglo-American and defined; it lies between Himalayas in the north,
Indian Ocean in the south and Hindukush
(v) Australian cultural realms are practically the Mountains in the west.
offspring’s of west European culture. Both
are inhabited by migrants from west Europe. This cultural realm is characterized by joint
There are only some regional differences. family, village community, caste system, semi-
feudal land relations, subsistence agriculture,
(vi) Latin American culture is very similar to paddy farming, seasonal climate changes and
the Mediterranean culture. It is the only agricultural season coming at the same time
region of occidental culture which lies in the all over the region. The culture of this region is

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 greatly influenced by Vedic values. Though the Folk Culture
region is inhabited by various communities, the Culture traits that are traditional, no longer
social system has the hidden impact of Vedic widely practiced by a large number of people,
cultural values. and generally isolated in small, often rural, areas.
East Asian Culture 5.3 Races
This culture is basically a Buddhist culture The race is a group of people with more or
with regional modifications. True Buddhist less permanent distinguishing characteristics.
culture can be seen in South Korea and
There are skin colour and hair colour to which
Japan. Even these two countries have felt the
persons concerned attach certain interpretations.
impact of industrialisation, urbanisation and
Objectives and s cientific classification are the
modernisation. The culture of mainland China
division of mankind in to racial groups should
has modified the Buddhist system. This culture
be done on the basis of measurable physical
was adopted after the Second World War.
features and qualities inherited from a common
ancestor. The important features on the basis
South-East Asian Culture
of which the races are identified and classified
It is a transitional culture lying at a place
include skin colour, stature, shape of head, face,
where different cultures have intermingled.
nose, eye, type of hair, and blood group. Human
Dominance of Buddhism can be seen in
races are classified in to four broad groups:
Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam. Influence of
1. Negroid, 2. Caucasoid, 3. Mongoloid and
Christianity can be seen in the Philippines and
of Indie culture over islands of Indonesia. The 4. Australoid.
Islamic influence is evident in Malaysia and the
HOTS
Indonesian islands. No other region has such
peculiarities. If human being originated from one
point, Africa and spread to rest of the world,
Meso-African Culture how could they become different races?
This culture is also known as the Negro
culture. It principally includes tropical Africa.
Similar cultural systems can be seen among 1.  The Negroid
the American Red Indians, Latin American They are usually called as "black race". They
tribes, Australian aboriginals and several have the darkest skin tone than other races, and
tribes of Asia-Pacific region. other common characteristics are the slopped
forehead, thick lips, wide nose, and dark hairs.
Historian Toynbee has used the term
They are living in Sub-Sahara Africa.
‘marginalised culture’ for these traditional
culture units. Some geographers even 2.  The Mongoloid
include Eskimos under this cultural realm.
They have the folding eye lids, almond
Thus, it is a widely scattered cultural realm
shaped eyes, yellowish skin tone, and V shaped
characterised by marginalised and relatively
isolated communities. cheeks. Native Americans and Eskimo are also
classified as Mongoloid. Compared to the other
Major Culture Hearths races, they have the least body hair, least body
Areas from which important culture odour, and smallest limb ratio. Their facial
traits, including ideas, technology, and social structure is likely to adapt cold mild wind. They
structures, are originated. are living in East Asia.
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 CAUCASOID NEGROID MONGLOID AMERICAN AUSTRALOID

3. The Caucasoid nose moisture from getting dried by the wind.

The Caucasoid is known as "white people" They are living in Europe and Middle East.
characterised by the pointy nose, vertical 4. Australoid Race
forehead, pinkish/orange skin tone, visible brow They have visible eye ridge, wide nose,
ridge, and colourful eyes/hair. Some believe that curly hair, dark skin tone, and short in height.
their light skin tone is meant to receive more Some believe that their visible ridge helps them
sunlight due to Europe's climate. Some believe to eat stiff foods. They are living in Australia
that their nose structure is meant to keep the and Papua New Guinea.
Characteristic of Major Races
Feature Caucasoid Mongoloid Negroid
Skin colour Pale reddish white to Saffron to Yellow Brown, Brown to black brown
olive brown. reddish brown. yellow brown.
Stature Medium to Tall. Medium tall to Medium Tall to very Short.
Short.
Face Narrow to medium Medium broad to very Medium broad to
broad, tends to high no broad malars high and narrow tends to
prognathism flat tends to medium high medium high strong
prognathism
Head Form Long-broad and Short Medium height, Predominantly long,
Medium, high-very predomi¬nantly broad. Low height.
high.
Hair color Light blonde to Dark Brown to brown black, Brown black light curl
brown, straight to wavy. Straight. and wooly.

Body Build Linear to lateral slender Tend to be lateral, some Tend to be linear and
to refuge. linearity evident. muscular.
Nose Usually high, narrow to Low to medium form, Low, medium to very
medium board. medium broad. broad.
Blood Group More A than B. High in B. High is Rh(D).
Eye Colour: light blue to Colour: brown to Colour: brown to
dark brown , lateral eye dark brown , medial brown block, vertical
– fold occasional epicanthic fold very eye – fold common
common

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 Ethnicity kingdoms also supported and were tolerant of
Ethnicity is a concept referring to a shared Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism. The major
culture and a way of life. This can be reflected languages spoken by the Dravidian people
in language, religion, material culture such as are Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, and
clothing and cuisine, and cultural products such Brahui.
as music and art. Ethnicity is often a major source
of social cohesion and social conflict. The world
is home to thousands of different ethnic groups, Arabic script Brahui is the only
from the Han Chinese (the largest ethnic group Dravidian language which is
in the world) to the smallest indigenous groups, not known to have been written
some of which include only a few dozen people. in a Brahmi based script, instead, it has been
Almost all of these groups possess a shared written in the Arabic script since the second
history, language, religion, and culture, which half of the 20th century in Iran Pakistan and
provide group members with a common identity. Afghanistan.

India is a unique country with great diversity Religion

in ethnicities, race, religion, language, culture, Religion is not a vague fear or unknown
cuisine and in every other aspect of the human powers not the child of terror, but rather a
society. Indian civilization is one of the oldest in the relation of all the members of a community to
world and primarily consists of the Indo-Aryans of a power that has the good of the community
North India and the Dravidians of South India, the at heart and protects its law and moral order.
people of the Indus Valley Civilization while the Religion produces a distinct attitude towards
former migrated to the country at about 1800 BC. life which affects the further development of the
As India has such a diverse cultural demographic, society. Indeed most cultural situations show
it makes sense that the country is also. the mutual interaction between religion and
socio-economic and politico-cultural factors.
Dravidians
Classification of religion
The Dravidian people are any native
Religion may be classified based on the
speakers of the Dravidian languages in the
belief in god. Monotheistic: the followers of
Indian Subcontinent. Almost all the Dravidians
monotheism believe in a single god (Islam,
live in the southern part of India. The five major
Christianity). Polytheistic: the followers of
ethnic groups of Dravidian people in India are
polytheism believe in many gods (Hinduism).
Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, and Tulu.
Another classification is on the basis of areas
The ancient Indus Valley civilization in of origin such as Eastern religion, Western
India was believed to have been of Dravidian religion, far Eastern religion, African religion,
origin in northern India, but then the Dravidian Indian religion, etc. Geographers generally
people were pushed south when the Indo- classify religions into following;
Aryans came in and the Kuru Kingdom in
• Universalizing religions – Christianity, islam,
northern Indian arose. Later South India was
Buddhism.
dominated by the three Dravidian kingdoms
of the Cheras, Cholas, and the Pandyas. These • 
Ethnic religions – Hinduism, shintoism
three kingdoms have been shown to sponsor (Japan), Chinese faiths, Judaism.
the growth of literature, music, and the arts • 
Tribal or traditional religions – animism,
and to have done extensive trading. The three shamanism, secular (non religious and atheists).

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 Major religions of the world Jainism is also born in India as a reaction
to orthodox Hinduism. It was founded by Lord
Major religions of the world are classified
Mahavir who was a Contemporary of Lord
based on the followers. They are Christianity,
Buddha. Its followers are mostly concentrated in
Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Judaism.
India. It is an offshoot of Hinduism which was
Other important religions include Chinese folk
established in the 15th century by Guru Nanak.
religions, Sikhism, Confucianism, Shintoism etc,.
It remained confined to Punjab state and has
Christianity is a universal religion which accepted Gurumukhi as its language.
has the largest number of followers in the world.
They are spread in Europe, Anglo America, Tribal Religions
Latin America, Africa, Asia and Oceania. Its Tribal religions are the special forms of
sacred book is “Bible”. Islam is the second largest ethnic religion. The tribal people are generally
religion of the world. The largest concentration in the Neolithic stage of social development.
of the Islam is in the South West Asia, Central Tribal people are strikingly different and
diverse in their culture, social and economic
Asia, South Asia and South East Asia Followed
life. They cherish their own distinct and have
by the North Africa. Shia and Sunni are its two
maintained a close relationship to the land
main sects. Its sacred book is Kuran. and natural environment. Most of them live
Hinduism is the oldest ethnic religion of according to their traditions and are engaged
the world which was founded about 3000 B.C in food gathering, hunting, fishing, primitive
(B.C.E) in India. Today it has over 8 million agriculture etc, there are about 300 million
indigenous people worldwide, constituting
followers in the world but main concentration
about four percent of the total population of the
is in India and Nepal. Nearly 99 percent of world living in more than sixty countries.
the total Hindu population is concentrated in
south Asia. Its sacred books include the Vedas, The percentage of tribal to total
the Upanishads, the Epics, the Ramayana population is as high as over
and Mahabharata, and the Bhagavad Gita. 90 percent in Greenland, 66
Buddhism is also one of the oldest religions percent in Bolivia and 40 percent in Peru. In
of India which was founded by Lord Buddha India share of tribal people to total population
around 525 B.C (B.C.E). Its spread in several is 8.2 percent.
Asian countries (China, Myanmar, India,
Srilanka, japan, Mangolia, korea and South Sometimes the tribal people are being
East Asian countries) due to its liberal termed as the fourth world. The first – second
philosophy. Its two main sects are Hinayana and third world believed that “the land belongs
and Mahayana. to the people” whereas the fourth world believes
Judaism is the oldest Monotheistic faith that “the people belongs to the land”.
which is regarded as the parent of Christianity. It
originates 4000 years ago in the Middle East. At 5.4  Tribal Distribution in world
present it has about 14 million followers living
Some major tribal group of the world
in U.S.A, Europe and Asia. Chinese religions
particularly who are living and struggling
include two main beliefs called Confucianism
and tao-ism. Confucianism was established by 1. Equatorial Forest region: Pigmy, Semang,
Confucious (551-479 B.C (BCE)). Taoism was Sakai, Boro, Papuan, etc.
established by Lao Tse (604-517 B.C (BCE)). 2. Grasslands: Masai, Kyrghizs, etc.

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 3. 
Tropical deserts: Bedowin, Bushman, The Masai of east Africa belong to the
Aborigines etc. pastoral society and are known as the best and
4. Mountainous region: Bhotia, gujjar, Naga etc. most typical cattle herders not only of Africa
but also of the world. Masai people are tall and
5. Monsoon regions: Gonds, Santhals, Todas, slender with ling feet, hands and fingers. Their
Bhils, etc. skin colour ranges from light chocolate to dark
6. Arctic cold regions: Eskimo, Lapp, Alute, brown. They have high and long head, thin face
Chukchi etc. and nose. Their lips are less thick than that of
Negroid people. Masai occupy the interior
plateau of the equatorial Africa. The territory
of the Masai lies between 1ºN and 6ºS latitudes
and covers all the rift valleys in this region.

Pigmies
The pigmies are Negroid people and are
also called Negrillos. They are the nearest
approximation of human being to animal. They
are short stature, flat nosed, wooly haired, long
headed and black people. The average height Bedouin
of men and women are found 150cm. So they
In Arabic, Bedouin means desert dwellers.
are also called dwarf. The pigmies are those
The Bedouins are most important among the
who live in scattered parts of tropical Central
tribal of South West-Asia and North Africa.
Africa. They are found in many sub-groups in
They are pastoral nomads and keep camel,
the equatorial forest region of Africa mainly in
sheep, goats, horse etc. The Bedouins occupy the
Congo basin 3ºN and 3ºS latitudes along both
desert areas of the Arabian Peninsula including
sides of the equator. In addition some groups
Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, Syria and
of Pigmies are also found in the forests of
Jordan. The Bedouins belongs to the mixture
Philippines and New Guinea.
of Mediterranean and Armenian races. They
Masai are medium stature people with long narrow
face, prominent nose, dark eyes and hair. Their
complexion is wheatish to pale.

Bushman
Bushman is the tribal people of Kalahari
Desert in southern Africa who are still engaged
in hunting and gathering economics. They are
on constant run for both food and water. Their
homeland Kalahari Desert lies in Botswana,
Namibia and southern Angola. The bushman

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 Igloo
territory is a wide plateau about 2000 meters
above the sea level with sub tropical climate.
The bushman are including in the Negroid
stock. They are very short in stature and have
long head, short and flat ears, and yellowish
brown complexion. On the whole the Negroid
characteristics prevail among the Bushman.

Eskimos Sledge
Eskimos also called
Eskimos are migratory by nature and
Inuits are tribes of tundra
construct ice houses called Igloos. For travelling
cold region in Canadian
on ice shield the Eskimos use sledge which is
northland, Alaska,
usually built either of whale bone or of wood
Greenland and north-eastern
whichever is available. It is drawn by two or
Siberian coastal region. The
more dogs, caribous or rain deer.
Eskimos are Mongoloid
race. The main physical characteristics of the
Tribal in India
Eskimos are short stature, Flat narrow face,
small snub nose, yellow –brown complexion and India is the home to large number of
coarse straight black hair. Hunting and fishing indigenous people, who are still untouched
are the main occupations of the Eskimos. They by the lifestyle of the modern world. With
live in igloo and practice hunting way known as more than 84.4 million, India has the largest
Maupak. The Eskimos wear clothes of caribous population of the tribal people in the world.
or reindeers skin and other furs. These tribal people also known as the adivasis
are the poorest in the country, which are still
dependent on haunting, agriculture and fishing.
Some of the major tribal groups in India include
Gonds, Santhals, Khasis, Angamis, Bhils, Bhutias
and Great Andamanese. All these tribal people
have their own culture, tradition, language and
lifestyle. There are more than 50 tribal groups
in India. Most of the tribal belong basically to
the Negrito, Australoid and Mongoloid racial
stocks.

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 Bhils main festival celebrated among the Angamis in
Bhils are popularly known as the bow Nagaland
men of Rajasthan. They are the most widely Bhutia
distributed tribal groups in India. They form
Bhutia tribes are of the Tibetan origin. They
the largest tribe of the whole South Asia. Bhils
migrated to Sikkim around 16th century. In the
are mainly divided into two main groups the
northern part of the Sikkim they are known as
central or pure bills and eastern or Rajput Bhils.
the Lachenpas and Lachungpas. Bhutias forms
Gonds 14% of the total population of Sikkim. Losar
The Gonds are the tribal community mostly and Losoong are the main festivals celebrated
found in the Gond forests of the central India. among the Bhutia tribes.
They are one of the largest tribal groups in the
world. Gonds have been largely influenced by
the Hindus and for the long time have been
practicing the Hindus culture and traditions. The Sentinelese tribe, the most dangerous
tribe in the world!
Santhals
Santhals are the third largest tribe in India.
They are mostly found in the states of West
Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Jharkhand and Assam.
They belong to the pre- Aryan period and have
been the great fighters from the time of the
British.

Munda
Munda tribe mainly inhabit in the region Located far into Andaman and Nicobar
of Jharkhand, although they are well spread in Islands, the Bay of Bengal in the Indian Ocean,
the states of West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Odisha North Sentinel Island is one of the most isolated
and Bihar. Munda generally means headman of places on earth. This remote island is home
the village. Hunting is the main occupation of to the Sentinelese tribe, the most dangerous
the Mundas tribe. tribe in the world. The Sentinelese are hunter-
gatherers, as agriculture is not known to them.
Khasi Their diet consists mainly of coconuts and
Khasi tribe is mainly found in the Khasi fish that can be found in the shallow waters
Jaintia hills in Meghalaya and in the states of around their shores. The Sentinelese would
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Manipur, West Bengal be described as Stone Age people. The women
and Jammu and Kashmir. They form the large wear fibre strings tied around their waists, necks
part of the population in the state of Meghalaya. and heads. The men also wear necklaces and
headbands, but with a thicker waist belt. The
Angami men carry spears, bows and arrows. Sometimes
Angami tribe belongs to the extreme the Sentinelese appeared to make friendly
north eastern part of the country, in the state of gestures at others they would take the gifts into
Nagaland. The total population of the Angamis the forest and then fire arrows at the contact
is around 12 million. They are quite popular for party. The population of North Sentinel Island
is estimated at 250 individuals. The Sentinelese
their woodcraft and artwork. Sekrenyi is the
do not want help from outsiders.

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 Chenchu the largest group of tribes and boast a rich oral
Chenchu inhabit in the Nallamalai hills, tradition of Folk tales, songs and poetry. These
which have been the part of the Nagarjuna tribes are Hindu and belong to the shiva sect.
Sagar Tiger Sanctuary for centuries in Andhra Kota: The Kotas are mainly concentrated
Pradesh, India. They are mainly found in in the Tiruchigadi area in the Nilagiri hills. They
the districts of Mahabubnagar, Nalgonda, are distinguished by their colourful Folk dances
Praksham, Guntur, and Kurnool. and are basically musicians, who play at Badaa
Great Andamanese funerals. They are mainly engaged in producing
handicrafts. These tribes of Tamil Nadu are
Great Andamanese is the Negrito tribe
expert iron smiths, potters and carpenters. In
inhabitant in the Andaman group of Islands.
order to maintain distance and status in society,
They form the largest population among the
the Kotas implement elaborate tattoos.
other tribes found in these islands. According to
the census the population of Great Andamanese Kurumbas: The Kurumbas tribes of this
is now limited to few individuals. state inhabit the intermediate valleys and forests
in Villages and were known for their black
Tribals in Tamilnadu magic and witchcraft in the past. Their way of
Tribes of Tamil Nadu are concentrated living today has changed from their original
mainly in the district of Nilgiris. Of all the gathering and hunting existence to working
distinct tribes, the Kodas, the Thodas, the in Coffee and Tea plantations as labourers.
Irulas, the Kurumbas and the Badagas form Kurumbas are perhaps the only main caste
the larger groups, who mainly had a pastoral in southern India that has a specialized and
existence. Other tribes include, Kattunayakan distinctive Kurumbas Language.
and Paliyan amongst others.
Irula: The Irula tribes of Tamil Nadu
According to census 2011, tribal population occupy the lower slopes and forests at the base
in Tamil Nadu is 7, 94,697. There are around of the Nilgiri Hills. They constitute the second
38 tribes and sub-tribes in Tamil Nadu. The largest group of tribes after the Badagas and are
tribal people are predominantly farmers and similar to the Kurumbas in many ways. This
cultivators and they are much dependant on the tribe produces honey, fruits, herbs, roots, gum,
forest lands. dyes etc., and trades them with the people in
the plains. In the recent times the Irulas help in
Toda: Men from the family of the tribes
catching snakes and collect the snake venom.
are occupied in milking and grazing their large
herds of buffaloes. Their settlements are known Paliyan: They are of the food gathering
as ‘Munds’. They do not worship any god and communities of Tamil Nadu. It is believed that
their consciousness is cosmic. They live in the Paliyan originally belonged to the Palani
Nilgiris. Today, there are about a thousand hills. They are distributed in the districts of
Todas left. Madurai, Tanjavour, Pudukkottai, Tirunelveli
and Coimbatore.
Badaga: The  Badagas belong to the
backward class and are not classified as tribal.
Language
They are an agricultural community, dwelling
in the higher plateau of the Nilgiris district in Language is an identification mark for
the state of Tamil Nadu. They are engaged in different cultures. Because language is essential
tea cultivation and potato growing. They form to communication, it strongly influences

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 the sort of political, social and economic we 6. Dravidian- malayo – Polynesian- -
create. As a result, economic and religious a. Dravidian, b. Malayan, c. Melanesian,
system frequently follows patterns of language d. Micronesian, e. Polynesian, f. Austro-
distribution and political borders quite often Asiatic.
parallel linguistic boundaries. In modern times 7. Palaeo Asiatic- a.Yukaghir
linguistic diffusion has been facilitated by trade,
tourism, media and international organizations.
As many as half of the world’s
It has helped in the development of the linguistic
7,000 languages are expected
pluralism. The greatest linguistic diversity is
to be extinct by the end of this
attributed to heterogeneous societies.
century; it is estimated that one language dies
Tamil is one of the longest- out every 14 days.
surviving classical languages in
the world. The earliest period of Major Languages of India
Tamil literature, Sangam literature, is dated from
India has a rich Linguistic heritage and
300 BC (BCE) – AD (CE) 300. It has the oldest
has heterogeneous ethnic and social groups,
extant literature among Dravidian languages.
which have their own languages and dialects.
According to census of India 1961, there were
 ajor linguistic Families
M 187 languages spoken by various sections of
of the World Indian society. 23 major languages were spoken
The classification of languages by origin by about 97 percent population of the country.
and historical development is known as a 22 languages excluding English are mentioned
genetic classification. The languages which are in the eighth schedule of the constitution of
the descendants of common ancestral language India as follows; Kashmiri, Punjabi, Hindi,
are called proto – language. Urdu, Bengali, Assamese, Guajarati, Marathi,
Kannada, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Sindhi,
G.L. Trage has classified the languages
Sanskrit, Oriya, Nepali, Kongani, Manipuri,
of the world into 7 linguistic phylum and
Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santali of these
30 linguistic families. Linguistic families are
languages, 14 were initially included in the
further classified in to sub families of languages,
Constitution. Subsequently, Sindhi was added
which denote major languages.
in 1967 by 21st constitutional amendment act;
1. Indo-European - a. Indo-Iranian, b. Latin or Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali were added
Romantic, c. Germanic, d. Balto –Slavic, in 1992 by 71st Constitutional Amendment
e. Celtic, f. Hellenic Act; and Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santali
2. Sino-Tibetan - a. Chinese, b. Tibetan, were added in 2003 by 92nd Constitutional
c. Burman Amendment Act. Indian Languages belong
3. Afro-Asiatic – a. Semitic, b. Egyptian, mainly to four linguistic families
c. Cushitic, d. Chadic 1. Austric – Munda, Mon-Khmer
4. African – a. Niger – Congo (Atlantic, Voltaic,
Benu-Nagar) 2. 
Dravidan – Tamil, Telugu, Kannada,
Malayalam, Gondi, kurukh, orean, etc.
b. Sudanic (Chari-Nile, Saharan,)
c. Click Languages (Khoisan) 3. Sino- Tibetan- Bodo, Karen, Manipuri, etc.
5. Ural-Altaic - a. Finno-Igric, b. Turkic, 4. Indo - Aryan – Hindi, Urdu, Sans.
c. Mangolic, d. Tunguzic
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 Dialect the state. Many people are familiar with the old
A distinct linguistic form peculiar to a and familiar dialects of Tamil such as Chennai,
region or social group but which nevertheless, Coimbatore, Madurai and Tirunelveli.
can be understood by speakers of other forms
of the same language. The two main types of 5.5 Political Geography -
dialects are the geographic dialect, spoken by Concept of Nation and State
the people of the same area or locality, and the Nation
social dialect used by people of the same social
A nation is a group of people who see
class, educational level or occupational group.
themselves as a cohesive and coherent unit
Major dialects in India based on shared cultural or historical criteria.
More than 40 languages or dialects in India Nations are socially constructed units, not
are considered to be endangered and are believed given by nature. Their existence, definition,
to be heading towards extinction as only a few and members can change dramatically based
thousand people speak them officials said. on circumstances. Nations in some ways can
be thought of as “imagined communities” that
According to a report of the census
are bound together by notions of unity that can
Directorate, there are 22 scheduled languages
pivot around religion, ethnic identity, language,
and 100 non –scheduled languages in India. The
cultural practice and so forth.
scheduled languages are 11 from Andaman and
Nicobar, Seven from Manipur and Four from State
Himachal Pradesh. There are 42 languages spoken
A State is an independent, sovereign
by less than 10,000 people. Some other languages
government exercising control over a certain
also are in endangered position in India.
spatially defined and bounded area, whose
Major dialects in Tamil Nadu borders are usually clearly defined and
Tamil is an interesting language with a internationally recognized by other states.
range of native dialects. The language has several
charming improvisations in different regions of Vaishali was established as
a republic by the 6th century
B.C (BCE), prior to the birth of
Fact File Gautama Buddha in 563 B.C (BCE), making
it the world's first republic.
UNESCO’S five levels of language risk:
Safe: Widely spoken
Nation-State
Vulnerable: Not spoken by children
The nation state is a system of organization
outside the home (600 languages)
defined by geography, politics and culture.
Definitely endangered: Children not
The nation is cultural identity that is shared
speaking (646 languages)
by the people, and the state is the governing
Severely endangered: Only spoken by administration. A nation state must have a
oldest generations (527 languages) shared national identity, physical borders,
Critically endangered: Spoken by and a single government.
only a few members of the oldest
A nation-state is a political unit with a well-
generation, often semi-speakers (577
defined territory, inhabited by a people who are
languages)
well-organised, possess sufficient powers and

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 consider themselves to be a nation by virtue of Types of Boundaries
certain binding factors which may be emotional Boundaries can be classified according to
and which are reflected in law and governance.
their relationship with the cultural landscape.
5.5.1 Frontiers and Boundaries Some boundaries were established prior to the

Frontiers: International frontiers and permanent occupation of areas by the present

boundaries separate land, rivers and lakes inhabitants. In some cases patterns of settlement
subject to different sovereignties. In 1900 were already developing so that the boundary
frontiers had almost disappeared and had been ultimately established has a different relationship
replaced by boundaries that are lines. A Frontier
to the cultural realities of the area involved.
is a politico geographical area, lying beyond
defined borders of a political unit into which This classification is known as the functional or
expansion could take place genetic classification of boundaries.

Different between Frontier and Boundary

Frontier Boundary
1. Natural 1. Mostly Anthropogenic
2. Areal Concept 2. Linear Concept
3. Frontiers have no political dispute 3. B oundaries vary often disputable by the
rival nations
Frontier generally has mountainous area, 4. But boundaries have no such criteria
4. 
desert, marshes, etc. Thus, inhabitable
5. Frontiers are dynamic 5. B oundaries are static because once fixed,
they hardly change

Boundaries: A boundary is a line demarcating Genetic Classification of the

the recognised limit of an established political boundaries
unit, administrative region or geographical region 1.  Antecedent Boundaries
e. g a state, country or district.
The boundaries drawn before the cultural-
political realm.
China has the maximum
Such boundaries were non-contentious.
number of neighbours
E .g, N. Africa and the state boundaries of USA.
touching its border. The 14
countries touching its border are: India, 2.  The Subsequent Boundaries
Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan,  hen the cultural realms are fully developed &
W
Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Russia, North Korea, political boundaries are contentious.
Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Bhutan and Nepal Such boundaries are irregular or amorphic
boundaries.
E.g. the countries of Europe.
Canada, the world’s second
largest country, shares the 3.  Superimposed Boundaries
longest international land hen a political boundary divides a
W
border with the United States. The Canada- homogenous cultural region and across the
US land border is 8,893 km long.

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 boundary the people with similar ethnicity are 3) The Outer or Insular Crescent - It includes
found. North and South America, Africa (south of
E.g. Pok Sahara) and Australia. Besides, it also includes
the Great Britain and Japan because of their
4.  Relict Boundaries
insularity from Eurasia.
 istorical boundaries which only exist in the
H
books. According to Mackinder, one with control
over Heartland will be in an unstoppable position
E .g. Persia, the boundary between east & West
to rule the world. Heartland, with its agricultural
Germany.
and industrial resources would conquer the
5.5.2 Geopolitics: Global inner crescent and Outer crescent would follow
Strategic views later. He conceptualized his theory as:
Who rules East Europe commands the
The study of the way a country’s size,
Heartland.
position, etc, influence its power and its
relationships with other countries. Political Who rules Heartland commands World
activity is influenced by the physical features Island.
of a country or area of the world. Geo politics Who rules World Island commands the
is concerned with how geographical factors World.
including territory, population, strategic
Mackinder later argued that key to control
location, and natural resources endowments as
Heartland lays in Eastern Europe, reflecting
modified by economics and technology affect
a powerful strand of pre and post- Versailles
the relations between states and the struggle
geographical thinking concerning the news to
forward domination. It is battle between land
separate the powerful states of Germany and
power and sea power which is going to lead the
Russia by the creation of ‘buffer states'.
world continents by one.
Influence - His theory was put to test
Mackinder described the political history
during the World War II when the Heartland
of the world as continuous struggle between
could become the power centre of the world if
land and sea powers. According to him, the
either Germany unites with Russia or China or
Columbian era of sea powers, which gave
Japan thrashes Russia. But the shattering defeat
Europe its pivotal position for four centuries is
of Germany turned Heartland into a power
coming to an end. And in the struggle between
vacuum.
land and sea powers, the ultimate victory is
going to be of one possessing land powers. The area highlighted in red is the heartland,
He divided the earth into 3 tiers. blue is rim land and the encircled area is the
world island.
1) The Heartland - area of interior and Arctic
drainage in the Eastern Europe, covered by The heartland is inaccessible from top
mountains on three sides and Arctic in north. because North Sea, Norwegian Sea, Barents
This is a natural fortress on earth, inaccessible Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East Siberian Sea are
to sea powers. all frozen throughout the year. The hearland is
inaccesible from the bottom because of Middle
2) The Inner or Marginal Crescent - area of
Eastern desert, Iranian Plateau, Himalayas,
Europe and Asia adjoining the Heartland and
Plateau’s of Tibet and Siberian mountains. This
Africa, north of Sahara.
makes heartland immune to any conquests
from any other side than Eastern Europe.
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 E
N

S
W

ER
W
PO

SEA
INACCESSIBLE

LAND POWER

R
SEA POWE

WORLD -ISLAND
BOUNDARY OF
HEARTLAND
THE HEARTLAND

RIMLAND

Not to Scale

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 N
THE HEARTLAND W E
S

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TN_GOVT_XII_Geography_chapter 05.indd 110

FROZEN OCEAN

SIBERIA

HEART L
AN D

MONGOLIA

110
LEBANON IRAQ TIBET
LIBYA KUWAIT CHINA KOREA
SAUDI INDIA
ARABIA LAOS PHILIPPINES
VIETNAM
CAMBODIA

HEARTLAND MAXIMUM TERRITORIAL EXTENT UNITED STATES MILITARY CONFLICT

OF RUSSIA/SOVIET UNION, INVOLEMENT, 1941 - 1991
RIMLAND 1945-1990
MAXIMUM EXTENT OF GATEWAYS CONNECTING
Not to Scale
EAST EUROPEAN PLAIN OF RUSSIA/SOVIET COMMUNIST HEARTLAND AND RIMLAND
DOMINANCE

21-02-2019 13:11:58
 The only gateway to the heartland is Economic Union, SCO, SAARC, and ASEAN
through Eastern Europe. So, protecting one all cooperating with one another in changing
gateway would be far easier than protecting the the world order.
whole land. Moreover, the heartland was self Missile Defense Shield, Prompt Global
sufficient with most of the resources and wasn’t Strike, and the Naval Race
dependent on trade from outside world.
The basis of American control over the
So, Mackinder believed that the one who world is through economic means as enforced by
controls the heartland would be able to control military ones. In certain cases, though, the US is
the Rimland and as a result the world-Island, unable to directly attack its rivals such as Russia
and the one, who rules the world Island, would and China without suffering unacceptable
rule the world. Although this theory made damage through a nuclear second strike, ergo
sense at that time (1904), when there was no why Washington is pushing to build anti-missile
significant aviation and naval power, it does not installations all around Eurasia in order to ring
make much sense now. in these Great Powers and diminish their most
5.5.3 21st Century Geopolitics of credible deterrent capability. Complementary
with this are the US’ space weapons, whether
the multipolar world order
based in this theatre (X37-B and the policy of
To put it succinctly, the unipolar world “Prompt Global Strike”) or directed towards it
is characterized by the US’ predominant (anti-satellite weapons, whether kinetic such as
hegemony in a wide variety of spheres, whether missiles or non-kinetic like lasers).
exercised directly through unilateral initiatives
Neither the US’ missile shields nor its
or indirectly (“Lead From Behind”) through
space-related weaponry are sufficient enough
its regional and institutional partners. The
for ensuring that the country is defended from
Multipolar forces in the world are working to
submarine-launched ballistic missiles, which
replace the US-led international order with
form a crucial component of any country’s
a diversified array of multiple stakeholders
nuclear triad. This explains why there’s an
in order to bring balance to International
ongoing naval race across the world as the
Affairs. Importantly, they seek to do this
US seeks to ensure its dominance in the high
through progressively reforming international
seas in the face of rising competition from
institutions such as the UN, IMF, World
Russia, China, and others. The global ocean is
Bank, and others, as well as creating their own
also important for another reason as well, and
counterparts to some of them like the BRICS
this one relates back to the economic basis of
New Development Bank or outright forming
American dominance over the world. China
entirely new and unprecedented organizations
depends on the international waterways for
like the SCO.
the vast majority of its trade, which makes it
One of the latest proposals has been to inordinately vulnerable to any US efforts to
broaden the BRICS format through what has now block certain chokepoints such as the Strait of
been called the “BRICS-Plus” strategy, which Malacca and Suez Canal.
essentially seeks to have each of the five member
states encourage multilateral cooperation OBOR’s Global Reorganization
between each other’s respective regional Understanding the sudden systemic-
integration organizations. As Russian Valdai shaking consequences that any hostile action
Club expert Yaroslav Lissovolik describes it, this like this could inflict for China’s domestic
could see Mercosur, the SADC, the Eurasian
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 socio-economic stability, the People’s Republic undertaken by East Asian states as they dispute
prudently foresaw the need to pioneer ambitious potentially resource-rich waters. Technology
trans-continental trade routes to its crucial hasn’t negated geography it has only made it
European partner, as well as secure the Sea Lines more precious and claustrophobic.
Of Communication (SLOC) along its existing Whereas the West has come to think
maritime ones in order to safeguard its access about international relations in terms of laws
to the growing economics of Africa. The latter and multinational agreements, most of the rest
are exceptionally important nowadays because of the world still thinks in terms of deserts,
their growth is expected to allow Beijing to mountain ranges, all-weather ports and tracts
relieve itself of its industrial overproduction of land and water. The world is back to the maps
so long as it can succeed in building up these of elementary school as a starting point for an
marketplaces and stabilizing them. As for the understanding of history, culture, religion and
Western Hemisphere, China wants to increase ethnicity–not to mention power struggles over
its soft presence here as a means of competing trade routes and natural resources.
with the US and asymmetrically countering
America’s moves in the South China Sea. Europe’s modern era is supposed to be
about the European Union triumphing over
Altogether, the above stratagem explains the bonds of blood and ethnicity, building a
the essence of China’s One Belt One Road system of laws from Iberia to the Black Sea–and
(OBOR) global vision of New Silk Road eventually from Lisbon to Moscow. But the E.U.’s
connectivity, which is designed to transform long financial crisis has weakened its political
the world’s trading networks so as to facilitate influence in Central and Eastern Europe. And
the transition from a unipolar American-led while its democratic ideals have been appealing
international order to a diversified Multipolar to many in Ukraine, the dictates of geography
one safeguarded by a host of Great Powers. It make it nearly impossible for that nation to
also, however, provides the blueprint for how reorient itself entirely toward the West.
the US will oppose the greatest threat thus far to
its worldwide hegemony, as all that Washington Russia is still big, and Russia is still autocratic
has to do is encourage identity-centric Hybrid after all it remains a sprawling and insecure
Wars in the geostrategic transit states along land power that has enjoyed no cartographic
these corridors in order to disrupt, control, or impediments to invasion from French,
influence them in ways which remove their Germans, Swedes, Lithuanians and Poles over
Multipolar game-changing impact. the course of its history. The southern Crimean
Peninsula is still heavily ethnic Russian, and it is
Geopolitics and the New World Order the home of Russia’s Black Sea fleet, providing
The global elite–leading academics, Russia’s only outlet to the Mediterranean.
intellectuals, foreign policy analysts, foundation In short, Russia will use every geographical
heads and corporate power brokers, as well and linguistic advantage to weaken Ukraine as
as many Western leaders–may largely have a state. Ukraine is simply located too far east,
forgotten about it. But what we’re witnessing and is too spatially exposed to Russia, for it
now is geography’s revenge in the East-West ever to be in the interests of any government in
struggle for control of the buffer state of Ukraine, Moscow–democratic or not–to allow Ukraine’s
in the post–Arab Spring fracturing of artificial complete alignment with the West.
Middle Eastern states into ethnic and sectarian
fiefs and in the unprecedented arms race being

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 To live in a world where geography is While our foreign policy must be morally
respected and not ignored is to understand the based, the analysis behind it must be cold-
constraints. Many obstacles simply cannot be blooded, with geography as its starting point. In
overcome. That is why the greatest statesmen geopolitics, the past never dies and there is no
work near the edges of what is possible. modern world.
Geography establishes the broad parameters–
only within its bounds does human agency have
a chance to succeed.

1. Heritage – culture that may be inherited. 6. Frontier - A frontier is also a border between
what is known and what is not known.
 olk- typical of a particular group or
2. F
country, especially one where people mainly 7. Mongoloid - a member of a group of people
live in the country side, and usually passed who mainly live in Mongolia.
on from parents to their children over a long 8. Semitic – refers to the race of people
period of time. that includes Arabs and Jews, or to their
3. Confucianism - a religion based on the languages.
ideas of the Chinese philosopher Confucius. 9. Monotheistic - refers to the belief that there
4. Nationalism - the feelings of affection and is only one god.
pride that people have for their country. 10. Geopolitics - the study of the way a country's
5. Cyberwarfare - The use of the internet to size, position, etc. influence its power and
attack an enemy, by damaging things such its relationships with other countries.
as communication and transport systems or
water and electricity supplies.

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Unit 3
Understanding
Disaster

Learning Objectives
• To understand the meaning of disaster.

• To know about the types of disasters.

• To know a few key concepts in Disaster Management and orient

them to the words used in media.

• To understand Tsunami and flood.

• To understand about Forecasting, Emergency Operation Centre etc.,

This lesson explains about the various most severe droughts, famines, cyclones,
natural disasters and man-made disasters. earthquakes, chemical disasters, rail
It also deals with the precautionary and accidents and road accidents. The high
mitigation measures taken to avoid the loss density of population in the developing
of lives and materials. countries, especially in the high risk coastal
Disaster is a very common areas, results in millions of people getting
phenomenon in the human society. It affected by natural disasters, especially in
has been experienced by people since recurring disasters like floods, cyclones,
time immemorial. Though its form may storm surges, etc.
be varied, it has been a challenge for Disaster
society. The latest development which
has been discovered in the World Disaster ‘A disaster is a serious disruption
Reports recently is that, the disasters have of the functioning of a society involving
increased in frequency and intensity. India human and material loss. Disaster is
is one of the most disaster prone countries broadly classified into natural and man-
in the world. It has some of the world’s made disasters.

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Natural Disasters

Earthquake Volcanoes Tsunami Cyclones

Floods Landslide Avalanches Thunder & lightning

DISASTERS Tsunami
Tsunami are waves generated by
 earthquake, volcanic eruptions and
Man-made Disasters
 Natural Disasters underwater landslides.

(DUWKTXDNHV )LUH
Cyclones:
9ROFDQRHV 'HᚔUXFWLRQRIEXLOGLQJV A low pressure area which is encircled
7VXQDPLV $FFLGHQWVLQLQGXᚔULHV
by high-pressure wind is called a cyclone.
&\FORQHV $FFLGHQWVLQWUDQVSRUW
)ORRGV 7HUURULVP Floods
/DQGVOLGHV 6WDPSHGH

An overflow of a large amount of
$YDODQFKHV
7KXQGHU OLJKWQLQJ water, beyond its normal limits, especially
on the rainfed areas is called a flood.
Earthquake Landslide
The movement of a mass of rocks,
The sudden shaking of the earth
debris, soil etc., downslope is called a
at a place for a short spell of time is
landslide.
called an earthquake. The duration of
the earthquake may be a few seconds Avalanche
to some minutes. The point where an A large amount of ice, snow and
earthquake originates is called its ‘focus’. rock falling quickly down the side of a
The vertical point at the surface from the mountain is called an Avalanche.
focus is called ‘epicentre’. Thunder and lightning
Volcanoes Thunder is a series of sudden electrical
discharge resulting from atmospheric
Volcanoes are openings or vents conditions. This discharge results in
where lava, small rocks and steam erupt sudden flashes of light and trembling
onto the earth’s surface. sound waves which are commonly known
as thunder and lightning.

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Man-made disasters

Fire Destruction of buildings Accidents in industries

Accidents in Transport Terrorism Stampede

Fire Tsunami and floods

Massive forest fires may start in hot and A killer Tsunami hit the south east
dry weather as a result of lightning, and Asian countries on the 26th of December,
human carelessness or from other causal 2004. A massive earthquake with a
factors. magnitude of 9.1 -9.3 in the Richter scale
Destruction of buildings epicentre in the Indonesian island of
Demolition of buildings by human Sumatra. It triggered one of the biggest
activites. Tsunamis the world had ever witnessed.
The massive waves measuring up to 30
Accidents in industries
Chemical, biological accidents that
occur due to human error. (e.g.) Bhopal
gas tragedy
Accidents in Transport
Violation of road rules, carelessness
cause accidents.
Terrorism
The social unrest or differences in
principles leads to terrorism.
Stampede
The term stampede is a sudden rush
of a crowd of people, usually resulting in
injuries and death from suffocation and
trampling.

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metres that killed more than 2,00,000 Floods

people of Asia. In India, over 10,000
people were killed by this disaster. Tamil Floods are high stream flows, which
Nadu alone accounted for 1,705 deaths. overlap natural or artificial banks of a
All the coastal districts were affected, river or a stream and are markedly higher
Nagapattinam was the worst hit in the than the usual flow as well as inundation
state of Tamil Nadu. Fishermen, tourists, of low land.
morning walkers, children playing in Types of floods
beach and people living on the coast Flash floods: Such floods that occur
were unprepared for the waves. So they within six hours during heavy rainfall.
lost their life and the most of the loss of River floods: Such floods are caused
lives and damage to property was within by Precipitation over large catchment
500 metres of the shore. After that the areas or by melting of snow or sometimes
Indian government set up a Tsunami both.
Early Warning System at Indian National Coastal floods: Sometimes floods
Centre for Ocean Information Services are associated with cyclone high tides
(INCOIS), Hyderabad in 2007. and tsunami.

Tsunami - Do’s and Don’ts Causes of floods

• You should find out if your home, ¾¾ Torrential Rainfall.
school etc., are in valunarable areas ¾¾ Encroachment of rivers bank.
along sea shore. ¾¾ Excessive rainfall in catchment.
¾¾ Inefficient engineering design in
• Know the height of your street above the construction of embankments,
sea level. dams and canals.
• Plan evacuation routes and practise Effects of floods
your evacuation routes. ¾¾ Destruction of drainage system
• Discuss tsunamis with your family. ¾¾ Water pollution
Review safety and preparedness ¾¾ Soil erosion
measures with your family. ¾¾ Stagnation of water
¾¾ Loss of agricultural land and cattle
• If you see the sea water receding, you
¾¾ Loss of life and spread of contagious
must immediately leave the beach and diseases.
go to higher ground far away from the
beach. Do’s
¾¾ To find out if the settlement area
• Don't go to the coast to watch the is to be affected by flood or not.
Tsunami. ¾¾ Keeping radio, torch and additional
• Dont try to surf the tsunami waves. batteries, storing drinking water,
dry foods items, salt and sugar.
• Be aware facts about tsunami. Safeguarding materials like

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kerosene, candle, match box,

clothes and valuable things. CASE STUDY
¾¾ Keeping umbrella and bamboo Chennai flood – 2015
poles.
¾¾ Keeping first aid box and strong
ropes to bind things.
¾¾ To dig canals from the farm land, to
drain the excessive water keeping
sand bags etc.,

Don’ts
¾¾ Try to connect electricity once it is
cut. Chennai is one of the largest
¾¾ Operate vehicles metropolitan cities in India, which
¾¾ Swim against floods
lies on the south eastern coast. The
¾¾ Avoid going on excursions.
north east monsoon along with tropical
¾¾ Neglect flood warning messages
cyclone hits Chennai every year and
During floods gives heavy cyclonic rainfall. In 2015,
¾¾ Cut off gas connection and November and December due to heavy
electricity. rain, the devastating floods that hit
¾¾ Keep sand bags on drainage holes Chennai and other parts of Tamil Nadu
and bathroom holes. claimed more than 400 lives and caused
¾¾ Leave immediately through the enormous economic damage. The
known passage or prescribed Government of India and Tamil Nadu
passage have taken a lot of action to reduce loss
¾¾ Drink hot water. of life and minimize human sufferings.
¾¾ Use bleaching powder to keep your
environment hygienic. for disaster risk reduction. Campaigns,
¾¾ Before using match sticks and participatory learning, informal education,
candles, ensure that there is no and formal school based interventions.
gas leakage.
Forecasting and Early Warning
¾¾ Don’t eat more food when you are
affected by diarrhoea. Weather forecasting, Tsunami early
¾¾ Don’t try to take anything that warning system, cyclonic forecasting and
floats in flood. warning provide necessary information
Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) which help in reducing risks during
disasters.
Disaster Risk Reduction: The practice
School Disaster Management
of reducing disaster risks through
Committee, Village Disaster Management
systematic efforts to analyze and manage
Committee, State and Central government
the causal factors of disasters. There are
institutions take mitigation measures
four key approaches to public awareness

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together during disaster. 4. Chennai, Cuddalore and Cauvery delta

Newspaper, Radio, Television and are frequently affected by floods. Give
social media bring updated information reason.
and give alerts on the vulnerable area, risk,
5. Differentiate: Landslide – Avalanche
preparatory measures and relief measures
including medicine. II Answer in a paragraph

1. What is flood? Explain the do’s and

Glossary
don’ts during floods.
Mitigation: The lessening of the
III Activity
adverse impacts of hazards and related
disasters. Make a flood plan
Forecast: Definite statement or
On a piece of paper, draw your
statistical estimate of the likely occurrence
village/town map roughly. Locate your
of a future event or conditions for a
home,school and playground on the map.
specific area.
Then draw the rivers/stream/lake and
Rainfed: Supplied primarily with road, located nearest to your village/
rainwater. town. Answer the questions listed below.
Magnitude: A measure of the amount 1.
Which areas and roads would be
of energy released by an earthquake. mostly affected by flood?
Contagious: Transmissible by direct 2. Can you find out evacuation route?
or indirect contact .
3. I f you live in a flood-prone area,
Catchment: The action of collecting what are the precautionary
water, especially the collection of rainfall measures you have to take during
over a natural drainage area. heavy rains?
4. W
 hat are things that you should
Exercise
have in your ‘Go- Kit’ / ‘Drive -away
I Answer in brief kit’?
5.Make a list of emergency numbers.
1. Define Disaster
(‘Go-Kit’ - A kit prepared by and for
2. What are the two an individual or group who expects to
types of disasters? develop it in alternative locations during
Give examples. emergency)

3. Write a short note on ‘Thunder and

lightning’

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Unit VIII

Natural Disasters -
Public Awareness
For Disaster Risk
Reduction

Chapter Outline Learning Objectives:

Learning Objectives:
8.1 Introduction • Define the terms – Disaster Risk
8.2 Public awareness for disaster Reduction, Resilience and Public
risk reduction Awareness.
8.3 Disasters and rules of action for
• Understand the need for public
disasters
awareness for disaster risk
8.4 Earthquake
8.5 Landslide reduction.
8.6 Cyclone • Explain the rules of actions for
8.7 Flood disasters.
8.8 Drought • Learn and experience the various
8.9 Lightning mock drills for disasters.

8.1 Introduction Recognizing the importance of

Disaster Risk Reduction in 2005, 168
On an average, 232 million people are governments and all leading development
affected by different types of disasters and humanitarian actors signed the Hyogo
every year. In recent years disaster risks Framework for Action (HFA), committing
have been on the rise due to factors themselves to a ten-year multi-stakeholder
such as population growth, unplanned and multi-sector plan to invest in disaster
urbanization, environmental degradation, risk reduction as a means to building
conflicts and competition for scarce disaster-resilient societies.
resources, climate change, disease
Public awareness campaigns can be
epidemics, poverty and pressure from
started modestly and tailored to meet
development within high-risk zones.
the needs of specific populations and
Hence, disaster risk reduction is the need
target groups. These approaches can
of hour.
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be integrated into almost all existing the awareness of public for disaster risk
initiatives, whenever and wherever they reduction. Every school has to setup the
take place. They can build on and support following school disaster committees:
existing volunteer mobilisation and peer- 1. Coordination Committees
to-peer communications. To support
2. Awareness generation Team
this, it requires strong and unified
disaster reduction messages and clear 3. Search Rescue and Evacuation Team
and targeted information, education and 4. Site safety Team
communication materials. 5. First Aid Team
6. Warning and Information Team
8.2 Public awareness for disaster risk
7. Bus safety Team
reduction
8. Water / Food Arrangement Team.
There are four key approaches to public
awareness for disaster risk reduction: All the teams should participate in the
Campaigns, participatory learning, mock drill.
informal education, and formal school-
based interventions. Mock drills
Let’s take formal school based Mock drills form a vital part of the
interventions to learn in detail. school disaster management process,
Formal school-based interventions: and provide an intensive learning
The focus of formal school-based experience. They should be followed
interventions cover two areas: school by reflection and assessment by all
disaster management and disaster risk members of the school community.
reduction in school curricula. These Lessons learned are incorporated into
are considered to be formal because the school disaster management plan,
accountability and responsibility for and goals set for improvement next
school safety and curricula belong time. Depending on hazards faced,
exclusively to education authorities, there are several major types of drills
so they require support for long-term that can be practiced:
planning and capacity building.
School disaster management: The
Disasters and Rules of actions during
primary goals of school disaster management
disasters
are to ensure the safety of students and staff.
Sustained school disaster management 8.3.1 Earthquake
requires the familiar participatory and An earthquake is sudden, rapid shaking of
ongoing process of identification of hazards the ground caused by the shifting of rocks
and risks, mitigation and reduction of risks, beneath the earth’s surface. Earthquakes
and developing response capacity. strike suddenly without warning and
A school disaster management plan, can occur at anytime. The impacts of the
developed at the school level, should earthquakes include deaths, injuries and
be the living document that expresses damage of property. You have learned
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Nepal – India Earthquake

The April 2015 Nepal Earthquake (also known as the Gorkha Earthquake) killed
nearly 9,000 people and injured nearly 22,000. It occurred on 25 April, with a
magnitude of 8.1 Richter scale. Its epicentre was east of Gorkha District at Barpak.
It was the worst natural disaster to strike Nepal since 1934 Nepal–Bihar earthquake.
The earthquake triggered an avalanche on Mount Everest, killing 21 people making
April 25, 2015 the deadliest day on Nepal’s history. The earthquake triggered another
huge avalanche in the Langtang Valley, where 250 people were reported missing.

Figure 8.1. Nepal Earthquake, 2015

Rules of actions during an earthquake:

Students’ activity
1. Stay calm, do not panic.
Mock drill: Earthquake. 2. If you are in a building, sit down on
the floor under a table or any other
In case we are inside the class when furniture and firmly hold on to it until
earthquake occurs, instruct loudly the earthquake has stopped.
“earth quake position – drop, cover,
3. If there is no table nearby, cover your
and hold on”. Drop down on your
face and head with your hands and sit
knee. Cover your head, neck and face.
on the floor in a corner of the room.
Go under a table to protect your head.
4. Keep away from glass windows, glass
doors and things that can fall down.
about occurrence of the earthquake and 5. Do not try to leave the building quickly;
other related information in the earlier during earthquakes people mostly
part of the book. die because they try to run out of the

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building and become trapped under

ruins if the building is destroyed.
6. Do not go to the staircase, a balcony or
an elevator.
7. If you are in the street, keep away from
buildings; try to get into an open space
and avoid power transmission lines.
8. If you are at home, turn off electrical
equipment and gas quickly.
9. If you are in chemistry class or a Figure 8.2. Drop, Cover, Hold-Mock drill
laboratory where chemicals are stored,
try to leave the room because chemicals
may cause injuries; influence of gravity. Landslides can be
caused by rainfall, snowmelt, stream
After earthquake:
erosion, and flood, earthquakes, volcanic
1. First check if you have any injuries, activity, disturbance by human activities,
and then check the condition of the or any combination of these factors.
surrounding people. If you cannot do
Landslides  cause property damage,
this, wait for the rescue team;
injury and death and adversely affect a
2. After the earthquake when you leave variety of resources. For example, water
the shelter, do not return for 2-3 hours supplies, fisheries, sewage disposal
because the quakes may repeat (an systems, forests, dams and roadways can
aftershock). be affected.
3. Check if there is fire; in case of a mild
During a Landslide
one try to extinguish it.
1. Listen for any unusual sounds that
4. Be cautious about the possibility of
might indicate moving debris, such as
gas leakage and damage caused to
trees cracking or boulders knocking
electrical wiring.
together.
5. Be careful while opening wardrobe
2. If you are near a river, be alert for
doors to take necessary items;
any sudden increase or decrease in
6. Use only lanterns; do not use an oil water flow and for a change from clear
lamp or a candle. to muddy water. Such changes may
7. Listen to the radio to receive indicate landslide activity upstream, so
information about the earthquake. be prepared to move quickly.
3. Be alert especially when driving.
8.3.2 Landslide Embankments along roadsides are
A landslide is defined as the movement particularly susceptible to landslides.
of a mass of rock debris down a slope. 4. Disconnect the power supply in the
Landslides are caused by the direct areas of landslide.

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After the Landslide Nicobar and Lakshadweep are also prone

1. Stay away from the slide area. There to cyclones.
may be danger of additional slides Districts in Tamil Nadu which are
2. Check for injured and trapped persons frequently affected by cyclones: All the 13
near the slide, without entering the coastal Districts of Tamil Nadu are affected
direct slide area. by cyclonic storms which occur during May-
3. Direct rescuers to their locations. June and in October-November months.
These Districts are: Tiruvallur, Chennai,
4. Listen to local radio or television for
Kancheepuram, Villupuram, Cuddalore,
the latest emergency information
Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Thanjavur,
5. Watch for flooding, which may occur Pudukkottai, Ramanathapuram, Tuticorin,
after a landslide or debris flow. Tirunelveli and Kanniyakumari.
On an average, about five or six tropical
8.3.3 Cyclone
cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal and
The major natural disaster that affects the Arabian sea and hit the coast every year.
coastal regions of India is cyclone and as Out of these, two or three are severe.
India has a coastline of about 7516 km; When a cyclone approaches to the
it is exposed to nearly 10 percent of the coast, a risk of serious loss or damage
world’s tropical cyclones. occurs from severe winds, heavy rainfall,
About 71 percent of flood prone areas storm surges and river floods. The effect of
are in ten states (Gujarat, Maharashtra, a storm surge is most pronounced in wide
Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and shallow bays exposed to cyclones such
Pondicherry, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and as in the northern part of Bay of Bengal.
West Bengal). The islands of Andaman, Most cyclones occur in the Bay of Bengal

Figure 8.3. Forces of Cyclonic wind

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Figure 8.4. Effects of Cyclone

followed by those in the Arabian Sea and During a cyclone

the ratio is approximately 4:1. During the 1. If you are in a building during a strong
cyclonic of cyclonic storms, wind speed is gust, it is necessary to close and fasten
between 65 km/h and117 km/h. windows and doors. It is better to stay in
Rules of action before a cyclone the rooms.
1. Go to high-lying places from low-lying 2. Turn off all electrical devices.
areas 3. Protect yourself with your hands or a
2. Those residing in old buildings should scarf. Protect the eyes, nose and mouth
temporarily relocate to safer buildings; from dust.
Jewels and documents should be kept 4. If you are in a wildlife area, try to find
in safe custody. a place protected from the wind. If
3. Battery-operated radio, plastic torch- there is no such place nearby, lie down
light, lamp, kerosene, match-box on the ground.
should be kept safely for future use.
5. If you are in a car it is better to stay
4. Keep in ready all the first-aid kit and there and close the windows. Do not
material available with you. park the car under unstable objects
5. Keep in stock foodstuffs, material, fuel, that can break down and fall on the
drinking water and life-saving drugs car.
needed for the next week.
After cyclone
6. It is also important to take cattle and
other pets to safer places. 1. Turn off electricity, gas and water and
unplug all electric appliances.
7. It is important to know that if we see
quickly approaching storm clouds it 2. Beware of snakes and other animals
is possible to predict strong winds immediately after the cyclone.
several minutes in advance. 3. Do not go for sightseeing.
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4. Stay away from damaged power lines,

falling trees and flood water. Mock Drill means
Practicing of some-
5. Boil and purify water before drinking.
thing that can happen
8.3.4 Flood in future so that it can
be easily dealt with in.
Flood destructions have always brought
miseries to numerous people, especially in
rural areas. Flood results in the outbreak namely, the monsoon, the highly silted
of serious epidemics, specially malaria river systems and the steep highly erodible
and cholera. Simultaneously, scarcity of mountains, particularly those of the
water also arises. It has a drastic effect on Himalayan ranges. The average rainfall
agricultural produce. Sometimes, water in India is 1,150 mm with significant
remains standing over large areas for long variation across the country. The annual
span of time hampering the Rabi crops. rainfall along the western coast and the
India is one of the most flood prone Western Ghats, Khasi hills and over most
countries in the world. The principal of the Brahmaputra valley amounts to
reasons for flood lie in the very nature of more than 2,500 mm. Twenty-three of
natural ecological systems in this country, the states (29) and union territories (6)

Fact File
Tropical Cyclone Vardha hit Chennai  on 12 December, 2016. National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA) reports that at least 10 people have died in Tamil Nadu.
Maximum sustained wind speeds of over 130 km/h were recorded, and the storm
has caused severe damage to parts of the city of Chennai. Over 4,000 trees have been
uprooted, power lines downed and buildings damaged.

NDRF teams clear up damage after Cyclone Vardha. Photo: NDRF

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in the country are subject to floods and Do’s before flood

40 million hectares of land, roughly one- 1. Keep furniture and electrical
eighth of the country’s geographical area, appliances on beds and tables
is prone to floods. The National Flood 2. Put sandbags in the toilet bowl and
Control Program was launched in the cover all drain holes to prevent sewage
country in 1954. back flow.

Statewise water reservoir levels in India

W E

-41%
48% Departure from 10-year average
-42%
water reservoir levels

10% 92%

45% 234%
75% 60%
16%
20%
38%
-13%

42%

-67%
-41%

-81%
-31%
Not to Scale

Figure 8.5. Statewise water reservoir levels in India

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3. Keep your mobile charged

4. Listen to radio or watch television for
the latest weather bulletin and flood
warnings.
5. Keep strong ropes, a lantern, battery
operated torches, extra batteries ready.
6. Keep umbrellas and bamboo sticks
with you for protection from snakes.

8.3.5 Drought
Figure 8.7. Drought condition
The above map shows most the acute
shortage of water in Tamil Nadu in 10
years. ( 2017) percent areas receive rainfalls less than
750 mm is considered to be chronically
drought prone.
Rules of action before, during and after
Drought
Before drought:
1. Rainwater harvesting should be
followed.
2. Sewage water should be recycled and
used for domestic purpose.
3. Building canals or redirecting rivers
Figure 8.6. Crops affected by Drought for irrigation.
4. Utilise water economically.
Drought is a period of time (months or
years) during which a part of the land has During drought:
shortage of rain, causing severe damage 1. Wear cotton clothing and a hat.
to the soil, crops, animals, and people. 2. In case of overheating, immediately
It sometimes causes even death. During move to a shady area.
drought high temperature is experienced.
3. Consume adequate amounts of
Such conditions may affect our health.
water stay.
The primary cause of drought is
deficiency of rainfall and in particular, the After drought:
timing, distribution and intensity. 1. If anyone faints after sunstroke,
In India around 68 percent of the emergency medical measures should be
country is prone to drought. Of the taken.
entire area 35 percent receives rain falls 2. Contact local government agencies to
between 750 mm and 1,125 mm which receive information about disaster and
is considered drought prone while 33 assistance for the population.
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8.3.6 Lightning
• Lightning flashes
Lightning is an atmospheric electrostatic more than 3 million
discharge (spark) accompanied by times a day or 40 times
thunder, which typically occurs during a second worldwide.
thunderstorms, and sometimes during
• An average lightning bolt can
volcanic eruptions or dust storms.
release enough energy to operate a
Lightning generates 10-20 ampere current
100-watt light bulb for more than
three months straight (about 250
• You can hear kilowatt-hours of energy).
thunder from about
16 km of its starting
point. a tree branch. The heat travels through the
tree, vaporizing its sap and creating steam
• Lightning bolts travel at the speed that causes the trunk to explode.
of up to 80,000 km / second.
Before lightning
• The average length of a single
1. If you are planning to go to the
lightning bolt is 3-4km.
countryside, check the weather
forecast.
and it is therefore fatal. It is especially 2. If a thunderstorm is expected it is
dangerous for people in an open area. better to postpone the trip.
Lightning strikes often have fatal 3. It is good if you can estimate the distance
consequences. On an average, 2000 people to the front line of a thunderstorm. In
die from lightning in the world every year. order to do this you must check the
Lightning mostly strikes tall things, such time interval from the moment you see
as trees that break down and catch fire the lightning until you hear thunder.
or it may strike power transmission lines Lightning always precedes thunder.
and antennas fastened We know that the sound speed travels
on roofs and buildings on average about 1km every 3 seconds.
which causing fire. The Reduction of the time interval between
air temperature, when the sight of lightning and the resulting
lightning occurs, is as thunder means that the danger is
hot as 9982.2 °C. approaching and protective measures
Thunder is the sound caused by must be taken. If there is no interval
lightning. A charged, superheated between lightning and thunder means,
lightning bolt creates a “resonating tube” it means that the cloud is already over
as it travels. The air in the tube rapidly your head.
expands and contracts causing vibrations During Lightning:
that we hear as the rumble of thunder. 1. If you are in a building it is necessary
Lightning strikes can explode a tree. to close windows, doors, ventilation
Imagine 15 million volts of electricity hitting pipes and chimneys.
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Figure 8.8. Lightning

2. It is necessary to turn off the telephone, It is dangerous to stand or lie down on

TV set, and other electrical equipment the ground, because this increases the
because lightning may strike electrical exposure area.
cables and pass through wiring. 8. It is necessary to get rid of metal items
3. Do not take a shower because both such as a bicycle, coins etc.
water and metal conduct electricity. 9. Do not stand under an umbrella.
4. Do not light the fireplace because the
10. Do not run during the occurrence
heat coming from the chimney may
of lightning; move slowly towards
attract lightning.
a shelter because the air flow may
5. It is better to stay away from electric attract lightning;
wires, lightning rods, water pipes,
11. If you are in a car, do not get out. It is
antennas and windows.
better to close the windows and turn
6. If you are in an open area during a
of the antenna. Do not park your car
thunderstorm, do not stand under a
under tall trees or any structures that
tall tree. Lighting is most damaging
may fall down and hit you.
for tall trees. It is better to stay
30-40 meters away from them. Avoid 12. If there is an injured person next to
trees that are standing separately. you, remember that the victim may
Remember that lightning does not lose consciousness. It is necessary to
strike bushes. provide first aid.
7. If the area is open, it is better to find a 13. Cover your mouth with a wet cloth in
lower place or a cavity and squat there. order to protect your lungs.

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Student activity
Read the following rules for lightning and practice the mock drill as given below.
1. Follow the 30/30 rule.
2. If there are less than 30 seconds between thunder and lightning, you are in danger.
3. Get inside and stay there until 30 minutes after the last lightning flash.
4. practice lightning crouch
5. If you see or feel lightning and there is nowhere to go for shelter, immediately
squat down.
6. Balance on the balls of your feet, touch your heels together.
7. Cover your ears.
8. This way the charge may go through your back in to the ground without harming
your vital organs.

and the actions that can be taken, to

reduce vulnerability to hazards.
7. Resilience: The ability of a society
1. Disaster: A serious disruption of the exposed to hazards to resist, absorb,
functioning of a society involving adapt to and recover from the effects
human, and material, and impacts of a disaster.
that exceed the ability of the affected
8. Hyogo Framework for Action – A
society to cope using its own resources.
global blueprint for disaster risk
2. Disaster risk reduction: The practice reduction efforts between 2005
of reducing disaster risks through and 2015 – by providing specific
systematic efforts to analyze and operational guidance for promoting
manage the causal factors of disasters. disaster risk reduction.
3. Mitigation : The lessening of the
Evaluation
adverse impacts of hazards and related
disasters I Choose the best
4. Preparedness: The capacity developed answer from the
by organizations, to effectively given below.
anticipate, respond to, and recovers 1. On an average
from the impacts of disaster events. million
5. Prevention: The outright avoidance of people are affected by different types of
adverse impacts of hazards and related disasters every year.
disasters. a) 423 b) 232
6. Public awareness: The extent of c) 322 d) 332
common knowledge about disaster
risks, the factors that lead to disasters
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