LECTURE NO.

UNRAVELLING DISCOURSE AND DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Objectives:
At the end of the lecture you must have:
1. recognized the features of a discourse;
2. familiarized the nature and processes of discourse analysis;
3. appreciated the importance of discourse in communication and social context.

What is Discourse?

In linguistics, discourse refers to a unit of language longer than a single sentence. The word

discourse is derived from the latin prefix dis- meaning "away" and the root
word currere meaning "to run". Discourse, therefore, translates to "run away" and refers to the
way that conversations flow. To study discourse is to analyze the use of spoken or written
language in a social context.

Social context refers to the specific setting in which social interaction takes place. Social context
includes specific, often unique meanings and interpretations assigned by people within the
given group.

Discourse studies look at the form and function of language in conversation beyond its small
grammatical pieces such as phonemes and morphemes. This field of study, which Dutch
linguist Teun van Dijk is largely responsible for developing, is interested in how larger units of
language—including lexemes, syntax, and context—contribute meaning to conversations.

"Discourse is the way in which language is used socially to convey broad historical meanings. It
is language identified by the social conditions of its use, by who is using it and under what
conditions. Language can never be 'neutral' because it bridges our personal and social worlds,"
(Henry and Tator 2002).

Subcategories of Discourse

"Discourse can...be used to refer to particular contexts of language use, and in this sense, it
becomes similar to concepts like genre or text type. For example, we can conceptualize political
discourse (the sort of language used in political contexts) or media discourse (language used in
the media).

In addition, some writers have conceived of discourse as related to particular topics, such as an
environmental discourse or colonial discourse...Such labels sometimes suggest a particular
attitude towards a topic (e.g. people engaging in environmental discourse would generally be
expected to be concerned with protecting the environment rather than wasting resources).
Related to this, Foucault...defines discourse more ideologically as 'practices which
systematically form the objects of which they speak'," (Baker and Ellece 2013).

Source: https://www.thoughtco.com/discourse-language-term-1690464

Discourse Analysis

Discourse analysis, also called discourse studies, was developed during the 1970s as an

academic field. Discourse analysis is a broad term for the study of the ways in which language is
used between people, both in written texts and spoken contexts.

Discourse analysis is sometimes defined as the analysis of language 'beyond the sentence'. This
contrasts with types of analysis more typical of modern linguistics, which are chiefly concerned
with the study of grammar: the study of smaller bits of language, such as sounds (phonetics and
phonology), parts of words (morphology), meaning (semantics), and the order of words in
sentences (syntax). Discourse analysts study larger chunks of language as they flow together.

Discourse analysis is the study of social life, understood through analysis of language in its
widest sense (including face-to-face talk, non-verbal interaction, images, symbols and
documents).1 It offers ways of investigating meaning, whether in conversation or in
culture.2 Discourse analytic studies encompass a broad range of theories, topics and analytic
approaches for explaining language in use. They ask ‘What is social life like?’ and ‘What are the
implications for individuals and/or wider society?’

Some discourse analysts consider the larger discourse context in order to understand how it
affects the meaning of the sentence. For example, Charles Fillmore points out that two
sentences taken together as a single discourse can have meanings different from each one
taken separately. To illustrate, he asks you to imagine two independent signs at a swimming
pool: "Please use the toilet, not the pool," says one. The other announces, "Pool for members
only." If you regard each sign independently, they seem quite reasonable. But taking them
together as a single discourse makes you go back and revise your interpretation of the first
sentence after you've read the second.

"Discourse is not produced without context and cannot be understood without taking context
into consideration ... Discourses are always connected to other discourses which were
produced earlier, as well as those which are produced synchronically and subsequently."
In other words, language does not have a fixed, objective meaning, but is coloured by a whole
range of situational factors: the author's belief system, the surrounding political, economic and
social context, any professional community to which the person belongs – which will have its
own jargon (as in medical or legal) – as well as the immediate situation in which the words were
uttered.

In discourse analysis, the context of a conversation is taken into account as well as what's being
said. This context may encompass a social and cultural framework, including the location of a
speaker at the time of the discourse, as well as nonverbal cues such as body language, and, in
the case of textual communication, it may also include images and symbols. "[It's] the study of
real language use, by real speakers in real situations," explains Teun A. van Dijk, a noted author
and scholar in the field.

Academic Applications of Discourse Analysis

There are many avenues we can study through the lens of discourse analysis including
discourse during a political debate, discourse in advertising, television programming/media,
interviewing, and storytelling. By looking at the context of language use, not simply the words,
we can understand nuanced layers of meaning that are added by the social or institutional
aspects at work, such as gender, power imbalance, conflicts, cultural background, and racism.
As a result, discourse analysis can be used to study inequality in society, such as institutional
racism, inherent bias in media, and sexism. We can also use it to examine and interpret
discussions regarding religious symbols located in public places.

How Discourse Analysis Differs from Grammar Analysis

Unlike grammar analysis, which focuses on the structure of sentences, discourse analysis
focuses on the broad and general use of language within and between particular groups of
people. Another important distinction is that while grammarians typically construct the
examples they analyze, the analysis of discourse relies on actual writings and speech of the
group being studied to determine popular usage.

In terms of textual analysis, grammarians may examine texts in isolation for elements such as
the art of persuasion or word choice (diction), but only discourse analysis takes into account the
social and cultural context of a given text.

In terms of verbal expression, discourse analysis takes in the colloquial, cultural, and living use
of language—including each and every "um," "er," and "you know," as well as slips of the
tongue, and awkward pauses. Grammar analysis, on the other hand, relies entirely on sentence
structure, word usage, and stylistic choices. This does, of course, often include a cultural
ingredient but it's missing the human element of spoken discourse.

SOME PROMINENT THINKERS IN DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Many writers have contributed to the field of discourse analysis, but two of the most prominent
are Norman Fairclough and Michel Foucault.

Norman Fairclough is the father of critical discourse analysis. He comes to discourse analysis
from a linguistics and language perspective; he is emeritus professor in the Department of
Linguistics and English Language at the University of Lancaster, UK.
Fairclough sees discourse as:

"a social practice which constructs social identities, social relations and the knowledge and
meaning systems of the social world ... [which] both reflects and produces the ideas and
assumptions relating to the ways in which personal identities, social relations, and knowledge
systems are constituted through social practice" (Nielson and Nørreklit, 2009; p. 204).
In other words, critical discourse analysis sees the language of discourse as a kind of two-way
mirror: it both reflects and contributes to the social world, its knowledge systems and its social
relationships.

There are two dimensions to critical discourse analysis: the "communicative event", or the
specific incident of language use, and that which Fairclough terms "discourse order", which is
the "discourse practices" or the way language is used within a particular social institution (for
example, the particular vocabulary used within an organization) or domain area (for example,
linguistics, sociology, or medicine).

Critical discourse analysis uses three levels of analysis (Nielson and Nørreklit, 2009; p. 205):
1. The text of the communicative event itself, with reference to its vocabulary, its use of
metaphor and rhetorical forms, its grammar and the relationship between sentences,
the types of argument used.
2. The discourse practice – i.e. how the particular communicative event changes or copies
existing practice within that particular discourse.
3. The wider social practice of which the communicative event forms part.

Critical discourse analysis combines an "internal" study of language with "external" study of its
context – how the text is affected by social practices and relations (Cheng, 2009). The term
"intertextuality" is often used – which means the need for one text to be read in the light of its
allusions to and differences from the content or structure of other texts. Critical discourse
analysis can often be used to reveal power relationships, and how certain groups can be
marginalized.

Nielson and Nørreklit (2009) apply critical discourse analysis to the field of management
coaching, which they depict diagrammatically in Figure 1 as follows:

Figure 1. Model of critical discourse analysis as applied to management coaching

The approach of Michel Foucault, the French philosopher, sociologist and historian, is more
abstract and less linguistically based than that of Fairclough. Although he acknowledged the
role of language in the creation and formation of knowledge, he was not concerned with the
analysis of spoken and written language and texts. He was more interested in the rules that
determine which statements are accepted as meaningful, and the links between power and
knowledge: expert knowledge in a particular domain can act as a system of control, and
knowledge is institutionally contingent (Haider and Bawden, 2007).

Discourse Analysis—What Speakers Do in Conversation

Discourse and Frames

'Reframing' is a way to talk about going back and re-interpreting the meaning of the first
sentence. Frame analysis is a type of discourse analysis that asks,

What activity are speakers engaged in when they say this?

What do they think they are doing by talking in this way at this time?

Consider how hard it is to make sense of what you are hearing or reading if you don't know
who's talking or what the general topic is. When you read a newspaper, you need to know
whether you are reading a news story, an editorial, or an advertisement in order to properly
interpret the text you are reading. Years ago, when Orson Welles' radio play "The War of the
Worlds" was broadcast, some listeners who tuned in late panicked, thinking they were hearing
the actual end of the world. They mistook the frame for news instead of drama.

Turn-taking

Conversation is an enterprise in which one person speaks, and another listens. Discourse
analysts who study conversation note that speakers have systems for determining when one
person's turn is over and the next person's turn begins. This exchange of turns or 'floors' is
signaled by such linguistic means as intonation, pausing, and phrasing. Some people await a
clear pause before beginning to speak, but others assume that 'winding down' is an invitation
to someone else to take the floor. When speakers have different assumptions about how turn
exchanges are signaled, they may inadvertently interrupt or feel interrupted. On the other
hand, speakers also frequently take the floor even though they know the other speaker has not
invited them to do so.

Listenership too may be signaled in different ways. Some people expect frequent nodding as
well as listener feedback such as 'mhm', 'uhuh', and 'yeah'. Less of this than you expect can
create the impression that someone is not listening; more than you expect can give the
impression that you are being rushed along. For some, eye contact is expected nearly
continually; for others, it should only be intermittent. The type of listener response you get can
change how you speak: If someone seems uninterested or uncomprehending (whether or not
they truly are), you may slow down, repeat, or over explain, giving the impression you are
'talking down.' Frederick Erickson has shown that this can occur in conversations between black
and white speakers, because of different habits with regard to showing listenership.

Discourse Markers

'Discourse markers' is the term linguists give to the little words like 'well', 'oh', 'but', and 'and'
that break our speech up into parts and show the relation between parts. 'Oh' prepares the
hearer for a surprising or just-remembered item, and 'but' indicates that sentence to follow is in
opposition to the one before. However, these markers don't necessarily mean what the
dictionary says they mean. Some people use 'and' just to start a new thought, and some people
put 'but' at the end of their sentences, as a way of trailing off gently. Realizing that these words
can function as discourse markers is important to prevent the frustration that can be
experienced if you expect every word to have its dictionary meaning every time it's used.

Speech Acts

Speech act analysis asks not what form the utterance takes but what it does. Saying "I now
pronounce you man and wife" enacts a marriage. Studying speech acts such as complimenting
allows discourse analysts to ask what counts as a compliment, who gives compliments to
whom, and what other function they can serve. For example, linguists have observed that
women are more likely both to give compliments and to get them. There are also cultural
differences; in India, politeness requires that if someone compliments one of your possessions,
you should offer to give the item as a gift, so complimenting can be a way of asking for things.
An Indian woman who had just met her son's American wife was shocked to hear her new
daughter-in-law praise her beautiful saris. She commented, "What kind of girl did he marry?
She wants everything!" By comparing how people in different cultures use language, discourse
analysts hope to make a contribution to improving cross-cultural understanding.
by Deborah Tannen

AREAS OF CONCERNS IN DOING DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Discourse analysis
Vocabulary Words and phrases can be analyzed
for ideological associations, formality,
and euphemistic and metaphorical
content.
Grammar The way that sentences are
constructed (e.g. verb tenses, active
or passive construction, and the use of
imperatives and questions) can reveal
aspects of intended meaning.
Structure The structure of a text can be
analyzed for how it creates emphasis
or builds a narrative.
Genre Texts can be analyzed in relation to
the conventions and communicative
aims of their genre (e.g. political
speeches or tabloid newspaper
articles).
Non-verbal communication Non-verbal aspects of speech, such as
tone of voice, pauses, gestures, and
sounds like “um”, can reveal aspects
of a speaker’s intentions, attitudes,
and emotions.
Conversational codes The interaction between people in a
conversation, such as turn-taking,
interruptions and listener response,
can reveal aspects of cultural
conventions and social roles.

HOW TO CONDUCT DISCOURSE ANALYSIS?

Discourse analysis is a qualitative and interpretive method of analyzing texts (in contrast to

more systematic methods like content analysis). You make interpretations based on both the
details of the material itself and on contextual knowledge.

There are many different approaches and techniques you can use to conduct discourse analysis,
but the steps below outline the basic steps you need to follow.

Step 1: Define the research question and select the content of analysis

To do discourse analysis, you begin with a clearly defined research question. Once you have
developed your question, select a range of material that is appropriate to answer it.
Discourse analysis is a method that can be applied both to large volumes of material and to
smaller samples, depending on the aims and timescale of your research.
You want to study how a particular regime change from dictatorship to democracy has affected
the public relations rhetoric of businesses in the country. You decide to examine the mission
statements and marketing material of the 10 largest companies within five years of the regime
change.
Step 2: Gather information and theory on the context

Next, you must establish the social and historical context in which the material was produced
and intended to be received. Gather factual details of when and where the content was
created, who the author is, who published it, and whom it was disseminated to.

As well as understanding the real-life context of the discourse, you can also conduct a literature
review on the topic and construct a theoretical framework to guide your analysis.
You research factual information on the politics and history of the country and on the
businesses you are studying. You also research theory on democratic transitions and the
relationship between government and business.

Step 3: Analyze the content for themes and patterns

This step involves closely examining various elements of the material – such as words,
sentences, paragraphs, and overall structure – and relating them to attributes, themes, and
patterns relevant to your research question.
You analyze the selected material for wording and statements that reflect or relate to
authoritarian and democratic political ideologies, including attitudes toward authority, liberal
values, and popular opinion.

Step 4: Review your results and draw conclusions

Once you have assigned particular attributes to elements of the material, reflect on your results
to examine the function and meaning of the language used. Here, you will consider your
analysis in relation to the broader context that you established earlier to draw conclusions that
answer your research question.

Your analysis shows that the material published before the regime change used language that
emphasized the quality and necessity of its services and products, while the material published
after the shift to a democratic regime emphasized the needs and values of the consumer. You
compare the results with your research on the ideology and rhetoric of the political regimes,
and infer that the shifting political context shaped the communication strategies of national
businesses.

Sources:
https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/discourse-analysis/#:~:text=Discourse%20analysis
%20is%20a%20research,of%20different%20types%20of%20language
https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/discourse-analysis-what-speakers-do-conversation
https://www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/how-to/research/data-analysis/use-discourse-
analysis
https://www.thoughtco.com/discourse-analysis-or-da-1690462
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2743732/

Prepared by:

Elmerson L. Barañao
Instructor I
MCC