MODULE 2 • To be truly efficient, pneumatic actuators must be sized for a

Hydraulic and Pneumatic actuators specific job. Hence, they cannot be used for other applications.
A linear actuator moves a load, which can be an assembly, Accurate control and efficiency requires proportional regulators and
components, or a finished product, in a straight line. It converts valves, but this raises the costs and complexity.
energy into a motion or force and can be powered by pressurized • Even though the air is easily available, it can be contaminated by oil
fluid or air, as well as electricity. or lubrication, leading to downtime and maintenance. Companies still
have to pay for compressed air, making it a consumable, and the
How They Work
compressor and lines are another maintenance issue.
• Pneumatic linear actuators consist of a piston inside a hollow
cylinder. Pressure from an external compressor or manual pump Hydraulic Actuators
moves the piston inside the cylinder. As pressure increases, the Advantages
cylinder moves along the axis of the piston, creating a linear force. • Hydraulic actuators are rugged and suited for high-force
The piston returns to its original position by either a spring-back applications. They can produce forces 25 times greater than
force or fluid being supplied to the other side of the piston. pneumatic cylinders of equal size. They also operate in pressures of
• Hydraulic linear actuators operate similarly to pneumatic actuators, up to 4,000 psi.
but an incompressible liquid from a pump rather than pressurized air • Hydraulic motors have high horsepower-to-weight ratio by 1 to 2
moves the cylinder. hp/lb greater than a pneumatic motor
• An electric linear actuator converts electrical energy into torque. An • A hydraulic actuator can hold force and torque constant without the
electric motor mechanically connected turns a lead screw. A threaded pump supplying more fluid or pressure due to the incompressibility
lead or ball nut with corresponding threads that match those of the of fluids
screw is prevented from rotating with the screw. When the screw • Hydraulic actuators can have their pumps and motors located a
rotates, the nut gets driven along the threads. The direction the nut considerable distance away with minimal loss of power.
moves depends on which direction the screw rotates and also returns Disadvantages
the actuator to its original position. • Hydraulics will leak fluid. Like pneumatic actuators, loss of fluid
leads to less efficiency. However, hydraulic fluid leaks lead to
Pneumatic Actuators
cleanliness problems and potential damage to surrounding
Advantages
components and areas.
• The benefits of pneumatic actuators come from their simplicity.
• Hydraulic actuators require many companion parts, including a
Most pneumatic aluminum actuators have a maximum pressure rating
fluid reservoir, motors, pumps, release valves, and heat exchangers,
of 150 psi with bore sizes ranging from ½ to 8 in., which translate
along with noise-reduction equipment. This makes for linear motions
into approximately 30 to 7,500 lb. of force. Steel actuators have a
systems that are large and difficult to accommodate.
maximum pressure rating of 250 psi with bore sizes ranging from ½
to 14 in., and they generate forces ranging from 50 to 38,465 lbf.
Directional control valves
• Pneumatic actuators generate precise linear motion by providing
accuracy, for example, within 0.1 inches and repeatability within .001 Directional control valves are one of the most fundamental parts
inches. in hydraulic machinery as well as pneumatic machinery. They allow
• Pneumatic actuators typical applications involve areas of extreme fluid flow into different paths from one or more sources. They
temperatures. A typical temperature range is -40°F to 250°F. In terms usually consist of a spool inside a cylinder which is mechanically or
of safety and inspection, by using air, pneumatic actuators avoid electrically controlled. The movement of the spool restricts or permits
using hazardous materials. They meet explosion protection and the flow, thus it controls the fluid flow.
machine safety requirements because they create no magnetic Nomenclature
interference due to their lack of motors. The spool (sliding type) consists of lands and grooves. The lands
• In recent years, pneumatics has seen many advances in block oil flow through the valve body. The grooves allow oil or gas
miniaturization, materials, and integration with electronics and to flow around the spool and through the valve body. There are two
condition monitoring. The cost of pneumatic actuators is low fundamental positions of directional control valve namely normal
compared to other actuators. position where valve returns on removal of actuating force and other
Disadvantages is working position which is position of a valve when actuating force
• Pressure losses and air’s compressibility make pneumatics less is applied. There is another class of valves with 3 or more position
efficient than other linear-motion methods. Compressor and air that can be spring centered with 2 working position and a normal
delivery limitations mean that operations at lower pressures will have position.
lower forces and slower speeds. A compressor must run continually
operating pressure even if nothing is moving.

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Classification and cracking pressure is sometimes known as pressure
Directional control valves can be classified according to: Number of differential, also known as pressure override.
ports, number of positions, actuating methods, Type of spool
Process control valves
Number of positions
Process control is an engineering discipline that deals with the use of
Including the normal and working positions which a valve spool can
a media, control components, feedback sensors, mechanical and/or
take there are types like two position, three position and proportional
computerized controllers, and sometimes human activity to produce a
valve
specific output. These process range from that of a simple heating
Actuating methods
system where a thermostat is used to control a furnace, to large,
Manual, spring, electrical, pneumatic, and hydraulic
complex plants that produce high tech chemical products.
Manually operated
Manually operated valves work with simple levers or paddles where Ball Valves
the operator applies force to operate the valve. Spring force is 2-way Ball Valves
sometimes used to recover the position of valve. Some manual valves 2-way ball valves are extremely common and rather simple in design.
utilize either a lever or an external pneumatic or hydraulic signal to There is a ball with a hole bored through it that gets sandwiched
return the spool. between 2 seats that lead to the inlet and outlet. When the ball is in
Mechanically operated open position, the bore is parallel to the direction of flow and thus,
Mechanically operated valves apply forces by using cams, wheels, the media being controlled is allowed through unobstructed. By
rollers, etc., hence these valves are subjected to wear. turning the valve 90 degrees, the passage of media is completely
Hydraulically operated blocked. All of the ball valves we offer are full port, and all use the
A hydraulically operated Directional control valve works at much "floating ball" design, where in the closed position, the pressure
higher pressures than its pneumatic equivalent. They must therefore created by the upstream media actually improves the seal on the
be far more robust in nature so are precision machined from higher downstream seat. Ball valves are usually implemented in on/off
quality and strength materials. applications where you either have the valve completely open, or
completely closed.
Pressure control valves
3-way Ball Valves
Pressure-control valves are found in virtually every hydraulic system,
3-way ball valves are basically the same as 2-way, with 3 ports
and they assist in a variety of functions, from keeping system
instead of 2. In these valves, the ball's bore is either "L" shaped, or
pressures safely below a desired upper limit to maintaining a set
"T" shaped depending on the function to be performed.
pressure in part of a circuit
Pressure-control valves are found in virtually every Butterfly Valves
hydraulic system, and they assist in a variety of functions, from Butterfly valves are similar to ball valves in that they operate by
keeping system pressures safely below a desired upper limit to rotating obstructer 90 degrees from open to closed position. In these
maintaining a set pressure in part of a circuit. Types include relief, valves, however, the obstructer is a thin disc that turns sideways to
reducing, sequence, counterbalance, and unloading. All of these are open. The disc is perpendicular to flow and completely obstructs the
normally closed valves, except for reducing valves, which are flow in the closed position, and when rotated 90 degrees, the flow
normally open. For most of these valves, a restriction is necessary to travels around the thin profile of the sideways disc. These valves are
produce the required pressure control. One exception is the externally commonly used as basic on/off valves, but are also suited for
piloted unloading valve, which depends on an external signal for its proportional flow control by stopping the disc at intermediate
actuation. positions. When controlling processes on larger pipe sizes, weight
and cost are lower on butterfly valves when compared to ball and
Relief valves
plug valves of the same size.
Most fluid power systems are designed to operate within a preset
pressure range. This range is a function of the forces the actuators in
Rotary actuators
the system must generate to do the required work. Without
Rotary actuators are used to pivot a joint when a conventional
controlling or limiting these forces, the fluid power components (and
cylinder mounting proves impractical due to space, weight, or motion
expensive equipment) could be damaged. Relief valves avoid this
requirements.
hazard. They are the safeguards which limit maximum pressure in a
Rotary actuators can mount right at the equipment joint
system by diverting excess oil when pressures get too high.
without taking up the long stroke lengths required of cylinders.
Cracking pressure and pressure override —The pressure at which Rotary actuators also are not limited to the 90° pivot arc typical of
a relief valve first opens to allow fluid to flow through is known cylinders; they can achieve arc lengths of 180°, 360°, or even 720° or
as cracking pressure. When the valve is bypassing its full rated flow, more, depending on the configuration.
it is in a state of full-flow pressure. The difference between full-flow
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 acting, and double-acting models are available. Efficiencies range
from 70% to 95%.

In a rack-and-pinion actuator, Figure (d), a long piston with one

side machined into a rack engages a pinion to turn the output shaft.
This gear set principle is adaptable for use in fail-safe, single-acting
and double-acting models. Where balanced loading on the bearings is
required, two bi-directional pistons with parallel racks are used; both
racks engage the one centrally-located pinion. Rotation to 1,800° and
torque to 50 million lb-in. are available. Torque is constant and equal
in both directions.
Multiple-position rack-and-pinion actuators are available
that rotate the output shaft to several positions by varying the
pressure porting. Output positions can be in any sequence, allowing
the actuator to stop at or pass any intermediate position.
Rack-and-pinion actuators are particularly useful for heavy-
duty applications because they tolerate heavy side and end loads and
can accommodate large bearings. Because of their constant torque
output characteristics and resistance to drift, they are often used for
precision control. Efficiencies range from 85% to 92% in single rack
models and from 92% to 97% for double rack models.

An enclosed piston crank actuator, Figure (b), has an adjustable arc

of up to about 100°. This actuator is compact and has few mechanical
problems. Built-in bearing support overcomes side thrust forces. Fail-
safe versions are equipped with a spring that returns the shaft to a
safe position in case of power failure or loss of fluid. Torque
generation follows a sinusoidal distribution. Maximum torque is
produced at mid-stroke. Therefore, these actuators should be selected
to drive a load based on their minimum torque.

A scotch-yoke actuator, Figure (c), has two pistons connected

rigidly by a common rod. The central drive pin on the rod engages a
double yoke keyed to the output shaft which turns through arcs to 90°
maximum. Torque outputs at the beginning and end of the stroke
(breaking torque) is twice that at mid-point (running torque). This
characteristic is efficient because many applications require high
breaking torques to move and accelerate the load. Fail-safe, single-