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Different Paradigms For Problem Solving

The document discusses four main programming paradigms: procedural, object-oriented, functional, and logical. It provides details on each paradigm such as defining characteristics, examples of languages that use each paradigm, and features of each paradigm like encapsulation for object-oriented and pure functions for functional programming. The paradigms represent different approaches to programming such as procedural being step-by-step instructions while logical and functional are more declarative.

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Sandhya Rani
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264 views

Different Paradigms For Problem Solving

The document discusses four main programming paradigms: procedural, object-oriented, functional, and logical. It provides details on each paradigm such as defining characteristics, examples of languages that use each paradigm, and features of each paradigm like encapsulation for object-oriented and pure functions for functional programming. The paradigms represent different approaches to programming such as procedural being step-by-step instructions while logical and functional are more declarative.

Uploaded by

Sandhya Rani
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Programming Paradigms

Paradigm is a model that has distinct features, frameworks, patterns, and style which help
you solve a particular problem.

The languages may follow a particular paradigm or can be a combination of many


paradigms. 

4 different programming paradigms – 

Procedural,

Object-Oriented,

Functional and

Logical. 

1. Procedural Programming
Procedural programming can also be referred to as imperative programming. It is a
programming paradigm based upon the concept of procedure calls, in which
statements are structured into procedures (also known as subroutines or functions).
They are a list of instructions to tell the computer what to do step by step, Procedural
programming languages are known as top-down languages. Most of the early
programming languages are all procedural.

Examples of Fortran C and Cobol. Here is a sample code in COBOL.

Features of Procedural Code

 Procedural Programming is excellent for general-purpose programming


 The coded simplicity along with ease of implementation of compilers and interpreters
 A large variety of books and online course material available on tested algorithms,
making it easier to learn.
 The source code is portable
 The code can be reused in different parts of the program, without the need to copy it
 The program flow can be tracked easily as it has a top-down approach.
2. Logical Programming
Logical programming is a computer programming paradigm that has its foundations
in mathematical logic in which program statements express facts and rules about
problems within a system. Rules are written as logical clauses with a head and a
body. They also follow a declarative rather than an imperative approach. However,
what does that mean?
To understand how a problem can be solved in logical programming, you need to
know about the building blocks − Facts and Rules −
Let us understand the difference between Imperative and declarative programming.
Imagine you walk into your favorite coffee place and you would like to order some
coffee.
The imperative approach will be:

 Enter the coffee shop


 Queue in the line and wait for the barista asking you for your order
 Order
 Yes, for takeaway, please
 Pay
 Present your loyalty card to collect points
 Take your order and walk away

The declarative approach:

 A large latte for takeaway, please

So rather than providing a step by step instruction (imperative), you tell the system
what you need and let it try to come up with a solution (declarative).
Prolog follows the Logical paradigm and is probably the most famous language in
the logical programming family.
Prolog has been enormously influential in the domains of theorem proving, expert
systems, natural language processing and in the field of artificial intelligence
(notably IBM’s Watson2) in general

Prolog, like SQL, has two main aspects, one to express the data and another to
query it. The basic constructs of logical programming, terms, and statements, are
inherited from logic. There are three basic statements:

 Facts are fundamental assertions about the problem domain (e.g. "Socrates is a


man")
 Rules are inferences about facts in the domain (e.g. "All men are mortal.")
 Queries are questions about that domain (e.g. "Is Socrates mortal?")
Features of Logical Programming

 Logical programming can be used to express knowledge in a way that does not
depend on the
implementation, making programs more flexible, compressed and understandable.
 It enables knowledge to be separated from use, i.e. the machine architecture can be
changed
without changing programs or their underlying code.
 It can be altered and extended in natural ways to support special forms of
knowledge, such
as meta-level of higher-order knowledge.
 It can be used in non-computational disciplines relying on reasoning and precise
means of
expression.

3. Functional Programming
Functional programming is a programming paradigm where you have a style of
building the structure and elements of computer programs. Here you treat
computation as an evaluation of mathematical functions and you avoid changing-
state and mutable data.
Functional programming consists only of PURE functions. So, what do you
understand by Pure functions?
Pure functions are those which take an argument list as an input and whose output is
a return value. Now you may feel that all functions are pure as any function takes in
values and returns a value.
For example, if a function relies on the global variable or class member’s data, then it
is not pure. And in such cases, the return value of that function is not entirely
dependent on the list of arguments received as input and can also have side effects.
So, what do you understand by the term side effect? A side effect is a change in the
state of an application that is observable outside the called function other than its
return value. For example: Modifying any external variable or object property such as
a global variable, or a variable in the parent function scope chain.

Features of Functional Paradigm

 Pure functions – As seen above, if the input is an array, the output will be a new
array and the input array will not be modified. So in case of pure functions, the output
depends only on the input.

Here’s a function in the language Scala that takes values and returns their sum.

scala> def add(a:Int,b:Int) = a + b

add: (a: Int, b: Int)Int


The add function caused no side-effects. It did not alter the input values provided, it
used another pure function, the + operator, and returned the sum of the values as
the result of the call. The add function is a pure function.

 Recursion-A recursive function is a function that calls itself during its execution. This
enables the function to repeat itself several times, the result being outputted at the
end of each iteration. Below is an example of a recursive function.

Function Count (integer N)

if (N <= 0) return "Must be a Positive Integer";

if (N > 9) return "Counting Completed";

else return Count (N+1);

end function

The function Count() above uses recursion to count from any number between 1 and
9, to the number 10. For example, Count(1) would return 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10. Count(7)
would return 8,9,10.

4. Object-Oriented Programming(OO):
In this framework, all real-world entities are represented by Classes. Objects are
instances of classes so each object encapsulates a state and behavior. State implies
the fields, attributes of the object and behavior is what you do with the state of the
object and they are the methods. Objects interact with each other by passing
messages.

Features of OO:

 Encapsulation – This is a fundamental feature of Object-Oriented Programming.


Here you hide unnecessary details in classes and deliver a simple and clear interface
for working. It describes the idea of bundling data and methods that work on that data
within one unit. This concept is also often used to hide the internal representation, or
state, of an object from the outside
 Inheritance - Inheritance is one of the core concepts of object-oriented programming
(OOP) languages. It is a mechanism where you can derive a class from another
class for a hierarchy of classes that share a set of attributes and methods. It explains
how the class hierarchies develop code readability and support to the reuse of
functionality.
 Data Abstraction - to Data abstraction is the reduction of a particular body of data to
a simplified representation of the whole. Data abstraction is usually the first step in
database design.
 Polymorphism - Polymorphism is an object-oriented programming concept that
refers to the ability of a variable, function or object to take on multiple forms.

Programming languages that have implemented the OO paradigm are: Ruby, Java,
C++, Python, Simula(the first OOP language)

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