English

Basic english

Vocabulary
What is vocabulary?

The noun vocabulary (or vocab for short) refers to the words used in a language.

The word vocabulary can have at least three different meanings:

1. All of the words in a language

 New words are constantly being added to the vocabulary of English.

2. The words used in a particular context

 If you want to do an MBA you need to improve your business

vocabulary.
 My neighbour is a doctor so he has an extensive medical vocabulary.

3. The words an individual person knows

 The teacher says that my vocabulary is good.

Example :

Air Amount
Animal Answer
Amount Art
Approval Base
Attack Behaviour
Black Birth
Blood Blow

Give your own example:

What is noun?
Noun (noun): a word that identifies any of group of person, birds,animal,place or
thing(Common noun)are called noun .

There are two types of naming word:common names and special names.

Common names

The simple definition is: a person, place,animal,birds or thing.

Special names

Boy and girls are common name. Rohit and mala are special name.

Our pet also have special names. Dog is common name. Ruby ia a special name.

Special names always begin with a Capital letter.

Here are some Common name examples:

Person: doctor,man, woman, teacher, Driver, Policeman.

Place: home, park,bus stop,zoo.

Animals and Birds:owl,hen, crow, rabbit

Things: bag, book, tomato

Example:

 Asoka was a king.

 Sita is a good girl.
 The Postman brings letter for us.
 The peacock is our national bird.
 Delhiis the capital of india.
 China is the most populous country in the world.
 Bill Gates is the richest person in the world.

Few more example:

1. time
2. person
3. year
4. way
5. day
6. thing
7. man
8. world
9. life
10. Hand

Excersice:

Circle the noun(naming words):

1. The baby is playing with a balloon.
2. The monkey is wearing a cap.
3. The cow gives us milk.
4. Father is writing a letter.
5. The gardener is watering the plants.
6. The bear climbed up the tree.
7. There are two sparrow in the nest.
8. The chldren are walking to the school.
S
S
What is Pronoun?

A word that is used instead of a noun or noun phrase is called pronoun.

Pronouns are short words and can do everything that nouns can do .

Common pronouns are he, she, it, you, me, I, we, us,
this, them, that.
Example:

o He is my friend sanal.
o She is kareena.
o You are a good dancer.
o It is my book.
o You are my friend.
o I live in Mumbai.
o We are Indians.
o This is a lion.
o That is an aeroplane.

What is Verb?

Verbs are the action words in a sentence.

Verbs tells us what the Persons,animals or things do.

Along with nouns, verbs are the main part of a sentence , telling a story
about what is taking place.

In fact, without a verb, full thoughts can’t be properly conveyed, and even
the simplest sentences, such as “Maria sings”, have one.

Actually, a verb can be a sentence by itself, with the subject, in most case
you, such as, Sing! and Drive!
Example:

 John eats his dinner.
 We went to the market.
 You write neatly in your notebook.
 The cow eats grass
 He kicked John.
 John punches him.
 They sold the tickets.

Adjective(describing)
What is Adjective and an example?
 Adjectives are words that are used to describe the nouns or pronouns.
 Adjective describe persons,animals or birds,places,or things.
 Adjective words tell us about shapes,sizes and colours.
 They tell us about special qualities. They may also tell us how many there
are.
For example, red, quick, happy, and obnoxious are adjectives because they can
describe things—a red hat, the quick rabbit, a happy duck.
Example:
Red ross.
A Tall tree.
A Black shoes.
A Wollen cap.
A sunny day.
A wet towel.

Exersice:

Fill in the blank with correct adjective:

1. The elephnt is a _____________animal.(small,large)
2. Yesterday was a _________day(hot,cold).

3. This glass is ___________(empty,full)

4. Richa is a _________(tall,short )girl.

 5. Sam is wearinga ___________ jacket.(brown,black)

What is Prepostion?

A preposition is a word or group of words used before a noun, pronoun, to show

direction,
time,
place,
location,
spatial relationships,
or to introduce an object.

Some examples of prepositions are words like "in," "at," "on," "of," and "to."

Example:

She kept all the coin in the box.

Samar is good at volley ball.
The baby crawled under the bed.
Malar house is near the library.
We went out to buy some food.
Singular and plural

Naming word may stand for one or more than one,

Chair- one chair
Chairs-more than one chair
When naming word stands for more than one, it often ends in –s or –es.
Exersice:
A,An or the
The alphabet is made up of 26 letters, 5 of which are vowels (a, e, i, o, u)
and the rest of which are consonants. A vowel is a sound that is made by
allowing breath to flow out of the mouth, without closing any part of the mouth
or throat.

When the word begins with a vowel sound (a,e,i,o,u) then you should
use 'an' . When the word begins with a consonant you should use 'a'.
This ,that these,those
This is used for a person,place or things that is near us.
That is used for a person,place or thing that is far from
us.
 This ...for one
 That...for one
 These...for more than one
 Those...for more than one
I,YOU ,HE,SHE,IT
I,YOU... a boy,a girl,a man or a woman
He... a boy or a man
She..a girl or a woman
It... non-living things;animals and birds when they do
not have a special name.
We,you they
We... more than one person
You...one or more than one person
They... more than one person or thing

Example:
We are at kumar birthday party,
We are happy
You are very good children.
They are good student
Is,are ,am
Singular, Plural and Is, am, are
Am is used with first person singular (I)
Is – is used with third person singular (he, she, Ramu, Manisha)
Are – is used with third person plural (They, Indians, judges)
 Have,HAS
I,WE,YOU,THEY...have
HE,she,it...has

Sentence construction
sentence type
Simple
Complex
Compound
Compound-complex
The Simple Sentence
When we write, a complete thought is called a sentence. A sentence must
contain a complete subject (person, place, or thing) and a verb (what the subject
is doing) in order to make sense. A simple sentence must also begin with a capital
letter and end with a period, question mark, or exclamation mark. Another name
for a simple sentence is an independent clause.

Example:

The baby cried.

This is a sentence because it tells us what someone (subject – the baby)
does (verb – cried).

Birds fly.
This is a sentence because it tells us what something (subject – birds) does
(verb – fly).
 My computer.
This is not a sentence because it has a subject (my computer) but no verb.

Crashed.
This is a verb, which tells us what happened (crashed), but there is no subject.

My computer crashed.
This is a sentence because it tells us what something (subject – my computer)

Remember, a sentence can end with a period, question mark, or exclamation

mark.

Grace ran.

Did Grace run?

Grace ran faster than Nicole!

An exclamation mark expresses strong emotion or emphasis.

Compound Subjects and Verbs

A simple sentence can have two subjects – Kate and I.
A sentence can also have a subject performing two actions (verbs) – We sang
and danced.
A sentence can have a verb phrase – I will go to the bank after work.
A sentence could have both two subjects and two verbs – Kate and I sang and
danced.
Coordinate Conjunctions

Join two simple sentences together with a comma and coordinate

conjunction.

The coordinate conjunction shows the relationship between two sentences of

equal importance. There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or,
nor, so, yet

I love hockey, but I hate cold hockey rinks.

I hate cold hockey rinks, yet I love hockey.

I love cold hockey rinks, so I signed up for hockey.

I don’t like hockey, nor do I like cold hockey rinks.

 Notice how each coordinate conjunction helps to change the meaning of the
sentence.

But

And

For

Nor

Yet
Conjunctive Adverb
You can also use conjunctive adverbs to link together two simple sentences
with a semicolon. Conjunctive adverbs, like coordinate conjunctions previously
described, are words that show the relationship between two simple sentences
of equal importance. Examples of conjunctive adverbs are listed below:

accordingly

afterwards

also

anyway

besides

consequently
furthermore

however indeed in fact instead instead likewise nevertheless nonetheless

otherwise similarly still therefore thus.

I love hockey; however, I hate cold hockey rinks. I hate cold hockey rinks;
nonetheless, I love hockey. I dislike cold hockey rinks; therefore, I never play
hockey

When using conjunctive adverbs to link simple sentences, put a semicolon

before and a comma after the adverb. Remember, both sides of the joining word
are complete sentences and must make sense on their own.
 Compound Sentences—Joining Two Ideas Together
A simple sentence contains a subject, complete verb, capital at the beginning,
and punctuation at the end.
It must make sense on its own. It is also called an independent clause.
A compound sentence follows the same rules as a simple sentence, except it
basically contains TWO simple sentences with a LINK in the middle. There are
three ways to link simple sentences together to form a compound sentence.

Semicolon
A semicolon ( ; ) can join two simple sentences closely related in meaning. It is
like a weak period; it indicates a strong connection between the two sentences.
Each side of the semicolon must be able to stand alone as an independent
sentence (also called an independent clause).
I love hockey; I hate cold hockey rinks. I love hockey; cold rinks I can do
without.
The letter after the semicolon should not be capitalized.
 Complex Sentence
A complex sentence contains two simple sentences (clauses), but one is more
important than the other. Again, as in some compound sentences, the two
sentences are connected with a joining word.
The linking word (subordinate conjunction) makes the clause following it less
important than the other clause.
The linking word also makes the clause following it dependent upon the rest of
the sentence to make sense.

Don’t forget your homework when you go to school.

or When you go to school, don’t forget your homework.

The main message here is don’t forget your homework.This is the independent
or main clause.
 The dependent, or less important clause, is when you go to school.Notice that
when you go to school contains a subject and complete verb but does not make
sense on its own.
It is dependent upon the rest of the sentence to make sense.
The linking word can go at the beginning of the sentence or in the middle. If the
linking word is at the beginning of the sentence, you need a comma after the first
clause.

Because I completed all my homework, I am going out with my friends tonight.

or I am going out with my friends tonight because I completed all my
homework.
The main message is I am going out with my friends tonight.

This makes sense on its own. The half containing the linking word because is
less important and does not make sense on its own.
The following list of words can be used at the beginning of:
a dependent clause
a clause that lacks a subject
a clause that lacks a verb
a complete idea that cannot stand on its own.
Question statement construction
Questions

A statement is a sentence that tells you something.

A question is a sentence that asks you something. A statement does not require

an answer.

A question requires an answer.

 statement I like Englishdrama.  
:

question: Do you like Englishdrama? Yes

Why do you like Englishdrama? Because...

A written question in English always ends with a question mark: ?

Question Structure

The basic structure of a question is:

auxiliary verb + subject + main verb

Look at these example sentences. They all have the auxiliary verb before the
subject:

  auxiliary verb subject main verb  

  Do you Like Mary?

  Are they playing football?

  Will banu Go to patna?

   auxiliary verb subject main verb  

  Did he Leave early?

Why did he Leave early?

When will he return?  

Exception! For the main verb be in Present Simple and Past Simple, there is no
auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences. They all have the main verb
before the subject:

  main verb be subject  

  Am I wrong?

  Are they Thai?

  Was it hot outside?

Wh were you late?

y

Questions are also known as "interrogatives".

Question Types
There are three basic question types:

 Yes/No: the answer is "yes or no"

 Question-word: the answer is "information"
 Choice: the answer is "in the question"

We look at these in more detail below.

Yes/No questions

Sometimes the only answer that we need is yes or no. Look at these examples:

auxiliary verb subject no main verb   answer:

t yes or no

Do you   Want dinner? Yes, I do.

Can you   drive?   No, I can't.

Has she no Finished her work? Yes, she has.

t

Did they   Go home? No, they didn't.

Exception! Main verb be in Present Simple and Past Simple:

 main subject  
verb be

Is dolly panjabi?

Was Ram at home?

Question-word questions

Sometimes we want more than yes or no for an answer. When asking for
information, we usually place a question-word at the beginning of the sentence.
The question-word indicates the information that we want, for
example: where (place), when (time), why (reason), who (person). Look at these
examples:

question auxiliary not subjec main   answer:

word verb t verb information

Where do   you live?   In jharkhand.

When will   we have lunch? At 1pm.

Why has n't Tara done it? Because she

can't.

Who(m) did   she meet?   She met Ram.

 question auxiliary not subjec main   answer:
word verb t verb information

Who* has     run out? Raju has run

out.

Who**       ran out? raju ran out.

*When the question-word is who, it acts as the subject.

**In Present Simple and Past Simple tenses, there is no auxiliary verb with who.

Exception. Main verb be in Present Simple and Past Simple:

question word main Subject

verb be

Where is Bombay?

How was she?

Choice questions

Sometimes we give our listener a choice. We ask them to choose between two
possible answers. So their answer is (usually) already in the question. Look at
these examples:
 auxiliary verb subject main   or   answer:
verb in question

Do you want tea or coffee? Coffee, please.

Will we meet John or James? John.

Exception. Main verb be in Present Simple and Past Simple:

main subject   OR  
verb be

Is your car whit or black?

e

Were they $15 or $50?

Questions With Greetings: Saying Hello
Start the conversation with a greeting. Examples include:

 How are you? (formal)

 How's it going? (informal)
 What's up? (informal)
 How's life? (informal)

Practice Dialogue:
  Mary: What's up?
 Jane: Nothing much. How are you?
 Mary: I'm fine. 

Using Questions to Exchange Personal Information

Here are some of the most common questions used when asking for
personal information:

 What's your name?

 Where are you from?
 What's your surname/family name?
 What's your first name?
 Where do you live?
 What's your address? 
 What's your telephone number?
 What's your email address?
 How old are you?
 When / Where were you born?
 Are you married?
 What is your marital status?
 What do you do?/What's your Job?

Phonetics
"Phonetics" refers to the way in which we make the sound of words.

To pronounce words, we push air from our lungs up through our throat and
vocal chords, through our mouth, past our tongue and out between our teeth and
lips. (Sometimes air also travels through our nose.)

To change the sound that we are making, we mainly use the muscles of our
mouth, tongue and lips to control the shape of our mouth and the flow of air. If
we can control the shape of our mouth and the flow of air correctly, then our
pronunciation is clearer and other people understand us more easily.

Difference Between Vowels versus

Consonants
The problem is, the English language is not phonetic. The first thing you must
know is the difference between vowels and consonants. There are 26 letters in
the English alphabet. 5 represents vowels and 21 for consonants. 

The main difference is the way you produce the sound.

Vowel sounds can be produced by continuous airflow. Try speaking A, E, I, O, U.

The sound is made without interrupting (like closing the lips or blocking the air
with your tongue).

On the other hand, consonant sounds are made when you obstruct the airflow by
closing your mouth (try producing the “m” sound), blocking your tongue (try the
“l” sound), or similar actions (try saying the “p” and “k” sound).

The Difficulty of Learning English Words

But these sounds can differ when based on the position of the vowels and their
combinations with the consonants. And sometimes, it just isn’t apparent. It
makes learning English words more difficult. 

Certain words that look alike might not be said the same way. It is because words
with similar spelling might not represent the same sounds.

For example, similar-looking words like “tear” (as in the fluid when you cry) and
“tear” (as in to pull apart in pieces by force) have different pronunciations
despite having the same spelling.
Another example is words like “stair” and “stare.” They have different spellings
but the same pronunciations. 

Short Vowels

These are vowels you pronounce with a short breath. Here are the common
symbols for short vowels. 

 æ (sound) – pass, back, have, had, contact

 ɛ (sound) – every, ever, never, necessary, end

 ʌ (sound) – cup, flood, love, come, thumb

 ʊ (sound) – book, foot, woman, full, would

 ɒ (sound) – of, often, office, squat, offer

 ə (sound) – mother, stuff, ago, action, never 

Long Vowels

These are vowels that are pronounced the same way you pronounce its name.
Here are the common symbols for long vowels:

 i: (sound) – be, need, feel, she, free

 ɜ: (sound) – her, word, turn, world, girl

 ɔ: (sound) – your, more, also, small, sure

 u: (sound) – new, too, value, school, you

 ɑ: (sound) – ask, party, father, star, bar

Diphthong Vowels

These are sounds produced by combining two vowel sounds. Here are the
common symbols for Diphthong vowels:

 ɪə (sound) – here, period, idea, career, clear

  eə (sound) – care, share, where, there, hair

 eɪ (sound) – later, eight, day, play, age

 ɔɪ (sound) – voice, enjoy, join, boy, choice

 aɪ (sound) – life, buy, why, guy, high, five 

 oʊ (sound) – open, only, follow, home, hold

 aʊ (sound) – town, house, allow, now, how

Plosives

These are consonants that are pronounced by blocking the airway with your
teeth, mouth, lips, or palate and releasing the air afterward. Here are the
common symbols for plosives:

 p (sound) – happen, program, keep, play, pay

 b (sound) – but, before, best, maybe, job

 t (sound) – take, tell, time, study, talk

 d (sound) – day, idea, decide, friend, do

 k (sound) – can, require, think, take, school

 g (sound) – give, go, group, agree, good

Fricatives

These are consonants where the sound is produced by blocking the airway that
causes friction when you pronounce it. Here are the common symbols for
fricatives:

 f (sound) – from, phone, self, fact, family

 v (sound) – move, value, live, provide, even

 θ (sound) – thing, month, thank, health, truth

  ð (sound) – with, smooth, brother, they, then

 z (sound) – these, reason, those, zone, citizen 

 ʃ (sound) – push, show, sure, wish, finish 

 ʒ (sound) – decision, pleasure, television, vision, version

 h (sound) – whole, help, perhaps, who, hello

Nasals

These are consonants pronounced by lowering your soft palate and producing
the sound through your nose. Here are the common symbols for nasals:

 m (sound) – man, summer, more, million, come

 n (sound) – not, know, into, number, woman

 ŋ (sound) – thank, think, feeling, thing, song

Affricates

These are consonants that pronounced beginning as a plosive and ends as a

fricative. Here are the common symbols for affricates

 ʈʃ (sound) – church, century, culture, change, challenge

 dʒ (sound) – job, join, general, energy, huge

Approximants

These are consonants that are frictionless and sounds like a vowel. Here are the
common symbols for approximants:

 r (sound) – carry, program, very, ring, road

 j (sound) – unit, beyond, argue, during, usually 

 w (sound) – where, world, wait, require, we

  l (sound) – leave, last, look, control, people .

common phrase

 a phrase is a group of words which act together as a grammatical unit. For
instance, the English expression "the very happy squirrel" is a noun phrase
which contains the adjective phrase "very happy". Phrases can consist of a
single word or a complete sentence.

Listening

Listening is receiving language through the ears. Listening involves identifying

the sounds of speech and processing them into words and sentences. When we
listen, we use our ears to receive individual sounds (letters, stress, rhythm and
pauses) and we use our brain to convert these into messages
that mean something to us.

Listening in any language requires focus and attention. It is a skill that some
people need to work at harder than others.

People who have difficulty concentrating are typically poor listeners.

Listening in a second language requires even greater focus.

Like babies, we learn this skill by listening to people who already know how to
speak the language. This may or may not include native speakers. 

For practice, you can listen to live or recorded voices. The most important thing
is to listen to a variety of voices as often as you can.

Listening is the first of the four language skills, which are:

1. Listening
2. Speaking
3. Reading
4. Writing
  In our own language, listening is usually the first language skill that we
learn.
 To become a fluent speaker in English, you need to develop strong
listening skills.
 Listening not only helps you understand what people are saying to you. It
also helps you to speak clearly to other people.
 It helps you learn how to pronounce words properly, how to use
intonation, and where to place stress in words and sentences.
 This makes your speech easier for other people listening to you to
understand!

Listen to News 
Listen to a weekly news story in English. With resource you can practise your
listening, reading, writing and even speaking

songs for Learning English 

Easy English songs with subtitles

English-Language Podcasts 
Listen online or download podcast to develop listinig skill.

Listen simple stories.

Children's Stories 
Listen to excerpts from treasured children's stories.

English Poems 
Listen and learn English rhythm, rhyme and pronunciation.

Interesting Facts 
Listening practice based on fun facts in easy English

Speaking practice
What is Speaking?

Speaking is the delivery of language through the mouth. To speak, we create

sounds using many parts of our body, including the lungs, vocal tract, vocal
chords, tongue, teeth and lips.
Speaking is the second of the four language skills, which are:
1. Listening
2. Speaking
3. Reading
4. Writing

In our own language, speaking is usually the second language skill that we learn.

This vocalized form of language usually requires at least one listener. When two
or more people speak or talk to each other, the conversation is called a
"dialogue". Speech can flow naturally from one person to another in the form of
dialogue.

It can also be planned and rehearsed, as in the delivery of a speech or

presentation.

Of course, some people talk to themselves! In fact, some English learners practise

speaking standing alone in front of a mirror.

Speaking can be formal or informal:

 Informal speaking is typically used with family and friends, or people you
know well.
 Formal speaking occurs in business or academic situations, or when
meeting people for the first time.

Speaking is probably the language skill that most language learners wish to
perfect as soon as possible. It used to be the only language skill that was difficult
to practise online. This is no longer the case. English learners can practise
speaking online using voice or video chat and services like Skype. They can also
record and upload their voice for other people to listen to.

Formal versus informal speaking

Just like in your own language, the way you speak depends on who you are
speaking to or with.
 Informal speaking situations include speaking with close friends, family workers
and probably co-workers. Slang, idiom and relaxed pronunciation are more
common in these situations. Small talk becomes less necessary when you are
speaking with friends, but is considered polite in an informal situation
with acquaintances. 

Sometimes your pace and volume shifts when you feel more comfortable.
Formal situations require a different kind of language. Your speaking may even
be rehearsed in some situations. You may feel nervous about saying everything
properly. You must also consider manners and body language.

10 Speaking tips
1. Listen first. Try not to think about what you are going to say as you’re
listening. Focus on listening, then focus on responding.
2. Make eye contact. It’s important to make eye contact when you’re
listening and speaking. Even if you’re nervous, try not to look at the
ground. If you’re doing a presentation, practise enough so that you don’t
have to read every word from your notes. Visuals can help you in a
presentation.
3. Learn transitional phrases and useful expressions. You will keep your
listeners’ attention if you know some key expressions that will make the
conversation flow.
4. Use gestures appropriately. If you’re in a foreign country, take time to
learn about body language. Some gestures in your country may mean
something different in another country.
5. Relax. You don’t have to speak perfectly. Many native English speakers are
also nervous when they have to speak out loud in a group or with people
that they don’t know. Try not to show that you are nervous.
6. Don’t say sorry. If you apologize for your English, people will expect it to
be poor. Believe that you are a strong English speaker, and your listeners
will believe it too. If you make a mistake, simply keep talking or correct
yourself.
7. Be yourself. Let your personality out! People will enjoy speaking with you
because of who you are, not because of the language you speak.
8. Keep it simple. As with writing it is important to speak in the simplest
way you can. Don’t try to impress people with your large vocabulary. Use
words and expressions that you are confident using.
 9. Pause and pace. Try not to speak too quickly, which may make it difficult
for people to understand you. Listen to English speakers often to hear
where natural pauses occur.
10.Practise pronunciation, including word stress. One of the most important
aspects of understanding each other’s spoken English is through the
natural rhythm of our words and sentences. Native English speakers don’t
think about word stress. They just speak. People who learn English as an
additional language need to listen to English often in order to be able to
use natural word stress.

Asking the question

If you are unsure of what to call someone, it's best to use a formal address or
simply ask one of these questions:

 What should I call you?

 What should I call your mum / the teacher / the manager?
 Can I call you [first name] ?
 Is it okay if I call you [the nickname you've heard others use] ?
 What's your name? (use in a casual situation like a party or classroom
where first names are used)

Answering the question

You might not be the only person wondering about titles. Students, colleagues or
may not know what to call you. If they seem unsure about how to pronounce
your name, or you want them to call you something more casual, help them out:

 Please, call me [first name]

 You can call me [nickname or short form]

Formal Titles in English

In business situations, use formal titles unless the people you meet tell you
otherwise.

To get someone's attention you can say: "Excuse me, Sir" or "Pardon me,
Madam/Ma'am."
To greet someone you can say: "Hello Sir" or "Good morning, Madam/Ma'am."

The phrase "Yes, Sir!" (or "Yes, Madam/Ma'am!") is sometimes used by native
speakers in a sarcastic way. For example when a young child tells his father to
"close his newspaper" the parent might say, "Yes, sir!" and laugh. You might also
hear a mother saying, "No Madam/Ma'am" to her daughter's request for
something unreasonable.

Here are the formal titles English speakers use (listen to the pronunciation):

1. Sir (adult male of any age)

2. Ma'am (adult female )
3. Madam (adult female)
4. Mr + (any man)
5. Mrs + (married woman)
6. Ms + (married or unmarried woman; common in business)
7. Miss + (unmarried woman)
8. Dr + ( doctors )
9. Professor + (in a university )
When you are writing to someone for the first time, use a formal address: Mr or
Ms + the person's last name if you know it. If you can't find the last name, use a
generic title such as Sir or Madam.
If they address you by your first name and sign off with their first name, you can
do the same. (See more about salutations and closings in letters.)

Occasionally you may have a close relationship with someone who typically gets
called Sir, Madam, Mr or Mrs (for example, a business executive, a celebrity, a
professor or a person older than yourself). At some point this person may give
you permission to use his or her first name.

Informal Titles in English

Casual or very close relationships require an informal form of address:

 First name (friends, students, children)

 Miss/Mr + first name (sometimes used by dance or music teachers or
childcare workers)
Titles of Affection

When addressing a child, or a close friend or family member (usually younger)

people often use these terms of endearment, also known as "pet names":

 Honey (child, younger person)

 Dear
 Sweetie
 Darling
 Babe or Baby
 Buddy or Bud (very informal between friends or adult-to-child; can be
seen as negative)

Greetings in English 
These pages are about how to say hello in English.

There are many ways to say hello in English. Sometimes you say a quick hello as
you are passing somebody. At other times a greeting leads to a conversation.
Friends and family members greet each other in a casual way. Business greetings
are more formal.

greet : to say hello; to welcome somebody

greeting Greetings in Passing 

It is polite to greet a person you know. However, you don't always have time to
stop and have a conversation. Just remember to smile as you say hello. A small
wave is also polite. Sometimes you pass the same person a second time on the
same day. You can say "hello again" or just smile.

Tips
 Slow down to greet someone you know. You don't have to stop what you
are doing (walking, working, shopping).
 Say an appropriate form of hello.
 Smile and wave.

Useful phrases
Listen and read:

 Hello
 Hi
 Good morning
 Good afternoon
 Good evening *
 Hey, John
 How's it goin'? **

* Good night is a farewell (goodbye) phrase. It is NOT a greeting to use at night

time.

saying hello; a polite word of welcome

The opposite of greeting is farewell - saying goodbye.

Slang greetings in passing

Using slang in a greeting is typical between close friends. Teens often use slang
when they greet each other. Certain English speaking countries also have their
own popular form of "hello".

Listen and read:

 Howdy
 Hiya
 Whazzup?
 Yo

Greetings with Conversation 

Sometimes you stop and talk for a moment as you say hello. This type of greeting
is followed by a conversation. Close friends often hug when they greet each
other, especially after a long time without seeing one other. Men sometimes give
each other a hand shake or a high-five (touch palms above the head).

Tips
  Stand near a person and say hello.
 Express happiness to see a person.
 Ask a question or begin a conversation.

Useful Phrases:
 Nice to see you.
 Long time no see. (I haven't seen you in a while.)
 What have you been up to?
 How are things?
 It's been a while. (It's been a while since I've seen you.)
 What's new?
 Not much. (answer to What's new?)

Greetings in the Classroom 

It is polite to greet a new student that joins your class. Introductions immediately
follow this type of greeting.

Tips
 Say hello and exchange names.
 Engage in one line of small talk (weather, surroundings, news).

Useful Phrases
 I'm from...(city or country)*
 I hear it's beautiful/hot/expensive there.
 How do you like it here?
 How long have you been here?
*Learners often say "I come from..." instead of "I'm from...". Native speakers use
"come from" for things or animals, not people: The toys come from China. Milk comes from
cows.

Pair Practice
Listen and read:
A: Hello. I'm Sasha.

B: Hi Sasha. I'm Brinda. (hold out hand to shake)

A: Nice to meet you Brinda. Where are you from?

B: deoghar, jharkand. And you?

A: I'm from nepal. I live in a small town near katmandu.

B: nepal Wow. I've always wanted to go there. How long have you been in chennai?

A: I just arrived this week. It's my first day of school.

B: Really? I think you'll love sarwan. It's very beautiful here.

Greetings in Business 

Proper etiquette is important in business greetings. Make sure to use polite

language such as "please" and "thank you". Appropriate titles and gestures
should also be used. Shaking hands is common in most English speaking
countries. It is also important to smile.

Tips
 Introduce yourself with name and title.
 Shake hands.
 Express happiness to meet the other person.
 Give or accept directions.

Useful Phrases
 Please have a seat.
 Thanks for agreeing to meet with me.
 He'll be right with you.
 Can I offer you something to drink?
 My pleasure.

Pair Practice
Listen and read:

A: Hello. I'm banu.

B: Hi banu. I'm ram, and this is my partner sita. (hold out hand to shake)

A: Nice to meet you Mr. arvind, Ms lalitha. Thank you for taking the time to meet with
me today.

B: It's our pleasure. And please, call us ram and sita. Can I take your coat?

A: Thank you.

B: No problem. Please take a seat and we'll be right with you.

Telephone Vocabulary

Here are many of the words and terms we use to talk about telephones and using
them. With example sentences and special meanings related to landline phones,
mobile phones and smartphones.
SMALL TALK

Talking about the weather

 Beautiful day, isn't it?
 It looks like it's going to rain..
 How about this weather?

Talking about current events

 Did you watch the news today?
 Did you hear about that forest fire?
 What do you think about this farmers strike?
 I read in the paper today that the bigbazar Mall is closing.
 I heard on the radio today that they are finally going to start building the
new bridge.
 How about those yellow? Do you think they're going to win tonight?

At the office
 Looking forward to the weekend?
 Have you worked here long?
 I can't believe how busy/quiet we are today, can you?
 Has it been a long week?
 You look like you could use a cup of coffee.
 What do you think of the new computers?

At a social event
 So, how do you know deepika?
 Have you tried the cabbage rolls that Sanjana made?
 Are you enjoying yourself?
 It looks like you could use another drink.
 Pretty nice place, huh?
 I love your dress. Can I ask where you got it?

Out for a walk

  How old's your baby?
 What's your puppy's name?
 The roses are sure beautiful , aren't they.
 How do you like the new park?
 Nice day to be outside, isn't it?

Waiting somewhere
 I didn't think it would be so busy today
 The bus must be running late today.
 It looks like we are going to be here a while, huh?
 How long have you been waiting?

What is Reading?

What is Reading?

"Reading" is the process of looking at a series of written symbols and getting

meaning from them.

When we read, we use our eyes to receive written symbols (letters,

punctuation marks and spaces) and we use our brain to convert them into
words, sentences and paragraphs that communicate something to us.

Reading can be silent (in our head) or aloud (so that other people can hear).

Reading is a receptive skill - through it we receive information.

Do we need to read in order to speak English? The short answer is no. Some
native speakers cannot read or write but they speak English fluently. On the
other hand, reading is something that you can do on your own and that greatly
broadens your vocabulary, thus helping you in speaking (and in listening and
writing). Reading is therefore a highly valuable skill and activity, and it is
recommended that English learners try to read as much as possible in
English.

TIP AND TRICKS FOR READING PRACTICE

1. Read every day :

2. Read the questions first:
3. Reread the questions and understand them :
4. Scan, skim and summarize :
5. Key in the keywords in your head :
6. Familiarize yourself with various Question Types and practice :
7. Vocabulary?

How to improve your reading skills

There are a variety of ways you might improve your reading skills. You might
practice speed reading to improve your fluency or make notes each time you
encounter unfamiliar vocabulary. The following steps also help outline what
you might do to improve and further develop your reading skills.

1. Set aside time to read each day.

2. Set reading goals.
3. Preview the texts you read.
4. Determine the purpose.
5. Apply key reading strategies.
6. Take notes while you read.
7. Apply what you read by summarizing.

1. Set aside time to read each day.

One of the most effective ways to build your skills is to practice. Developing
your reading skills will ultimately take practice, and you can set aside 10 to 15
minutes each day to read. You can read news articles, fiction, magazine
issues or any kind of text, as long as you are taking the time to practice your
reading skills.

2. Set reading goals.

You can set reading goals for yourself to help you develop a wider vocabulary,
gain a deeper understanding of different texts and improve your ability to
make connections between things you read and your own perspectives and
ideas.

For example, you might set a goal to learn different vocabulary related to a
central topic like business management, technology or another subject that
interests you. Then, you can find meanings to unfamiliar words that help build
your vocabulary as you read.
3. Preview the texts you read.

Previewing and scanning over texts can be another step toward improving
your reading skills. You can apply this strategy by previewing titles, captions,
headlines and other text features to get an idea of what you are reading
about. This can help you form central ideas about the text before you begin
reading it.

4. Determine the purpose.

As you read through different texts, practice determining the purpose. Think
about why various texts were written and what meanings or themes can be
understood from a text. Additionally, you might identify the purpose that you
are reading for, such as to find information, follow instructions in a manual or
to enjoy a story. Knowing your purpose for reading a text can help you look for
key ideas and details that support your purpose.

5. Apply key reading strategies.

As you read different texts, you can apply several key strategies to help you
increase your comprehension. For instance, when previewing a text, you
might identify the text structure as informational, persuasive or instructional.
You might also determine key elements of different texts like the central
themes, problems and solutions or comparative ideas presented in what you
read. Using strategies like identifying text features, determining the purpose
and taking notes can all work to help you improve your reading skills.

6. Take notes while you read.

Another highly effective method for improving your reading skills is to take
notes while you read. For instance, you might take notes while reading a
fiction novel to gain a deeper understanding of the author's choice of
language, or you might write down new vocabulary while reading a science
journal. Effective note-taking can prompt you to ask questions about and
make connections to what you read.

Similarly, creating visual representations like charts, tables or diagrams can

clarify themes and ideas and can help you form inferences from your reading.
Note-taking can be highly beneficial for comprehension exercises like
summarizing, too.
7. Apply what you read by summarizing.

Summarizing what you read can also improve your reading skills.
Summarizing forces you to remember specific details and central topics about
what you read in your own words and through your own unique perspective.
You might try verbally summarizing what you read by sharing information with
a friend or write a short summary to help you retain and comprehend what you
read.

As you develop your reading skills, your communication and overall ability to
interact with others and perform in your career can develop as well.

Exercise:
Reading story:

"Reading" is the process of looking at a series of written symbols and getting

meaning from them. When we read, we use our eyes to receive written symbols
(letters, punctuation marks and spaces) and we use our brain to convert them
into words, sentences and paragraphs that communicate something to us.

Reading can be silent (in our head) or aloud (so that other people can hear).

Reading is a receptive skill - through it we receive information. But the complex

process of reading also requires the skill of speaking, so that we can pronounce
the words that we read. In this sense, reading is also a productive skill in that we
are both receiving information and transmitting it (even if only to ourselves).

Do we need to read in order to speak English? The short answer is no. Some
native speakers cannot read or write but they speak English fluently. On the
other hand, reading is something that you can do on your own and that greatly
broadens your vocabulary, thus helping you in speaking (and in listening and
writing). Reading is therefore a highly valuable skill and activity, and it is
recommended that English learners try to read as much as possible in English.s

Writing practice

What is Writing?

"Writing" is the process of using symbols (letters of the alphabet,

punctuation and spaces) to communicate thoughts and ideas in a
readable form.

Generally, we write using a pen/pencil (handwriting) or a keyboard

(typing). With a pen/pencil we usually write on a surface such as
paper or whiteboard. A keyboard is normally attached to a typewriter,
computer or mobile device

Writing is the fourth of the four language skills, which are:

1. Listening
2. Speaking
3. Reading
4. Writing
In our own language, writing is usually the fourth language skill that
we learn.

To write clearly it is essential to understand the basic system of a

language. In English this includes knowledge of grammar, punctuation
and sentence structure. Vocabulary is also necessary, as is correct
spelling and formatting.

A writer may write for personal enjoyment or use, or for an audience of

one person or more. The audience may be known (targeted) or
unknown. Taking notes for study purposes is an example of writing for
one's self. Blogging publicly is an example of writing for an unknown
audience. A letter to a friend is an example of writing for a targeted
audience. As with speaking, it is important to consider your audience
when writing. There are many different styles of writing, from informal
to formal.
What is the format of paragraph writing?

The basic paragraph consists of three parts: a topic sentence, supporting

details, and a concluding sentence. This basic paragraph format will help
you to write and organize one paragraph and transition to the next.
Basic Paragraph Format to Write Effective Paragraphs on Single Topic

A paragraph explains one idea in detail and supports the expansion of an

overall topic for the essay. Paragraph length will vary based on the purpose of
the paragraph.
Parts of a Paragraph

The basic paragraph consists of three parts: a topic sentence, supporting

details, and a concluding sentence. This basic paragraph format will help you
to write and organize one paragraph and transition to the next.

Topic Sentence: 

Often, the Topic sentence is the first sentence of a paragraph. Also, we can
call an introduction sentence of a paragraph. It states the main idea of each
paragraph and displays how the idea connects to the thesis or overall focus of
the paper. All consequent points presented in the paragraphs must support
the topic sentence.

Supporting Details

The supporting sentences explain more about the topic sentence by showing
some facts, stats, or examples regarding the topic. It also includes the writer’s
experience & own analysis and used to develop the topic sentence. The
following are common origins of supporting details:

 Expert Opinion
 Facts and Statistics
 Personal Experiences
 Others’ Experiences
 Brief Stories
 Research Studies
 Your Own Analysis
 Interviews

Concluding Sentence

It is the end of the paragraph which is also known as final statement about the
topic. It ties all ideas given in the paragraph and emphasizes the main idea
one last time. In the concluding sentence, the writer usually restates their topic
sentence or summarizes the main points of the paragraph.
Types of Paragraph
Types of Paragraph

Having knowledge about what are the type of paragraphs is one of the most
essential aspects while writing a paragraph. So, we thought of explaining a bit
about paragraph writing types is a must. Okay, let’s start about it.

There are four types of paragraphs that you need to know about: descriptive,
narrative, expository, and persuasive. If you have a quick search on the
web then you may found other types too but to make your paragraph simple
and succinct, it’s a good idea to study just these four.

1. Descriptive Type of Paragraph(detail): This paragraph type

describes the topic and displays the reader what’s the subject included in
it. This type of paragraph can be more artistic and may vary from
grammatical standards.

2. Narrative Type of Paragraph: In simple words, this type of

paragraph narrates a story that includes a sequence of topic sentences
like a clear start, middle of the topic, an end to the paragraph.

3. Expository Type of Paragraph(intended explain): It defines

something or gives instruction. It may also explain a process and
influence the reader step by step via a form of the method. This
Expository Para usually needs research, but also it’s possible to rely on
the writer’s own knowledge and experience.

4. Persuasive Type of Paragraph: This kind of paragraph seeks to

make the audience to admit a writer’s point of view or know his/her
position. Persuasive paragraphs are often used by the teachers because it
is beneficial when building an argument. Also, it makes a writer to
research and collects some facts on the topic.
How to Write a Perfect Paragraph? Three Simple Steps to
Compose a Good Paragraph

how to write a good paragraph can be challenging as it demands

knowing how to write a great topic sentence, using supporting details
and transitional words, including finding a strong concluding sentence.
In a novel or story, writing a paragraph implies knowing which ideas
work mutually and where a new paragraph should start.

How to write a paragraph helps students to put their thoughts

collectively in a better way and attract readers’ attention towards the
topic. Hence, improve your skills in paragraph writing by practicing
various topics using the below mentioned important elements of a
paragraph.

1. Topic Sentence

 What is the topic sentence? The topic sentence is the first

sentence in a paragraph.
 What does it do? It introduces the main idea of the paragraph.
 How do I write one? Summarize the main idea of your paragraph.
Make clear what your Paragraph will be about.

2. Supporting Details

 What are the supporting sentences? They come after the topic

sentence, making up the body of a paragraph.
 What do they do? They give details to develop and support the
main idea of the paragraph.
 How do I write them? You should give supporting facts, details,
and examples
3. Closing Sentence

 What is the closing sentence? The closing sentence is the last

sentence in a paragraph.
 What does it do? It restates the main idea of your paragraph.
 How do I write one? Restate the main idea of the paragraph using
different words.

If you follow these three elements properly while writing any paragraphs
then your paragraph will be more attractive, interesting to the readers.
So, to practice your paragraph writing skills we have compiled a list of
paragraph writing topics on various categories like special events,
technology, science, famous & inspiring legends, etc. You can even
directly took our example to frame your own paragraph on the selected
topic. Once, have a look at the below list of Paragraph writing topics and
become an expert in writing new paragraphs on the topic.

Some Useful Transition Words to write a good Paragraph

 To show addition: again, and, also, besides, equally important,

first (second, etc.), further, furthermore, in addition, in the first
place, moreover, next, too
 To give examples: for example, for instance, in fact, specifically,
that is, to illustrate
 To compare: also, in the same manner, likewise, similarly
 To contrast: although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite,
even though, however, in contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, on
the contrary, on the other hand, still, though, yet
 To summarize or conclude: all in all, in conclusion, in other words,
in short, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to sum up
 To show time: after, afterward, as, as long as, as soon as, at last,
before, during, earlier, finally, formerly, immediately, later,
meanwhile, next, since, shortly, subsequently, then, thereafter,
until, when, while
  To show place or direction: above, below, beyond, close,
elsewhere, farther on, here, nearby, opposite, to the left (north,
etc.)
 To indicate a logical relationship: accordingly, as a result,
because, consequently, for this reason, hence, if, otherwise, since,
so, then, therefore, thus

Example paragragph:

MyFamily

I have a very big family with around 8 members in it. My grandparents,

parents, my sister, uncle, aunt and me. They are wonderful people and I like
all of my family members. My mother and father both are working employees,
so I get to spend more time with my grandparents who tell me many stories
about various things.
Introduction to how to write a formal letter

how to write a formal letter is a very important life skill.

Although a lot of our day-to-day written communication is by email, text

message or social media, there are many times you will still need to write a
formal letter: to apply for your dream job, make a formal complaint,
communicate with companies or customers, or even write to your local
Member of Parliament.

In order to do this successfully, you need to know the rules and

conventions of writing a formal letter so that you create the right
impression.

Purpose
 When writing a formal letter, you need to remain focused on your
purpose. Why you are writing the letter should be clear. The
reader should be left in no doubt about what it is you are trying to
achieve. As such, your letter needs to be precise and to the point.

Think about the purpose of your letter and include all the relevant
details to help the reader understand the reason for your writing
and respond when required. For example:
 In a job application, include some specific details about why you
are an ideal candidate for the role.
 In a letter of complaint, include a formal, matter-of-fact summary
of what has happened to prompt your complaint, with details such
as names, locations and dates if necessary.
 In a letter to a customer, explain clearly why you are contacting
them with details of the services you can or have provided and what
it is that they need to do next in order to proceed.

A formal letter comprises 6 elements:

 the Address (Sender's/Receiver's), Date, Salutation, Subject, Body Text
& Ending.

1. Sender's Details. It is essential to mention the sender's name and address in

the left-hand corner at the top of the formal letter.
2. Date. Write the date in the proper format for the day you are writing the
letter. ...
3. Receiver's Details. ...
4. Salutation. ...
5. Subject. ...
6. Body. ...
7. Complimentary Close. ...
8. Name & sign.

Types of letters
Letters are organized under two main categories: formal and informal.
Informal types of letters include:

 Thank you
 Congratulations
 Sympathy or condolence
 Friendship/thinking of you
 Appreciation
 Announcement, such as a name or an address change
 Welcome

Formal types of letters include:

 Invitation
 Job or school application
 Acceptance letter
 Rejection letter
 Exit or resignation letter
 Recommendation or referral
 Offer or proposal
 Agreement
 Cover letter
 Interview follow-up or thank you
 Inquiry

Formal vs. informal letters

The main difference between formal and informal letters is that formal letters
professionally address someone, and informal letters address someone in a
personal way. Other differences include:

 Formal letters follow a specific format, while informal letters can follow
any format.
 The tone of a formal letter is professional and official, while the tone of
an informal letter is friendly.
 People usually write formal letters in the first or third person, while
informal letters can be from any point of view.
 Formal letters are focused and concise and do not include filler .
 Formal letters are usually typed, while informal letters can also be
handwritten.
 Formal letters include a date and contact information at the top.
  Unlike informal letters, formal letters do not include grammatical trends
like contractions (can't, don't, I've), slang or idioms.
 Most formal letters are no longer than one page, while informal letters
can be any length.

When trying to decide what type of letter to write, choose a formal one when
communicating with an official or someone you only know professionally.
Choose an informal letter when writing casually to someone you know very
well, such as a co-worker.

Letter-writing tips
To write a good letter, regardless of the type, follow these suggestions:

Know your reader

Use a tone appropriate for that individual and language or terminology they
are likely to understand.

Choose the right format

Letters can be emails or hard copies and typed or handwritten. Write an email
if the letter is informal or if you are writing a formal letter to a professional
contact who prefers to communicate through email. Make a hard copy if you
need documentation of your letter. Write an informal letter by hand to make it
more personal, but always type formal letters.

Be concise

Clearly state your intent or objective, and make sure the information you
include is necessary, particularly if you are writing a formal letter. Ask yourself
questions like "why am I writing?" and "what do I want from this letter?" as you
write to keep your content focused.

Keep it short

Respect your recipient's time by limiting your content to just the most
important details in just a few brief paragraphs.
Write to the reader

Use words such as "we," "our" or "you" if you want to make a letter feel more
personal.

Proofread

Read over your letter to find any misspellings or grammatical errors. You can
also have a trusted friend or coworker read it over for proofreading and to
identify areas for improvement. Both of these steps can ensure your letter is
as clear and easy-to-read as possible as well as professional.

Letter examples
Leave letter
1. Ask for a refund in a polite and formal language.
2. Include details about the product—what was purchased, when, and what the
price was.
3. Explain why you want to return the item.
4. Mention relevant aspects of the transaction such as dates and place of
delivery.