Naturalised Birds of The World. C. Lever. 2005. 352 P.
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Birds prelims 10_11.5.
JM 21/10/05 8:42 PM Page 1
NATURALISED BIRDS OF THE WORLD
Birds prelims 10_11.5.JM 21/10/05 8:42 PM Page 2
“This page left intentionally blank.”
Birds prelims 10_11.5.JM 21/10/05 8:42 PM Page 3
NATURALISED BIRDS
OF THE WORLD
CHRISTOPHER LEVER
Illustrations by
ROBERT GILLMOR
T & A D POYSER
London
Birds prelims 10_11.5.JM 21/10/05 8:42 PM Page 4
Published by T & A D Poyser, an imprint of
A&C Black Publishers Ltd, Soho Square, London
Copyright © text by Christopher Lever
Copyright © illustrations by Robert Gillmor
ISBN –––
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced
or used in any form or by any means – photographic, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or information
storage and retrieval systems – without permission of the publishers.
A&C Black uses paper produced with elemental chlorine-free pulp,
harvested from managed sustainable forests.
www.acblack.com
Typeset and designed by Alliance Interactive Technology, Pondicherry, India
Printed and bound by Cromwell Press
Birds prelims 10_11.5.JM rev 15/11/2005 5:57 PM Page 5
Contents
List of Tables
Acknowledgements
Preface
Introduction
Tinamidae (Tinamous)
Chilean Tinamou Nothoprocta perdicaria
Struthionidae (Ostriches)
Ostrich Struthio camelus
Cracidae (Chachalacas, Curassows and Guans)
Plain Chachalaca Ortalis vetula
Numididae (Guineafowl)
Helmeted Guineafowl Numida meleagris
Odontophoridae (New World Quails)
Mountain Quail Oreortyx pictus
California Quail Callipepla californica
Gambel’s Quail Callipepla gambelii
Northern Bobwhite Colinus virginianus
Phasianidae (Turkeys, Grouse, Pheasants and Partridges)
Wild Turkey Meleagris gallopavo
Himalayan Snowcock Tetraogallus himalayensis
Chukar Partridge Alectoris chukar
Barbary Partridge Alectoris barbara
Red-legged Partridge Alectoris rufa
Black Francolin Francolinus francolinus
Grey Francolin Francolinus pondicerianus
Erckel’s Francolin Francolinus erckelii
Grey Partridge Perdix perdix
Common Quail Coturnix coturnix
Blue-breasted Quail (King Quail) Coturnix chinensis
Jungle Bush Quail Perdicula asiatica
Japanese Quail Coturnix japonica
Brown Quail Coturnix ypsilophora
Chinese Bamboo Partridge Bambusicola thoracicus
Birds prelims 10_11.5.JM rev 15/11/2005 5:57 PM Page 6
Contents
Red Jungle Fowl Gallus gallus
Kalij Pheasant Lophura leucomelanos
Silver Pheasant Lophura nycthemera
Reeves’s Pheasant Syrmaticus reevesii
Common Pheasant Phasianus colchicus
Green Pheasant Phasianus versicolor
Golden Pheasant Chrysolophus pictus
Lady Amherst’s Pheasant Chrysolophus amherstiae
Indian Peafowl (Common Peafowl) Pavo cristatus
Anatidae (Ducks, Geese and Swans)
Bar-headed Goose Anser indicus
Snow Goose Anser caerulescens
Swan Goose Anser cygnoides
Canada Goose Branta canadensis
Barnacle Goose Anser leucopsis
Black Swan Cygnus atratus
Mute Swan Cygnus olor
Egyptian Goose Alopochen aegyptiaca
Ruddy Shelduck Tadorna ferruginea
Muscovy Duck Cairina moschata
Mandarin Duck Aix galericulata
Mallard Anas platyrhynchos
Meller’s Duck Anas melleri
Northern Shoveler Anas clypeata
Red-crested Pochard Netta rufina
Ruddy Duck Oxyura jamaicensis
Phoenicopteridae (Flamingos)
Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber
Chilean Flamingo Phoenicopterus chilensis
Threskiornithidae (Ibises and Spoonbills)
Sacred Ibis Threskiornis aethiopicus
Ardeidae (Herons, Bitterns and Egrets)
Black-crowned Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax
Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis
Cathartidae (New World Vultures)
Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura
Falconidae (Falcons and Caracaras)
Chimango Caracara Milvago chimango
Accipitridae (Secretary Bird, Osprey, Kites, Hawks and Eagles)
Western Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus
Birds prelims 10_11.5.JM rev 15/11/2005 5:57 PM Page 7
Contents
Rallidae (Rails, Waterhens and Coots)
Weka Gallirallus australis
Purple Swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio
Pteroclididae (Sandgrouse)
Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse Pterocles exustus
Columbidae (Doves and Pigeons)
Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon) Columba livia
Eurasian Collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto
Barbary Dove (Ringed Turtle Dove) Streptopelia risoria
Madagascar Turtle Dove Streptopelia picturata
Spotted-necked Dove (Spotted Dove) Streptopelia chinensis
Laughing Dove Streptopelia senegalensis
Island Collared Dove Streptopelia bitorquata
Zebra Dove Geopelia striata
Common Ground Dove Columbina passerina
Emerald Dove Chalcophaps indica
Caribbean Dove Leptotila jamaicensis
Mourning Dove Zenaida macroura
Psittacidae (Cockatoos and Parrots)
Galah Eolophus roseicapilla
Little Corella Cacatua sanguinea
Tanimbar Corella Cacatua goffini
Yellow-crested Cockatoo Cacatua sulphurea
Sulphur-crested Cockatoo Cacatua galerita
Kuhl’s Lorikeet Vini kuhlii
Red Shining Parrot Prosopeia tabuensis
Crimson Rosella Platycercus elegans
Eastern Rosella Platycercus eximius
Budgerigar Melopsittacus undulatus
Eclectus Parrot Eclectus roratus
Rose-ringed Parakeet (Ring-necked Parakeet) Psittacula krameri
Alexandrine Parakeet Psittacula eupatria
Grey-headed Lovebird Agapornis canus
Fischer’s Lovebird Agapornis fischeri
Yellow-collared Lovebird Agapornis personatus
Blue-and-Yellow Macaw Ara ararauna
Chestnut-fronted Macaw Ara severus
Blue-crowned Parakeet Aratinga acuticaudata
Mitred Parakeet Aratinga mitrata
Green Parakeet Aratinga holochlora
Red-masked Parakeet Aratinga erythrogenys
Orange-fronted Parakeet Aratinga canicularis
Birds prelims 10_11.5.JM rev 15/11/2005 5:57 PM Page 8
Contents
Brown-throated Parakeet Aratinga pertinax
Nanday Parakeet (Black-hooded Parakeet; Nanday Conure) Nandayus nenday
Monk Parakeet Myiopsitta monachus
Green-rumped Parrotlet Forpus passerinus
Canary-winged Parakeet (White-winged Parakeet) Brotogeris versicolurus
Yellow-chevroned Parakeet Brotogeris chiriri
Hispaniola Parrot Amazona ventralis
Red-crowned Parrot (Green-cheeked Parrot) Amazona viridigenalis
Lilac-crowned Parrot Amazona finschi
Yellow-headed Parrot Amazona oratrix
Yellow-crowned Parrot Amazona ochrocephala
Orange-winged Parrot Amazona amazonica
Cuculidae (Cuckoos and allies)
Smooth-billed Ani Crotophaga ani
Tytonidae (Barn Owls)
Barn Owl Tyto alba
Strigidae (Owls)
Great Horned Owl Bubo virginianus
Little Owl Athene noctua
Apodidae (Swifts)
Marianas Swiftlet Aerodramus bartschi
Alcedinidae (Kingfishers)
Laughing Kookaburra Dacelo novaeguineae
Tyrannidae (Tyrant-Flycatchers)
Great Kiskadee Pitangus sulphuratus
Meliphagidae (Honeyeaters)
Noisy Miner Manorina melanocephala
Cracticidae (Butcherbirds)
Australian Magpie Gymnorhina tibicen
Dicruridae (Drongos)
Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus
Corvidae (Crows and Jays)
Tufted Jay Cyanocorax dickeyi
House Crow Corvus splendens
Rook Corvus frugilegus
American Crow Corvus brachyrhynchos
Eurasian Jackdaw Corvus monedula
Common Magpie Pica pica
Birds prelims 10_11.5.JM rev 15/11/2005 5:57 PM Page 9
Contents
Alaudidae (Larks)
Eurasian Skylark Alauda arvensis
Pycnonotidae (Bulbuls)
Red-whiskered Bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus
Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer
Sooty-headed Bulbul Pycnonotus aurigaster
Yellow-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus goiavier
Sylviidae (Old World Warblers)
Japanese Bush Warbler Cettia diphone
Timaliidae (Babblers and Parrotbills)
Melodious Laughing Thrush Garrulax canorus
Greater Necklaced Laughing Thrush Garrulax pectoralis
Grey-sided Laughing Thrush Garrulax caerulatus
Masked Laughing Thrush Garrulax perspicillatus
Red-billed Leiothrix Leiothrix lutea
Zosteropidae (White-eyes)
Japanese White-eye Zosterops japonicus
Silver-eye Zosterops lateralis
Christmas Island White-eye Zosterops natalis
Mimidae (Mockingbirds and Thrashers)
Northern Mockingbird Mimus polyglottos
Tropical Mockingbird Mimus gilvus
Sturnidae (Starlings)
Hill Myna Gracula religiosa
Crested Myna Acridotheres cristatellus
Jungle Myna Acridotheres fuscus
White-vented Myna Acridotheres javanicus
Black-winged Myna Acridotheres melanopterus
Pale-bellied Myna Acridotheres cinereus
Bank Myna Acridotheres gingianus
Common Myna Acridotheres tristis
European Starling (Common Starling) Sturnus vulgaris
Asian Pied Starling Sturnus contra
Turdidae (Thrushes)
Eurasian Blackbird Turdus merula
Song Thrush Turdus philomelos
Island Thrush Turdus poliocephalus
Muscicapidae (Chats and Old World Flycatchers)
White-rumped Shama Copsychus malabaricus
Birds prelims 10_11.5.JM rev 15/11/2005 5:57 PM Page 10
Contents
Passeridae (Sparrows, Snowfinches and allies)
House Sparrow Passer domesticus
Eurasian Tree Sparrow Passer montanus
Spanish Sparrow Passer hispaniolensis
Ploceidae (Weavers and allies)
Village Weaver (Black-headed Weaver) Ploceus cucullatus
Golden-backed Weaver Ploceus jacksoni
Lesser Masked Weaver Ploceus intermedius
Streaked Weaver Ploceus manyar
Red Fody Foudia madagascariensis
Northern Red Bishop (Orange Bishop) Euplectes franciscanus
Yellow-crowned Bishop (Golden Bishop) Euplectes afer
Estrildidae (Waxbills, Grass Finches, Munias and allies)
Red-cheeked Cordon-bleu Uraeginthus bengalus
Blue-breasted Cordon-bleu (Blue Waxbill) Uraeginthus angolensis
Orange-cheeked Waxbill Estrilda melpoda
Red-tailed Lavender Waxbill Estrilda caerulescens
Common Waxbill Estrilda astrild
Black-rumped Waxbill Estrilda troglodytes
Red Avadavat Amandava amandava
Red-browed Finch Neochmia temporalis
Bronze Mannikin Lonchura cucullata
Indian Silverbill (White-throated Munia) Lonchura malabarica
Scaly-breasted Munia Lonchura punctulata
Javan Munia Lonchura leucogastroides
Black-headed Munia Lonchura malacca
White-cowled Mannikin Lonchura hunsteini
Chestnut-breasted Mannikin Lonchura castaneothorax
Java Sparrow Lonchura oryzivora
White-rumped Munia Lonchura striata
Viduidae (Indigobirds and allies)
Pin-tailed Whydah Vidua macroura
Eastern Paradise Whydah Vidua paradisaea
Prunellidae (Accentors)
Dunnock Prunella modularis
Fringillidae (Finches and Hawaiian Honeycreepers)
Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs
Island Canary Serinus canaria
Yellow-fronted Canary Serinus mozambicus
Yellow-crowned Canary (Cape Canary) Serinus canicollis
Birds prelims 10_11.5.JM rev 15/11/2005 5:57 PM Page 11
Contents
Yellow Canary Serinus flaviventris
European Greenfinch Carduelis chloris
European Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis
Red Siskin Carduelis cucullata
Common Redpoll Carduelis flammea
House Finch Carpodacus mexicanus
Icteridae (New World Blackbirds)
Troupial Icterus icterus
Spot-breasted Oriole Icterus pectoralis
Shiny Cowbird Molothrus bonariensis
Western Meadowlark Sturnella neglecta
Carib Grackle Quiscalus lugubris
Emberizidae (Buntings, American Sparrows and allies)
Yellowhammer Emberiza citrinella
Cirl Bunting Emberiza cirlus
Grassland Yellow Finch Sicalis luteola
Saffron Finch Sicalis flaveola
Common Diuca Finch Diuca diuca
Yellow-faced Grassquit Tiaris olivaceus
Cuban Grassquit Tiaris canorus
Red-crested Cardinal Paroaria coronata
Yellow-billed Cardinal Paroaria capitata
Cardinalidae (Cardinal, Grosbeaks, Saltators and allies)
Northern Cardinal Cardinalis cardinalis
Thraupidae (Tanagers)
Crimson-backed Tanager Ramphocelus dimidiatus
Red-legged Honeycreeper Cyanerpes cyaneus
Appendix A: Naturalised birds that have had a negative impact included
in the World Conservation Union Red List of Threatened Birds
Appendix B: Birds whose status as a naturalised species is uncertain,
or about which little is known
Appendix C: Continents and oceanic islands on which alien birds occur, and
their faunal regions of origin
References
Index
Birds prelims 10_11.5.JM 21/10/05 8:42 PM Page 12
Tables
Table . Grey Partridge Perdix perdix releases in Canada, –.
Table . Grey Partridge Perdix perdix releases in the USA, –.
Table . Brown Quail Coturnix ypsilophora imported to New Zealand,
–s.
Table . Introductions of Common Pheasants Phasianus colchicus and
Ring-necked Pheasants P. c. torquatus into Canada, –s.
Table . Introductions of Common Pheasants Phasianus colchicus and
Ring-necked Pheasants P. c. torquatus into the USA, –.
Table . Introductions of Common Pheasants Phasianus colchicus into
Australia, c. –s.
Table . Introductions of Common Pheasants Phasianus colchicus and
Ring-necked Pheasants P. c. torquatus into New Zealand, –.
Table . Releases of Golden Pheasants Chrysolophus pictus in the British
Isles, s–s.
Table . Introductions by Acclimatisation Societies of Mallard Anas
platyrhynchos into New Zealand, –.
Table . Introductions of Australian Magpies Gymnorhina tibicen to
New Zealand, –.
Table . Introductions of Rooks Corvus frugilegus to New Zealand,
–.
Table . Introductions of Eurasian Skylarks Alauda arvensis to Australia,
–.
Table . Early records of the Common Myna Acridotheres tristis in Polynesia.
Table . Introductions of Eurasian Blackbirds Turdus merula to
New Zealand, –.
Table . Introductions of Song Thrushes Turdus philomelos to
New Zealand, –.
Table . Introductions of House Sparrows Passer domesticus to Australia,
s–.
Table . Introductions of House Sparrows Passer domesticus to
New Zealand, –.
Table . Introductions of the Red-browed Finch Neochmia temporalis
to the Marquesas and Society Islands, before –.
Table . Introductions of the Chestnut-breasted Mannikin Lonchura
castaneothorax to the Marquesas and Society Islands,
late th century – .
Table . Introductions of the Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis to
Australia, –.
Birds prelims 10_11.5.JM 21/10/05 8:42 PM Page 13
Acknowledgements
As usual, I owe an especial debt of gratitude Lein, J. L. Lockwood, T. B. Oatley,
to the staff of the various libraries in which I M. A. Ogilvie, O. T. Owre, R. Prys-Jones,
carried out my research, especially Chris A. Richford, H. Rowell, D. E. Samuel, A. E.
Mills, Paul Cooper, Ann Datta and Alison Shapiro, L. L. Shurtleff, N. Sitwell, T. Silva,
Harding of the Natural History Museum in M. Spray, L. Stjepic, C. A. Valle, H. Vargas,
London and Tring, and Gina Douglas of the J. Vincent, D. R. Wells, D. Wiedenfeld,
Linnean Society of London. Other libraries D. B. Wingate and H. G. Young.
whose staff were most helpful are the For their help and cooperation both before
Alexander Library of the Edward Grey and during publication I extend my thanks to
Institute of Field Ornithology, Oxford; the Nigel Redman, Jim Martin, Marianne Taylor,
British Trust for Ornithology, Thetford; and other members of the staff of A&C
the Royal Geographical Society; and the Black, and to editors Ernest Garcia and Tim
Zoological Society of London. Harris.
I am also grateful to Frank Hawkins and Finally, I have once again to express my
Roger Stafford for generously allowing me a thanks to Pat Berry for her patience in
sight of the draft distribution text for some deciphering and processing my well-nigh
of the Malagasy region exotics from their illegible manuscript, and to Robert Gillmor
forthcoming Birds of the Malagasy Region for again kindly agreeing to provide the
(Christopher Helm), and to the latter for illustrations.
responding to my various enquiries. Other As with my previous books, the material
individuals to whom I extend my thanks resulting from my research for this work has
are R. C. Banks, A. J. Berger, M. J. Blair, been deposited in the library of the Natural
W. R. P. Bourne, M. A. Brazil, R. K. Brooke, History Museum in London.
P. A. Clancey, T. Clarke, K. L. Crowell,
F. Cruz, R. A. Cuneo, K. Duffy, C. J. Feare,
D. Goodwin, J. J. D. Greenwood, C. J. Hails, Christopher Lever
B. Hawkes, R. Kennedy, J. R. Krebs, L. Ross Winkfield, Berkshire,
Birds prelims 10_11.5.JM 21/10/05 8:42 PM Page 14
Preface
This book, which updates Lever (), de- general been ignored: exceptions to the former
scribes when, where, why, how and by whom include birds imported to the Hawaiian
the various alien birds now established Islands from the United States mainland, and
throughout the world were introduced, how to the latter birds that have self-colonised
they subsequently became naturalised, and some of New Zealand’s subantarctic islands.
what, if any, ecological and economic impact In – the names and boundaries of
they have had. The criteria for the inclusion several counties in England, Wales, and Scot-
of a species are that it should have been im- land were altered. As most of the events de-
ported to a new country either deliberately or scribed here antedate these changes, the old
accidentally by human agency, and that it names and boundaries have been adhered to.
should currently be established in the wild in Outside Britain, however, the new names of
self-maintaining and self-perpetuating popu- countries and oceanic islands have generally
lations independent of man. These criteria been used.
provide a good definition of the term ‘natu- Since Lever (), many new species (e.g.
ralised’. The term ‘feral’ properly describes a the Purple Swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio in
species that has reverted to the wild from do- the United States) have become naturalised,
mestication, such as the Feral Pigeon Columba and these are all included in the text. The sta-
livia. Thus ‘feral’ is not, as it is all too com- tus of one species, the Azure-winged Magpie
monly used, a synonym for ‘naturalised’. Cyanopica cyanus, in Spain and Portugal has
Each species account is a monograph on an recently been reassessed from naturalised ex-
individual bird. (More detailed accounts and otic to endemic native (see Fok et al. ,
further references will be found in Lever Anon ). Some species (e.g. the Yellow-
). Natural immigrants have only been in- crowned Night Heron Nyctanassa violacea in
cluded when an established exotic has self- Bermuda, the Eurasian Griffon Gyps fulvus in
colonised a new country, as in the case of the France, and the Northern Goshawk Accipter
House Sparrow Passer domesticus in Africa and gentilis, White-tailed Eagle Haliaetus albicilla
Central and South America. The transloca- and Western Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus in
tion of a species from one part of a country England and Scotland) included in Lever
where it occurs to another part of the same () have been excluded here as they are
country where it does not occur, such as the erstwhile native reintroductions rather than
House Finch Carpodacus mexicanus which has alien introductions.
been transplanted from the western to the Classification, taxonomy, sequence,
eastern United States, and the natural coloni- scientific and vernacular names, and details of
sation by an alien of offlying islands, have in natural range all follow Dickinson ().
Birds prelims 10_11.5.JM 21/10/05 8:42 PM Page 15
Introduction
Birds have always held a peculiar fascination variety of motives; for sporting purposes;
for humans. They have been admired for the for sentimental or nostalgic reasons; as an
beauty of their plumage, marvelled at for the aesthetic amenity; as a potential source of
variety and delicacy of their songs and, food; as a form of biological control of a pest
perhaps most of all, envied for their power of species; as scavengers; and, in pre-Columbian
flight. What, then, more natural that, in his Central America, for their plumage, which
colonisation of the world, man should have was used for ritualistic and decorative
endeavoured to enrich the birdlife of those purposes; and for conservation reasons. Some
regions in which he has settled? birds have been introduced outside their
Ecosystems exist in a constant state of flux: natural range simply out of curiosity as to the
some species die out, adventives and invasives outcome. Many have escaped from captivity
arrive, and new species slowly evolve through or domesticity, and several have used man
natural selection. These alternatives occur as an unwitting means of transportation as
especially when environmental conditions ship-borne stowaways.
are themselves changing, in particular as a Birds (as well as mammals and fish – see
result of human activities. New and artificial Lever , a) have been released for
habitats, created by urbanisation, land recla- sporting purposes to augment the already
mation for agricultural purposes or commer- existing local game species; such releases have
cial forestry, or disturbed successional biotic been made principally in North America and
associations, are formed, thus providing the Antipodes, and have been primarily
opportunities for colonisation by a host of of species from the Odontophoridae,
new species. Introductions by man are not Phasianidae and Anatidae.
inherently different from natural invasions, Introductions for sentimental or nostalgic
such as that of the Collared Dove Streptopelia reasons have largely involved song birds
decaocto in Europe; the process of establish- imported to North America and the
ment and the ecological and/or economic im- Antipodes by homesick settlers (mainly
pact that follows may be the same for species Turdidae, Fringillidae and Emberizidae), and
arriving by both means. No two species, even were made under the auspices of local
if they are close congeners, will necessarily acclimatisation societies (see Lever ).
have the same colonising ability; thus the Birds introduced as an aesthetic amenity
Mandarin Duck Aix galericulata has become have mostly been wildfowl (Anatidae)
widely established in Britain, while the Wood and the so-called ‘ornamental’ pheasants
Duck A. sponsa – the only other member (Phasianidae).
of the genus – has been a relative failure, Introductions of birds as a potential source
although given the same opportunities (Lever of food have usually been domesticated
, ). species such as the Red Jungle Fowl Gallus
gallus (the ancestor of the domestic chicken)
and the Rock Dove/Feral Pigeon Columba
Motives livia. In the nineteenth century, Wekas
Birds (and other animals) have been deliber- Gallirallus australis were imported from
ately introduced by man outside their natural Stewart Island, New Zealand, to subantarctic
range, possibly since their early domestication Macquarie Island as a source of food for
some , years ago (Lever b), for a visiting whalers and sealers. The provision of
Birds prelims 10_11.5.JM 21/10/05 8:42 PM Page 16
Introduction
an additional food resource is, of course, a unknowing means of transportation by
concomitant feature of the introduction of stowing away on ships; most prominent of
new gamebird species. these marine hitch-hikers is, perhaps, the
Many birds have been introduced as a form House Crow Corvus splendens, which has
of biological control of (usually insect) pest been carried in this way to the Arabian Gulf,
species. The House Sparrow Passer domesticus, South Africa, Australia and elsewhere.
was introduced to the United States in an
attempt to control the larvae of the Snow-
white Linden moth Eunomos subsignarius that Consequences
were defoliating trees; to Argentina to destroy A number of far-reaching and often unpre-
a psychid moth Oiketicus kirbyi; and to Brazil dictable consequences may attend the
to kill mosquitoes that were causing a human naturalisation of an exotic species in a new
health hazard and caterpillars that were environment: these include the transmission
damaging ornamental shrubs. Many of these of parasites, pathogens and diseases; damage
‘biological controls’ eventually themselves to human food resources and buildings;
became pests, and although exotic species are disturbance of the native ecosystems; inter-
still sometimes used as controlling agents, this specific competition with indigenous species;
has become generally accepted as a potentially predation of (and by) autochthons; and
dangerous practice. morphological, physiological and/or genetic
Two birds, the Chimango Caracara Milvago changes in native populations through
chimango on Easter Island and the Turkey hybridisation with exotics, and in exotics
Vulture Cathartes aura on Puerto Rico and themselves through their adaptation to a new
Hispaniola, were released to act as scavengers. environment. Temple () estimated that in
The former also preys on colonially nesting the United States % of introduced birds are
seabirds and causes injuries to cattle when primarily injurious, % are mainly beneficial,
probing their backs for ticks. and % may be both injurious and
If Haemig (, ) is correct, several beneficial. In Britain, Williamson & Fitter
birds, notably the Tufted Jay Cyanocorax () cite the so-called ‘Tens Rule’, which
dickeyi, were imported to pre-Columbian holds that approximately one in ten of
Central America to satisfy the demands of the imported species gain access to the wild, one
flourishing trade in ornamental feathers. in ten of those succeed in becoming estab-
At least one species, the Greater Bird lished, and one in ten of those become pests.
of Paradise Paradisaea apoda, has been Most diseases are likely to have more
introduced (from the Aru Islands) to Little serious effects on hosts that have not been
Tobago Island in the West Indies as a means previously exposed to them than on their
of conservation to protect it from plumage- original pre-adapted hosts. Although in time
collectors for the millinery trade (Ingram natural selection tends to result in an accom-
), though it has not been seen there since modation between a pathogen and its host, a
(ffrench ). new host may become endangered or even ex-
Numerous species have become established terminated before that occurs. When an alien
outside their natural range as a result of and a native compete for the same ecological
escaping (or being released) from captivity niche, the introductory host may partly or
or domesticity. Among the families most entirely displace the indigenous species.
commonly represented in the former category Epizootic diseases most seriously affecting
are the Psittacidae, Estrildidae and Ploceidae, humans and transmitted by birds include
while species in the latter include the Red psittacosis (or ornithosis), cryptococcal
Jungle Fowl, Rock Dove/Feral Pigeon and meningitis, histoplasmosis, toxoplasmosis,
Muscovy Duck Cairina moschata, ancestor of encephalitis and encephalomyelitis. Among
the domestic farmyard variety. disorders that primarily affect other birds are
Several birds have used humans as an Newcastle disease, blackhead, bird pox, avian
Birds prelims 10_11.5.JM 21/10/05 8:42 PM Page 17
Introduction
influenza and avian malaria. Pathogens needs. One will always prove more effective
carried by introduced birds may have in utilising the available resources and will
contributed to the decline or extinction of displace the other.
endemic Hawaiian honeycreepers of the Introduced species can be responsible for
genus Hemignathus; another honeycreeper genetic and/or morphological changes in
the Akepa Loxops coccineus; the Hawaiian indigenous populations. Although natural
Goose Branta sandvicensis (Berger ); the selection normally favours native genotypes,
endemic New Zealand Quail Coturnix continuous infiltration or introgression of an
pectoralis novaezelandiae (Oliver , ); alien’s genes into a native population can
and the Auckland Island Teal Anas auck- eventually have an effect which may be
landica, Weka, and Red-fronted Parakeet beneficial or detrimental. A topical case at the
Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae (Falla et al. time of writing is that of the Ruddy Duck
). Ectoparasites carried by birds include Oxyura jamaicensis which escaped into the
ticks (which can transmit typhus and relaps- wild in England in the s, from where it
ing fever to humans), chicken mites and has spread to parts of southern Europe and
stickfast fleas: among avian endoparasites are North Africa, where it is hybridising with the
cestodes, nematodes and leucocytozoans. native White-headed Duck O. leucocephala,
Examples of naturalised birds affecting which is classified as Vulnerable by the World
human food resources are legion, and are fully Conservation Union. Strenuous efforts are
discussed in the species accounts that follow. currently being made to eradicate Ruddy
Birds that cause damage to buildings (by the Ducks in Britain (and on the continent)
deposition of excrement, by pecking at to preserve the genetic integrity of
mortar and by blocking gutters and down- O. leucocephala. Smout (: ), with whom
pipes with nesting material) include House the author agrees, argues persuasively against
Sparrows, European Starling Sturnus vulgaris, such extermination campaigns, and suggests
and Rock Doves/Feral Pigeons. that ‘A more defensible approach might be to
Introduced birds frequently compete – revive the notion of some species as pests, but
mainly for food and nesting sites – with to hesitate before involving conservation in
(usually closely related) native species. Here anything analogous to ethnic cleansing for
we are confronted with the concept of the other species’.
‘vacant ecological niche’. In nature, every Naturalised raptors have been implicated
species occupies a position (or niche) to in the decline or extinction of native species.
which it is better adapted than any other On Easter Island, where they were introduced
species. Thus in any given ecosystem, as scavengers, Chimango Caracaras are
provided the diffusion of species has been a threat to the survival of both native
complete, every available niche will already be Red-tailed Tropicbirds Phaethon rubricauda
occupied. An alien animal introduced into and Kermadec Petrels Pterodroma neglecta,
such an environment will survive only if it and also introduced Chilean Tinamous
can out-compete autochthonous ones, or if, Nothoprocta perdicaria.
as in the case of the Little Owl Athene noctua Extensions of a species’ distribution some-
in Britain (see Fitter ), it can find a previ- times result in considerable genetic variation,
ously unoccupied or empty niche. Of these such as has occurred in the House Sparrow
two options the former is the most common. in North and South America and in the
Where an alien species has food, habitat Hawaiian Islands.
and breeding requirements that are very Aliens all too often cause damage that is of
similar to those of native species, the Principle only minor importance or unknown in their
of Competitive Exclusion applies: this states native range; thus the Yellow-fronted Canary
that two species with identical ecological Serinus mozambicus introduced to the
requirements cannot co-exist together unless Mascarene Islands and the Village Weaver
there is a superabundance of their various Ploceus cucullatus on Hispaniola are far more
Birds prelims 10_11.5.JM 21/10/05 8:42 PM Page 18
Introduction
serious pests there than in their African In the case of predators, a reduction in their
homelands. number allows that of the prey to recover,
The benefits derived from naturalised birds which in turn stimulates the population of
include the provision of new game species; an the predator to increase; this rise in the
additional source of food; an added aesthetic number of predators depresses that of the prey,
amenity; more opportunities for human eventually resulting in a reduction in the pop-
employment; an economically valuable ulation of predators. As J. R. Krebs wrote
extension of a country’s natural resources; (pers. comm. ), ‘People used to say that
and, as for example in the case of the Golden predators do not over-exploit their prey; now
Pheasant Chrysolophus pictus and Mandarin one thinks of them doing their best to if
Duck in Britain, the provision of populations possible – the evolutionary process of natural
of conservation importance. selection does not act to favour harmonious
properties of communities and ecosystems,
but rather acts to favour efficient performance
Habitat Variables (transfer of resources such as food into repro-
Alien species often succeed in becoming ductive output) at the level of the individual’.
established because man has created an Conversely, an absence of regulatory factors
artificial ‘disturbed’ niche to which they, but and an abundance of natural food resources
not natives, are pre-adapted. Especially in may allow a species to increase rapidly; such
North and South America and the Hawaiian abundant food resources enable birds like
Islands, relatively few alien birds have become the Northern Cardinal Cardinalis cardinalis,
naturalised in native unmodified habitats introduced to the Hawaiian Islands, to breed
already occupied by indigenes, and the throughout the year rather than seasonally
successful establishment of most exotics has and to raise far more young than it does in its
been due in part to their close association native North and Central America.
with human-modified habitats. In Australia
and New Zealand, the proportion of exotic to
indigenous birds is much higher in suburban Introduction and Speciation
than in rural habitats. The presence of exclu- The colonisation of a new region by an intro-
sively native vegetation is the most important duced species may be a major event in the
factor governing the abundance of both evolution of that species and can result in the
native and exotic birds, showing a positive creation of a new species. This can happen if
and negative correlation respectively. Native the colonising event causes isolation between
species feed proportionately more than aliens different populations which then genetically
on indigenous rather than introduced plants. diverge as a result of micro-evolutionary
When not foraging, native birds are observed processes (as in the case of the White-tailed
proportionately more often than aliens on Jay Cyanocorax mystacalis and Tufted Jay in
native rather than introduced vegetation, and South America and Mexico respectively), or if
exotics are noticed proportionately more the colonising event, in cases where the
often than natives on man-made structures. propagule size is low, causes a radical genetic
Relatively few alien birds occur regularly alteration in the founder population. The
inside native forests and few natives are to be House Sparrow in Australia and North and
found in exotic woodland. South America may be in the course of such
speciation.
It is not always easy to get an introduced
Controlling Factors species established in a new region, even
Introduced animals can be limited by a single when the conditions appear to be favourable.
factor or by a combination of several, such as Factors that increase (but by no means
a shortage of (usually winter) food or the guarantee) the likelihood of success are a -
effects of predators, parasites and diseases. congenial climate; a suitable habitat; a vacant
Birds prelims 10_11.5.JM 21/10/05 8:42 PM Page 19
Introduction
ecological niche; a plentiful supply of Sol & Lefebvre () and Sol et al. ()
acceptable food; generalised rather than show that adaptability and behavioural
specific food requirements; an absence of flexibility are important criteria for invasion
potential predators; a lack of competition success. These criteria are known to be linked
from native species; low mortality and high to relative brain size, and species with
fecundity rates; a large enough founder stock; relatively larger brains tend to be more
a degree of adaptability and behavioural flexi- successful invaders.
bility; and the ability to disperse. To these It has been hypothesised that there is
may be added, in the case of birds, nest site a relationship between the body size of
selection; large clutches of eggs; small body introduced animals and their success rate, and
mass; and the absence or abandonment of the predictions suggest that the success of intro-
instinct for full migration, as for example ductions should be negatively correlated with
in the case of the Canada Goose Branta body size across taxa but positively correlated
canadensis in Britain. within closely related taxa. Cassey ()
Where enough of the factors occur a found that introduced terrestrial birds have,
species’ naturalisation typically follows a on average, larger bodies than extant land
classic sigmoid growth curve; the initial stock birds, but that across species, families, and
may be severely depleted as a result of higher family nodes, introduction success is
predation or natural causes; next, following significantly related to smaller body size.
adaptive changes in the behaviour and Within taxa, however, there is a noticeable
ecology of survivors, there may be a popula- positive relationship between successful
tion explosion to the maximum numbers that introduction and body mass. Cassey ()
the colonised area will support, followed by a concluded that there is an indirect but gen-
contraction in numbers (and possibly range) uine relationship between the introduction
to a point where both become stabilised. success of terrestrial birds and their body size.
In the past decade much research has been Duncan et al. () found that the geo-
done (some of which reaches contradictory graphic range of alien birds in New Zealand is
conclusions) on the reasons for the success unrelated to the period of their establishment.
or failure of an introduced bird to become Large geographical ranges are dependent
established in a new environment. more on an abundance of preferred habitat,
Forsyth & Duncan () and Cassey et al. fecundity, rapid development, small body
() stress the importance of propagule size size, many and large-scale introductions and a
(introduction effort) as a key determinant of partial migratory instinct (Duncan et al.
the successful establishment of exotics, and ). Several authors (e.g. Moulton et al.
claim that propagule size is both the strongest a, b) have found that successfully intro-
correlate of introduction success and corre- duced species tend to have larger natural
lates with many variables previously believed geographical ranges than unsuccessful ones,
to influence such success. The latter authors which supports the hypothesis that range size
believe that apart from the size of the founder is correlated with adaptability and behav-
stock, only habitat generalism relates to ioural flexibility. There is a strong correlation
successful establishment in birds (but see between range size in the British Isles (the
Moulton et al. a, b below). Although source of many New Zealand aliens) and New
Moulton () argues convincingly that Zealand: Duncan et al. () found much
interspecific competition (and other biotic the same in Australia.
features of the community) play an important Case () suggested that the most im-
role in influencing the success of invasives, portant correlate of successful introductions
Blackburn & Duncan (a) suggest that is the number of indigenous species that have
success depends more on the suitability of the died out during the past , years, which is
abiotic environment for the invasive species linked to the amount of human activity and
rather than the degree of biotic resistance. habitat destruction through the effects of
Birds prelims 10_11.5.JM 21/10/05 8:42 PM Page 20
Introduction
exotic predators, herbivores, and parasites. ticity and evolutionary response to pressures
Thus the number of successful invaders is of natural selection.
close to the number of native species lost. In Interspecific competition, associated with
the case of islands, their area correlates posi- morphological over-dispersion (where indi-
tively with the number of introduced species. viduals are more dissimilar in size than would
Successful introductions are not directly be expected by chance), is a limiting factor for
linked to the richness of the indigenous the successful introduction of Passeriformes
avifauna nor the variety of potential mam- to oceanic islands. Moulton et al. (b)
malian predators. The relative proportion of found that in the Hawaiian Islands and
extinct native species is positively correlated New Zealand, introduced Galliformes were
with the numbers of aliens and endemics. similarly consistently morphologically over-
There is a strong correlation between the dispersed. They also re-examined the role of
numbers of successes and failures among in- propagule size in introduction success, and
vasives, and the relative success to failure rate found that the evidence supporting this
increases with the number of extinct natives. proposition is poor, and that community-
Case () believed that the correlation based factors, including environmental ones
between introductions and native extinctions and interspecific competition, are important
exists because native species are usually more determinants of the success of gamebird
common in pristine habitats whereas exotics introductions. Duncan & Blackburn (),
prefer disturbed habitats. As more of an however, conclude that competition among
island’s area becomes disturbed, most indi- morphologically similar species could not
genes lose their habitat, while exotics gain. have been responsible for the failure of game-
Although Case () found little evidence bird introductions in New Zealand because
that a rich native avifauna will inhibit the the majority of species were liberated at
establishment of an alien species, interactions widely separated locations or at different
between naturalised and indigenous species times, did not spread and soon died out if
may influence habitat distribution of species they failed to become established, and could
within islands. In both pristine and man- never have encountered other morphologi-
made habitats, the numbers of exotics and cally similar exotics. Even when morpho-
their relative abundance is negatively related logically similar species were released in the
to the number of native species. same area and at the same time, historical
McLain et al. (, ) and Sorci et al. records suggest that it is unlikely that two
() found that on a number of widely species were ever released at the same site, and
dispersed oceanic islands and in New Zealand even if they were, interspecific competition is
the introduction success rate is lower for birds an improbable cause of failure because most
with sexually dichromatic plumage than for species occurred in extremely low numbers.
those with sexually monochromatic plumage. Duncan & Blackburn () infer that
The diets of the two groups do not differ, but factors other than competition can produce
a broader-based diet is associated with a patterns of significant morphological over-
higher rate of introduction success. It was also dispersion among alien avifauna, and that
found that species nesting principally in greater introduction effort expended on more
bushes are more successful than those nesting morphologically distinct species may account
in trees or on the ground, but that plumage for the over-dispersion of exotic gamebirds in
type does not affect nest-site selection. Sexual New Zealand.
selection governs the evolution of sexual Introduced populations may have genetic
dichromatism, and thus sexual selection characteristics, frequently caused by small
indirectly causes the extinction of small propagule size, that differ from those in their
colonising populations – in particular of natural range. This leads to founder effects
passerines – meeting new environmental and subsequent genetic drift, often resulting
requirements by constraining ecological plas- in greater differences in allozyme patterns
Birds prelims 10_11.5.JM 21/10/05 8:42 PM Page 21
Introduction
between naturalised populations than be- Firstly, the characteristics of the species and
tween natural ones. In many instances, a large regions selected for introduction are not rep-
proportion of alleles are lost within a few gen- resentative of species and locations generally,
erations of the introduction event, and the which may bias the perception of the factors
mean level of heterozygosity can also be affecting the outcome of introductions. Sec-
significantly depleted. Sjoberg () could ondly, the spatial and taxonomic clumping of
find no evidence of lowered potential to track introductions causes difficulties of confound-
environmental changes following a reduction ing and lack of independence in statistical
of the number of alleles in an introduced analyses of introduction rates of success.
population, nor for inbreeding depression. Introductions can, however, be analysed
The degree of genetic variability occurring validly as independent observations providing
in a population is important for its survival this lack of independence can be expressly
and evolution, and populations with a small incorporated in the model, and this tech-
introduction effort have reduced genetic nique should be standard practice in any
variation. Many introductions, however, have analysis of introduction results.
been made successfully with a small propag- Every introduction of an alien species
ule size – Sjoberg () quotes Fabricius is a unique event, because the precise
(a, b) regarding the Canada Goose in circumstances of each case can never be
Sweden. exactly replicated. Nor are they invariably
Lockwood () concluded that taxon- entirely predictable, since exotic animals react
omy is a strong predictor of successful avian with the native biota in a variety of ways
introduction; she pointed out that six families which can often be impossible to forecast
(Anatidae, Phasianidae, Passeridae, Psittaci- (Lever ).
dae, Columbidae and Odontophoridae) con- The establishment and spread of intro-
tain more successfully established exotics than duced species is recognised as a major
would be expected by chance, and that ecological and economic threat throughout
human influence on probability of transport the world, and this threat is likely to grow as
appears to govern this taxonomic pattern. greater volumes of transport and trade
Three families (Anatidae, Odontophoridae increase the rate of species’ introductions.
and Phasianidae) hold many more species Measuring, assessing, and understanding the
than expected that were introduced for sport- impact of invasives is a major, and so far
ing purposes. Similarly, Passeridae and unresolved, problem in invasion biology.
Sturnidae have far more cage-bird species than Defining and assessing exactly what is meant
expected by chance. Thus, traits that enhance by ‘impact’ is not easy, but is crucial in estab-
the likelihood of deliberate transport show a lishing priorities for the management of inva-
definite taxonomic pattern. Brooks () sive species. If impacts can be quantified, it
concluded that human preferences may should be possible to apply comparative
govern the selection of particular families for methods to identify why some invasives have
introduction, with the success of individual a more serious impact than others, and to
species being simply due to increased propag- make use of these data in explanatory models.
ule pressure. It is important to study how attributes and
Global information on avian introductions characteristics of invasives and of the biotope
is a valuable tool for studying the factors interact. The biota of islands, for example, are
governing the success or failure of such believed to be more susceptible to the impact
introductions. The value of this resource, of exotics because insular species have not
however, may be compromised by two been exposed to mainland selective pressures;
features associated with the non-random data on introduced birds may provide
nature of introductions (see Lockwood ). opportunities to test these and associated
Blackburn & Duncan (b) assess the hypotheses. The ‘enemy release’ hypothesis,
probable importance of these two features. for example, suggests that some invaders are
Birds prelims 10_11.5.JM 21/10/05 8:42 PM Page 22
Introduction
more successful in their naturalised than in population increase may have larger
their native range due to an absence of such distributions because they are less vulnerable
natural enemies as predators, competitors, to local extinction when attempting to
and pathogens. Species with a rapid rate of become established (Duncan et al. ).
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 23
Naturalised Species
TINAMIDAE (TINAMOUS) millinery trade. From Melbourne the birds
were transferred by their owner, Mr (later Sir)
Chilean Tinamou Samuel Wilson to his estate at Longerenong
Nothoprocta perdicaria in the Wimmera district. Although the Os-
triches bred successfully at Longerenong, the
Natural Range: NC and S Chile. wet climate and predation by marsupial cats
Naturalised Range: Easter I. (Dasyurus spp.) forced Wilson in to send
his surviving stock to a station owned by
E I C. M. and S. H. Officer at Murray Downs on
In Chilean Tinamous of the nominate the Murray River in New South Wales.
form (NC Chile) were introduced to Easter After an initially unsatisfactory start the
Island (Hellmayr ). Although they remain birds started to flourish, and their plumes,
established over a century later (Araya et al. marketed in London, were said to be superior
, Jaramillo et al. ) they have not to those produced in South Africa.
spread far, perhaps due to predation by the By the population at Murray Downs
Chimango Caracara Milvago chimango, which had increased to over . In the following
was introduced in (Johnson et al. ). year Murray Downs was sold, part of the
stock being transferred to a property near
Impact: By providing them with an additional Kerang, Victoria, and part to the Kallara
source of food, Tinamous may be helping to
sustain the population of Caracaras on Easter
Island.
STRUTHIONIDAE
(OSTRICHES)
Ostrich
Struthio camelus
Natural Range: From S Morocco and
Mauritania to Sudan, Ethiopia, N Uganda,
Somalia, Kenya, C Tanzania and southern
Africa. (Formerly also Syrian and Arabian
deserts).
Naturalised Range: Australia.
A
In four Ostriches were despatched from
Paris to Melbourne, Victoria, as the intended
founder stock of a breeding facility for the
production of aigrettes (plumes) used in the Ostrich
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 24
Naturalised Birds of the World
Station on the Darling River in New South are believed to be mainly S. c. australis (south-
Wales. The birds at Kerang eventually in- ern Africa), possibly intermixed with some of
creased to , but the chicks of those at Kal- the nominate form from northern and parts
lara all succumbed to the mineral salts in the of eastern Africa.
station’s artesian wells.
In the early s Ostriches were also intro-
duced successfully to some of the drier parts
of South Australia, where at Port Augusta by CRACIDAE
the South Australia Ostrich Company
owned a population of . Some of these may (CHACHALACAS,
have been released prior to the First World CURASSOWS AND GUANS)
War, and before others were freed at
Point Sturt on Lake Alexandrina and on Plain Chachalaca
Mundoo Island at the mouth of the Murray Ortalis vetula
River, where they multiplied so rapidly that
they eventually became a pest. Natural Range: From N Mexico (and a small
After the First World War the trade in ai- area of extreme southern Texas) south to
grettes declined dramatically, partly as a result Costa Rica. Also on Utilia I., Honduras.
of a change in fashion, partly due to the diffi- Naturalised Range: USA.
culties in catching the birds for plucking and
partly when it became apparent that sheep U S
were more profitable than ostrich plumes. In Howard E. Coffin obtained Plain
When Ostrich farms closed down most of the Chachalacas of the form O. v. mccallii from
surviving stock escaped or were released, and eastern Mexico which he released on Sapelo
feral populations became established at Mur- Island off the coast of Georgia. In the spring
gah, New South Wales, at Redcliffe Station of some of the birds nested successfully,
northwest of Morgan, and in the sandhills of and within two years they had colonised most
the Coorong, Narrung and Port Augusta dis- of Sapelo and had also flown to the neigh-
tricts of South Australia (Frith ). bouring Blackbeard Island (Phillips ).
Despite predation and shooting, small feral Plain Chachalacas still occur on Sapelo and
populations of Ostriches survive north of Port Blackbeard Islands, and according to the
Augusta and at Redcliffe, and hundreds or AOU () also on Little St Simons Island.
even thousands around the Flinders Range
northeast of Port Augusta (Blakers, Davies &
Reilly ). The Ostriches in South Australia
NUMIDIDAE (GUINEAFOWL)
Helmeted Guineafowl
Numida meleagris
Natural Range: Much of sub-Saharan Africa.
Also in NW Morocco until recently but
now believed extinct (Thévenot et al. ).
Naturalised Range: Asia: ?Japan; ?Yemen.
North America: West Indies. South Amer-
ica: Brazil. Australasia: Australia; New
Zealand. Atlantic Ocean: ?Annobón I.;
Ascension I.; Canary Is., Cape Verde Is. In-
dian Ocean: ?Chagos Is.; ?Comoro Is.;
Plain Chachalaca Mascarene Is. Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 25
Numididae (Guineafowl)
When Helmeted Guineafowl (ancestors of the stated that Guineafowl were first introduced
domestic variety) were first imported to to the Antilles around . The species is
Europe is uncertain, but they are known to now widely kept in domestication in the
have been domesticated by both the ancient Caribbean, and would doubtless also have
Greeks and the Romans. There is, however, become widely feral were it not for predation
no evidence of their continuous domestica- by the also introduced Small Indian Mon-
tion, and they were probably reintroduced by goose Herpestes javanicus (see Lever ).
Portuguese traders from west Africa in the late Guineafowl occur in the wild in most lowland
fifteenth/early sixteenth centuries, when in parts of Hispaniola, on Cuba, on the Isle
England they were called the ‘Tudor Turkey’. of Pines, on Puerto Rico, Barbuda, the Virgin
The birds were not well known in Europe Islands (St Croix), and St Martin (Isle Pinel)
until the middle of the th century. (Raffaele et al. ).
On Hispaniola, Guineafowl were well-
J established and widely distributed by at least
Matsuo () says that Guineafowl were , and remained so for the next years.
imported to Japan from Europe by the Dutch Wetmore & Swales () found them in
in the mid-nineteenth century; whether any numerous localities, though mainly in Haiti.
occur there in the wild today is unknown. Although the birds are well-established in the
foothills of the Sierra de Baoruco in the
Y Dominican Republic they are declining
Meinertzhagen () says that Helmeted due to overshooting, and predation by
Guineafowl were probably introduced to the Mongooses.
Arabian Peninsula, where today they occur Bond () says that Guineafowl are
only in parts of Yemen. The race in Yemen is established on Cuba eastward from Las Villas
the nominate meleagris, which is found on Province, on the neighbouring Isle of Pines,
the other side of the Red Sea in Africa, but and on Barbuda in the Leeward Islands, where
natural immigration seems improbable. the Moroccan form N. m. sabyi has occurred
in the wild since before .
W I In Puerto Rico, Helmeted Guineafowl
Wetmore () repeated the unsubstantiated occurred in montane areas as early as ,
claim by Karl Ritter who, writing in , but Wetmore () believed that they
had by then died out. The AOU (),
however, lists the species as still established on
Puerto Rico.
B
Helmeted Guineafowl have been successfully
introduced to the island of Trinidade off the
coast of Brazil (AOU , R. C. Banks pers.
comm. ).
A
Simpson & Day () refer to populations of
Helmeted Guineafowl on Heron and other
Great Barrier Reef islands, and E. F. J. Garcia
(pers. comm. ) saw a small flock of
near Mareeba in the Atherton tablelands,
Queensland, in . These Guineafowl pop-
ulations are not mentioned by Barrett et al.
Helmeted Guineafowl ().
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 26
Naturalised Birds of the World
N Z C I
Several attempts were made in the nineteenth According to Benson (), Guineafowl
century to establish Guineafowl on South Is- of the form N. m. mitrata were probably
land but none succeeded, probably due to the introduced to Grande Comore, Anjouan and
severe winters. In North Island, birds were Mayotte, where they were first reported
released in various localities, but by the s in . They could, however, be natural
were established only at Aberfeldy, km east immigrants from east Africa.
of Wanganui. Today they also occur on rough
farmland in parts of Northland, Waikato, and M I
Rotorua (Heather & Robertson ). Introduced between and (Cheke
), Helmeted Guineafowl of the form
A I mitrata (eastern and southern Africa) were by
Guineafowl on Annobón Island off Gabon considered to be abundant in northern,
may be descended from deliberate releases, central and western Rodrigues (Staub b),
but could also be natural immigrants from but by around the time of the First World
West Africa (Fry ). War had become rare, apparently due to
nest predation by feral Pigs Sus scrofa (see
A I Lever ), and died out before (Dia-
According to the AOU () Guineafowl mond ). However, Showler () states
are established on Ascension Island. See also that in a pair of free-ranging Guinea-
McCulloch . fowl with young was observed on Mont
Malartic, and another pair was noted at
C I La Source, so the possibility of the re-
According to Langley (), a small (< ) establishment of a feral population cannot be
and declining population occurs on Tenerife. discounted.
Jones () lists Helmeted Guineafowl as
C V I introduced in the eighteenth century to
In Prince Ferdinand of Portugal imported Mauritius, where they occur in lowland exotic
slaves, and probably Helmeted Guineafowl savanna.
of the race N. m. galeatus from west Africa, to
the Cape Verde Islands. They were observed Impact: Staub (, ) and Cheke ()
on Sal by the English buccaneer, William say that Helmeted Guineafowl on Rodrigues
Dampier, in , were said to be abundant have been seen as a threat to sown maize, and
on Maio in , and were noted on São between and were systematically
Thiago by Charles Darwin in . According destroyed (North-Coombes ).
to Bannerman & Bannerman (), they
occurred during the nineteenth century on H I
São Nicolau, São Vicente, Fogo, Maio, São Since Guineafowl have occasionally
Thiago, Brava, Santo Antão and Boa Vista. occurred in the wild on several Hawaiian
Guineafowl now occur on most of these islands, but in most have failed to establish.
islands apart from São Vicente and Brava Schwartz & Schwartz () located a
(Hazevoet ). small population of about birds whose
numbers were declining, on Lanai, Molokai,
C I Maui, Kauai and Hawaii, and believed the
In , Gadow & Gardiner () found a species would soon disappear. A few, however,
few feral Guineafowl on Takamaka, Fouquet may survive on Hawaii, Maui, Molokai and
and Anglaise Islands; Bourne () heard Lanai (Pratt et al. ), though they are
reports of them on Salomon Island, and it is ‘perhaps not well-established’ (AOU :
possible that a few may survive on some of the ).
less frequented islands.
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 27
Odontophoridae (New World Quails)
ODONTOPHORIDAE far north as Duncan, where the species still
(NEW WORLD QUAILS) occurs (Johnston & Garrett , AOU ).
Mountain Quail
Oreortyx pictus
California Quail
Natural Range: From SW Washington, Ore- Callipepla californica
gon, Nevada and California (including
the Little San Bernardino Mts) to N Baja Natural Range: From W and C Oregon south
California. through California (including Santa Cata-
Naturalised Range: North America: Canada. lina I.) to Baja California and NE Mexico.
Naturalised Range: Europe: France; ?Spain;
C ?Italy. North America: Canada. South
Mountain Quail were first introduced to America: Argentina; ?Brazil; Chile. Aus-
Canada in or when Charles Wylde tralasia: Australia; New Zealand. Pacific
released some at his home near Victoria on Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
Vancouver Island, British Columbia (Wylde
, Alford ). Others were probably F
liberated at around the same time on the Gulf Unsuccessful attempts to establish California
islands and on the mainland in the Lower Quail on the French mainland have been made
Fraser Valley (Phillips ). Although both since the s (Phillips ). Today, the
these introductions ultimately failed, from species occurs in the wild only on the island of
subsequent releases said to have taken place Corsica, where it became established during
in the s and s a sizeable population the s (Yeatman ). Most of the popu-
built up at the southern end of Vancouver lation is found where arable land is associated
Island, where Phillips () recorded their with patches of maquis (scrub) formed of
presence along the mountain ridges from Cork Oak Quercus suber. The species also oc-
Victoria to Cowichan Valley at Duncan. curs in much smaller numbers in non-arable
Fifty years later, between and were localities where human activities (e.g. grazing,
established on southern Vancouver Island as woodcutting and burning) have created open
grassy and scrubby clearings in the Cork Oak
forests. The birds are uncommon and ex-
tremely shy (Dubray & Roux , Pietri ,
Baccetti et al. , Aebischer & Pietri ).
Summing up the potential habitats of Cali-
fornia Quail on Corsica, Pietri () said that
between , and , birds had been
liberated in various localities, more than %
of which were released during the s. By
the birds occupied nearly sq km in
the mid-eastern part of the island (the Aleria
plain). Habitat factors and climate are likely
to be the principal factors that affect the
success or failure of the species to become
established. The Aleria plain, where sound
agricultural practices since the s and the
extension of vineyards provide the birds with
a favourable anthropic habitat, is the species’
stronghold on Corsica, where Langley ()
Mountain Quail said the population is increasing.
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 28
Naturalised Birds of the World
I on South Pender Island (but not on the Queen
California Quail have occurred in the wild in Charlottes); although the lower mainland
parts of northwestern and central Italy and in introductions had been largely unsuccessful, a
northwestern Sicily, but may be established few isolated populations survived.
only on the island of Maretimmo off Trapani, Up to a quarter of a million birds are estab-
Sicily, in the Isole Egadi archipelago (Bonelli lished locally in southern British Columbia
& Moltoni , Baccetti et al. ). (AOU ) especially on southern Vancou-
ver Island and in the Okanagan Valley, where
S their principal limiting factor seems to be
According to Langley (), the California exceptionally heavy winter snowfalls.
Quail is in the process of becoming estab- Power () suggests that the form catali-
lished in Spain but Clavell (in Martí & del nensis on Santa Catalina Island in the Channel
Moral ) notes only that it has bred in Islands off the coast of California may have
Madrid, Catalonia and Mallorca. been introduced by Native Americans, per-
haps thousands of years ago. California Quail
C from Santa Catalina were successfully trans-
In or Charles Wylde released some ferred to Santa Rosa between and
California Quail near Victoria on Vancouver and to Santa Cruz in (Power ), and
Island, British Columbia (Wylde ); at unsuccessfully to San Clemente around .
around the same time H. M. Peers introduced
others to Colquitz Farm, while more were A
planted further west at Metchosin. In the California Quail were first introduced to
s others were liberated in the same areas, Argentina by Carlos S. Reed, who in
and from until the s more were released pairs in the suburbs of Mendoza
released on southern Vancouver Island and on in southwestern Argentina, followed at a
the lower mainland. Between and later date by a further , individuals.
several further introductions were made on Although Reed claimed that the birds became
Vancouver Island and on the mainland, as established, they seem subsequently to have
well as on South Pender and Denman Islands died out.
and on the Queen Charlotte Islands. In , ten pairs imported from Chile
By the mid-s, California Quail were were liberated on the Primavera estancia
well-established on Vancouver Island – mainly (ranch) on the Traful River in Neuquén Prov-
on the Saanich peninsula, near Victoria, and in ince south of Mendoza. These birds became
the southwest around Sooke; a few remained well established, and their descendants colon-
ised an extensive area centred on the Traful
and Limay Rivers, stretching to the Nahuel
Huapi Lake and thence westward over the El
Condor estancia on the Nahuel Huapi pampa
(treeless plain) and eastward to the River La
Fragua on the San Ramón estancia. North of
the Traful, California Quail have spread
through the valleys of the Rivers Córdoba and
Catedral as far as the outskirts of San Martin
de los Andes.
In northern Neuquén Province C. califor-
nica occurs in considerable numbers in the
region between the Chos Malal, Andacollo
and El Huecú. This population originates
from releases that are believed to have been
California Quail made between and on the Norquin,
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 29
Odontophoridae (New World Quails)
Parque El Morado pampa near El Huecú. bibliographic data available …’ but gives no
Navas (), from whom this account is further details.
derived, saw the species in large numbers in
the valley of the River Curi Leuvu and along Impact: Vuilleumier (: ; ) says
the road between Chos Malal and Andacollo. that the California Quail ‘is an ecologically
See also Mazar Barnett & Pearman . important member of the mediterranean
avifauna of Chile’, and that its ecological
Impact: Navas () says that in Argentina, impact is ‘significant’, but provides no
where the species has found a vacant ecologi- examples. The only native species with
cal niche with no competitors, California which it might compete is the Chilean
Quail provide a new source of food for native Tinamou Nothoprocta perdicaria; although the
predators. range and habitats (farmland, grassland
edges near thickets, and native vegetation) of
B both species overlap, there is no apparent
Inskipp () says that California Quail evidence of significant competition. The form
have been exported annually from Chile to established in Chile is C. c. brunnescens.
Argentina and Brazil; their status in the latter
is unknown. A
Between and about numerous
C introductions of California Quail were made
In around an unsuccessful attempt was from New Zealand to Australia (Victoria,
made to introduce C. californica from Califor- Phillip Island, Tasmania, Huon Island, Rot-
nia to the Southern Lakes region of Chile, but tnest Island, South Australia, New South
from other introductions made elsewhere at Wales, Queensland, King Island (Bass Strait)
about the same time California Quail were and Norfolk Island). Although in several
subsequently successfully translocated to places the birds bred successfully and became
other localities such as the Nilahue Valley in established locally (Ryan , Chisholm
Curico Province in (Barros ). In , Tarr ), the species is said to survive
or C. J. Lambert imported large numbers only on Norfolk Island; near Wonthaggi,
of birds from San Francisco, which he released Victoria; perhaps near Newcastle, New South
at La Compañia in Coquimbo Province, Wales (Pietri ); on King Island in the Bass
where they multiplied and spread (Hellmayr Strait (Pietri ); and perhaps in Tasmania
). Phillips () said that California Quail (Barrett et al. ).
were already important game-birds in Chile,
where Hellmayr () recorded the species as N Z
common in the central provinces. As in Australia, there were many intro-
Johnson () reported C. californica to ductions – mostly between and – of
be well established from Atacama south to California Quail to New Zealand (Auckland,
Concepción, while Sick () said that from Nelson, Kawau Island, Canterbury, Otago,
Coquimbo they had spread south to Puerto Southland, Wellington, Hawke’s Bay, Chat-
Montt and inland to Los Angeles. Johnson ham Island). The birds became widely
() indicated that the species’ northern established, and seem to have reached their
limit was the desert and the southern one the maximum numbers and distribution within
area of high precipitation. According to about years of their introduction (i.e.
Jaramillo et al. (: ), California Quail are between c. and ) (Oliver ).
currently ‘more abundant in Chile than Thereafter they declined, due more to habitat
within [their] North American range’. loss rather than to predation by man and
Pietri (: ) indicates the species’ introduced mustelids (see Lever ).
occurrence on Isla Más á Tierra in the Thomson () believed that the failure of
Juan Fernandez group ‘according to the most game birds to become better established
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 30
Naturalised Birds of the World
throughout New Zealand was largely due to to the islands continued until . Between
competition for food with native species and and California Quail were
introduced passerines. Nevertheless, Califor- liberated on the Puu Waawa Ranch on
nia Quail are now widely distributed in New Hawaii, where by the early s the birds
Zealand, occurring throughout most of were well established and abundant.
North Island and South Island; north and east Schwartz and Schwartz () found the
of the Southern Alps, on some offshore species on all the larger islands apart from
islands, and on the Chatham Islands (Pietri Oahu, and also on Niihau, and estimated the
), where they were introduced prior total population to be about ,, of which
to . They are rare or absent in regions over , were on Hawaii and nearly
with high rainfall. California Quail in New , on Molokai. Today, California Quail
Zealand are both the nominate form and C. c. are established on Maui, Molokai and Kaui
brunnescens (Heather & Robertson ) and on the leeward (drier) side of Hawaii.
There they are common in North Kona,
Impact: As early as , California Quail had Mauna Kea and the Hawaii Volcanoes
become an agricultural pest in some parts National Park (Pratt et al. ), where their
of New Zealand, where they ate young principal limiting factors seem to be the
clover plants and seeds, and newly sown and intensity of grazing by domestic stock and the
germinating turnip seeds (Thomson ); availability of water.
forty years later they were reported (Oliver
) to be damaging grape and strawberry Impact: California Quail in the Hawaiian
crops. They were also accused of spreading the Islands have been implicated in the spread
seeds of Blackberry Rubus fruticosa, which was of various exotic grasses, herbs and shrubs
probably introduced by the early settlers (Lever ). The species diversity of alien
(Lever ). On the other hand, California flora is generally highest in broken woodland,
Quail also eat injurious insects and the seeds and is much influenced by the presence
of noxious weeds. of naturalised game birds (Cuddihy &
Stone ).
H I
California Quail (both C. c. californica and
C. c. brunnescens) were first introduced from
California to Oahu before ; at a later date Gambel’s Quail
more were released on all the other main Callipepla gambelii
islands, where within a decade Walker ()
said they were well established and a valuable Natural Range: SW USA and Mexico (includ-
game bird. Munro () indicates that by ing Tiburon I.) south to S Sonora.
they were common and abundant on Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
Hawaii and Molokai, and that by the turn of
the century they were also established on H I
Niihau and Kauai. Gambel’s Quail has been established on the
Between and the populations on island of Kahoolawe since the species was
Hawaii and Kauai considerably declined, due imported by H. A. Baldwin in (Caum
mainly to overgrazing by domestic stock, and ). Between and a total of
land reclamation on the latter for sugar and were imported to Hawaii, where were
pineapple plantations. Nevertheless, Caum released at Puako on the northwest coast and
() found California Quail to be fairly on Lanai and an unknown number on
common on Hawaii and Molokai, though less Maui (Walker ). Today, Gambel’s Quails
so on Oahu, Maui and Kauai, and absent are established on Lanai, Kahoolawe and
from Lanai. In – a dozen pairs were perhaps Hawaii (Pratt , AOU ).
released on Lanai, and sporadic importations
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 31
Odontophoridae (New World Quails)
Northern Bobwhite form established in Italy is the nominate
Colinus virginianus C. v. virginianus (central and eastern United
States).
Natural Range: From C and E USA south to
Florida, and in Central America to NW P; S
Guatemala; also on Cuba. Langley () lists C. virginianus as estab-
Naturalised Range: Europe: ?Croatia; ?France; lished in Portugal and apparently becoming
Italy; Portugal; ?Spain. North America: so in Spain. Clavell (in Martí & del Moral
?Canada; West Indies. Australasia: ?New ) only cites breeding in Mallorca in
Zealand. and males heard calling in Catalonia in
and .
C
Northern Bobwhites have been introduced to C
Croatia since the s, and are presently Several attempts have been made to establish
established only near Istra where although the Northern Bobwhites in Canada – in Nova
population may be self-sustaining it also Scotia, Ontario and Manitoba (Phillips )
recruits from periodic stocking (Gariboldi – but only a few descendants of those released
). in the Okanagan Valley in southwestern
British Columbia may survive today (AOU
F ).
Although Northern Bobwhites have been
introduced to France for sporting purposes on W I
numerous occasions since , only around Northern Bobwhites have been successfully
Sologne and Puisaye in the centre of the introduced in the Bahamas (Andros, New
country and Les Landes in the southwest are Providence and Eleuthera); the Greater
breeding populations established, though Antilles (Hispaniola, Puerto Rico); and
whether these would be self-sustaining formerly the Virgin Islands (St Croix), where
without regular stocking is uncertain (Voisin the species has since died out (AOU ).
, Gariboldi ). Cory (: ) was told that the species
had been imported to New Providence
I
Italy is the only country in Europe in which
Northern Bobwhites are definitely natural-
ised, having been admitted to the official
Checklist of Italian Birds in the early s.
The species has been introduced to various
parts of the country since , its present
distribution being confined to some sq
km of the plains and hills in Piemonte and
Lombardy in the northwest (Canavese,
Astigiano, Allesandrino), especially in the
Ticino Valley, where the population has
declined to between , and , breed-
ing pairs which nest in the region between the
Sesia and Ticino Rivers. Northern Bobwhites
are also said to be established on the island of
Mozia off Trapani, Sicily (Fasola & Gariboldi
, Iapichino & Massa , Brichetti et al.
, Meschini & Frugis , Baccetti et al.
, Gariboldi , Bertolino ). The Northern Bobwhite
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 32
Naturalised Birds of the World
‘many years ago’ and was then abundant PHASIANIDAE (TURKEYS,
around Nassau. Today, birds of the subspecies GROUSE, PHEASANTS AND
floridanus are established in pine barrens,
thick wooded undergrowth, wasteland, rough PARTRIDGES)
pasture and arable land on New Providence,
Andros and Eleuthera, and according to the Wild Turkey
AOU () (which omits Eleuthera) also on Meleagris gallopavo
Abaco Island.
Cory () believed that the species was Natural Range: SE USA to WC Mexico
introduced to Haiti (Hispaniola) during the Naturalised Range: Europe: Germany; ?Aus-
period of French rule (–) where it be- tria; ?Former USSR. Asia: ?Japan. North
came established on the southern peninsula. America: Canada. Australasia: ?Australia;
Northern Bobwhites were imported to New Zealand. Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
Santo Domingo in the Dominican Republic
(Hispaniola) around (Cherrie ), G; A; F
where they are still established (AOU ). USSR
According to Gundlach (a) Northern Turkeys were probably originally imported to
Bobwhites were introduced to Puerto Rico Europe in the early sixteenth century; they
from Cuba in by Don Ramón Soler on were first noted in Germany around and
his hacienda Santa Inés near Vega Baja; they were being reared in captivity by at least .
still survive on the island today (AOU ). Turkeys have a long history in German sport-
Newton & Newton () record that ing lore, and small populations survived in the
Northern Bobwhites were introduced to St wild in the valley of the River Danube until
Croix in about , where the birds have the outbreak of the Second World War
since died out. (Niethammer ). By the mid-s small
Phillips () says that Northern Bob- populations existed only in Kottenforst, Bus-
whites (probably from Florida and perhaps choven and Boenning Hardt in the Rhineland
Texas) were introduced to Cuba before , (Aliev & Khanmamedov ). These authors
where Dickinson () implies that the form also refer to the species as feral in parts of
cubanensis is indigenous, although the AOU Austria and the Latviya SSR of the former
() says the species is introduced. See also USSR. Gebhardt (: ) mentions that
Raffaele et al. . ‘locally small populations’ occur in Germany,
The principal limiting factors for Northern although these may not be viable without
Bobwhites in the West Indies are the marginal regular stocking (Spittler ).
habitat, overshooting, and predation by the
Small Indian Mongoose Herpestes javanicus J
(see Lever ). According to Matsuo (), Wild Turkeys
from Europe were imported to Japan by the
N Z Dutch in the mid-seventeenth century;
In – the Wellington Acclimatisation whether any occur in the wild is unknown.
Society (see Lever ) unsuccessfully These are not mentioned by Brazil ().
imported a total of , Northern Bobwhites
(probably C. v. taylori) from the United C C
States, which were widely distributed in Between and a number of unsuc-
North and South Islands: in the Otago cessful attempts were made to establish
Society imported eggs from California, Wild Turkeys in British Columbia. In the
but the resulting chicks all died. None have latter year, some wild-caught birds from
been reported since the s (Heather & South Dakota (presumably M. g. merriami)
Robertson ). were released in the Alberta portion of the
Cypress Hills Provincial Park on the
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 33
Phasianidae (Turkeys, Grouse, Pheasants and Partridges)
Alberta–Saskatchewan border, where within a localities, and also on Moturoa Island in the
year the population had increased to around Bay of Plenty (Heather & Robertson ).
. According to the AOU (: ) Wild
Turkeys are currently ‘established locally [in] H I
southern British Columbia, southern Alberta, According to Locey (), Wild Turkeys were
southern Saskatchewan, southern Manitoba, first introduced to the Hawaiian Islands as
and southern Ontario’. game birds from China in . More were
Power () records the successful estab- imported, from Chile, in , and by the out-
lishment and breeding of Wild Turkeys break of the Second World War they were said
introduced to the Channel Islands off the to be abundant in the wild, and according to
coast of California. Schwartz & Schwartz (), remained so on
Niihau (where thousands are said to have
A been released) after the Second World War;
Barrett et al. () record the presence less than , however, were found elsewhere,
of Wild Turkeys at a single site in South most of which were on Hawaii. Between
Australia, and at seven on Tasmania where and large numbers of Wild Turkeys of
breeding has occurred. several forms (silvestris, merriami, intermedia,
gallopavo) were liberated on Hawaii, Kauai,
N Z Molokai, Lanai and Maui, where by the latter
Thomson () recorded the establishment year they were said to be breeding on Hawaii
of feral Wild Turkeys, which were first intro- and Molokai, surviving on Lanai, but declin-
duced around , in several localities in ing on Maui and Kauai (Scott et al. ). The
New Zealand, where he believed their recent AOU () lists the species as occurring on
decline was due, as in the case of other Hawaii, Maui, Lanai, Kauai and Niihau.
exotic game birds, to competition for food
(especially insects) with introduced songbirds. Impact: According to Lewin (), Wild
Today, Turkeys occur on rough farmland in Turkeys in the Hawaiian Islands are impli-
many North Island and a few South Island cated in the spread of the alien Banana Poka
Passiflora mollissima, an aggressive species of
vine, though Van Riper () suggests they
may also help in the expansion of range of
native Naio Myoporum sandvicensis trees on
the slopes of Mauna Kea on Hawaii.
Himalayan Snowcock
Tetraogallus himalayensis
Natural Range: From W Turkistan through
the Himalayas to China.
Naturalised Range: North America: USA.
U S
In the US Fish and Wildlife Service
inaugurated a Foreign Game Investigations
Program with the ultimate objective of the
provision of additional game species. As part
of this project, between and Hima-
Wild Turkey layan Snowcocks were released in five regions
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 34
Naturalised Birds of the World
of Nevada, and also on the slopes of Mauna Snowcocks are marooned on an alpine island
Kea on Hawaii. (Bland & Temple (: ) at the centre of the Great Basin, their natural
give the initial date of introduction of the dispersal into other alpine habitats seems
Himalayan Snowcock in North America as unlikely (Bland & Temple ).
, but with no further details. Johnston &
Garrett (: ) give as the earliest Impact: The small and isolated alpine mead-
date of introduction. Stiver (; quoted by ows of the Ruby Mountains are, like most
AOU ) gives the earliest date as .) other alpine meadows, extremely fragile, and
In , the Nevada Game Commission possess the richest and most diverse alpine
imported Snowcocks from Gilgit, Pakistan, plant community in the Great Basin. Since
the birds which survived the journey being the introduction of Himalayan Snowcocks
liberated in April in the Ruby Mountains in was virtually unmonitored, with no prior
northeast Nevada, where they soon disap- assessment of these large (cm high) birds’
peared. Subsequently, the Nevada Depart- potential ecological impact, the state of the
ment of Wildlife established a captive flock area’s biotic community before, during and
whose offspring were released in succeeding after the introduction is largely unknown
years (Christensen , Bump & Bohl ). (Bland & Temple ).
A total of birds were imported from Pak-
istan, and between and , of
their offspring were introduced to the wild, of
which , were planted in the Ruby Moun- Chukar Partridge
tains. Breeding was confirmed in , and Alectoris chukar
three years later the first shooting season was
declared. In the Department of Wildlife Natural Range: From NE Greece through Asia
estimated the population in the Ruby–East Minor and Arabia to NW India, W Mon-
Humboldt Range of the Humboldt National golia, S Manchuria and N China.
Forest at between and birds. Naturalised Range: Europe: British Isles;
The breeding range of Himalayan Snow- France; Italy. Asia: Oman; UAE. Africa:
cocks in the Ruby–East Humboldt Range South Africa. North America: Canada;
seems confined to elevations above ,m Mexico; USA. Australasia: New Zealand.
(Bland & Temple ). Since under sq km Atlantic Ocean: St Helena I. Pacific Ocean:
of the Range meets this criterion, and the Hawaiian Is.
species’ breeding densities in China range
from . to . per square kilometre, the E
number of birds in the Range is unlikely ever Chukar Partridges have been widely intro-
to be large. In the Ruby Mountains, Snow- duced as game birds to countries in Europe
cocks appear to favour deep glacial cirques other than those mentioned above, including
(steep-sided hollows at the head of a valley or Portugal (Dias ) and Spain, but are appar-
on a mountainside) rimmed by extensive ently unable to survive in the wild without
moist meadows and precipitous cliffs (Bland regular stocking.
& Temple ), and the discontinuous dis-
tribution of such cirques and alpine meadows B I
limits the number of localities in which large Since between the two World Wars Chukar
flocks can establish home ranges (Bland & Partridges have been released as game birds
Temple ). The majority of Nevada’s in parts of England and Scotland, but have
Snowcock population occurs in the Thomas seldom been self-maintaining for any length
Peak–Ruby Dome region of the Ruby Moun- of time. Nevertheless, Aebischer ()
tains, although coveys are regularly reported recorded small established populations,
to the north and south (Bland & Temple , mainly in southwestern and northern
AOU , Sibley ). Because Nevada’s England and northern Scotland.
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 35
Phasianidae (Turkeys, Grouse, Pheasants and Partridges)
F century. In A. D. Hitch of Whonock,
According to Aebischer (), small popula- British Columbia, unsuccessfully freed some
tions of – pairs of Chukars occur south birds at Alkali Lake and Dog Creek, and be-
of Paris in central France. tween and a total of , Chukars
were liberated in British Columbia, where by
I the final year the birds were sufficiently well-
Attempts have been made since about to established for shooting to be allowed (Carl
establish Chukars in Italy (mainly in the & Guiguet ). Chukar Partridges are
north), but the species is apparently only presently established in suitable habitats
naturalised on the islands of Giglio and in the Thompson, Fraser, Okanagan and
Montecristo northwest of Rome (Baccetti Similakmeen Valleys, and around Shuswap
, Baccetti et al. ). Lake between Kamloops and Revelstoke, in
southcentral British Columbia (Johnston &
Impact: Wherever the ranges of the two Garrett , AOU ).
species in Europe overlap, the Chukar has
tended to hybridise with the native Red- M
legged Partridge A. rufa (Allard ). According to Peterson & Chalif (),
Chukar Partridges have been successfully
O; U A E introduced to the mountains of northern Baja
The Chukar Partridge ‘inhabits rocky and California.
cultivated areas of the Musandam mountains
[Oman] and perhaps the UAE mountains … U S
this isolated eastern Arabian population is According to Bump (), Chukar Partridges
probably derived from escaped birds which have probably been introduced to every state
have been imported for food’ (Jennings b: in the USA, but have only become well estab-
). Chukars are currently in ‘Musandam: lished in, and to the west of, the Rocky
breeding resident in mountains’ (Anon : Mountains. W. O. Blaisdell is believed to have
). Richardson () also records the intro- imported the first Chukars to the United
duction and escape of Chukars of the Iranian States, to Illinois, in , the offspring of
race werae in the United Arab Emirates, where which he unsuccessfully released at McComb
he records them as breeding on the high in the following spring. Chukars were first
plateau above Wadi Bih, on Sir Bani Yas released successfully in Washington in ;
Island (since ), and in the al Ain area shooting was first permitted in , and in
where large numbers were released in .
S A
In six Chukar Partridges were seized
by customs officers in Cape Town and des-
patched to Robben Island in Table Bay, where
Siegfried () estimated the population to
number around . P. A. Clancey (pers.
comm. ) wrote that this ‘flourishing
population’ is ‘racially composite’ (derived
from more than one race), ‘so derives from
game-farm bred stock’.
C
The first Chukar Partridges in Canada were
released unsuccessfully in Nova Scotia prior
to – possibly as early as the turn of the Chukar Partridge
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 36
Naturalised Birds of the World
stocking ceased (Moreland ). The lightly cultivated places, where the annual
earliest of no fewer than releases of precipitation seldom exceeds cm. Shooting
Chukars in Montana was made in , was first permitted in and stocking
and by the birds had become locally ceased in .
self-maintaining in the Fromberg–Red In , Chukar Partridges were released
Lodge– Bighorn Canyon region south of Bil- on the R. L. Douglass Ranch in Churchill
lings, where controlled shooting began in the County, Nevada, followed in by a further
following year (Whitney ). Between in western and central Nevada, and by
and some , Chukars were planted Chukars had been planted in most, if not
in Oregon with such success that shooting all, counties in the state, where they flourished
was permitted in . Between and in rugged and semi-desert country at between
around , Chukars were liberated in some , and ,m. Shooting began in ,
or counties in Idaho, where the first when the birds covered some sq km of
shooting season was declared in (Salter western and central Nevada (Alcorn &
). The earliest planting of Chukar Richardson ).
Partridges in Wyoming was made by Judge W. Numerous plantings of Chukar Partridges
S. Owens at Cody; between and a in Utah between and were
state-owned game farm released an average of universally unsuccessful. From later plantings
nearly , a year, resulting in the formation near Salt Lake City in – the species
of several discrete populations (Bossenmaier became somewhat tenuously established, but
). from here the birds spread elsewhere in the
In Chukars were imported from India state (Popov & Low ).
to San Francisco, California, by E Booth, Prior to at least , Chukars were
from whom the State Department of Fish and released in Colorado, when a further ,
Game acquired five pairs, followed in by were planted in some western localities, where
a further five pairs direct from Calcutta, with they became established.
which they established a breeding stock. The In – wild-caught Chukars were
first plantings were made in , and by liberated with mixed results at Jerome in
a total of , birds had been released in Arizona, and captive-bred birds were
counties, where they became established in released at Snake Gulch.
Owens River Valley and the Mojave Desert. A Between and (when releases
further , Chukars were liberated by the ceased) a total of , Chukar Partridges
Department of Fish and Game in –, were planted in counties in New Mexico,
and it is believed that by some , where by the end of the decade they were
birds had been freed throughout the state. said to be doing reasonably well in the San
After several introductions to California’s Juan–Animas–La Plata drainage area of San
Channel Islands by the Department of Fish Juan County, and in the Pyramid Mountains
and Game, Chukars eventually became estab- of Hidalgo County.
lished on San Nicholas Island in , and in In the Great Basin (between the Wasatch
– on Santa Rosa Island. Releases on San and Sierra Nevada Mountains) Chukars are
Clemente in and on Santa Catalina were found especially on grassy mesas (flat-topped
unsuccessful (Power ). rocky hills with steeply sloping sides) and
Chukars were planted in almost every rocky sage-covered slopes of arid and rugged
county in California in a wide variety of habi- canyons in semi-desert montane regions
tats and climates, ranging from dense stands (Small ). The inclusion of the more low-
of timber and brush in warm and damp land forms A. c. cypriotes and/or kurdestanica
coastal ranges through inland montane areas among the other races introduced (believed to
to hot and arid semi-desert country, and in be the nominate chukar and koroviakovi) has
localities where the annual rainfall is between enabled the species to broaden its range, which
and cm. They did best in semi-arid and now stretches locally from northern Idaho and
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 37
Phasianidae (Turkeys, Grouse, Pheasants and Partridges)
central and eastern Montana south to south- central Otago (especially between Lakes
ern California, southern Nevada, northern Coleridge and Wakatipu). Releases in North
Arizona, and western Colorado (AOU ). Island as recently as have been largely
unsuccessful, though a few persist near
Impact: According to Alcorn & Richardson Tauranga and in Hawke’s Bay (Heather &
(), Chukar Partridges in Nevada eat some Robertson ).
corn (maize) and wheat, especially in winter
and spring; they uproot germinating corn S H I
shoots and prise out the kernels from their According to Brooke (: Appendix
cobs. They have also caused damage to - , quoted by Rowlands et al. ), Chukar
potato, raspberry, currant, strawberry, apple Partridges were imported to St Helena by
and Russian olive crops (Lever ). In Fernão Lopes in about . The earliest
California, Harper et al. () refer to recorded reports of the species were by
damage to apples, pears, peaches, apricots, O. Lopes in (Hartwell , quoted
grapes, potatoes, beans, watermelons, toma- by Rowlands et al. ), and in by the
toes, corn (maize), wheat, oats, alfalfa English circumnavigator Thomas Cavendish.
(lucerne) and clover in summer and autumn. By the late sixteenth century Chukars were
The amount of harm Chukars cause is, how- said to be both tame and abundant (Basil-
ever, economically negligible (Vuilleumier ewsky ), and were the most frequently
), and is far outweighed by their value as reported species of landbird on the islands.
game birds (Lever ). Despite claims to the Shooting was first recorded in (Renefort
contrary, there is no evidence of competition , quoted by Rowlands et al. ),
with any native species, since Chukar Par- though it seems likely to have started at an
tridges in the United States occupy a vacant earlier date. By the end of the seventeenth
ecological niche devoid of native game birds. century Chukars were regularly observed by
numerous visitors to the island.
N Z During the nineteenth century the birds
Between and a number of unsuccess- became considerably less common than hith-
ful attempts were made by various regional erto (Baker , Melliss ) possibly partly
acclimatisation societies to establish Chukar due to heavy predation by feral domestic Cats
Partridges (mainly in South Island) in New Felis catus (see Lever ), though they
Zealand. In Chukar Partridges from appear to have been still fairly numerous. This
Calcutta were successfully released by Colonel decline continued into the twentieth century,
R. B. Neill on behalf of the Ashburton and although Chukars remained reasonably
Acclimatisation Society (see Lever ) on common until the s the decline since then
his property in the Lake Heron region, and seems to have accelerated (Loveridge ).
later in the same year a further were Small numbers have been sporadically
planted by the Otago Society in the Hunter recorded from various localities during the
Valley at the head of Lake Hawea. In , s and s, but nowhere on St Helena
birds from an original shipment of (A. c. do Chukars remain abundant (Rowlands et al.
koroviakovi) from Quetta in Baluchistan were ). According to Watson (), the race
released by the North Canterbury Acclimati- introduced to St Helena is A. c. werae (E Iraq
sation Society in half-a-dozen localities, where and SW Iran).
they became established. By , Chukars For a full list of references see Rowlands et
occurred in South Island from the Wairau al. (). See also McCulloch .
River in Marlborough south to Kingston in
central Otago. They are now to be found in H I
high country east of the Southern Alps from Between (Caum ) and Chukar
Marlborough (Nelson Lakes National Park, Partridges of the nominate form were
Wairau River, Seaward Kaikoura Range) to introduced to Lanai, Oahu, Molokai and
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 38
Naturalised Birds of the World
Kahoolawe, on all of which they became Naturalised Range: Europe: Gibraltar; Italy;
established (Locey ). In , pairs ?Spain. Atlantic Ocean: Canary Is.
were released at Pohakuloa at the base of
Mauna Kea on Hawaii, and were said to have G
increased to some , by ; since then The earliest reference to Barbary Partridges in
the numbers have declined, but the species is Gibraltar is by the garrison’s chaplain, the Rev
still common on the island. In , birds John White (brother of Gilbert White, author
transplanted from the American mainland of The Natural History of Selborne) in ,
became established on Kauai, where some still when he reported them to be widely distrib-
survive. In some Chukars from Califor- uted. A further introduction possibly took
nia were unsuccessfully released on the Puu place in the late nineteenth century (Aebis-
Waawaa Ranch on Hawaii, and in the same cher ). The birds are now found on the
year were planted on Maui, Lanai, upper parts of south-facing stony terraces
Molokai, Oahu and Kauai (Berger ). The covered with sparse short vegetation and open
species is currently well established in dry scrub, on the Upper Rock, Windmill Hill
upland habitats on Hawaii, Lanai, Maui and above Catalan Bay (Cortes et al. ;
(Pratt ), locally on Kauai, Molokai and Finlayson & Cortes , Finlayson ). In
Kahoolawe, but no longer on Oahu (AOU the late s the population was around
). It is most abundant on the upper slopes breeding pairs; Aebischer () said that the
of Mauna Kea on Hawaii and Haleakala on apparently stable population numbered some
Maui (Pratt et al. ). breeding pairs in an area of . sq km. The
form present in Gibraltar is the nominate
Impact: Writing of the Common Pheasant A. b. barbara of the Maghreb.
Phasianus colchicus and the Chukar Partridge
in the Hawaiian Islands, Cuddihy & Stone I
() and Cole et al. (a, b) say that the Barbary Partridges are believed to have been
role of these two species in facilitating the introduced to the island of Sardinia by the
dispersal and germination of the seeds of Romans (Aebischer ), although Spanó
native plants is beneficial in restoring () believes that they were natural colonists
degraded ecosystems on Maui; these include in the late Miocene – a seemingly unlikely
shrubs such as Vaccinium reticulatum, Styphe- occurrence for a relatively sedentary species.
lia tameiameiae, Coprosma spp. and Geranium In Sardinia, Barbary Partridges occupy a
cuneatum in the Haleakala National Park. wider variety of habitats than in Gibraltar,
Cole et al. (a, b) say that the Chukar’s occurring on steep mountain slopes in the
impact on native invertebrates is minimal, interior and rocky hillsides, open or degraded
and that the birds are not significant competi- maquis (scrub), unimproved agricultural land
tors with the endemic Hawaiian Goose or and vineyards (Aebischer ). Outside the
Nene Branta sandvicensis, a species which is breeding season the birds gather in coveys of
classified as Vulnerable by the World Con- – individuals, often moving in winter to
servation Union. Scott et al. (), however, lower altitudes near farmland (Mocci Demar-
considered that Chukars may compete with tis ). The species has markedly declined
Nenes for browse. to less than , breeding pairs, largely
through overshooting and poaching but also
in consequence of the intensive use of pesti-
cides and loss of habitat due to summer fires
Barbary Partridge (Mocci Demartis & Massoli-Novelli ).
Alectoris barbara
S
Natural Range: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, NE The earliest published reference to A. barbara
Libya and NW Egypt. in Spain appears to be that of Gonzalez-Diez
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 39
Phasianidae (Turkeys, Grouse, Pheasants and Partridges)
(). Those observed in the vicinity of occurred in north Wales. In the early s,
Gibraltar and from further afield in Cadiz Red-legged Partridges were introduced on the
may be natural dispersers from Gibraltar Isle of Man.
(though A. barbara is a largely sedentary In Scotland, A. rufa was imported to the
species) or a result of other unrecorded Orkney Islands in (Baikie & Heddle
introductions. ). In the early s birds were introduced
to the Scottish mainland from Kirkcud-
C I brightshire in the south to Caithness in
Barbary Partridges, of the western Moroccan the north, and the species has become widely
race koenigi, have been introduced to the established in a number of localities.
Canary Islands. According to Bannerman Although Fitter () traced at least a dozen
() they were established on Fuerteventura introductions of Red-legged Partridges to
from until at least , and were still seven Welsh counties, the birds are presently
present on Tenerife (where they are believed to established only in parts of Glamorganshire,
have been introduced before ) and La Brecknockshire, Radnorshire, Montgomery-
Gomera but had become rare or extinct on shire and Denbighshire.
Lanzarote. Following later introductions, A. rufa was first introduced to Ireland in
the species is abundant and common Co Tyrone, in , and was presumably
throughout all the principal islands of the established in the wild by at least
archipelago; Gran Canaria, El Hierro, La when it appears on an Irish game list. In
Palma, Fuerteventura, Lanzarote, Tenerife – attempts were made to introduce
and La Gomera, and also on Lobos, La more Red-legged Partridges to Ireland,
Graciosa and Allegranza (Martí and del Moral where breeding was recorded in County
). Tipperary, Louth, Dublin and Wexford;
Red-legged Partridges in Ireland are, however,
not self-sustaining.
Essentially a bird of open ground, the Red-
Red-legged Partridge legged Partridge favours a warm and dry
Alectoris rufa climate, with a well-drained soil and a com-
bination of low bushy vegetation for shelter
Natural Range: From the Iberian Peninsula with more open areas for feeding: throughout
north to the Pyrenees and S France, east to much of its range it is associated with arable
the Balearic Is., Corsica, Elba and N Italy. farming, especially low-intensity cropping
(It has been suggested that the appearance with a mixture of cultivated and fallow land
of A. rufa in the Balearic Islands may be as (Potts ). In England it is most at home on
a result of human introduction, reintroduc- the dry sandy or calcareous soil with a conti-
tion or translocation.) nental climate and low rainfall of East Anglia,
Naturalised Range: Europe: British Isles. Aus- although it also occurs in many other counties
tralasia: ?New Zealand. Atlantic Ocean: north to north Yorkshire and west to east
Azores Is., Canary Is., Madeira Is. Devon. A decline in numbers and distribu-
tion between about and , partially
B I caused by the increase in intensive farming,
Since Red-legged (or French) Partridges with the concomitant use of pesticides,
have been introduced on numerous occasions mechanization, irrigation and the removal of
to England, where they did not, however, hedgerows (Rands ) and heavy shooting
become established (in Suffolk) until about pressure, has been reversed, largely by large-
years later (Harting ). By the late scale annual restocking.
s, Red-legged Partridges were abundant
in parts of Yorkshire, the Midlands and in the Impact: In East Anglia, Red-legged Partridges
southwest as far as Somerset; smaller numbers cause some damage to sugarbeet seedlings.
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 40
Naturalised Birds of the World
Where the two species exist together, A. rufa x only that Madeira is a ‘successful historical
A. chukar hybrids occur. introduction site’.
N Z
In spite of failed introductions in the late
nineteenth century, attempts have been made, Black Francolin
using eggs imported from Britain, to establish Francolinus francolinus
A. rufa since ; birds have been released
between Kaipara Harbour and Taumarunai, Natural Range: From Cyprus and Turkey
in the Bay of Plenty, Gisborne, Hawke’s Bay, through Asia Minor to Transcaucasia and
in the Upper Moutere Valley near Nelson, SW Turkmenistan, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan,
and in Marlborough and Canterbury, but the Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bangladesh to
outcome is as yet uncertain (Heather & Assam.
Robertson ). Naturalised Range: Europe: ?Portugal. Pacific
Ocean: Hawaiian Is.; Mariana Is.
A I
Red-legged Partridges were introduced to the P
Azores in the eighteenth century, where in Costa et al (: ), quoting Vowles &
they were said to be abundant on Santa Vowles (), says that Black Francolins are
Maria but rare on São Miguel and Terceira. At ‘… apparently established in some hilly grass-
various times during the next years they land areas in the northeastern Algarve’ of
were recorded with varying abundance on southern Portugal. No further information is
these islands and also on Pico (Bannerman & available.
Bannerman ). The map in Aebischer
& Lucio (: ) indicates probable breed- H I
ing in the Azores. Between and a total of Black
Francolins were imported from game farms in
C I Texas and California to Hawaii, Maui, Kauai
Red-legged Partridges were first recorded on and Molokai (Berger ); the birds rapidly
Gran Canaria in , where Peters () and dispersed from their points of release and
Bannerman () agreed they had most became established on dry agricultural land,
probably been introduced. Aebischer & Lucio in irrigation ditches and in fields surrounding
(: ) say only that Gran Canaria is a
‘successful historical introduction site’ and the
species remains well-established there (Martí
& del Moral ).
M I
A. rufa may have been first introduced to
Madeira and Porto Santo by the Portuguese
Prince Henry the Navigator, who colonised
the islands in –. In and the
species was said to be scarce on Madeira
and was not mentioned on Porto Santo. Two
pairs were successfully released on Porto Santo
in and the species may still occur on
the island. On a number of occasions
before Red-legged Partridges were
successfully planted on Madeira (Bannerman
). Aebischer & Lucio (: ) say Black Francolin
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 41
Phasianidae (Turkeys, Grouse, Pheasants and Partridges)
sugar-cane plantations (Bump & Bohl ). O
The species is well established in dry scrub- Although Gallagher & Woodcock (:
land and savannah and pastureland at low ) say that Grey Francolins of the form
elevations on all the islands to which it was mecranensis were ‘probably introduced to
introduced (Scott et al. , Pratt , Oman’, Dickinson () does not list the
AOU ). Pratt et al. () list it also on species as present in the Arabian Peninsula.
Lanai. However, according to Anon (: ) it
occurs in northern Oman as a ‘common
Impact: The Black Francolin is one of the breeding resident along Batinah and in some
species of introduced birds that helps wadis [channels that are dry except in the
to spread the alien Banana Poka Passiflora rainy season] in foothills on both sides of the
mollissima in the Hawaiian Islands (Lewin Hajas mountains and southwards [and in cen-
, Warshauer et al. ). tral Oman as a] breeding res ident in coastal
areas south to oN’ (see also Johnsgard ).
M I
In , wild-caught Black Francolins U A E
were liberated at the Naval Magazine on the In the early s Grey Francolins were intro-
island of Guam, where within a couple of duced to Sir Bani Yas Island on the Trucial
years birds were being frequently recorded Coast, and perhaps also in Dubai. They now
within km of the release site (Bump & Bohl occur in cultivated localities (even in remote
). The species became widespread in mountain regions), gardens, parks and scrub
southern Guam (Pratt et al. ) and in with dense cover and a supply of water,
the first shooting season was declared. mainly north and east of a line between Al
Ain and Jebel Ali; the species has also been
recorded in Abu Dhabi, most frequently in
Bateen Wood (Richardson ).
Grey Francolin
Francolinus pondicerianus C
Johnsgard () refers to the introduction of
Natural Range: From S Iran to W Pakistan, Grey Francolins to the island of Hainan, but
India and Sri Lanka. provides no further information.
Naturalised Range: Asia: Bahrain; ?China;
?Oman; Qatar; UAE. Indian Ocean: Anda- A I
man Is.; Mascarene Is.; Seychelles Is. Pacific Grey Francolins of the nominate subspecies
Ocean: Hawaiian Is. were released at Port Blair on South Andaman
around , where Ali & Ripley () said
A the birds were well established near Port Blair,
Jennings () records breeding in Bahrain and where the AOU () confirms their
(Manama), Qatar (Doha), the United Arab survival.
Emirates (Dubai and Abu Dhabi), and Oman
(Muscat). (See also below). M I
The nominate race of the Grey Francolin was
B introduced by the French to Mauritius and
According to Hirschfeld & King (: ), Réunion in about , where the species was
‘this species is now one of the most common soon widespread and abundant. By the early
breeding species in Bahrain’, where it was s, however, probably as a result of
introduced to Al Areen around (possibly predation by the introduced Small Indian
even before ), and has spread in both Mongoose Herpestes javanicus (see Lever
gardens and desert areas throughout Bahrain ), the birds were said to be restricted to
and the Muharraq Islands. the rocky coastal plains. By the end of the
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 42
Naturalised Birds of the World
decade they were apparently precariously and near the slopes of Mauna Kea, also on
established in some of the drier regions Hawaii; in all these localities the birds quickly
(Benedict ). Jones () lists them as became established and spread.
occurring in lowland secondary scrubland, Between and a total of ,
lowland exotic savanna, open grassy areas and birds from northern India (F. p. interpositus)
cultivated land. were liberated on Maui, Lanai, Hawaii, Kauai
On Réunion the population has declined and Molokai, where Bump & Bohl (:
considerably due to cyclonic winds and –) reported that they were ‘Reproducing
prolonged droughts, but a small number on Hawaii and Maui. Seen to be established
survive (AOU ) on the plain of St Paul on Lanai. Most birds have remained in release
(Barré & Barau ). area …’. By , ‘adults and broods reported
According to Colin (in Kennedy , from all islands except Kauai. Lanai continues
quoted by Cheke ), Grey Francolins most encouraging, and expansion of range
imported to Rodrigues from Tranquebar in continues. … this species continues to be the
southern India between and were most promising import to the State’. Grey
released at Baie aux Huitres (North-Coombes Francolins are now well established in
). Bertuchi () says the date was . lowland dry and open pastureland with some
Slater (c. ; quoted by Cheke ) shrub cover on Hawaii, Maui, Lanai and
reported the birds to be well established, and a Molokai (Pratt , AOU ), where they
century later Staub () found them to are ‘common to abundant in lowland areas’
remain widely distributed but less abundant. (Pratt et al. : ). They are said to occur
The birds are said still to occur in Acacia locally on Oahu and Kauai, but are seldom
eburnea and Lantana camara scrub around St seen (Pratt et al. ).
François and Point Cotton in the east of the
island. In , droppings believed to be those Impact: The Grey Francolin is one of the
of Grey Francolins were discovered on Île introduced species responsible for the spread
Frêgate, m off the southwestern coast of of the alien Banana Poka Passiflora mollissima
Rodrigues, which had at one time been in the Hawaiian Islands (Lewin , War-
stocked with the birds for shooting purposes shauer et al. ).
(Showler ).
Impact: Grey Francolins on Réunion have
caused some damage to maize Zea mays Erckel’s Francolin
seedlings (Barré & Barau ). Francolinus erckelii
S I Natural Range: NE Sudan, Eritrea and
Grey Francolins were introduced to several Ethiopia.
islands in about by Admiral Sir William Naturalised Range: Europe: Italy. Pacific
Kennedy. Although by the turn of the century Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
they were said to be widely distributed, today
they survive only on Desroches and Coëtivy I
(Skerrett et al. ) and in the Amirante Erckel’s Francolins were first imported to Italy
Group (AOU ). in , where two years later they were
released in a number of localities (e.g. in
H I alpine and subalpine zones on Monte Baldo,
In –, and –, a total of Verona and Serra Vito di Cadore, Belluno)
game-farm-reared Grey Francolins were in the north; in the Appenino Pistoiese;
imported from California and released on the and on the islands of Elba, Livorno, di
Pun Waawaa Ranch on Hawaii. A further Zannone, Latina and Sardinia. The Francolins
were liberated in – at several sites on are only properly established (since about
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 43
Phasianidae (Turkeys, Grouse, Pheasants and Partridges)
) in Toscano and Lazio (Capalbio, Grey Partridge
Grosseto and Circeo, Latina) (Baccetti et al. Perdix perdix
).
Natural Range: From W Europe (apart from
H I most of the Iberian Peninsula) E through the
In , Erckel’s Francolins from game- Urals and Caucasus to SW Siberia, Kaza-
farms on the mainland were imported to khstan, NW China and the Tuva Republic.
Hawaii, where they were released at Puako on Naturalised Range: North America: Canada;
the northwest coast. In – more were USA. Australasia: ?New Zealand.
freed near Pohakuloa between Mauna Kea
and Mauna Loa, and in – a further C
from game-farms in California and Table lists releases of the Grey Partridge in
Oklahoma were liberated on the Puu Waawaa Canada between and .
Ranch, all on Hawaii. In the latter year, Grey Partridges seem never to have been
more were released on Hawaii, Oahu, Kauai, deliberately liberated on the British Colum-
Molokai, Lanai, Maui and Kahoolawe. In bian mainland. According to Phillips (),
an additional birds were freed on they first arrived in the interior of British
Molokai, and a year later more were Columbia in as natural dispersers from
planted on three (unspecified) islands (Bump Washington, and before long had spread
& Bohl ). Today, Erckel’s Francolins are further north up the Okanagan and Arrow
thinly established in alien forest and scrub Lakes Valleys, where the drier climate was
(Guava Psidium guajava, Java Plum Eugenia more favourable than that in the wetter
cumini and Eucalyptus) and mixed indigenous coastal region. In Alberta, Grey Partridges had
woodland (Ohia Metrosideros collina and Koa spread by over the border into neigh-
Acacia koa) on Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, Lanai, bouring Saskatchewan (Dexter ), from
Oahu and Kauai (Pratt et al. , Pratt ), where in the following year they dispersed
although the AOU () says they no longer into North Dakota.
occur on Maui. Erckel’s Francolins favour By the late s, Grey Partridges were
open woodland at lower elevations (Scott et established in the prairie provinces of south-
al. ). ern and central Alberta, southcentral Saskat-
chewan and southern Manitoba where, as in
Impact: Erckel’s Francolin is one of the exotic the United States, they thrive on the fertile
birds that contribute to the spread of the arable land where small grains (and their
introduced Banana Poka Passiflora mollissima associated insects) provide food and cover.
in the Hawaiian Islands (Lewin , War- In British Columbia, a sizeable population
shauer et al. ). survives in farmland and dry grasslands of the
lower Okanagan Valley, in the Thompson and
Grey Partridge Perdix perdix releases in Canada, –.
Date Province Locality Number Source
– British Columbia Vancouver, Sidney, ,+ Canadian government;
Saltspring, South J. L. & A. E. Todd;
Pender, James Is. A. R. Spalding &
H. R. Pooley
–c. Alberta High River, Calgary; F. J. Green; Game &
Edmonton Fish Protection League
– Manitoba Near Warren; Neepawa Game & Fish Protetion League
Sources : Phillips , Munro & Cowan .
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 44
Naturalised Birds of the World
Fraser Valleys, and on southeastern Vancouver and South Islands, but only in Southland did
Island (AOU ), though numbers fluctu- a few birds persist until recently (Heather &
ate because of the marginal habitat (Carl & Robertson ).
Guiget ).
In eastern Canada, Grey Partridges occur
in southern, central and especially eastern
Ontario locally north to North Bay on Lake Common Quail
Nipissing, in extreme southwestern Quebec, Coturnix coturnix
in southern New Brunswick, on Prince
Edward Island, and locally in Nova Scotia Natural Range: Canary Is., Madeira and NW
(AOU ). These east coast populations are Africa, and Europe E to N India and Mon-
believed to be derived from dispersers from golia; the Azores, Cape Verde Is., southern
Michigan and New York. Africa, Madagascar, the Comores Is. and E
and NE Africa.
U S
Table lists releases of the Grey Partridge
(formerly known in the United States as the Blue-breasted Quail (King Quail)
Hungarian Partridge) between and . Coturnix chinensis
Today, the species is naturalised, locally and
discontinuously, in northern Nevada, western Natural Range: From India through Indonesia
and northern Utah, northern Wyoming, to New Guinea, Taiwan, and N and E Aus-
southeastern Nebraska, northern South tralia.
Dakota, northwestern Iowa (Dinsmore ),
extreme northern Illinois, northern Missouri,
southern Michigan, northern Vermont and Jungle Bush Quail
northern New York (AOU ). In spite Perdicula asiatica
of repeated large-scale introductions, Grey
Partridges have failed to become firmly Natural Range: India and Sri Lanka.
established east of the Allegheny Mountains, Naturalised Range: Indian Ocean: Mascarene Is.
and even in the above states populations have
declined or disappeared in recent decades M I
(AOU ). Grey Partridges do best in fertile Cheke () has traced the origin of these
agricultural areas where small grains (and three species in the Mascarenes.
associated insects) provide food and shelter
(Vuilleumier , Johnston & Garrett ).
Much of the species’ success in the northern
states may be due to the dispersal of birds
from Canada.
Gullion () suggests the Grey Partridge
(and Common Pheasant Phasianus colchicus)
have failed to become naturalised in any new
habitats, and have only succeeded in main-
taining populations in habitats similar to
those in their natural range.
N Z
Grey Partridges were widely but unsuccess-
fully introduced from the s to .
Between and a further , birds
of Danish origin were released in both North Common Quail
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 45
Phasianidae (Turkeys, Grouse, Pheasants and Partridges)
Grey Partridge Perdix perdix releases in the USA, –.
Date State Locality Number Source
c. New Jersey Beverley, Delaware R. ? Richard Bache
New Jersey Jobstown ? Pierre Lorillard
California ? ? ?
California ? ?
California localities in – counties , ?
Early s Massachusetts S shore Cape Cod ? Charles B. Cory
Massachusetts Wenham ? John C. Phillips
c. s Virginia ? ? ?
– Illinois ? , prs ?
– Oregon Willamette Valley, Marion , ?
County & other counties
Early s Indiana ? ? ?
North Carolina High Point ? George Gould
– Washington Spokane, Columbia, Lincoln, , ?
Chelan & other counties
Nebraska ? ? ?
Nebraska Dawes & Frontier Counties ?
– Connecticut ? ,+ ?
– Iowa ? , ?
– Iowa Cass & Shelby Counties , ?
–s Michigan Saginaw Bay; near Oxford; , H. Jewett &
other localities Department of
Conservation
– Utah Cache, Salt Lake, Servier, Department of
Tocele, Utah, Weber, Fish & Game;
Washington, Box Elder, ShermanHardy;
Uintah counties; near Santa Vance Tingey;
Clara, St George, Brigham Elwin Cloward
City, & Richfield
Before Montana ? ? ?
– Montana Sheridan & other counties , ?
New York Batavia, Genesse county ? ?
– New York ? , ?
Nevada ? ? ?
North Dakota ? , ?
– Pennsylvania counties , ?
– Idaho ? ?
Wisconsin Waukesha County Large numbers Gustave Pabst
– Colorado counties , ?
Sources : Phillips ; Cottam et al. ; Gerstell ; Dale ; Westerskov ; Popov & Low ;
Jewett et al. ; Brown ; Gullion & Christensen ; Trueblood & Weigand ; Banks ; AOU
.
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 46
Naturalised Birds of the World
Desjardins () referred to the presence of introduced. This could result in the loss of the
Painted Quail Coturnix sinensis (= chinensis) partially migratory native species and its
on Réunion and on Mauritius, and by replacement by a non-migratory hybrid that
two further species, the Common Quail C. would be a more popular game bird.
coturnix (Carié , Guérin –) and
‘C. cambayensis’ (= Perdicula asiatica, the Jun- H I
gle Bush Quail) had been added (Coquerel Japanese Quail were first liberated on Maui
). Vinson () said that the Jungle Bush and Lanai in (Caum ). Subsequently,
Quail had been introduced some years other islands were colonised either through
previously (i.e. around ), and implied that natural dispersal or through apparently
Common Quail had been established at an unrecorded introductions. In some birds
even earlier date. All three species occur on were imported to Kauai, and by – the
Réunion today (Barré & Barau , Cheke species occurred on all the main islands
, Hawkins & Safford in prep.). (where the population was estimated to be
The few Common Quail now living on nearly ,) but was only transitory on
Mauritius are probably birds released from Oahu (Schwartz & Schwartz ). The birds
quail farms (Staub a, Cheke ). favour the more fertile soil of the smoother
and less dissected montane slopes used
for pasturage, and also frequent some
pineapple and sugar-cane plantations and
Japanese Quail market gardens, but avoid indigenous forests
Coturnix japonica and barren lava fields. They are currently
established on Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, Lanai
Natural Range: Transbaikalia and Mongolia to and Kauai (AOU ), where they are most
Sakhalin I., Japan and Korea. Winters from frequently seen on the north shore of Kauai
NE India and China to N Indochina. and on the northwestern slopes of Haleakala
Naturalised Range: Europe. Pacific Ocean: on Maui (Pratt et al. ).
Hawaiian Is.
E
Since the s, and since in Italy Brown Quail
according to Baccetti et al. (), the decline Coturnix ypsilophora
of occidental populations of the partially
migratory Common Quail C. c. coturnix has Natural Range: Lesser Sunda Is., Savu, New
triggered the release in several European Guinea, Australia.
countries of Japanese Quail as potential game Naturalised Range: Australasia: New Zealand.
birds (Guyomarc’h et al. ). Pacific Ocean: Fiji Is.
Impact: Derégnaucourt et al. () have sug- N Z
gested that hybridisation between migrant C. Two races of the Brown Quail (C. y. australis
coturnix and the few remaining residents with from mainland Australia and the nominate
introduced non-migratory C. japonica (as has C. y. ypsilophora from Tasmania) have been
occurred in laboratory conditions) could imported to New Zealand, as shown in
modify the migratory pattern of native popu- Table .
lations of coturnix and lead to an increased Thomson (: ) wrote that the Brown
proportion of birds showing sedentary rather Quail was ‘almost unknown in the South
than migratory characteristics. Furthermore, Island, but is fairly common in many parts of
hybrids that do show migratory behaviour the North Island’. Oliver () found the
could facilitate Japanese Quail gene flow species to be abundant around the Bay of
into localities where japonica has yet to be Plenty and further north, and on Three Kings
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 47
Phasianidae (Turkeys, Grouse, Pheasants and Partridges)
and Mayor Islands, but scarce elsewhere.
Wodzicki (: ) said the birds were ‘re-
stricted but locally common, North Island
and Three Kings, Poor Knights, Alderman,
Mayor, Gt and Little Barrier’, while Kinsky
() reported Brown Quail to be widely
distributed in North Island (especially in the
north) and on all the above islands plus
Mercury. Today, the species is common in
Northland and on many of its offshore islands
and also on some developed islands in the Bay
of Plenty. It is fairly common in the Waikato
and the Bay of Plenty, but scarce south of a
line between Kawhia, Lake Taupo and Hawke’s Brown Quail
Bay (Heather & Robertson ). Brown
Quail favour swamps and the edges of tidal According to Pratt et al. (: ), Brown
marshes as well as scrub and rough grassland. Quails are ‘established in the drier w. parts
of Viti Levu and on Vanua Levu (central
F Macuata)’, but are everywhere uncommon.
Watling (: ) records that:
The Swamp Quail [a synonym for the
Brown Quail] was introduced and is
found only on the dry, leewardsides Chinese Bamboo Partridge
of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu in Fiji. It Bambusicola thoracicus
inhabits scrub and grassland, especially in
and around the extensive sugar-cane Natural Range: S & C China and Taiwan.
growing districts. The date of the Swamp Naturalised Range: Europe: ?Italy. Asia: Japan.
Quail’s introduction is not known but it
was almost certainly after the introduc- I
tion [in ] of the mongoose [Herpestes Between and , Chinese Bamboo Par-
javanicus, see Lever ], whose presence tridges were introduced to at least four regions
it has been able to survive. However, it is of Italy (northeastern Sicily, Emilia-Romagna,
a rare bird and in Viti Levu may well have Lucania/Puglia, and Toscana/ Umbria), but
declined in recent years. only in the first two areas did the species ever
Brown Quail Coturnix ypsilophora imported to New Zealand –s.
Date Numbers Imported by
Canterbury Acclimatisation Society
Canterbury A.S.
‘a number’ Canterbury A.S.
& s ? Canterbury A.S.
– + Auckland A.S.
Auckland A.S.
– Otago A.S.
Southland A.S.
– Wellington A.S.
Source: Thomson .
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 48
Naturalised Birds of the World
distribution the OSJ () adds Sado and
the Izu and Iwo Islands.
Impact: Although they cause some damage to
seedling crops, Chinese Bamboo Partridges in
Japan also eat such harmful invertebrates as
locusts (Orthoptera), termites (Isoptera) and
ants (Hymenoptera) (Yamashina ).
Red Jungle Fowl
Gallus gallus
Natural Range: N Pakistan through N and E
Assam, C India, N and C Burma, SW
Yunnan, Indochina, and C Burma to N
and NC Vietnam; also Sumatra and Java.
Chinese Bamboo Partridge Naturalised Range: Asia: Indonesia; Philip-
pines. North America: West Indies. South
reproduce, and it apparently failed to become America. Indian Ocean: Mascarene Is.
established (Baccetti et al. ). Pacific Ocean: ?Galápagos Is; Hawaiian Is.;
Polynesia; Melanesia; Micronesia;
J
In some Chinese Bamboo Partridges of The Red Jungle Fowl is the ancestor of the do-
the mainland nominate subspecies were mestic fowl. It was probably bred in captivity
imported from southern China to Japan, in southeastern Asia in prehistoric times. The
where their offspring were released in the species was domesticated in the Indus Valley
Kanagawa Prefecture southwest of Tokyo by about and by had been
(Kuroda ). A decade later more of the imported to central and northwestern Europe.
mainland form were liberated in the Hyogo
Prefecture on Honshu, where they became I
established (Sakane ). In birds of the Red Jungle Fowls may have been introduced
Taiwanese race B. t. sonorivox were imported to the Malaysian region by the Mongols in the
to Japan, where in about some were freed late thirteenth century. The first European to
at Kobe on Honshu and probably also in the see them there appears to have been the
Saitama Prefecture north of Tokyo. English navigator John Davis in , and
By the outbreak of the Second World War, they were subsequently noted in the Nicobar
Chinese Bamboo Partridges were widespread Islands in the Bay of Bengal by Sir James
throughout Japan (especially south of Kwantô: Lancaster in . Elsewhere in the region,
Kaburaki ), and within years had feral Red Jungle Fowl are known to occur in
colonised the Seven Islands of Izu Shichito the Cocos (Keeling) and Christmas Islands,
and those of Shikoku and Kyushu (Yamashina on Borneo, in the Lesser Sunda Islands (in-
). Brazil () records the species cluding Lombok, Timor, and Wetar), Palawan
as common in much of Honshu from (where they were first recorded in ),
Chiba-ken westwards to Kyushu. Eguchi & Balabac, Sulawesi, and Papua New Guinea
Amano (: ) confirm that the species (Ball ), and almost certainly elsewhere.
has ‘… established long-term self-sustaining
populations’ in Kyushu, Shikoku, southern P
and western Honshu, and Kobe. To this Although Delacour () suggested that
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 49
Phasianidae (Turkeys, Grouse, Pheasants and Partridges)
G. gallus was introduced to the Philippines found in domestication, and no doubt also in
at an early date, Parkes () believed it the wild, on both the Atlantic and Pacific
might be indigenous. Rabor & Rand () coasts of the Americas north to Rhode
considered that the population may represent Island, USA, before the arrival of Europeans.
different colonisations or introductions. Menzies () quotes Carter (: ; )
Dickinson (: ) says the species was who wrote:
‘introduced to the Philippines (sometimes
recognised as philippensis …)’. Feral birds now Since Asiatic chickens are very different
occur throughout the archipelago. from the Mediterranean chickens and
most of the traits that reappear in the
W I flocks of the Amerindians are found in
Columbus is known to have included Asia, the obvious conclusion would
domestic fowl among the stock he landed on be that Amerind chickens were first
Hispaniola in . According to Bond (: introduced [to South America] from Asia
and not from the Mediterranean. … a
) ‘it is said that feral domestic fowl are thriv-
conclusion for a Spanish or Portuguese
ing on the islet of Kick-em-Jenny in the
[see Hernandez ] first introduction of
Grenadines and on Mona’. According to the
chickens into America is simply counter
AOU (: ), Gallus gallus is established to all the evidence. The Mediterraneans,
‘on islands in the Bahamas (Little San Sal- as late as , did not have … the galaxy
vador), off Puerto Rico (Mona, and possibly of chickens present in Amerind hands …
Culebra), and in the Grenadines (Kick- the only possible conclusion is that
em-Jenny)’. Raffaele et al. () record chickens were introduced from across the
the species as occurring very locally in the Pacific, probably repeatedly, long before
Dominican Republic at Los Haitises and in the Mediterranean discoveries of America
the Sierra de Baoruco; among the haystack [see Garcia-Petit ].
hills on Puerto Rico; on Mona and possibly
Culebra; and in the Grenadines. The principal traits shared by Asiatic and
Latin American fowl are blue egg-shells (those
S A of European fowl are brown or white) and
Menzies (), from whom the following melanism. Melanistic fowl are still found
account is derived, argues persuasively that throughout Latin America, and blue-shelled
fowl were not introduced to the New World eggs from Chile to Mexico. If Europeans had
from Europe, as has long been believed, but introduced fowl to the Americas the Euro-
were first imported by Chinese voyagers in the pean name would surely have been adopted
fifteenth century direct from Asia. They were by the Amerindians, but this did not occur;
the names adopted for fowl in South and
Central America closely resemble those used
in the birds’ native Asian range, and the Incas
had a word for fowl at least years before the
arrival of the sixteenth century conquistadors
(d’Acosta ). Finally, fifteenth century
Europeans were almost unique in eating fowl
and their eggs. In southeast Asia and China,
and by the Amerindians of South America,
fowl were used solely for purposes of divina-
tion and not for consumption.
M I
Red Jungle Fowl were introduced to Réunion
Red Jungle Fowl in the early s, when some were released at
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 50
Naturalised Birds of the World
Bras Pinon (Jouanin ). Cheke () soil is too acid for the growth of commercial
heard the species in formerly inhabited areas crops but supports a luxuriant forest vegeta-
of the Rivière des Remparts, and a few are tion of Koa Acacia koa and Ohia Metrosideras
believed to occur in dense woodland and collina with some other native and alien
cirques (steep-sided hollows at the head of a mixed hardwoods. Ground cover is provided
valley or on a mountainside) on the east coast, by an understorey of scattered shrubs, ground
and more commonly inland from Bras Pinon ferns, matted ferns and tree ferns (Scott et al.
and in the Liberia region, Eden, and the ). The birds’ main controlling factor on
Morne du Bras des Lianes. Kauai seems to be predation by feral Cats Felis
catus and Pigs Sus scrofa (see Lever ).
G I In Red Jungle Fowl were imported
According to B. Barnett (pers. comm. ), from game-farms on the United States
feral domestic fowl were then established in mainland and were released on Kauai
parts of the highlands of Sierra Negra near and Hawaii; on the latter they apparently
Santo Tómas on Isabela (Albemarle). From disappeared, but Bond (), Pratt et al.
morphological alterations (e.g. longer wings () and the AOU () confirm the
and tail and characteristic colouration) and species’ survival on Kauai (including at
changes in behaviour (e.g. the ability to fly Kokee) and, following a more recent intro-
and arboreal nesting) they may have occurred duction, at Waimea Falls Park on Oahu.
in this region for many years – perhaps since
the late nineteenth century. They are not, P; M; M
however, mentioned either by Harris () From archaeological evidence in the Marque-
or Swash & Still (). sas and Society Islands it is known that Red
Jungle Fowl were introduced to islands in the
H I South Pacific from eastern Asia (mainly
A domesticated form of the Red Jungle Fowl Malaysia) by early Polynesian voyagers
was almost certainly introduced to the Hawai- some , years ago (Ball ). Escaped
ian Islands from eastern Asia (principally or deliberately released birds eventually
Malaysia) by early Polynesia settlers, probably succeeded in establishing feral populations on
around (Ball ). After their intro- virtually every inhabited island throughout
duction by Europeans in the late eighteenth Polynesia and the East Indies (AOU ),
century, domestic fowl interbred with feral where, however, ‘now these populations are
Jungle Fowl, and became established in the declining drastically’ (Pratt et al. : ).
wild on all the inhabited islands in the archi-
pelago where, however, except on Kauai, they
appear to have died out by the early twentieth
century. The reasons for the birds’ extinction Kalij Pheasant
seems to have been a combination of over- Lophura leucomelanos
shooting, the deforestation of their preferred
habitat, continued interbreeding with domes- Natural Range: From W Himalayas of N
tic stock, which tended to undermine the Pakistan and WC Nepal through Sikkim,
ability of feral birds to survive in the wild, and Bhutan, Assam, and Burma to Xizang.
the introduction of the Small Indian Mon- Naturalised Range: South America: Argentina.
goose Herpestes javanicus (see Lever ). Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
Schwartz & Schwartz () found that
feral Jungle Fowl were established in small A
discrete areas on Kauai totalling sq km. In about Aarón Anchorena introduced
The rugged country occupied by the fowl four species of pheasant (L. leucomelanos
consists principally of narrow ridges alter- melanota (eastern Nepal, Sikkim, and western
nating with small but deep valleys, where the Bhutan), L. nycthemera, Chrysolophus pictus
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 51
Phasianidae (Turkeys, Grouse, Pheasants and Partridges)
and C. amherstiae, q.v.) to Victoria Island in sq km – one third of Hawaii’s total area.
the Nahuel Huapi National Park in south- According to Pratt et al. (: ), Kalij
western Argentina, where they became Pheasants were ‘… spreading explosively
established and where in the population throughout the island in suitable habitat’. The
was estimated to number some ,. AOU (: ) says the species is ‘… now in
According to Navas (), Kalij and Silver the North Kona district and on the slopes of
Pheasants are very numerous on Victoria Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea’.
Island, where they have freely interbred and ‘The successful colonisation of Hawaii by
have produced hybrids that are now the most Kalij Pheasants’, wrote Lewin & Lewin (:
abundant birds on the island. Navas () ), ‘can be thought of as a symptom of a
believed that a possible cause of hybridisation degraded ecosystem, because the birds are in
was a disparity in the ratio between the sexes. large measure dependent on both exotic
See also Narosky & Yzurieta () and plants and animals for food and cover’. The
Mazar Barnett & Pearman (). species’ success on Hawaii can be attributed to
the ability of this shy woodland bird to
Impact: All four species of pheasants on colonise rainforest areas and other densely
Victoria Island consume large quantities of vegetated mesic habitats (Scott et al. ).
seeds, fruits, and insects, which has resulted in
considerable changes in the ecosystem. They Impact: Of the Kalij Pheasants examined by
also compete to the detriment of many species Lewin & Lewin (), % contained the
of native fauna on the island (Navas ). seeds of the exotic and aggressive vine Banana
Poka Passiflora mollissima (one of the worst
H I floral pests in Hawaii) and % contained
The population of Kalij Pheasants on the those of another pest species, the Thimble-
island of Hawaii is descended from the release berry Rubus rosaefolius, both of which the
in of birds on the Puu Waawaa birds help to spread. (See also Stone & Ander-
Ranch by L. S. Dillingham and W. Carlsmith son , Pratt ).
(Lewin ). The birds were subsequently
identified by Lewin & Lewin () as an
intergrade between L. l. hamiltonii of the
western Himalayas and the nominate Silver Pheasant
L. l. leucomelanos of central Nepal. Lophura nycthemera
After their release, the birds established a
breeding colony in dense stands of exotic Silk Natural Range: S China, Burma, N Laos,
Oak Grevillea robusta woodland, where they southwestern Kampuchea, North Vietnam,
remained for the next five years. Thereafter C South Vietnam, Thailand, and Hainan.
they spread at an average rate of some eight Naturalised Range: Europe: ?Germany. South
km a year, and within years most of the America: Argentina.
mid-elevation forests on the island had been
colonised. By the early s, Kalij Pheasants G
were fairly common to abundant in most According to Niethammer () and Heinzel
forested localities, especially in areas of exten- et al. (), Silver Pheasants were then
sive woodland on the slopes of Mauna Kea established in woodlands in unspecified parts
and Mauna Loa and in mid-elevation Ohia of Germany. The species is not recorded in
Metrosideros collina forest (such as the Honau- The EBCC Atlas of European Breeding Birds
nau Forest Reserve) on the leeward side of the ().
island. Although the birds occur from sea-
level to ,m, % are found between m A
and ,m; Lewin & Lewin () estimated See under L. leucomelanos.
that the birds occupied a range of about ,
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 52
Naturalised Birds of the World
Reeves’s Pheasant Langley () recorded the species as occur-
Syrmaticus reevesii ring in Ile-de-France, Fôret de Fontainbleu,
Normandie, Picardie, Pas-de-Calais and on
Natural Range: From NE Sichuan, Hubei and Porquereau Island in Var.
Anhui to EC Nei Mongol and Hebei. Reeves’s Pheasants have also bred in the
Naturalised Range: Europe: Czech Republic; wild in forested parts of Austria, Germany, and
France. Hungary, but stable populations have again
failed to establish (Lever ).
C R
Reeves’s Pheasants have been successfully
introduced for sporting purposes to temperate
lowland forests of Hornomoravsky uval, espe- Common Pheasant
cially in the regions of Litovel, Olomouc, Phasianus colchicus
Chropyne and Kromeriz (Kokes ).
The present breeding range of Reeves’s Natural Range: S Palaearctic and NE Oriental
Pheasants in the Czech Republic is concen- regions: in eastern Europe in parts of the
trated in northern and central Moravia, Caucasus Mountains; in Asia from N Asia
mostly close to game-farms from which Minor E to Korea, China and Taiwan.
regularly released birds continually augment Naturalised Range: Europe: British Isles;
the wild population. Štastný () regarded Continental Europe. Asia: Japan. North
the species as a potential game bird in America: Canada; Mexico; USA; West
non-flooded forests up to m above sea Indies. South America: ?Chile. Australasia:
level, and estimated the wild population at Australia; New Zealand. Atlantic Ocean: St
– individuals. Helena I. Indian Ocean: Mascarene Is.
Pacific Ocean: French Polynesia;
F C E Hawaiian Is.
Serious attempts to naturalise Reeves’s Pheas-
ants in France started between and B I
(Yeatman ). By the birds occurred in The earliest documentary evidence of
separate forested regions in apparently Common Pheasants in Britain is found in a
self-sustaining populations, and had survived manuscript of about which gives details
for at least a decade in northern and central of the rations specified for the canons’ house-
France (Roobrouck ). Štastný () hold at the monastery of Waltham Abbey in
estimated the – population to number Essex in –. Evidence that the birds
between , and , breeding pairs. occurred in the wild appears in a charter of
Reeves’s Pheasants
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 53
Phasianidae (Turkeys, Grouse, Pheasants and Partridges)
in which the monks of Rochester in Kent eat the seedlings of commercially valuable
are assigned Pheasants from four separate sugar beet.
manors, and two years later the Abbot of
Malmesbury in Wiltshire was licensed to kill C E
wild Pheasants. Exactly when the Pheasant Common Pheasants were traditionally first
became naturalised in England is uncertain, imported to mainland Europe around
but from the twelfth century the species , when Jason and the Argonauts brought
appeared with increasing frequency in English some back from Colchis (on the east coast of
literature, and by at least the birds were the Black Sea) to Greece. From Greece the
regarded as game (Fitter ). species was introduced to Italy, and thence
The earliest mention of Pheasants in by the Romans to southern France and
Scotland seems to be that made by John Germany. As in Britain, other races were
Leslie, the Bishop of Ross, in his De Origine subsequently imported, and the European
Moribus et Rebus Gestis Scotorum (), population is now almost entirely composed
quoted by Gladstone (). Pheasants were of hybrids.
first introduced to Ireland before the late Niethammer () suggested these dates
s (O’Gorman ), when some were for the arrival of Pheasants (colchicus)
exported from that country to Pembrokeshire in Europe: Germany and Czechoslovakia
in Wales (Matheson ), where, however, (eleventh century); Austria (); Hungary
they did not become common until the (fifteenth/sixteenth century); northern France
second half of the nineteenth century. (); Corsica (sixteenth century); Calabria
The early introductions of Pheasants to and Romania (seventeenth century); Switzer-
Britain were of the nominate P. c. colchicus land (?); Sicily, Belgium, and Norway
(Transcaucasia and Azerbaijan), but at least (eighteenth century); Sweden (); and Fin-
five other forms have subsequently been land (–). Bijlsma & Hill () say that
imported, principally torquatus (the Ring- Pheasants were first released in Transcaucasia
necked Pheasant: eastern China) first in , around . Ph. c. torquatus and mongolicus
but also principalis (southern Turkestan and arrived on Isla Procida off Naples in , and
Afghanistan) and mongolicus (Kirgizskaya and were introduced elsewhere in Italy by .
Turkestan) in ; pallasi (Siberia and Man- In modern times, Pheasants of the race
churia) before ; and satscheuensis (Kansu) formosanus (Taiwan) were introduced to
in . All these races have interbred, and the northern France after and were followed
white neck-ring of torquatus is now a feature around by mongolicus (Etchécopar ).
of the majority of British and Irish cocks. The Michelot () says there are today five viable
population is annually augmented by birds populations of Pheasants in the region of the
released for sporting purposes. Rhone–Alps.
Summing up the status and abundance of In Norway, P. c. torquatus was first released
Pheasants in Britain, Bijlsma & Hill (: at Baerum near Oslo in –; Pheasants
) say the country: are currently established only in Ostfold,
Akershus, and Vestfold in the southeast
has the highest population (though not (Myrberget ).
necessarily the highest densities) of any Elsewhere in Europe, data on Pheasants are
European country as a consequence of the scarce: according to Lensink (, a) the
interest in game-shooting and the release breeding population in The Netherlands in
of probably m[illion] pheasants each – amounted to ,–, breed-
year for shooting (Hill & Robertson ing pairs and in – to ,. The fall in
). the population is a result of intensified agri-
culture and the curtailing of Pheasant-rearing
Impact: Dunning () found that Pheasants and releasing in Holland (Bijlsma ).
in East Anglia (Norfolk and Suffolk, England) Gebhardt (: ) lists P. colchicus as
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 54
Naturalised Birds of the World
having been introduced to Germany ‘ca . ’ Impact: Very little ecological or economic
and says that it is ‘established’, but provides damage by Pheasants has been reported in
no further details. Europe where shooting brings considerable
According to Costa et al. (: –), in economic benefit. Gebhardt () indicates
Portugal ‘there are small localised populations that some ecological damage has occurred in
in the provinces of Estremadura, Alentejo and Germany, but provides no details.
Algarve. … In the Sada Estuary, the favoured
habitat consists of open woodland areas, J
mainly Cork Oak Quercus suber and Umbrella According to Kuroda () Pheasants were
or Stone Pine Pinus pinea’. introduced in the Middle Ages (c. –
Common Pheasants are locally abundant ) to Tsushima and the Urishima Islands
in southern Spain where large numbers in the Korea Strait. In , or
are regularly released for shooting, and (accounts differ) Korean Pheasants (karpowi)
populations also occur in the north, in were released near Tsushima west of Nagoya
Catalonia and around Madrid (E. F. J. Garcia on Honshu, and also on Kyushu, where they
pers. comm. ). Martí & del Moral () hybridised with the native Green Pheasant
estimate the ‘wild’ population at fewer than P. versicolor. In , further birds from Korea
individuals. were liberated on Oshamambe and Hidaka on
Nummi & Pienmunne () quote Jensen Hokkaido (where versicolor does not occur)
() and Ebenhard () who say that and have thrived in regions with mild winters
P. colchicus is also established in Denmark and (Kaburaki , ). In or ,
Sweden respectively. Korean Pheasants were released on Hachijo
Summing up the present status and distri- Jima and Miyake Jima in the Izu Shotō
bution of the Pheasant in continental Europe, archipelago south of Tokyo (OSJ ).
Bijlsma & Hill (: ) wrote: Eguchi & Amano () confirm that in
Japan P. c. karpowi has been intentionally and
Its distribution and abundance patterns systematically released as game for shooting
follow that associated with relatively low- and has established long-term self-sustaining
lying country and the slopes of hills. It populations, which Brazil () and the OSJ
becomes sparse in many Mediterranean () say occur principally on Tsushima and
areas although Italy has become popu- in Hokkaido.
lated since . It is less common in
Greece, the Italian Alps, parts of the S-C C
and E French highlands, and is almost Table lists early introductions of Common
totally absent from Portugal and Spain and Ring-necked Pheasants into Canada.
[but see above]. Numbers and range Pheasants in Canada favour the same
decline in northern Scotland, Norway habitats as in the United States (see below).
and Sweden, though there has been a sig-
The AOU () describes them as occurring
nificant numerical and range increase in
from southern British Columbia (including
Finland since the s (Koskimies )
Vancouver Island) through central Alberta,
… The six countries holding the largest
Pheasant populations – Britain, Hungary, central Saskatchewan, southwestern Manitoba,
France, Germany, Denmark and Roma- southern Ontario, southwestern Quebec,
nia – together possess % of the mean New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island to
European population. The Romanian Nova Scotia. The subspecies introduced to
population has undergone very signifi- Canada are believed to be colchicus, torquatus,
cant increases in abundance and range and mongolicus.
from to . Declines of at least
% are reported in The Netherlands and M
Sweden …. The species is extending its From Imperial Valley in southern California
range into Spain….’ Pheasants have spread into (or have been
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 55
Phasianidae (Turkeys, Grouse, Pheasants and Partridges)
Introductions of Common Pheasants P. c. colchicus and Ring-necked Pheasants P. c.
torquatus to Canada, –s.
Date Province Source Result
British Columbia C. W. R. Thompson via Lord Failed
(Victoria, Vancouver I.) Ernest Hamilton, England
British Columbia C. W. R. Thompson (from China) Successful
(Esquimalt)
British Columbia Edward Musgrave (from China) Successful
(Saltspring I.)
British Columbia Edward Musgrave (from China) Successful
(Prevost I.)
British Columbia Mainland Protective Association Successful
(Point Grey)
– British Columbia ? Successful
(including Pender I.)
Before Ontario ? Successful
Before Nova Scotia ? Failed
British Columbia Mainland Protective Association Successful
(Ladner, near mouth
of Fraser R.)
British Columbia British Columbia Game Successful
(Chilliwack) Commission (from China)
Before New Brunswick; Prince ? Failed
Edward I.; ? Quebec
Mid-s Manitoba ? Failed
Ontario (Pelee I., L. Erie) ? Successful
Until British Columbia British Columbia Game Successful
(S & N interior; Queen Commission
Charlotte Is.)
Late s Newfoundland (St John’s) ? Successful until
at least
Source: Allen . For full list of references see Lever , p. .
introduced to) northern Baja California central Wisconsin, central Michigan; south,
(AOU ), where they are established in the at least locally, to southern interior California,
Mexicali Valley east of Lake Salada (Peterson Utah, southern New Mexico, northern and
& Chalif ). southeastern Texas, northwestern Oklahoma,
Kansas, northern Missouri, central Illinois,
U S central Indiana, southern Ohio, Pennsylvania,
Table lists early introductions of Common northern Maryland, New Jersey, central
and Ring-necked Pheasants into the United Virginia, Ohio, and North Carolina (Outer
States. Banks). See also Vuilleumier (: Califor-
Birds from most of the successful nia), Small (: California), Robbins (),
introductions listed spread rapidly from Johnston & Garrett (: western states),
their points of release, and soon became Sibley () and Dinsmore (: Iowa).
established. Today, the AOU (), which In northwestern states, Pheasants occur
says that the majority of North American from sea-level to over ,m in areas with an
populations are of torquatus stock, describes annual rainfall of between cm and over
Pheasants as established in central Minnesota, cm. In California, they range from m
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Introductions of Common Pheasants Phasianus c. colchicus and Ring-necked Pheas-
ants P. c. torquatus into the USA, –.
Date State Source Result
New York Governor, Colonel John Montgomerie Failed
New York President George Washington via Marquis Failed
de Lafayette
New Jersey Richard Bache (son-in-law of Failed
Benjamin Franklin)
Early s Virginia William Upshire; Governor Wentworth Failed
s/s California ? Failed
New Mexico Private landowners Failed
Colorado Private landowners Failed
; – New York ? Failed
c. New Jersey Pierre Lorillard Failed
Oregon A. H. Morgan via Judge Owen Nickerson Failed
Denny, Shanghai
Oregon John Denny via brother, Judge Denny Successful
or Washington Via Judge Denny ?
– Colorado ? Successful
New Jersey Rutherford Stuyvesant Successful
– California Board of Fish Commissioners Successful
c. Utah Hon M. H. Walker Successful
South Dakota N. L. Witcher Failed
– Pennsylvania Private landowners Successful
– New Hampshire Private landowners and Fish & Game ?
Commission
s Massachusetts ? ? Successful
Rhode I. Private landowners ?
Mid-s Michigan A. G. Baumgartel Failed
Late-s Ohio ? Failed
– South Dakota Dr A. Zetlitz Successful
Late s– New Jersey Private landowners ? Successful
or Iowa William Benton Successful
Early s New York ? Successful
Ohio ? Successful
– Missouri ? Successful
c. Minnesota State Conservation Department Successful
Since Virginia; North & South ? Largely
Dakota; Georgia; unsuccessful
Tennessee; Alabama
Indiana State Conservation Department Successful
Oklahoma ? Failed
Illinois State Conservation Department Successful
–s North Dakota ? Successful
Arizona ? Failed
New Mexico ? Failed
Before Nevada ? Failed
– Michigan State Conservation Department Successful
Ohio State Conservation Department Successful
Before Kansas ? Failed
– Nebraska ? Successful
Wisconsin State Conservation Department Successful
New Mexico ? Successful
– Alaska ? Failed
Texas ? Failed
Source : Allen . For full list of references see Lever : .
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Phasianidae (Turkeys, Grouse, Pheasants and Partridges)
below sea level (in the Imperial Valley) to over Brudenell-Bruce () says that Ring-
,m above sea level in the Great Basin, necked Pheasants were introduced before
with a yearly rainfall of mm to mm. at Hatchet Bay on Eleuthera in the Bahamas,
On the coastal belt, which is only lightly where the AOU (: ) says they are
populated, Pheasants occur in areas with an ‘probably’ established. Raffaele et al. ()
annual precipitation of cm to cm. In the record the species as common on Eleuthera
southwest, thriving populations occur only in and locally common in northern Isle of
eastern Colorado up to an altitude of ,m. Youth, Cuba.
In general, Pheasants in the United States fare
best in northern agricultural areas; in the C
south and west, Pheasant populations are gov- Common Pheasants were imported from
erned by the availability of water, and except England by C. J. Lambert in or as
in parts of Washington and Oregon few occur the founder stock of an avicultural collection.
in arid regions; in the south, high tempera- Two pairs released in a park at La Compañia
tures during incubation are known to reduce had by increased in numbers and dis-
the hatching success rate. Few of the north- persed up to km inland, but the population
eastern populations are in general comparable subsequently died out. A second shipment,
to those in the irrigated valleys of the west. from Germany, in became established
Scribner et al. () considered that a high locally in the provinces of Valdivia and
degree of spatial differentiation between Cautin, where Johnson () estimated the
different Pheasant populations in the Texas population at about ,. Blake () said
panhandle could be a result of limited disper- that the birds still survived on Pichi Colcuman
sal, accentuated by a variety of release sites. Island in Lago de Ranco in the Andean
Since the s several other races of foothills of Valdivia, and also on a hacienda
P. colchicus (talischensis, persicus, karpowi, (ranch) at Allipen in Cautin.
bianchii) have been introduced to the United
States, in general with encouraging results. A
Table lists early introductions of Common
Impact: In some areas where they are espe- Pheasants into Australia.
cially numerous (e.g. Iowa and Wisconsin) Pizzey () recorded Pheasants on
Pheasants have been accused of having an in- Rottnest, King and Flinders Islands, in
hibiting effect on native Northern Bobwhites Tasmania, in the southern tablelands of New
Colinus virginianus and (e.g. in Iowa, Illinois South Wales, possibly in the Australian
and South Dakota) on Greater Prairie Chick- Capital Territory (Canberra) and in the
ens Tympanuchus cupido, in whose nests they Mount Lofty Ranges of South Australia.
sometimes lay their own eggs (Vance & West- Blakers et al. () show them as
emeier , Westemeier , Robbins , established in Western Australia (both on
Dinsmore ). As in Europe, the relatively the mainland and on Rottnest Island), in
small amount of agricultural and horticultural Victoria, in southern and western New South
damage caused by Pheasants in the United Wales, on King and Flinders Islands, and
States, where growing corn (maize), grains, in Tasmania. Barrett et al. () record
potatoes, melons, tomatoes and strawberries Common Pheasants as having bred in parts of
are sometimes locally affected, is far out- Western Australia and on Tasmania.
weighed by the birds’ economic value.
N Z
W I Table lists introductions from abroad of P. c.
In the s P. c. torquatus was introduced to torquatus to New Zealand between and
the Dominican Republic on Hispaniola by . In addition to these importations, since
Ramfis Trujillo, where despite overshooting there have been innumerable trans-
some may survive in the hills near Cabo Rojo. locations and transfers of both subspecies, and
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Introductions of Common Pheasants Phasianus colchicus into Australia, c. –s.
Date State Source Result
In or before Victoria ? Temporarily
(including Philip & Churchill Is.) successful
& Sandstone
– Victoria ? ?
//// Victoria Victoria Zoological & Acclimatis- Temporarily
sation Society; private landowners successful
Tasmania ? Failed
– Western Australia Acclimatisation Committee ?
(including Rottnest I.)
c. King I., Bass Strait Tasmanian Game Protection ?
& Acclimatisation Society
Western Australia H A Pearse ?
(Rottnest I.)
? New South Wales ? ?
(Hawkesbury)
Mid-s & Tasmania ? Successful
early s
c. & s Western Australia (Rottnest I.) Tasmanian Game Protection ?
Flinders I.; Bass Strait & Acclimatisation Society
South Australia (Mt Lofty Ranges) Upland Game Association ? Successful
s South Australia Upland Game Association ? Successful
(near Adelaide)
Sources : Tarr ; Jenkins ; Balmford .
Introductions of Common Pheasants P. c. colchicus and Ring-necked Pheasants P. c.
torquatus into New Zealand, –.
Date Province Source Race/Result
? ‘Mrs Wills’ (from England) colchicus/Failed
? ‘Mr Petre’ colchicus/Failed
Northland Walter Brodie colchicus/Successful
(Mongonui)
c. – Northland ? colchicus/?
(Tauronga, Tologo
Bay, Raglan, Kawau,
Bay of Is., Napier)
Canterbury ‘Messrs Smith and C H Robinson’ colchicus/Successful
(Bank’s Peninsula)
Auckland (Waitakere) Thomas Henderson (from China) torquatus/Successful
Nelson Sir Edwin Dashwood colchicus/Successful
Auckland (Waitakere) Thomas Henderson (from China) torquatus/Successful
– & / Otago Otago Acclimatisation Society (A.S.) colchicus/Successful
Christchurch Prime Minister, Sir Frederick Weld colchicus/Successful
(from England)
// Canterbury Canterbury A.S. colchicus/Successful
// Auckland Auckland A.S.; ‘Mr Wentworth’ colchicus/?
/ Wellington Wellington A.S. torquatus/Successful
– Stewart I. Southland A.S. ?/Failed
Source: Thomson .
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Phasianidae (Turkeys, Grouse, Pheasants and Partridges)
since of mongolicus (southeast Kazakh- of fruit, this was more than offset by Pheasants’
stan and northern Kyrgyzstan), between the consumption of vast numbers of injurious
various acclimatisation societies (see Lever insects. Today, only minor localized damage
), in particular in the s after the sometimes occurs in market gardens and
population suffered a decline during the young maize crops. Oliver () suggested
previous decade. This decrease has been that infections imported to New Zealand by
attributed to a variety of factors: the Pheasants may have contributed to the
enormous increase in Rabbits Oryctolagus extinction around of the endemic New
cuniculus, which had been introduced from Zealand Quail Coturnix novaezeelandiae.
England some years earlier (Lever ), led
to the use of phosphorus-impregnated grain S H I
(which was equally accessible to birds) as a The introduction and history of Pheasants in
controlling agent; small insectivorous song- St Helena has been described by Rowlands et
birds – especially starlings Sturnus vulgaris – al. ().
imported in the late s rapidly increased According to Brooke (, quoted by
and became serious competitors for food; the Gladstone ), Pheasants were probably first
importation of mustelids around (Lever introduced to St Helena by Fernando Lopez
) introduced a new threat to the hitherto (Fernão Lopes), the first permanent resident
predator-free environment; the introduction on the island, in , although they may not
in of the insectivorous European Hedge- have been imported until Lopes’ second
hog Erinaceus europaeus (Lever ) provided sojourn on St Helena from around
the beleaguered Pheasants with another (Correa , quoted by Clifford ).
competitor for food; finally, in some localities Pheasants were subsequently recorded by
poaching was rife. Competition for food in many sixteenth- and seventeenth century
winter not only caused the death of large visitors to St Helena, where they were
numbers of Pheasants through starvation but reported to be extremely common. In or
also rendered the survivors unfit for spring before more birds were introduced by
reproduction; the chicks of those birds that Governor J. Skottowe (Anon ), and
did manage to breed successfully found a according to Lesson & Garnot (), a
shortage of insects on which to feed and further shipment was imported from Bombay
succumbed to starvation. and released in . In the early nineteenth
As in the British Isles and in North century, Pheasants on St Helena were
America, Pheasants in New Zealand today are reserved, for sporting purposes, ‘for the
mostly colchicus x torquatus crosses. Although hospitalities to strangers’ (Barnes : ).
in many places populations are fully self- Between the nineteenth and mid-twentieth
maintaining, elsewhere they are augmented century, Pheasants remained common on St
by annual releases. Today, Pheasants in New Helena, but by the population had
Zealand are widely if irregularly distributed declined to some pairs (Haydock ). A
and fairly common in North Island, especially small but apparently stable population
in the north and west: in South Island remains established on the island (McCulloch
they are sparse, with small numbers only in ).
Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago. The national
population is around ,, and is Impact: According to Green (), Pheasants
reinforced by frequent releases (Heather & were then regarded as a pest of agricultural
Robertson ). crops and gardens throughout the island.
Impact: Although Thomson () reported M I
considerable damage to such crops as young Hawkins & Safford (in prep.) list P. colchicus
grass, sprouting maize, potatoes, carrots, as a recent introduction to Réunion, probably
beans, peas, barley, wheat and many varieties from Europe.
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Naturalised Birds of the World
F P ….’ Although Stone et al. () say that
According to Pratt et al. (: ) Pheasants Pheasants distribute seeds of such alien plants
have also been ‘reported in French Polynesia, as the Banana Poka Passiflora mollissima in
but status and distribution there unknown’. Hawaii’s natural areas, Cole et al. (a, b)
considered that the role played by Pheasants
H I in facilitating the dispersal and germination of
According to Walker (), P. c. mongolicus such indigenous plant species as Vaccinium
was first introduced to the Hawaiian Islands reticulatum, Styphelia tameiameiae, Coprosma
in , P. c. torquatus in about , P. c. spp. and Geranium cuneatum (Cuddihy &
colchicus in , and melanistic mutants Stone ) helps to restore degraded ecosys-
(so-called ‘tenebrosus’) in . P. c. torquatus tems on Maui; the birds’ impact on native ter-
was planted on all the main islands, and was restrial invertebrates is negligible, and they are
subsequently augmented by further releases, not significant competitors with the endemic
including on the Puu Waawaa Ranch Nene or Hawaiian Goose Branta sandvicensis.
on Hawaii between and , when
colchicus and ‘tenebrosus’ were also
imported from the mainland.
Schwartz & Schwartz () recorded Green Pheasant
Pheasants on Molokai, Hawaii, Lanai, Maui, Phasianus versicolor
Kauai and Oahu, and estimated the total
population to number , individuals. Natural Range: Japan.
Although Pratt et al. () recorded the Naturalised Range: Europe: British Isles;
presence of Pheasants on all the main islands, France. North America: Canada; USA.
the AOU () lists them as surviving Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
only locally on Hawaii, with smaller numbers
occurring on Kauai, Lanai and possibly Maui. Because P. versicolor is sometimes treated as
Scott et al. () found that Pheasants conspecific with P. colchicus (see e.g. AOU
occurred in almost every type of habitat on , OSJ ) there are relatively few
Hawaii and Maui, but were most common in specific references to it in the ornithological
dry areas with scattered trees with little literature, but many of the anonymous
natural shrub cover, few matted ferns, and introductions of Pheasants around the world
large numbers of introduced herbs; the may have been of the former species. Here,
highest densities tend to occur where the treatment by Dickinson () of P.
introduced shrubs reach high cover values versicolor as a full species is followed.
because of disturbance by grazing or feral Everywhere that P. versicolor has been
stock. In the Hawaiian Islands, Pheasants introduced with P. colchicus the two species
range from sea-level to over ,m, and in have hybridised, and not many pure-bred
places with an average annual rainfall of introduced populations of either species
between cm and cm. Only areas with an survive. The following are the few specific
excessively high precipitation associated with references to P. versicolor that have been traced
dense rainforests, barren and dry regions by the author.
devoid of vegetation at low elevations, and
high mountain tops, have not been colonised. B I
Green Pheasants were first imported
Impact: Schwartz & Schwartz (: ) to England by the Earl of Derby for
reported some localized damage to such crops his menagerie at Knowsley in Cheshire
as sweet potatoes (yams), tomatoes, and around (Fitter ). The most recent
young corn (maize), but said the species was introduction, in or , took place in
‘the most important game bird in the Hawai- the Ingham/Stalham/ Sutton area of Norfolk
ian Islands because of its wide distribution (Ogilvie & RBBP ).
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Phasianidae (Turkeys, Grouse, Pheasants and Partridges)
F are largely restricted to the windward slopes of
According to Etchécopar (), Green Phea- Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa on Hawaii, and
sants were first introduced to France around that they occur in wetter habitats and at
the middle of the nineteenth century. higher elevations than P. colchicus, with which
they freely hybridise.
C
According to Carl & Guiguet (),
five Green Pheasants were included among
Common Pheasants released at an apparently Golden Pheasant
unrecorded date on Jedidiah Island, British Chrysolophus pictus
Columbia.
Natural Range: From N Guangxi and N
U S Guangdong to S Gansu and S Shaanxi.
Green Pheasants were first introduced, unsuc- Naturalised Range: Europe: British Isles.
cessfully, by the Colorado State Sportsmen’s South America: Argentina.
Association in about and by Judge Owen
Nickerson Denny in on Protection Island B I
in Puget Sound, Washington (Phillips ). Table lists the main releases of Golden
Between and a total of , Green Pheasants in the British Isles from the s to
Pheasants were liberated in Virginia, the s.
Tennessee, Louisiana, Washington, Idaho, The principle strongholds of the species in
Kentucky, New York and Maryland, and by the British Isles today are the triangle formed
the birds had become established in at by Kirroughtree Forest, Penninghame and
least Virginia and Tennessee. Sibley () Creetown in Wigtownshire and Kirkcud-
says that P., versicolor has also been introduced brightshire, in southwest Scotland, and the
locally in Delaware. Brecklands of southwest Norfolk and north-
west Suffolk, England – especially between
H I Thetford and Brandon and in Thetford
Walker () says that Green Pheasants were Chase (Forest). Smaller populations have
first introduced to the Hawaiian Islands been established on Tresco in the Isles
before the turn of the nineteenth century. of Scilly; on Anglesey, North Wales; in
Pratt et al. () state that Green Pheasants Cardrona Forest, Peeblesshire; and in the
Golden Pheasant
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Releases of the Golden Pheasant Chrysolophus pictus in the British Isles, s to s.
Date Locality Source
s Gigha I. & elsewhere in Scotland ?
c. Cairnsmore, Nr Newton Stewart, Duke of Bedford
Wigtownshire
Mount Stewart, I. of Bute Marquess of Bute
s Tortworth, Gloucestershire ?
Monreith, Wigtownshire Sir Herbert Maxwell, Bt.
Beaulieu Manor, Hampshire Lord Montagu of Beaulieu
Before Sevenoaks, Kent ?
Before Elveden Hall, Suffolk Earl of Iveagh
Since Whipsnade, Bedfordshire ?
? Isle of Anglesey, Wales Sir Richard Williams-Bulkeley, Bt.
Tresco, Isles of Scilly Dorrien-Smith family
? Exbury, Hampshire Edmund de Rothschild
? Stockley Wood, New Forest, Hampshire ?
Sources : Harvie-Brown & Buckley ; Maxwell ; Fitter ; Cannings .
Sandringham–Wolferton area of northwest (which, except for occasional escapes from
Norfolk. Minor populations are also said to falconers, were virtually absent from the
occur on the South Downs in Hampshire and British Isles when Golden Pheasants were
West Sussex (Rehfisch ). being introduced) or other raptors may be an
In , several pairs bred on Tresco, and important factor in the species’ status in
Golden Pheasants were also reported from Britain where, because of its rarity in China,
Norfolk, Suffolk, Argyllshire (the island of the population is of considerable conservation
Mull), and Dumfries & Galloway (Ogilvie & importance (Trollope , Balmer et al.
RBBP ). In a small population was ).
recorded in the Lytham area of Lancashire,
where an introduction was made in . A
There seems to be no firm evidence of a In about Aaron Anchorena introduced
general decline in Britain, where the birds four pheasant species (Lophura nyctemera, L.
favour coniferous woodlands and mixed leucomelanos, C. pictus and C. amherstiae) to
coniferous/deciduous forest and where the Victoria Island in the Nahuel Huapi National
population is believed to number between Park in southwestern Argentina, where they
and , breeding pairs. Due to the became established and where in the
species’ skulking habits, population estimates population was estimated to number around
should be treated with caution (Rehfisch ,. According to Navas (), although
). However, anecdotal evidence suggests not so numerous as the two Lophura species,
some decline in one of the species’ Golden and Lady Amherst’s Pheasants are
strongholds, Thetford Chase. This decline established on Victoria Island where, like the
may result from a combination of the Lophura species, they freely interbreed. Navas
abandonment in the s of major () believed that a possible cause of hybrid-
releases, inbreeding, hybridisation with isation was a disparity in the ratio between the
C. amherstiae, and increased predation as sexes. See also Narosky & Yzurieta () and
gamekeepers become fewer in number Mazar Barnett & Pearman ().
(Rehfisch ). D. Goodwin ( and
pers. comm. ) believes that predation Impact: See under Lophura leucomelanos.
by Northern Goshawks Accipiter gentilis
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Phasianidae (Turkeys, Grouse, Pheasants and Partridges)
Lady Amherst’s Pheasant ): according to Cannings (), six
Chrysolophus amherstiae amherstiae were released in mid-Bedfordshire
in , where the population has remained
Natural Range: From N and NE Burma and pure due to the absence of C. pictus. The
N Yunnan to W Sichuan and W Guizhou. much smaller Buckinghamshire population
Naturalised Range: Europe: British Isles. seems similarly to have contracted since
South America: Argentina. the s, with no recent records from
two previously occupied localities (Lack &
B I Ferguson ), although as McGowan &
Although Lady Amherst’s Pheasants were first Rehfisch () indicate, population estimates
imported to avicultural collections in England of this secretive species should be treated with
as early as , the earliest releases in the wild caution.
were not made until around , when some By the Bedfordshire population,
were freed by the Marquess of Bute at Mount which only five years earlier had been
Stewart on the Isle of Bute and by the Duke estimated at between and individuals,
of Bedford (with amherstiae x C. pictus had fallen to only , and in only
hybrids) at Cairnsmore in Wigtownshire and, birds were reported in the county. Lady
with pure amherstiae, at Woburn Abbey in Amherst’s Pheasants bred in two places
Bedfordshire. Later, Lady Amherst’s Pheasants in Buckinghamshire in , when the
were liberated in the Beaulieu Manor population in the county was about ten pairs,
woods in Hampshire by Lord Montagu of and in at least one place in Bedfordshire, but
Beaulieu in and again in ; in the species was said by Ogilvie & RBBP
Richmond Park, Surrey, between and () to be declining. In the population
; in Whipsnade Park, Bedfordshire, in the in Backwood and Wavendon Woods in
s; by the Earl of Iveagh at Elveden Hall, Buckinghamshire still survived (Ogilvie &
Suffolk, in (Fitter , Lever ); RBBP ).
on the Exbury estate in Hampshire D. Goodwin ( and pers. comm. )
by Edmund de Rothschild; in Stockley believes that predation by Northern
Wood in the New Forest, Hampshire; Goshawks Accipter gentilis (which apart
and at Halkyn Churchyard, Clwyd (Wales) from the occasional occurrence of birds that
(Cannings ). had escaped from falconers were seldom seen
In Cairnsmore, on Bute, at Beaulieu in Britain when Lady Amherst’s Pheasants
Manor, and at Elveden, hybridisation with were being introduced) or other raptors, may
C. pictus soon rendered pure amherstiae birds be an important factor in the species’ decline
rare. At Woburn and Whipsnade, however, in Britain where, because its status in the
Lady Amherst’s Pheasants flourished and Far East is uncertain, the introduced
spread along the greensand ridge, and population of C. amherstiae in Britain is
this small area of south Bedfordshire and of considerable conservation significance
Buckinghamshire became the birds’ British (Trollope ). It is also of value because not
stronghold, with smaller populations around only does it provide quantitative data
Exbury since the s, and in parts of currently lacking in China but also supplies
Norfolk after the early s. Chinese ornithologists with an opportunity to
In Bedfordshire and Buckinghamshire, receive technical training on a native species
Lady Amherst’s Pheasants favour deciduous (McGowan & Rehfisch ).
and coniferous woodland with a dense
understorey of Bramble Rubus fruticosus and A
Rhododendron Rhododendron ponticum. In See under Chrysolophus pictus.
Bedfordshire, the species is believed to have
declined from birds in the late s to Impact: See under Lophura leucomelanos.
– in the early s (Trodd & Kramer
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Indian Peafowl it is ‘scattered through the residential and
Pavo cristatus semi-wild areas there’.
According to Small (), the two largest
Natural Range: From NE Pakistan E through colonies of Peafowl in California occur in the
India and Nepal to Assam and S to Sri western San Gabriel Valley in the vicinity
Lanka. of the Los Angeles County Arboretum
Naturalised Range: North America: USA; near Arcadia, in San Marino, near Santa
?West Indies. Australasia: Australia; New Anita Race Track, and in the Huntington
Zealand. Indian Ocean: ?Andaman Is. Gardens. Other smaller colonies are scattered
Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is. locally through the coastal slopes of southern
California.
U S Summing up the status of Peafowl in
A small population of Indian Peafowl southern California, Small (: ) wrote
established in the vicinity of Palos Verdes that they occur in:
Estates, Rolling Hills and Portuguese Bend in
southern California, is believed to be derived semi-wild land at the edges of cities, sub-
from birds that escaped or were released from urban gardens, parks, botanical gardens,
captivity at an unrecorded date, having arboreta, and farms and ranches in the
originally been imported in the s. Hardy lowlands. … They have increased so well
(: ) described this population as in some suburban areas, and are so noisy,
‘thoroughly wild and completely independent [that] some residents have demanded
of man for food’, while Small (: ) said some sort of control program …. They
Indian Peafowl
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Phasianidae (Turkeys, Grouse, Pheasants and Partridges)
have not spread beyond small areas of in Queensland, South Australia, Western
introduction. Australia and especially on Tasmania.
James () includes P. cristatus in his list N Z
of alien birds in Florida that did not have The first Indian Peafowl in New Zealand
well-established breeding populations in were some imported from England by the
, when they occurred from Brevard Hon. Henry W. Petre in , several of
County south to the Keys. Vuilleumier (), which became established at Hawke’s Bay,
Johnston & Garrett (), AOU (), and Gisborne, and Wanganui. In , the Otago
Sibley () confirm the species’ survival in Acclimatisation Society (see Lever )
the United States. introduced a pair, and at around the same
time private individuals and dealers brought
W I in others, some of which escaped or were
Indian Peafowl were introduced to Little released into the bush where, particularly
Exuma Island in the Bahamas in the s, in parts of North Island, they became
where they are now fairly common but are established. Oliver (, ) recorded that
seldom seen (Raffaele et al. , AOU ). in Peafowl were successfully introduced
to Waimarama, Hawke’s Bay. In the late s
A Sir George Grey, Governor of New Zealand,
Peafowl were first released in Victoria in introduced some Peafowl to Kawau Island in
Gembrook Reserve, in the bush near the Hauraki Gulf where, with various other
Melbourne, and at Cape Liptrap in – exotic species, they became established.
(Ryan ). Young birds reared in the zoo Thomson () attributed the Peafowl’s
at South Perth were freed in various parts of subsequent decline to competition for
Western Australia – especially at Gingin and food, principally insects, with introduced
Pinjarra – before , but by a small songbirds.
number survived only near the latter (Jenkins Wild populations of Peafowl survive today
). Around , and probably again in in rough hill country and farmland in many
or , some were landed on Rottnest drier and warmer localities in North Island,
Island, where in between and and in northwestern Nelson and on the west
were established (Storr ). Prior to the coast of South Island (Heather & Robertson
s, Peafowl were said to occur near ).
Onslow and perhaps elsewhere in the state
(Serventy ). A I
In , Peafowl were reported on East and According to Abdulali (, ), Indian
West Sister Islands and on Prime Seal Island Peafowl were introduced to Ross Island in
in the Furneaux group in the Bass Strait; in about , where Hume () reported them
Tasmania; in the Blackall and Gladstone dis- to be doing well, although introductions to
tricts of Queensland; and on the headwaters South Andaman had failed. The invading
of the Snowy River in New South Wales. In Japanese destroyed the birds on Ross Island in
, birds were recorded at Murray’s Lagoon , but after the war more were imported
on Kangaroo Island (McGarvie & Templeton there and some are believed to survive.
), and a year later were said to be
breeding on Heron Island off the coast of H I
Queensland (Kikkawa & Boles ). Indian Indian Peafowl were first introduced to the
Peafowl today may occur on islands in the Hawaiian Islands by Frances Sinclair in
Furneaux group and on King Island in (Caum ). Fisher () says they were
the Bass Strait, and perhaps also on liberated on Hawaii in the s and on
Rottnest, Heron and Kangaroo Islands. Niihau in the s (another account claims
They are recorded by Barrett et al. () in about ), from where some were later
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Naturalised Birds of the World
translocated to the Kalalau Valley on Kauai, , and ,m asl), wintering in
and thence by Charles Grey to Lanai. In N India and N Burma.
a pair was released on the Puu Waawaa Ranch Naturalised Range: Europe: British Isles;
on Hawaii, where they bred successfully and ?Finland; Germany; ?Italy; The Nether-
became quite common. lands; ?Ukraine.
In Peafowl were reported to be plenti-
ful on Kauai and in the early s also B I
on Niihau; Schwartz & Schwartz () Delany () recorded a national total of
estimated the population on Oahu, Maui, free-flying Bar-headed Geese in ,
Molokai, Kauai and Hawaii to total indi- although the only report of successful breed-
viduals. According to Pratt et al. (), the ing was from Stratfield Saye, Hampshire,
Indian Peafowl ‘has never done particularly where a flock of included nine juveniles in
well in the wild in Hawaii but persists in three broods. Other records in were a
scattered localities on Hawaii (Hualalai above flock of from Highfield Lake, South
Puu Waawaa), Oahu (N end of Waianae Yorkshire, and flocks of six at each of
Range), Niihau, and the W slope of Halea- Abberton Reservoir, Essex; The Otter Trust,
kala, Maui’. The AOU () records Peafowl Bungay, Suffolk; and Castle Loch, Dumfries
as occurring on Oahu, Maui and Hawaii. The & Galloway. Other Scottish records were
birds are found from sea level to ,m in from South Ronaldsay, Orkney; Loch
areas with annual rainfall of between and Tummel, Tayside; and Tyninghame, Lothian.
cm. At sea level they occur in the algaroba In northern England there were reports from
(Mesquite Prosopis juliflora) flats, near sea Cheshire, Greater Manchester, South York-
level in the Guava Psidium guajava – Java shire and Shropshire, and in eastern England
Plum Eugenia cumini association, and at from Bedfordshire, Greater London, Essex
higher elevations in Mamane Sophora chryso- and Kent. Further west, there were records
phylla forests. Dense undergrowth and Passion from Oxfordshire, Berkshire, Gloucestershire
Flower Passiflora sp. vines provide abundant and Avon, and in the south from the Isle of
cover. The principal controlling factor of Wight.
Peafowl in the Hawaiian Islands seems to be Between and , Ogilvie & RBBP
predation of eggs and chicks by introduced (–) received reports of successful
Feral Pigs Sus scrofa and the Small Indian breeding of Bar-headed Geese in Avon,
Mongoose Herpestes javanicus (see Lever ). Derbyshire, Greater London, Greater Man-
chester, Hampshire, Somerset, Surrey, Sussex,
Impact: Indian Peafowl in the Hawaiian and West Midlands, although some were cases
Islands are implicated in the dispersal of a per- of hybridisation with Canada Goose Branta
vasive and aggressive exotic vine, the Banana canadensis, Lesser White-fronted Goose Anser
Poka Passiflora mollissima (Lewin ). erythropus, and Greylag Goose A. anser. From
a current population of more than birds
in around locations at least five pairs of
Bar-headed Geese breed successfully in most
years, and their numbers and range in Britain
ANATIDAE have been slowly increasing since the s
(DUCKS, GEESE AND SWANS) (Blair et al. ). Rowell et al. ()
recorded a total of in .
Bar-headed Goose F
Anser indicus First recorded in , up to two breeding
pairs from a population of about birds
Natural Range: Mountainous regions of succeed in raising young in a good year (Blair
C Asia, Mongolia, and China (at between et al. ).
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Anatidae (Ducks, Geese and Swans)
G Naturalised Range: Europe: British Isles.
Escaped birds have occurred in the wild in
Schleswig-Holstein since . Although an B I
irregular breeder, out of a total population of According to Blair et al. (: ), Britain
– individuals (of which – occur in has over ‘very under recorded’ Snow
Schleswig-Holstein) between five and ten Geese living in the wild, of which around ten
pairs breed successfully in most years. The pairs breed annually, ‘mostly among a small
numbers and distribution of this under- but probably self-sustaining population’.
recorded species seem to be slowly increasing, For the last years or so this breeding
and hybridisation (e.g. with Greylag Geese population of – birds, derived from a
Anser anser and Canada Geese Branta cana- former avicultural collection, has existed in
densis) is not uncommon (Blair et al. ). northwestern Mull and on the neighbouring
island of Coll, Argyll, in the Inner Hebrides of
I western Scotland (M. A. Ogilvie, pers. comm.
First recorded in , ten sub-populations ).
have occurred in ten provinces, in three of In , Delany () estimated the British
which successful breeding has been recorded population of Snow Geese to number , of
(Blair et al. ). which occurred at Haunn on Mull, where
six were blue morphs of the smaller nominate
T N subspecies. A flock of was established at the
From a single breeding pair in – the Linch Hill Leisure Park in Oxfordshire and
number had risen by – to between six another, of adults of the larger atlanticus
and , and Lensink (a) includes the form, at Slimbridge in Gloucestershire. The
species among those expected to become only other report of atlanticus (six) came from
definitely established in the near future. The Tankerness on Orkney, Scotland. In Norfolk
population is unknown, but seems to be there was a flock of caerulescens on the
slowly increasing in the floodplains and Babingley River.
marshes. In addition to those on Mull, blue morphs
were reported from Avon, the Isle of Wight,
U Greater London, Norfolk and Kent. Snow
Bar-headed Geese have existed for several Geese of unspecified race were observed in
decades in the Ascania-Nova Reserve, where Leicestershire, Bedfordshire, Cumbria, Angle-
they breed occasionally (Blair et al. ). sey, Dorset, Dumfries & Galloway, Kent,
Norfolk, Oxfordshire and Hampshire. Delany
Future trends: Blair et al. (: ) predict () reported successful breeding only at
that ‘if it can assemble several flocks or semi- Haunn on Mull (where out of the birds
colonies large enough to stimulate breeding seen were juveniles); on the Babingley River
behaviour, then [the] Bar-headed Goose will in Norfolk; at Radwell gravel-pit in Bed-
begin to emulate [the] Canada Goose in fordshire; and at Stratfield Saye in Hampshire.
Europe’. Fifty Snow Geese were seen in Sandring-
ham Park, Norfolk, in the spring of but
no breeding was recorded; breeding was only
reported on Coll (Ogilvie & RBBP ). In
Snow Goose at least Snow Geese were counted on
Anser caerulescens Coll, where there ‘… appears to be an
apparently self-sustaining flock which has
Natural Range: NE Siberia, N Alaska and NW remained remarkably stable for the last
Canada, wintering in S USA, N Mexico, years or more [while] other introduced geese
and Japan. Also NE Canada and NW have managed steady increases’ (Ogilvie &
Greenland, wintering in NE USA. RBBP : ). In and breeding
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Naturalised Birds of the World
occurred in Hampshire and also on Coll and Geese in Austria, most of which occur on
Mull, where up to were seen in and reservoirs, has been estimated at around in-
– in (Ogilvie & RBBP , ). dividuals, with between two and five success-
Rowell et al. () recorded a total of ful breeding pairs annually (Blair et al. ).
Snow Geese in , principally on
Thamesmead Lakes in Greater London (), B
at Eversley in Hampshire (), on the Univer- Since the s, when Symens (), quoted
sity of York Lake in North Yorkshire (), at by Madsen & Andersson (), said the total
Blenheim Park in Oxfordshire () and at population was with only – breeding
Stratfield Saye (). pairs, the number of Canada Geese in Belgium
has increased to over breeding pairs, with
Impact: ‘This species can be aggressive when up to , wintering individuals. They are
feeding or breeding as a group and has descended from birds that dispersed from
hybridised quite widely (with Anatidae) Scandinavia, augmented by some that escaped
among other geese. It is, therefore, potentially from a waterfowl collection at Essen in
a local threat to indigenous waterbirds’ (Blair Antwerpen. Introductions, mainly for sporting
et al. : ). purposes, continue (Anselin & Geers ).
Impact: Hybridisation with Barnacle Geese B.
leucopsis, Greater White-fronted Geese Anser
Swan Goose albifrons, and Mallard Anas platyrhynchos has
Anser cygnoides been recorded (Blair et al. ).
Natural Range: C Asia to SE Siberia and Mon- B I
golia; winters S to China. The earliest recorded reference to Canada
Naturalised Range: Europe: ?Germany. Geese in Britain, by the diarist John Evelyn in
, describes birds in the collection of
G Charles II in St James’s Park, London, where
Gebhardt () records the presence locally they were also noted before by
of a few breeding pairs which he says cause Willughby and Ray in their Ornithologia.
some ecological damage, but provides no Kirby & Sjöberg (: ) assert that intro-
further information. ductions were made ‘from c. …’, but
provide no evidence for this claim.
By the nineteenth century, Canada Geese
were widely distributed on private estates
Canada Goose throughout much of England and in parts of
Branta canadensis southern Scotland. Further introductions were
made in England, Wales, and Ireland (Merne
Natural Range: Breeds in the Bering, N Kuril, ) during the twentieth century, but it was
and Aleutian Is., and in much of mainland not until the late s that the species began
N America, wintering in Japan, SW Can- to live predominantly in the wild.
ada, and the USA S to Texas, and Mexico. In the s and s Canada Geese began
Naturalised Range: Europe: ?Austria; Belgium; increasingly to come into conflict with
British Isles; ?Bulgaria; Denmark; Finland; farmers, as a result of which the removal of
France; Germany; ?Italy; The Netherlands; birds to hitherto unoccupied areas was under-
Norway; ?Russia; Sweden; ?Ukraine. taken as a misguided form of control. This
Australasia: New Zealand. redistribution almost invariably resulted in
the formation of new sub-populations, and
A the donor colonies soon resumed their former
First recorded in , the number of Canada numbers. This policy of translocations was
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Anatidae (Ducks, Geese and Swans)
largely responsible for the general increase in The principal reasons for the successful
numbers and distribution during the s naturalisation of the Canada Goose in Britain
and s, and Canada Geese became widely are the existence of a near-vacant ecological
established in England (where they were most niche for a large aquatic bird that breeds on
numerous), Scotland, Wales, and parts of waters in open woodland and parks (where its
Ireland. only competitor is the Mute Swan Cygnus
According to Blair et al. (), Canada olor), the availability of new habitats and the
Geese were first introduced to Northern birds’ abandonment of the instinct to migrate.
Ireland in the early s, from when they Since , however, a moult migration of
later spread south into the Republic, although some km to the Beauly Firth in Scotland,
most of the current breeding sites are in similar to those that occur in parts of North
Northern Ireland. The increase in numbers America, has evolved among non-breeding
and distribution is slower than in Great adults of central Yorkshire (Dennis ).
Britain, though stocking continues for sport- The principal form introduced to the
ing purposes. Over of the total population British Isles (and continental Europe) is
of birds occur on only eight sites. believed to be the nominate B. c. canadensis,
Between and the Canada Goose which occurs naturally in eastern North
population in Britain rose from between America.
, and , to ,; by the total
had nearly doubled to , (Ogilvie ), Impact: The ecological impact of B. canaden-
and by around had reached over ,. sis in Britain has been considerable. In cities
Delany () recorded the summer and towns large numbers of birds on small
post-breeding population at ,; by the late park ponds cause water pollution, eutro-
s the population was estimated by Kirby phication, and the soiling of areas open to the
& Sjöberg at , breeding pairs, while public; thus causing a health hazard. The
Blair et al. () gave a figure of , pollution of reservoirs, the fouling of golf
breeding pairs with a post-breeding total of courses and posing a danger to air traffic have
, birds. The total given by Rowell been recorded (Allan et al. , Watola et al.
et al. () was ,. , Rehfisch et al. ). Because the birds
feed largely on agricultural land, increasing
crop damage is being reported; the birds graze
and trample growing cereals, other crops, and
pastures intended for domestic stock, and
cause erosion and soil compaction. In late
summer they can have a serious impact on
unharvested crops. In natural habitats, such as
reed-beds, damage can be caused by grazing
and trampling (Madsen & Andersson ).
Although possible competition between
B. canadensis and such native species as Grey-
lag Geese Anser anser and Mute Swan Cygnus
olor is of concern, there appears to be no
evidence of a serious impact on any indigen-
ous species. As in Belgium, hybridisation with
Barnacle, Greylag, and semi-domesticated
‘Chinese’ Geese has been recorded, but is
infrequent (Lever ), though in Ireland
there have been more than cases of hybridi-
sation with A. anser (Blair et al. ). Some
Canada Geese small waterbirds are occasionally killed or
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Naturalised Birds of the World
driven away, but the geese also give such birds where the birds have spread north, most
early warning of potential predators, and by crossing the Baltic to winter in southern
uprooting deeply submerged aquatic vegeta- Fennoscandia (Madsen & Andersson ),
tion provide small dabbling ducks with an where they also breed on coastal islands and
additional source of food (Blair et al. ). on lakes (Heggberget ). In the late s
There are indications that Canada Geese the number of breeding pairs was estimated
may be damaging sites of conservation by Madsen & Andersson () at between
importance by their destruction of bankside and , out of a total population of
vegetation, the consequent reduction of nest- ,–,. Kirby & Sjöberg () gave a
ing cover for other species, and the increasing population of up to , breeding pairs.
eutrophication of waterbodies through depo-
sition of excrement. The birds have also been F
reported to eat the young shoots and Delacour () said that Canada Geese
submerged rhizomes of the Common Reed occurred in France only in semi-captivity or as
Phragmites australis. occasional vagrants from Scandinavia. Blair
Various methods of control have been et al. (), however, recorded a core
attempted, including shooting, the pricking population in northern France of some
or removal of eggs and their substitution with breeding pairs plus more than non-
dummy eggs, electric fencing, bird-scarers, breeders, and said that since the s
translocation, and the alteration of habitats to increasing numbers are founding new
render them inimical to geese (Kirby et al. sub-populations and that the species is
), but none has been successful. regularly stocked for sporting purposes.
Several hundred birds, mostly from Fenno-
B scandia, arrive to winter among the resident
Gabuzov () says that a project is being population.
considered for the introduction of Canada
Geese to Bulgaria. G
Recorded since the early s and breeding
D since around (Niethammer ), the
Canada Geese from Scandinavia have for total population of Canada Geese in
many years regularly wintered in Denmark, Germany has been estimated at a maximum
where in the s unsuccessful attempts were of , breeding pairs (Kirby & Sjöberg
made to establish them in the wild. However, ) and a further , non-breeders
Nummi & Pienmunne () say that the (Gebhardt , Blair et al. ), of which
species has since been successfully introduced pairs and other birds, plus
to Denmark. post-breeding juveniles, occur in Schleswig-
Holstein. The birds’ population and range is
F said to be increasing, assisted by irregular
In the summer of , , or stocking for sporting purposes. Up to ,
(accounts differ) goslings were imported from birds, largely from Fennoscandia, winter in
Sweden to Viksberg Manor, km east of Germany (Blair et al. ).
Helsinki, where successful breeding on Lake
Viksberg took place in (Nummi , Impact: Much hybridisation with other
). In the following year some juveniles Anatidae has been recorded in parts of
migrated south, and in most years some Germany (Gebhardt ; Simberloff )
have returned to Porvoo, east of Helsinki including instances with Greylag Geese.
(Korhonen ). Since the s, large Gebhardt () refers to economic damage
numbers of Canada Geese have been to agricultural, vinicultural, horticultural
introduced for sporting purposes to southern and arboricultural crops, urban parks and
Finland (Vikberg & Moilanen ), from landlocked waters.
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Anatidae (Ducks, Geese and Swans)
I R
Canada Geese have been recorded in Italy The first major introduction of Canada Geese
almost every year since , mostly as to Russia, for sporting purposes, took place in
vagrants, and there is now a small but the s, when a total of birds (including
apparently stable colony of about ten birds breeding pairs) were released in the Sea of
from which one pair regularly breeds success- Azov in Krasnodar Krai (Gabuzov et al. ,
fully (Baccetti et al. , Blair et al. ). Gabuzov ). By many birds were
The AOU () claims that Canada Geese breeding, and by the following year the total
are also established in Sardinia. population was nearly , augmented by
dispersers from Sweden (Medvedev ).
T N Gabuzov () reported plans for further
According to Lensink (), the Canada introductions in Krasnodar and Stavropol
Goose has been breeding in The Netherlands Krais, in Rostov Oblast, in Lake Issyk-Kul
since the s (Blair et al. () record the (Kirgizia) and Kelifski Uzboi (Turkmenia).
earliest occasion as in ), but until no [See also under Ukraine].
viable population became established; in that
year a few birds dispersed from a nearby site in S
Belgium and began breeding in south Hol- Canada Geese were first imported to Sweden
land, where in they were all shot. Since from North America by Bengt Berg in .
, however, breeding flocks have become Three years later Berg released some birds that
established in several localities (Lensink ). had been bred in captivity at Kalmarsund in
Although Lensink () recorded only two to Blekinge, where they first nested in the
five breeding pairs between and and wild; within a few years, helped by various
– pairs in –, Blair et al. () say translocations, they had colonised much
that by the number of breeding pairs had of southern and central-southern Sweden,
increased to at least , and that in winter the migrating in winter south to Denmark,
population, augmented by migrants from Germany, France, The Netherlands, and
Fennoscandia, rises to at least , individuals. Belgium. The Swedish population increased
dramatically from breeding pairs in
N to some , in , with a total popula-
The first Canada Geese in Norway were im- tion of nearly , (Fabricius ; Tangen
ported from North America, and perhaps also ). Fabricius (a, b) estimated the
from Sweden, in by T. Røer, who released population to number around ,, with
at Nesodden, Oslo. These birds failed to , breeding pairs. The late s figures
become established. Between and a given by Madsen & Andersson () were
total of were liberated in various localities ,+ breeding pairs and a total population
(Lund , Tangen ), as a result of which of ,–, individuals. Kirby &
viable populations were established around Sjöberg () give a figure of ,–,
Oslo and Trondheim. Subsequently, further breeding pairs, while Blair et al. () give
releases were made in other localities (Myrber- the same totals as Fabricius (a, b).
get ), and by the total number of The Canada Goose’s success in Sweden is
breeding pairs was estimated at between attributed to the existence of a vacant
and (Madsen & Andersson ), with ecological niche and to a favourable habitat
a post-breeding population of ,–, and climate – the weather and the boreal
individuals (Nummi ). Most birds winter forests of its native Laurentian shield in east-
near their breeding grounds, though a few ern Canada are very similar to those of the
migrate to Sweden and Denmark (Myrberget Fennoscandian shield in Scandinavia.
). The current Norwegian population is
about ,, of which some , pairs Impact: According to Blair et al. (), there
breed annually (Blair et al. ). have been occasions when Mute Swans Cygnus
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Naturalised Birds of the World
olor in Sweden have been intimidated by large other waterbirds from using a large potential
numbers of Canada Geese into abandoning breeding area. On the other hand, the species’
nesting sites as soon as their cygnets have uprooting of submerged vegetation provides
hatched, and some hybridisation with an additional source of food for dabbling
Greylag Geese Anser anser and interspecific ducks. When nesting in isolated pairs,
competition for nest sites has been reported. Canada Geese goslings may be killed by Mute
Swans Cygnus olor, that tend to be more
U hostile to goose than duck neighbours.
Gabuzov () said there were plans to The main concern in Europe, however,
introduce Canada Geese to the Ukraine, is that the sheer size of the expanding
where Blair et al. () state that for several B. canadensis population will not only affect
decades they are said to have been breeding in autochthonous waterbirds but will also have
the wild in the Ascania-Nova Reserve. The a detrimental effect on wintering-grounds
latter authors predict that by the utilised by migrants, where eutrophication
Ukrainians (and perhaps also the Russians caused by the geese is changing the balance of
and Belarusians) may have succeeded in plant and invertebrate communities, although
establishing fully naturalised populations the evidence so far is largely circumstantial
which could spread eastward during the next (Allan et al. ).
years to occupy similar habitats to those in Looking to the future, Blair et al. ()
the birds’ native range: migrant populations anticipate open shooting seasons being
might then winter on the Black and Caspian declared in many countries, and that research
Seas, perhaps putting pressure on wintering will probably show significant local economic
Red-breasted Geese B. ruficollis. and amenity damage, and some quantified
human health risk. The Canada Goose may
I eventually extend its breeding range still fur-
The AOU () claims that Canada Geese ther into central and southern Europe, where
have been introduced to, and are established its likely impact could be very considerable.
in, Iceland.
N Z
Overall European Impact: The success of In and the Wellington Acclimatisa-
B. canadensis in Europe has been ascribed by tion Society (see Lever ) unsuccessfully
Madsen & Andersson () to a combina- released a total of Canada Geese (Thomson
tion of factors: the introduction projects have ). In , the New Zealand Government
been widespread and persistent; the birds have imported about (believed to be B. c.
initially an exceptionally high rate of recruit- maxima: south-central Canada) as potential
ment; and a vacant ecological niche exists in game birds, which they distributed among the
the form of cultivated lowland habitats with Southland, Otago, Canterbury, and Welling-
good nesting sites and an abundance of food. ton Acclimatisation Societies, by whom they
Studies in several countries show that the were released in various localities. Although
impact of B. canadensis on other waterbirds is by around Canada Geese were reported
mixed (Blair et al. ). The species is by Thomson () to be established in
undoubtedly very aggressive to other birds of several districts, in the Canterbury
its own size or smaller during incubation and Society imported a further ten birds (probably
when the goslings are young. Canada Geese B. c. taverneri: north-eastern Alaska and
have been known to kill adult ducks and northern Canada). A decade later Canada
ducklings, Moorhens Gallinula chloropus Geese had apparently disappeared from
and Common Coots Fulica atra, and North Island but were well established in
their aggressive behaviour inhibits smaller Otago and Canterbury in South Island.
waterfowl from seeking nesting sites. Huge In , Canada Geese of the nominate
aggregations of B. canadensis may prevent form were released near Canterbury (Oliver
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Anatidae (Ducks, Geese and Swans)
), where the population of maxima, Barnacle Goose
taverneri and possibly moffitti (southwestern Branta leucopsis
Canada and northwestern USA) was already
flourishing, and the national flock is now Natural Range: NE Greenland, S Varlbard,
likely to be crosses of these races. NW Russia and the Baltic region, winter-
According to Heather & Robertson (: ing in NW Europe.
), Canada Geese are abundant ‘… in the Naturalised Range: Europe: ?Austria; Belgium;
eastern South Island from Marlborough to British Isles; Finland; Germany; The
North Otago (especially on Lake Ellesmere) Netherlands; Norway; Sweden.
and common in drier tussock country of east-
ern Fiordland’. Since the s, Canada Geese Deliberate introductions of Barnacle Geese
have become well established on North Island have been relatively few in number. Most
‘… in the Waikato, Taupo-Ohakune area, of the following breeding populations
northern Hawke’s Bay, coastal Manawatu, may be derived from accidental releases or
and especially near Lake Wairarapa’. In the escapes.
later s the population was around ,;
Heather & Robertson () estimated the A
post-shooting population at about ,, of Although the earliest record was in , a
which , occurred in South Island; small breeding population of between one
,–, winter on Lake Ellesmere. and three pairs out of a total population of
Heather & Robertson () say that about birds has been established only since
although in South Island most birds nest near (Blair et al. ).
high-country rivers and lakes, many adults
and juveniles from the Marlborough interior B
to the MacKenzie Basin migrate to Lake The first records of escaped birds date from
Ellesmere and other coastal lakes and estuaries , and there are currently at least
between November and February for the breeding pairs in a total population of a
autumn moult, remaining for the winter until minimum of individuals (Blair et al.
early September. In recent years, more birds ).
have tended to remain in high-country lakes
throughout the year, moulting on inland Impact: Successful hybridisation has been
lakes, and some breed on such coastal lakes as recorded with Canada Geese B. canadensis,
Ellesmere and Forsyth. In North Island, Greater White-fronted Geese Anser albifrons
most birds are resident on coastal lakes and Mallard Anas platyrhynchos (Blair et al.
such as Whakaki Lagoons (near Wairoa) ).
and Wairarapa. Vagrants have been reported
from the Kermadec, Chatham, and Auckland B I
Islands. By the s breeding pairs in Britain were
‘already in high double figures’ (Blair et al.
Impact: Canada Geese in New Zealand : ). The current record of breeding
mainly eat grass (which domestic stock are pairs at localities (ponds, pools, flooded
then reluctant to use), clover, lucerne and gravel pits) from over resident birds at
brassicas, but they also sometimes feed on over localities is an underestimate. Rowell
stubble or standing crops of grain and peas, et al. () recorded a countrywide total in
when they can cause considerable damage. of , including in Cumbria, in
Control measures include sport shooting (up Hampshire, in Essex, in Gloucestershire
to , are shot annually), the shooting of and in Lancashire.
flightless moulting birds and egg-destruction
(Heather & Robertson ). F
The slow rate of increase from to around
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 74
Naturalised Birds of the World
breeding pairs in is now showing signs Black Swan
of speeding up, as is happening elsewhere in Cygnus atratus
Europe (Blair et al. ).
Natural Range: S Australia and Tasmania.
G Naturalised Range: Europe: ?British Isles;
The best current assessment is of between ?Germany; ?Italy; ?The Netherlands;
and breeding pairs from a national ?Spain. Australasia: New Zealand.
population of around birds, of which
pairs and a total population of about B I
individuals occur in Schleswig-Holstein. Black Swans were first introduced to England
These birds are believed to be derived from in , though the earliest record for success-
deliberate releases and possibly from some ful breeding in the wild was not until ,
natural dispersal from Gotland, Sweden (Blair since when breeding has been intermittent
et al. ). (Blair et al. ). Allard (), however,
records the presence of a recently established
Impact: Some hybridisation with Greylag population in the Broadlands of east Norfolk
Geese Anser anser has been recorded (Blair et (where they were first recorded before ),
al. ). centred on Salthouse Broad and the River
Bure at Wroxham, and to a lesser extent on
T N the Trinity Broads. A pair bred at Walcott in
With a breeding population between , when at least one pair was nesting
and of – pairs, Lensink (, a: regularly, though not always successfully, at
) lists B. leucopsis as one of the exotic species Salthouse Broad. By there were at
‘established definitely’ in The Netherlands. least three breeding pairs in the Salthouse–
According to Blair et al. (), the earliest Wroxham area, and a further pair raised five
recorded escape took place in , and cygnets at Waxham. Since then the birds have
the current population numbers about been slowly expanding their range and
individuals. numbers: they were estimated to total –
individuals in (Allard ).
N; S Ogilvie & RBBP (–) received
Although in Norway there have been num- reports of successful breeding from Cleveland,
erous records of escapes from captivity since Devon, Essex, Greater Manchester, North-
the s, in only breeding pairs amptonshire, Sussex and Wiltshire in England,
were recorded (Blair et al. ). Nummi & and from Lothian, Orkney and northeastern
Pienmunne () list B. leucopsis as also Scotland. Ogilvie & RBBP (: ) say
successfully introduced to Sweden. that in Essex, Lothian, Northamptonshire
and Wiltshire, ‘all four breeding records
Summary: The slow increase in numbers of refer to well-established pairs’. The greatest
naturalised Barnacle Geese in Europe will number of breeding pairs was nine in .
probably continue until a critical population
size and density are reached, perhaps by G
, when the birds may spread to other Black Swans have been known in the wild in
countries. Although B. leucopsis could develop Germany since (Gebhardt ) or
into a pest species and will probably (Blair et al. ), where the former says
contribute to the eutrophication of small (p.) there are ‘locally [a] few breeding
waterbodies, thus indirectly affecting other pairs’. The latter say the population and
waterbirds, it is unlikely, except locally, to successful breeding rate fluctuate, partially
impact directly on other waterbird species depending on the harshness of the weather in
(Blair et al. ). winter; the present population is between
and birds, but there are only from five to
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:34 PM Page 75
Anatidae (Ducks, Geese and Swans)
breeding pairs, mostly associated with S
parkland or urban wetlands. J. Clavell (in Martí & del Moral ) reports
that birds bred in the wild at two sites in
I northern Spain in .
Black Swans have been recorded in the wild in
Italy since , where in a good year up to Potential European Impact: Blair et al. ()
five pairs breed successfully (Demartis & attribute the poor rate of successful breeding
Murru , Baccetti et al. , Blair et al. among Black Swans in the northern
). Those that nest in natural wetlands hemisphere to their inability to escape from
tend to have a poor rate of success because the austral breeding cycle. Because in New
they breed in winter (Blair et al. ). Zealand breeding success seems dependent
on flocks reaching a certain size, should
T N that be achieved by European populations
Black Swans have had a poor record of breed- and should the birds relax their austral
ing in The Netherlands since they were first breeding cycle, Black Swans could soon
reported in , with pairs being the become widely naturalised in Europe, where
upper limit; the population and distribution they could well displace many native
appear to have been slowly increasing since waterbird species and would probably become
(Lensink ), at least partially due to an agricultural pest.
recruitment from numerous escapes in
(Blair et al. ). According to Lensink N Z
(), the birds currently breed mainly in Although Blair et al. (: ) claim that ‘the
southwestern Holland and along central New Zealand introductions started probably
rivers. Lensink () gives the – in the th century …’, the earliest docu-
number of breeding pairs as between and mented importation took place shortly before
, and lists the species as among those when seven birds were acquired by the
expected soon to become established. Nelson Acclimatisation Society (see Lever
). In that year the Governor of New
Zealand, Sir George Grey, presented four
birds to the Canterbury Acclimatisation
Society, and in pairs were obtained
by the Christchurch City Council, which
released them in the Avon River to clear the
beds of alien Watercress Nasturtium officinale
which were clogging up the river. The num-
bers of Black Swans increased dramatically,
and in many birds dispersed to Lake
Ellesmere, Marlborough, Otago and the west
coast. (According to Heather & Robertson
: , ‘… it is likely that some also
arrived naturally in …’). By , up to
individuals were established on the Rivers
Avon, Halswell and Heathcote, and within
years several thousand had colonised the
estuary of the Opawa River in Marlborough.
Between and the Otago Acclima-
tisation Society released a total of birds,
and in half-a-dozen were released by the
Southland Society. These liberations proved
Black Swan and chicks so successful that the birds soon spread
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Naturalised Birds of the World
throughout South Island from Stewart Island centuries previously of the native New
and the west coast sounds to Cook Strait. Zealand Swan C. sumnerensis.
Black Swans were first introduced to North
Island in (Buller ) or (Thomson Impact: Buller (), Drummond (),
), when the Auckland Society released and Oliver (, ) were agreed that
four; by around their progress was said to aggressive Black Swans were having a negative
be abundant on the Kaipara River and impact on native Pacific Ducks Anas
Kaipara Flats. Drummond () said that superciliosa by harrying them and competing
Black Swans then occurred in thousands with them for food: Oliver (, ) adds
in many parts of New Zealand from the that Black Swans harass the native Purple
far north to the extreme south: they were Swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio. They were,
abundant on the Chatham Islands before however, at least partially successful in
(Thomson ) and by the following decade reducing watercress beds in the Avon River.
they were widely distributed on both the In the early twentieth century Black Swans
main islands. were a considerable agricultural pest, grazing
The largest and most important breeding and fouling grass and clover pastures and
site for Black Swans in New Zealand is Lake eating arable crops such as peas and grain
Ellesmere, southwest of Christchurch. From (Heather & Robertson ). On the other
the early s to the mid-s, when the na- hand, the population on Lake Ellesmere has
tional flock numbered around , birds been a commercially important natural
(Heather & Robertson ), between , resource, providing both food and sport.
and , birds lived on Lake Ellesmere. Black Swans in New Zealand have been
Thereafter, for a variety of reasons, the popu- controlled mainly by shooting (especially of
lation declined, and by had reached a flightless moulting birds) and by pricking
nadir of only some ,. Since then it has their eggs.
recovered; Scott () estimated the country-
wide population at around ,, while
Heather & Robertson () judged it in
to be ,, of which , were on Mute Swan
Chatham Island. Druett (: ) claimed Cygnus olor
that ‘Today Lake Ellesmere has a black swan
population in excess of seventy thousand Natural Range: From temperate Europe to C
birds’ – the approximate total two decades Asia, wintering in N Africa and India.
previously. Naturalised Range: Europe: British Isles;
Heather & Robertson (: ) say that continental Europe. Asia: Japan. Africa:
today the largest numbers of Black Swans in ?South Africa. North America: Canada;
New Zealand occur ‘… on large lowland or USA. Australasia: Australia; New Zealand.
coastal lakes and lagoons and on some estuar-
ies, especially Kaipara Harbour, the lower B I
Waikato valley, Hawke’s Bay, Lake Wairarapa, The precise status of the Mute Swan in the
Farewell Spit, Lake Ellesmere, coastal Otago British Isles (and in continental Europe) is
and Southland, and Te Whanga Lagoon equivocal. In England, where it was a native
(Chatham Island). Good numbers are also of parts of East Anglia (Cambridgeshire,
found on some inland lakes such as those Huntingdonshire, Lincolnshire, Norfolk and
in the Rotorua district, Lake Taupo and Suffolk) it became semi-domesticated before
Ashburton Lakes’. , but began to revert to the wild
Williams () attributed the success of again during the seventeenth or eighteenth
Cygnus atratus in New Zealand at least centuries. Mute Swans are now widespread
partially to the presence of an ecological niche throughout the British Isles; the population
left vacant after the extinction several numbers around , (Blair et al. ).
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:35 PM Page 77
Anatidae (Ducks, Geese and Swans)
C E occurred in the Rhone–Alps region since
To a lesser extent, Mute Swans also became the nineteenth century, when they were
semi-domesticated in continental Europe, introduced for ornamental reasons (Michelot
where according to Madge & Burn (: ). Mute Swans released in Almeria in
), ‘all populations [are] now more or less of have probably been responsible for records
domestic origin’. In Austria, for example, the across southern Spain; others breed mainly in
present population of – breeding pairs, eastern Spain (J. Clavell in Martí & del Moral
which is increasing, originates partially from , E. F. J. Garcia pers. comm. ).
reversions to the wild of the s. The
small but increasing population in Croatia is Impact: In the British Isles and in mainland
believed to be derived from the natural spread Europe Mute Swans kill adult and
of birds from Hungary. In Finland, Mute young waterbirds (especially geese), but by
Swans reverted to the wild in the Åland uprooting deeply submerged vegetation they
Islands in (Jensen ). In France, where provide an additional source of food for
the current population numbers ,, of dabbling ducks. Through nesting close to
which , are breeding pairs, feral Mute Mute Swans, Great Crested Grebes Podiceps
Swans were established around Paris as early cristatus and Common Coots Fulica atra gain
as the late seventeenth century. In Germany, protection against potential predators from
twentieth- century reversions and natural their strongly territorial neighbours. The only
spread account for a breeding population of reported hybridisation in the wild by Mute
over , pairs (Blair et al. ). In Greece, Swans has been with Whooper Swans
where Mute Swans are said by Madge & Burn C. cygnus in Sweden. In France, habitat dam-
() to have been domesticated in ancient age and eutrophication caused by Mute Swans
times, the current small population derives adversely affects breeding colonies of Black
from more recent reversions. The population Terns Chlidonias niger (Blair et al. ).
of around in northern Italy (e.g. In the British Isles and in Europe, some
Piemonte), where Mute Swans are said to damage is caused by Mute Swans overgrazing
have been originally domesticated by the
Romans (Madge & Burn ), is descended
from reversions mainly since the s, and is
slowly spreading south (Baccetti et al. ,
Bertolino ). First reversions in Latvia,
where the population is currently , in
winter, with breeding pairs, took place in
. Reversions in Luxembourg occurred
prior to and the present stable breeding
population is around – breeding pairs
with birds in winter. Reversions in
Switzerland took place before , and Mute
Swans have since colonised all suitable waters,
where between and pairs now breed
annually, and where in winter the population
reaches some , birds (Blair et al. ).
Williamson () records the successful
importation in about of Mute Swans to
Tørshavn and Vágur on Sudurey in
the Danish Faeroe Islands. Nummi ()
and Nummi & Pienmunne () record
the successful importation of Mute Swans
to Norway and Sweden. Mute Swans have Mute Swan
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Naturalised Birds of the World
water-meadows and trampling and grazing the United States breed locally in Canada in
new-sown leys and winter wheat. southern British Columbia and southern
Ontario, and formerly in southern Saskat-
J chewan (AOU ).
In , seven Mute Swans escaped from
Onuma Park on southwestern Hokkaido, and U S
in the following year began breeding at Mute Swans were first released in the United
Utonai-ko, where by a population of States, in the state of New York, in the late
birds, including breeding pairs, had nineteenth century. In and a total of
become established. The species seems to be birds was imported from Europe, and by
continuing to expand slowly on Hokkaido, a number had escaped from captivity
where it has been recorded at Miya-numa, and had become established on the Lower
Taiki in Tokachi district and Ibaraki-ken. Hudson River and on Long Island, New York.
Elsewhere, around Mute Swans breed on In some birds were released at Oakdale
Koya-ike, Itami, near Osaka on Honshu, and on Long Island, where by the population
pairs with cygnets are frequently recorded at numbered around .
Yunoko, Nikko in Tochigi-ken. The dispersal A herd near Akron, Ohio, which was
of cygnets from such breeding sites wing-clipped annually from to , was
may account for the large populations on allowed to fly free in the latter year. By
Ibaraki-ken and Osaka. Pairs have also been Mute Swans had established themselves along
widely introduced on Honshu (Brazil ). much of the northern coast of New Jersey,
Today, Mute Swans occur on marshes where by the population had increased to
and rivers in southwestern and southern . On Rhode Island, Mute Swans were well
Hokkaido, and on moats and lakes in major established by the early s (Allin et al.
cities on Honshu and on lakes in Ibaraki-ken ).
and Osaka. The total population numbers From the above states Mute Swans soon
around birds (Brazil , ). dispersed to much of the eastern United
According to Blair et al. (), the popu- States. The AOU (: ) lists the species
lation may be augmented by vagrants from as breeding locally ‘… from northern
Mongolia or Ussuri. Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, northern
Michigan … central and south-eastern New
Impact: Mute Swans in Japan have been York, and southern New England (east to
accused of overgrazing vegetation and of Cape Cod), south to central Missouri, central
competing for food with native Whooper Illinois, northern Indiana, northwestern Ohio
Swans C. cygnus and Tundra (or Bewick’s) and Virginia, also in southern Alabama’. This
Swans C. columbianus bewickii, but the range includes Maine, Maryland, and Con-
evidence is scant. necticut (Conover & Kania ). Johnston
& Garrett () claim that C. olor was
S A successfully introduced to Oregon on the west
From the s to the s a herd of between coast where, however, it would seem it no
and Mute Swans was established near longer occurs. Robbins () indicates that
Humansdorp at the mouth of the Krom River wherever it is found the species is increasing.
(Siegfried ), but eventually died out. In
, some escaped birds formed a small Impact: Expanding populations of Mute
population at Marina da Gamba in Western Swans can have a detrimental effect on native
Province (Blair et al. ), where some are biota. Their consumption of large quantities
believed to survive. of aquatic vegetation such as Potamogeton and
its associated macro-invertebrate community
C and their aggression towards other waterfowl
Mute Swans that presumably dispersed from is of major concern (Allin et al. , Conover
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:35 PM Page 79
Anatidae (Ducks, Geese and Swans)
& Kania , ). The latter include Ellesmere. Some live in a semi-feral state in
wintering Trumpeter Swans C. buccinator and many town parks, such as Virginia Lake,
Tundra (or Bewick’s) Swans C. columbianus. Wanganui … c. in the wild in the s,
c. in Hawke’s Bay, the rest in Canterbury’.
A
The earliest recorded introduction of Mute
Swans to Australia was in , when four
were acquired by the Melbourne Botanical Egyptian Goose
Gardens, which a decade later placed a pair of Alopochen aegyptiaca
their offspring on Phillip Island. In
three pairs were landed at Perth in Western Natural Range: Sub-Saharan Africa. Formerly
Australia, and were the ancestors of the small SE Europe.
breeding population that became established Naturalised Range: Europe: Belgium; British
at Northam on the Avon River. Semi-wild Isles; ?France; Germany; Italy; The Nether-
populations have occurred since before lands; ?Romania. Asia: ?Israel; UAE.
on a number of ornamental waters and on
some rivers in the extreme south-west of E
Western Australia. Elsewhere, Mute Swans Until the late seventeenth century (Venema
have occurred in the wild in southeastern ) or early eighteenth century (Blair et al.
Queensland, near Sydney in New South ) the Egyptian Goose was a regular
Wales, and in Tasmania (Tarr ), but they breeder in the Danube Valley from southern
are at best only tenuously established in Hungary downriver through Voyvodina to
Australia and show no signs of spreading Romania.
(Blair et al. ). Barrett et al. () list a
single recent record in Western Australia. B
In some Egyptian Geese escaped from
Impact: Wherever the two species come into the Royal Gardens near Brussels (Devillers
contact in Western Australia, Mute Swans are ), and within years a population
said to compete with native Black Swans C. numbering between and pairs had
atratus, to the latter’s disadvantage. become established, principally in the vicinity
of Brussels and central Flanders (Anselin &
N Z Devos ). The present population of
The first Mute Swans in New Zealand were a around birds (excluding Wallonia, which
pair imported by the Canterbury Acclimatisa- comprises southern and eastern Belgium and
tion Society (see Lever ) in and some neighbouring parts of France) includes at least
landed at Christchurch in the same year. breeding pairs (only ten of which
These were followed by introductions are in Wallonia). Although there is plenty of
between and to Auckland, Dunedin apparently suitable riverine habitat, flooded
and Otago. Although Thomson () found gravel pits are the most favoured nesting sites
Mute Swans to be abundant in New Zealand, (Blair et al. ).
Oliver () reported only a few small
scattered populations. Falla et al. () found B I
a well-established breeding population of Egyptian Geese, some of which were im-
– on Lake Ellesmere, Canterbury, and ported from Africa (Venema ), were first
between and on Lake Poukawa, introduced to England in the late seventeenth
Wanstead Lagoon, and other waters in central century, when they were in the collection
and southern Hawke’s Bay. Heather & of Charles II in St James’s Park in London.
Robertson (: ) say the species ‘main- During the nineteenth century full-winged
tains a tenuous hold in the wild on wetlands birds became increasingly common on private
in Hawke’s Bay, North Canterbury and Lake estates, mostly in southern and eastern
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:35 PM Page 80
Naturalised Birds of the World
England (mainly Norfolk), from where some Blair et al. () estimated the population
dispersed to establish other colonies elsewhere of Egyptian Geese in (southern) England to
(Fitter ). Northwest Norfolk, especially number adults, while Rowell et al. ()
between Holkham and Beeston, and to in the same year () found a total of only
a lesser extent the Bure Valley and the at sites, of which were in Norfolk
Broadland area of northeast Norfolk, are where birds (% of the total) were
today the species’ principal strongholds in counted. In Suffolk were found at seven
England. Egyptian Geese are, however, sites. The species has bred successfully
spreading slowly south and west through the in both counties and on the River
Breckland region of Suffolk, and breeding in Thames in Berkshire. Elsewhere, Rowell
Essex was first recorded in , in Somerset et al. () recorded Egyptian Geese in
in , and in Cambridgeshire in Buckinghamshire, Surrey, Greater London,
(Venema ). Greater Manchester, Hampshire, Merseyside,
Sutherland & Allport () estimated the Essex, Nottinghamshire, North Yorkshire
British population in to number and Cornwall. Estimates of the number of
adults. Within three years the figure had more breeding pairs also varies widely: Ogilvie
than doubled to (Delany ), % of & RBBP (–) received reports of
which were in Norfolk, with the balance at least pairs in , (), and
occurring in Berkshire, Cambridgeshire, (), whereas Blair et al. () give a total
Cleveland, Gloucestershire, Greater London, of some breeding pairs.
Hampshire, Leicestershire and Somerset, al- The failure of Egyptian Geese to spread
though away from Norfolk breeding was only more rapidly in England suggests that
recorded on Rutland Water in Leicestershire climatic conditions may be merging on
and at Lower Basildon on the Thames in Berk- marginal; in The Netherlands, where range
shire. Between and Ogilvie & RBBP expansion has been much quicker, spring and
(–) received reports of breeding Egyp- summer temperatures are on average some
tian Geese in Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, oC higher than in eastern England (Blair et
Essex, Greater Manchester, Hertfordshire, al. ). Goslings, which usually hatch
Leicestershire, Norfolk, Northumberland, in early spring when the weather can be
Nottinghamshire, Suffolk and Surrey. cold and wet, are preyed on in Britain
Egyptian Geese
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Anatidae (Ducks, Geese and Swans)
by Carrion Crows Corvus corone and other colonisation of many new localities (Lensink
predators. b). Blair et al. () said the total
Dutch winter population was believed to
F exceed , individuals, with perhaps ,
Blair et al. () refer to a population of breeding pairs.
Egyptian Geese in northeast France where, The population of Egyptian Geese in The
however, they say (p.) that the species ‘is Netherlands is expanding rapidly, due at
classed as a rare breeder’. least in part to the vast network of drainage
channels, many of which are bordered by trees
G and scrub which provide shelter and cover.
Although Gebhardt () claims that Egypt-
ian Geese were first introduced to Germany in R
the eighteenth century, Blair et al. () say ‘There are a few records … but with low
the first birds crossed the border from coverage and ample ideal habitat, it would
Holland along the Rivers Rhine and Eems scarcely be surprising if [the Egyptian Goose]
(Lensink ) into Nordhein-Westfalen in has not already recolonised part of its original
the s, when the core population European range’ (Blair et al. : ).
comprised perhaps breeding pairs. The
present total German population is between European Impact: The Egyptian Goose is not
, and , birds, including – yet sufficiently numerous in its naturalised
breeding pairs spread thinly over six Länder British or European range for any possible
(provinces), which suggests that the popula- ecological impact to be assessed. In parts of its
tion has been augmented by more recent natural African range it is regarded as a
escapes or releases. Blair et al. () believe it considerable pest of arable crops. It shares the
is only a matter of time before birds reach same habitat preferences with Mallards Anas
southern Germany and the upper Danube, platyrhynchos and Common Coots Fulica atra,
which from Ulm eastwards has extensive with which it might compete. In South Africa
patches of apparently suitable habitat. and Namibia it has hybridised with native
South African Shelducks Tadorna cana,
I though whether the offspring are viable is
Some migrant Egyptian Geese appear to unknown (Blair et al. ). E. F. J. Garcia
winter in parts of Italy (Blair et al. ). (pers. comm. ) has seen hybrids with
Canada Geese Branta canadensis at Rutland
T N Water, England.
Naturalised Egyptian Geese in The Nether- Blair et al. () consider that Egyptian
lands date from about , when six birds Geese will probably have expanded their
escaped from a park at Rijswijk: at about the European range, especially in Germany and
same time a pair escaped from the Wassenaar France, by , when the population will
Zoo, and these birds were the origin of the probably exceed ,. If, say by ,
population that became established between populations have become established in
Den Haag and Leiden, where breeding Austria, Hungary, and Switzerland, the appar-
began in . Other birds probably escaped ently migrant wintering population in Italy
elsewhere in Zuid Holland, and those in could rapidly increase, and the likelihood of a
Gelderland, Noord Holland and Friesland are spread to its former natural range along the
also likely to be descended from escaped birds Danube and into the side valleys south of
(Eikhoudt ), as are birds occurring since Hungary (e.g. in Croatia) seems probable.
in Drenthe (Lensink ).
Lensink (a) estimated the number of I
breeding pairs in – at between ‘Wild-living birds have been seen near
and , and by at –, after the zoological centres and at fishponds from
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:35 PM Page 82
Naturalised Birds of the World
onwards. Breeding is suspected’ (Blair et al. B
: ). Present since the s, the species reached a
maximum population of around birds but
U A E has since declined to about eight; occasional
A slowly increasing population of Egyptian breeding is believed to have occurred (Blair et
Geese was established from to at least al. ).
in at least three localities (Al Ain, Abu
Abyad Island and Sir Bani Yas Island wetlands B I
(Ain Al Fayda and adjacent islands)) and may Since the s there have been over
still occur in some numbers on fish ponds, records, with occasional breeding of one
drainage pits and tidal mudflats (Blair to two pairs (Blair et al. ) including in
et al. ). Richardson () said that Ireland (Hallman et al. ).
a census in revealed the presence
of around birds, while Blair et al. C R
() estimated an upper limit of Since the s there have been intermittent
breeding pairs from a total population of . records, but recently a small but apparently
Richardson () said that Egyptian Geese stable population seems to have become
are seen regularly at Abu Dhabi’s Western established near Prague zoo, possibly
Road Lagoons, where they are probably now augmented by periodic escapes. Successful
self-maintaining. breeding has yet to be confirmed (Blair et al.
).
F
Ruddy Shelduck The earliest record dates from the s, and
Tadorna ferruginea breeding has subsequently been recorded in
the national population of – birds.
Natural Range: SE Europe, NW and NE Recruitment from escapes is probably neces-
Africa and SW and C Asia; winters in S sary to maintain numbers (Blair et al. ).
Europe, N Africa, S and E Asia.
Naturalised Range: Europe: ?Austria; Belarus; G
?Belgium; ?British Isles; ?Czech Republic; Records of escapes date from the s;
?France; Germany; The Netherlands; between eight and ten pairs breed in most
?Poland; Switzerland; ?Ukraine. Asia: years, and the population and range seems to
?Israel. North America: Canada; USA. be slightly increasing. Schleswig-Holstein
has a sub-population of around birds,
Free-living Ruddy Shelducks occurring in the including between one and three breeding
wild in the following (and possibly other) pairs (Hallmann et al. , Blair et al. ).
European countries are mostly escapes from
captivity (Madge & Burn ). T N
In most years between seven and ten pairs
A (Hallmann et al. (: ) say seven pairs in
Those recorded on the River Inn are believed ‘with poor success’) breed on marshes and
to be natural immigrants (Blair et al. ). small still waters, but given that winter counts
have recorded up to individuals in the
B Dutch Delta the number of breeders may well
The first record of breeding in the wild by be higher (Blair et al. ).
escaped captive birds dates from , but
given the paucity of reporting breeding P
may well have occurred earlier (Blair et al. Between and Wroclaw Zoo deliber-
). ately released a number of captive-reared
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Anatidae (Ducks, Geese and Swans)
broods which formed a small population from Island and Vermont, and from New Jersey
which at least one pair bred successfully from south to Florida, but breeding has so far not
to . This population appears no been recorded (AOU ).
longer to exist, though some individuals may
have dispersed to settle elsewhere (Blair et al.
).
Muscovy Duck
S Cairina moschata
The existence of fragmented areas of open
montane forest may explain why Switzerland, Natural Range: From S Mexico to Peru and N
where the species was first recorded as Argentina.
breeding in , supports a population of Naturalised Range: Europe: ?Austria; British
– birds, of which between two and six Isles; ?Germany; ?The Netherlands; ?Spain.
pairs breed annually (Blair et al. ). Africa: ?Mauritania; ?Senegal; ?South Africa.
North America: USA; West Indies. South
Impact: On at least one occasion hybridisa- America: ?Chile. Atlantic Ocean: ?Azores;
tion in the wild with alien South African Canary Is. Indian Ocean: ?Madagascar.
Shelducks T. cana has been reported (Blair et
al. ). Muscovy Ducks were domesticated long
before the New World became known to
U Europeans, and in common with many long-
Ruddy Shelducks of captive origin have term domesticated birds the plumage of the
probably bred successfully in the wild forma domestica is predominantly white. It
on several occasions in the Ascania-Nova seems quite likely that the forma domestica
Reserve, where they have been present for was the first bird from the Americas to be
several decades (Blair et al. ). introduced to Europe, perhaps by the early
sixteenth century. Since then the species has
European Summary: ‘The European total been introduced as a domesticated bird
number [of breeding pairs] among escapes is virtually worldwide, but has been largely
significant in conservation terms …. Provided ignored in the wild by ornithologists, perhaps
captive rearing has not robbed it of its migra- because it is generally regarded as ‘farmyard
tory instinct, it should be able to … avoid poultry’. Some feral populations are, however,
persistent harsh weather in winter, … [and] believed to be of long standing, since
there is a reasonable chance that the species the Muscovy is both hardy and adaptable.
will establish itself in the wild in Europe by Because of the apparent prejudice against it,
’ (Blair et al. : ). This could be of there has been little study of feral Muscovy
some significance, given the decline in west- Ducks, and it is possible that the forma
ern wild populations (Madge & Burn ). domestica is the most widely distributed of the
world’s exotic waterbirds (Blair et al. ).
I The paucity of the following records (all taken
Since a number of birds of probably from Blair et al. except where indicated)
captive origin have been established on reflects the lack of interest in the species by
man-made waters near the Tel-Aviv zoo, most ornithologists. Most figures are likely to
where breeding has probably occurred on at be gross underestimates.
least one occasion (Blair et al. ).
A
C; U S Muscovy Ducks have occurred in the wild
Free-living escaped Ruddy Shelducks have since at least . There are at present –
been recorded in the wild in California, Iowa, breeding pairs from a population of over
Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Quebec, Rhode individuals.
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Naturalised Birds of the World
B I S A
From at least the early s a colony of up to It is believed that small numbers occur in the
Muscovy Ducks survived in the wild near wild and that the population may be slowly
Ely in Cambridgeshire. Between and increasing.
, Ogilvie & RBBP (–) recorded
successful breeding in Bedfordshire, Cam- U S
bridgeshire, Cheshire, Derbyshire, Devon, At an apparently unrecorded date
Dorset, Greater Manchester, Norfolk, North- Muscovy Ducks from Venezuela and Paraguay
umberland, Nottinghamshire, Suffolk and were released in various parts of Florida,
Surrey. In flocks of up to birds were where most, if not all, are believed to have
reported, and in the following year were fallen prey to Raccoons Procyon lotor (Bolen
counted on Lothing Lake and Oulton Broad ). Domestic birds are locally common on
in Norfolk; individuals were present at ponds in Florida (Robbins ), where they
Ely in and up to in . In , hybridise freely with forma domestica Mallards
Muscovy Ducks occurred in the wild on shal- Anas platyrhyncos (Robertson & Woolfenden
low lakes, drainage channels, village ponds ) and white farmyard ‘Pekin’ ducks, and
and reservoirs over much of northeastern, also occur in the wild in natural wetlands or
east-central, and southeastern England, where remote coastal areas (Stevenson & Anderson
around pairs bred annually from a total ). Muscovy Ducks have recently been
population of about (Blair et al. ). declining in Dade County (James ). They
Hybridisation with Mallard Anas platyrhyn- also occur as feral or vagrant birds on the Rio
chos and feral A. p. forma domestica is not Grande in Texas (Hidalgo, Starr, and Zapata
uncommon. Ogilvie & RBBP rightly say that Counties) (AOU ), where breeding was
Muscovy Ducks are not simply farmyard recorded in (Texas Ornithological
ducks and stress the need for full reporting. Society ) and in San Patricio and Live
Oak Counties of Texas, in the lower Rio
G Grande Valley. Individual feral birds are
The feral population, mostly from urban found widely throughout much of North
localities in Schleswig-Holstein, is believed to America (AOU , Sibley ), especially
be between and , of which there are in other Gulf Coast localities.
perhaps one to ten breeding pairs.
W I
T N Muscovy Ducks are ‘… established from feral
Muscovy Ducks have occurred in the wild stock in Cuba’ (AOU : ).
since at least ; Blair et al. () believe
the number of breeding pairs exceeds the five C
to ten given by Lensink (a). ‘Since this duck is frequently kept in captivity
in Chile the Chilean records [in Talca and
S Curico] may represent feral individuals or
J. Clavell (In Martí & del Moral ) records populations that have originated from
Muscovy Ducks in the wild in Catalonia. escapees, though deliberate introduction(s)
cannot be ruled out’ (Vuilleumier : ).
M
For several decades feral Muscovy Ducks have A
been present in Mauritania, but successful ‘Quite common as a farmyard duck, it is
breeding in the wild is unconfirmed. thought to live ferally on occasion’ (Blair et al.
: ).
S
A few birds have lived in the wild from time C I
to time, but breeding has not been confirmed. J. Clavell (in Martí & del Moral ) reports
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:35 PM Page 85
Anatidae (Ducks, Geese and Swans)
the presence of Muscovy Ducks in the wild on B
most islands and occasional breeding. The earliest record of Mandarins in Belgium
probably dates from before . Estimates of
M the current population vary considerably; a
Since the s Muscovy Ducks have lived national reckoning of only perhaps ten
ferally or at least in only loose association with scattered individuals does not match up with
man in Madagascar, where they have hybridised another estimate of a stable breeding pairs
freely with feral/hybrid domesticated Mallard in the Brussels area alone (Blair et al. ).
types Anas platyrhynchos forma domestica.
B I
Impact: Concern has been expressed that The earliest record of a Mandarin Duck
Muscovy Ducks and forma domestica Mallards in Britain dates from before . In the
will soon hybridise, if they have not already nineteenth and early twentieth century several
done so, with the rare endemic Meller’s Duck attempts were made to establish the species in
A.melleri in Madagascar. the wild in Britain, but the most successful
were only of short duration. In , however,
Summary: Summing up the global status of Jean Delacour obtained a consignment of
feral Muscovy Ducks, Blair et al. (: ) Mandarins from Hong Kong, from which he
said: ‘The Muscovy Duck occurs almost selected four or five pairs for his friend Alfred
everywhere, but is seemingly invisible during Ezra, who released them on his estate at
wildfowl counts!’ Foxwarren Park near Cobham, Surrey; here
Blair et al. () surmised that in the the birds bred successfully and dispersed
African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement area northwards into south Buckinghamshire and
alone the population of feral Muscovy Ducks southwestern Middlesex, and east and west to
may exceed ,, and appealed for studies northern Surrey and central Berkshire. Their
to be made of their biology and behaviour lest success is attributed primarily to the fact that
they eventually emerge as a pest species: their they were released into a near-ideal habitat
aggressive nature and bulk could enable them with, importantly, a profusion of nut-bearing
to dominate other waterbird species if large trees to provide an abundance of winter
numbers were ever to become established. feeding.
The largest and most important population
of free-flying Mandarins in Britain, which
is believed to be largely descended from
Mandarin Duck Ezra’s birds, is centred on Virginia Water in
Aix galericulata Windsor Great Park on the Surrey/Berkshire
border, from where by Mandarin were
Natural Range: SE Siberia, Korea, E China spreading to other waters both within and
and Japan: winters south of oN. outside the park.
Naturalised Range: Europe: Austria; Belgium; In , Ronald and Noel Stevens success-
British Isles; ?France; Germany; ?Italy; fully established a colony of free-flying
?Luxembourg; The Netherlands; Poland; Mandarins at Walcot Hall in Shropshire, and
?Romania; Sweden; Switzerland; ?Ukraine. since the Second World War other popula-
North America: United States. Atlantic tions have succeeded in becoming established
Ocean: ?Azores. in numerous places in England (especially in
the southeast, south-centre and parts of the
A Midland counties), and also in Scotland; on
Present since at least , Mandarins in the River Tay in Perthshire (where the
Austria had by reached a population of post-breeding population numbered about
– breeding pairs plus other individuals ), and since the s on the Eye Water in
(Blair et al. ). Berwickshire. In up to six pairs bred at
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Naturalised Birds of the World
two places in the Loch Eck area of Argyll, and the Middle Pleistocene when there is evidence
three pairs in Strathnairn in the Highland of the existence of suitable temperate oak
District. Since a population of between woodland. For fuller details see Harrison
and Mandarins has been established on (: –).
the Shimna River in County Down, Northern
Ireland (Ogilvie & RBBP ). F
In the British population was The earliest record of Mandarin in the wild
estimated to number over pairs; by the dates from , but little is known about
mid-s Sharrock () judged that it had the current population. One public garden
risen to – pairs; by the middle of the supports some full-winged birds, yet the
following decade it may have been as high as national population is said to number only
, pairs (Davies ) and by the early – individuals, of which about ten pairs
s it is believed to have exceeded , breed successfully (Blair et al. ).
individuals. By the mid-s Mandarins
were beginning to establish themselves G
in parts of Wales (Lever ). Because of The earliest records of free-flying Mandarin
their secretive nature it is likely that Mandarin Ducks in Germany date from around
populations are considerably under-recorded. (Gebhardt ) or (Blair et al. ).
Bones discovered in Cromerian forest beds The principal source was Berlin, where O.
in Norfolk, England, seem to refer to A. Heinroth supervised releases in the s in
galericulata, which indicates its presence in the central park (Großer Tiergarten) near the
zoo (Witt ), where the present popula-
tion of over birds is self-maintaining
(Blair et al. ). During the Second World
War this project was abandoned, but by the
s the Großer Tiergarten was recolonised,
and from here in the s Mandarins
started to disperse southwestwards, arriving in
Potsdam around (Witt ).
Recent estimates suggest that not only is
the Berlin population increasing, but that
from a total of –, birds between
and pairs breed successfully (Blair et al.
), although Witt () says that in
winter the population is a minimum of
only . The declining Schleswig-Holstein
population comprises only – birds, but it
seems possible that the extensive areas of
apparently suitable habitat between Berlin
and the Polish border will be more to the
Mandarins’ liking (Blair et al. ). Geissen
() refers to the occurrence of Mandarin
Ducks in Koblenz. Reports from other parts
of Germany suggest a national total of
– breeding pairs.
Impact: Although Gebhardt () lists the
Mandarin as among those exotics that
cause ecological damage in Germany, Witt
Mandarin Ducks () says that it does not compete with
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Anatidae (Ducks, Geese and Swans)
other species and that steps to reduce the Switzerland dates from ; the present
population would not be justified. population of about , from which –
pairs breed, is believed to be increasing (Blair
I et al. ).
Although first reported as long ago as the s
and since recorded in provinces, the present U
population is only a minimum of ten individ- Whether the small population established for
uals (mostly in winter) (Blair et al. ), the past two decades on the Ascania-Nova
and breeding has not been confirmed. Aix Reserve breeds successfully is unknown (Blair
galericulata is not mentioned by Bertolino et al. ).
(), and Baccetti et al. () confirms its
failure so far to become naturalised. European Summary: Mandarin Ducks in
Britain and Europe have lost the instinct to
L migrate, and have thus been able to become
About a dozen birds occur in spring in Lux- established in the wild without the distraction
embourg, and as-yet unconfirmed breeding of the need for migration. This loss of the
has probably taken place (Blair et al. ). migratory instinct has, however, been a factor
in inhibiting the species’ spread in Britain and
T N Europe, although in Britain and perhaps
Present since (Blair et al. ), Man- elsewhere there is a tendency to some seasonal
darin Ducks first bred in The Netherlands, in dispersal in autumn (Lever ).
coastal sand-dunes (an atypical habitat) near In recent years there does seem to have
the Hague, in the early s (Lensink ). been a decline in the Mandarin population in
In a pair nested along the eastern border parts of their British range; on Virginia Water
of the Veluwe, where subsequently a signifi- in Windsor Great Park in England, for
cant population became established; small example, where a few years ago flocks of
numbers of breeding birds are reported from a Mandarin in winter were not uncommon,
few other localities (Lensink ). Lensink now flocks seldom exceed – birds (pers.
(a) gave the – population at three obs.). This decline, if permanent and wide-
to eight breeding pairs, and that in – at spread, could be of serious conservation
– pairs. Blair et al. () say the current significance, since the British population
breeding population, which is increasing, alone still probably exceeds that in the whole
amounts to around pairs. of the Far East outside Japan. Fortunately,
recent information suggests that numbers
P in Europe are considerably higher than
According to Langley (), there is a previously recorded, and ringing would reveal
developing colony of Mandarins in Lazincki if, as suspected, part of this scattered popula-
Park in Warsaw. tion has reacquired the instinct to migrate,
and ‘by a truly vigorous and self-sustain-
R ing population may become evident in several
There are several records, but breeding is as new locations in Europe’ (Blair et al. ).
yet unconfirmed, though the species is poorly
recorded (Blair et al. ). U S
Before , when breeding was first
S recorded, a free-flying colony of Mandarin
Despite records since there is so far no Ducks was established by Lawton L Shurtleff
proof of breeding (Blair et al. ). and Richard A. Cuneo at Vineburg and
Walnut Creek on Indian Meadow Ranch in
S Sonoma County, north of San Francisco,
The earliest record of free-flying Mandarins in California. Here, within six kilometres of
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Calistoga, they share with the closely related M
and native Wood Duck A. sponsa an area of In the s a shifting population of fluctuat-
rough, rolling hills, heavily wooded with a ing size of feral or semi-feral domestic type
variety of oaks, Madrone Arbutus menziesii, Mallard has been reported in Mali (Blair et al.
alders (Alnus spp.), willows (Salix spp.) and ).
other species. Since the Mandarins are given
supplementary feeding throughout the year N
they cannot be regarded as fully naturalised Since up to ten breeding pairs of feral
(AOU ), and without such artificial hybrid-type Mallard have nested in the
feeding might not survive. In the Oanob artificial water storage dam in the
population of Mandarins in Sonoma County semi-desert area of central Namibia (Blair et
was estimated at around birds (L. L. al. ).
Shurtleff and R. A. Cuneo pers. comm. ,
Small , Shurtleff & Savage ). The S A
birds continue to survive in the Calistoga According to Siegfried (: ), ‘No definite
area today (AOU , Berner et al. , information exists concerning the status of
L. L. Shurtleff and R. A. Cuneo pers. the Mallard in Southern Africa. It is known,
comm. ). Their principal predator is the however, that an increasing number of water-
Largemouth Bass Micropterus salmoides, a fowl fanciers are keeping exotic waterfowl on
translocated game-fish (see Lever a), open waters and that at present live Mallards
which has taken a heavy toll of ducklings. are being freely offered for sale by dealers. It
may well be that the species has already
A succeeded in obtaining a foothold in the
Free-flying Mandarins may exist in the Azores, wild’. Blair et al. (: ) say that from
although survival is difficult because of the the original escapes ‘probably before ’ a
absence of suitable waters (Blair et al. ). population of perhaps , breeding pairs
has become established in various localities;
up to breeding pairs of feral hybrid type
Mallard have been recorded. Richardson et al.
Mallard (: ), quoting Cohen (), say that
Anas platyrhynchos Mallard are ‘apparently increasing locally in
abundance in South Africa’.
Natural Range: An Holarctic species, ranging
through Europe, Asia and N America; Impact: According to J. Vincent (pers. comm.
winters S to N Africa, India, and Mexico. ), ‘This is a species which is starting to be
Also Greenland and highlands of N and C of some concern in a few isolated localities. …
Mexico. it has cross-bred with the indigenous African
Naturalised Range: Asia: ?Saudi Arabia. Africa: Yellowbill (Anas undulata) … the offspring
?Mali; ?Namibia; South Africa. North are fertile’. Hybridisation has also occurred
America: West Indies. Australasia: Australia; between Mallard and African Black Ducks A.
New Zealand. Atlantic Ocean: Bermuda; sparsa.
?Falkland Is. Indian Ocean: Madagascar; Mallard in South Africa are controlled by
Mascarene Is. Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is; shooting and the use of chloral hydrate baits
?Lord Howe I; ?Macquarie I; ?Norfolk I. (the latter allow the freeing of non-target
species) and in some localities, such as the
S A Ramsar site on the Orange River, Mallard have
A colony of Mallard on sewage farm ponds been almost eradicated (Blair et al. ).
near Riyadh since is believed to be
descended from escaped or released captive W I
stock (Blair et al. ). The AOU (: ) says that Mallard are
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Anatidae (Ducks, Geese and Swans)
‘Introduced and established in the Virgin Is- many North American birds were imported
lands’, but provides no further details. Raffaele and large scale breeding and release
et al. () say that Mallard occur in the Virgin programmes took place. By the mid-s,
Islands (St Croix) only as vagrants, but that in Mallard were widespread and common on
a flock was introduced to Grand Cayman. both North and South Islands and on Stewart
Island, and occurred in small numbers on the
A Chatham Islands; they are also occasional va-
The first Mallard introduced to Australia grants on some more distant offshore islands,
were six that were released on Phillip Island, and may be breeding on Macquarie Island
Victoria, in . In – Mallard were where they were first recorded in (Gwynn
placed on a lake in the Melbourne Botanical ). Since then, Mallard have colonised the
Gardens, Victoria, where they hybridised with Chatham, Antipodes, Snares, Auckland and
the Pacific Black Duck Anas superciliosa Campbell Islands (Heather & Robertson
(formerly the Australian Black Duck), before ). The population, which disperses
all but disappearing around the turn of the widely, was estimated in to number about
century. five million and continued to grow until ,
Before Mallard were breeding in, and but has since declined to around three million
spreading from, ornamental waters around (Heather & Robertson ) In most settled
Perth in Western Australia, and eight years districts and on all lowland farms Mallard are
later they were established in several parks in the dominant New Zealand duck; only in the
the Metropolitan area. undeveloped back country, where no Mallard
Semi-domesticated Mallard now occur in were ever released, is the indigenous Pacific
numerous urban parks and gardens (especially Black Duck A. s. superciliosa more abundant.
in Sydney, New South Wales) and on
some farm dams and swamps, particularly in Impact: As in Australia, Mallard and Pacific
southeastern Australia. In the wild, small Black Ducks in New Zealand hybridise freely,
numbers are found in southeastern South the dominant genes of the former soon
Australia, in southern New South Wales north obliterating the latter’s characteristics to such
to southern Queensland, and in Tasmania an extent that in some areas the alien appears
(Barrett et al. ). to be replacing the native species (Sage ,
Rhymer et al. ). Mallard graze on
Impact: In Australia naturalised A. platyr- newly sown leys, and also eat grain, peas
hynchos x native A. superciliosa hybrids are and beans, and cause considerable damage
common, the dominant genes of the former by trampling growing crops (Heather &
soon obliterating the characteristics of the Robertson ).
latter. Mallard in Australia have lost their
instinct to migrate, and hybrids may not H I
survive as well as the native species which The status of Mallard in the Hawaiian Islands
disperses in times of drought. Hybridisation is equivocal. The AOU (: ) says they
also occurs when semi-domesticated Mallard- are ‘Introduced and established in the …
type birds are introduced to farm dams and Hawaiian Islands’, whereas Pratt et al. (:
swamps occupied by A. superciliosa (Scott ) say they ‘winter S to … occasionally the
, Weller ). main Hawaiian Is. … some of these breed in a
semiferal state on Kauai and Oahu’.
N Z
Table lists introductions by acclimatisation Impact: In the Hawaiian Islands hybridisation
societies of Mallard to New Zealand between with A. platyrhynchos threatens the survival of
and . Although most, if not all, the endemic Hawaiian Duck A. wyvilliana
of the early importations were made with (Griffin et al. ), classified as Vulnerable by
European stock, between about and the World Conservation Union.
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Macquarie, Lord Howe and readily hybridise (Jones ).
Norfolk Islands
Mallard have been recorded on Macquarie, B
Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands (Barrett et al. Free-flying Mallard in Bermuda are de-
). scended from domestic breeding stock
imported in the s and s from the
M UnitedStates. Locally bred captive birds
In the s, and probably in the first few escaped or were released, and colonised such
decades of the twentieth century, Mallard were waters as Spittal and Warwick Ponds, and
introduced to Madagascar by French colon- considerable numbers began breeding in the
ists, as also were domestic Mallard-type wild (D. B. Wingate and pers. comm.
ducks, and it seems likely that today there is a , AOU ). The species also occurs as an
shifting mixed population of feral and semi- uncommon vagrant (Raine ).
feral birds (Blair et al. ).
F I
Impact: Concern has been expressed that Since the s semi-domesticated Mallard
Mallard on Lake Alaotra may eventually have occurred in small numbers in the
hybridise, if they have not already done so, Falkland Islands (Navas ).
with the endemic and threatened Meller’s
Duck A. melleri (Blair et al. ). Impact Worldwide: Summing up the ecolog-
ical impact of Mallard around the world,
M I Callaghan & Kirby () and Simberloff
In Mallard were introduced to the () said that they will eventually reduce or
Tamarind Falls reservoir on Mauritius (Staub even eradicate the genotypes of Pacific Black
), where by the population had Duck A. s. superciliosa, American Black Duck
increased to around and was beginning to A. rubripes and Hawaiian Duck A. wyvilliana;
spread to other reservoirs and to lakes and in the longer term the Mexican Duck A. p.
marshland on the plateau (Jones ). diazi and the Mottled Duck A. fulvigula may
suffer the same fate. In addition to hybridis-
Impact: Staub () reported that Mallard ing, Mallard compete for food and nesting
had displaced the introduced Meller’s Ducks sites with native species, cause eutrophication
A. melleri on the Tamarind Falls reservoir, of water bodies and spread diseases.
although in captivity the two species do not
Introductions by acclimatisation societies of Mallard Anas platyrhynchos in New
Zealand, –.
Date Society Locality Number
– Otago Kakanui, Riverton, etc. +
Southland ?
, Auckland The Domain
, Canterbury Botanic Gardens
Wellington Masterton, Wairarapa
– Wellington Manawatu, Rangitikei, Wairarapa Several hundred
Taranaki ? ?
After Taranaki Lake Okareka Flock of became established
– Southland ? ,
– ? ? Large numbers from the USA
Wellington Manawatu, Rangitikei, etc. eggs and large numbers of birds
Sources : Thomson ; Oliver , .
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Anatidae (Ducks, Geese and Swans)
Meller’s Duck Naturalised Range: Europe: British Isles; The
Anas melleri Netherlands.
Natural Range: E Madagascar. B I
Naturalised Range: Indian Ocean: Mascarene Is. ‘It was first recorded as an escape in , and
as breeding in the wild [in Lincolnshire] in
M I . Sporadic breeding probably became
In about Meller’s Duck was introduced annual most years fairly soon after, and
to Mauritius where it is restricted to Pinton although around seven breeding pairs are
du Milieu and Valetta Lakes and rivers on the recorded most years, the total is very probably
high plateau, although in Madagascar it higher, simply because of the species’
occurs in fast-flowing streams down to low peripatetic nature and the low level of interest
elevations. On a number of occasions in the in introduced birds. Over individuals
s this population of up to birds has occur in winter counts’ (Blair et al. ).
been reinforced by others reared in captivity. Between and , Ogilvie & RBBP
It may well be at long-term risk through (–) received reports of successful
possible hybridisation with domestic variants breeding by Red-crested Pochards in
of Mallards A. platyrhynchos and Muscovy Essex, Gloucestershire, Greater Manchester,
Ducks Cairina moschata (Blair et al. ). Lincolnshire, Middlesex, Norfolk, Notting-
Since this is the only wild population of hamshire, Oxfordshire, Surrey, Sussex and
A. melleri outside Madagascar, it is of Wiltshire; the highest numbers of breeding
considerable conservation significance (Jones pairs were six in and , and seven in
). It is classified by the World Conserva- . ‘British nesting records probably all
tion Union as ‘Lower Risk, near threatened’. concern a population originating from
escapes, although continental birds are known
to visit’ (Berndt : ).
Northern Shoveler T N
Anas clypeata The status of N. rufina in The Netherlands as
a native species or an exotic is uncertain, but
Natural Range: Europe, Asia, and N America. the latter seems the more probable. The
Winters in N and E Africa, India, China, species was first recorded in , and between
and Mexico. that year and Lensink (, a)
Naturalised Range: Asia: Saudi Arabia. estimated the breeding population to number
– pairs. The current estimate of around
S A pairs (Lensink , a, Blair et al. )
Possibly since the s a small breeding represents a decline of some %, but this
population, believed to be derived from species is extremely secretive while nesting.
escapes, has been established on a sewage farm
pond near Riyadh (Blair et al. ).
Ruddy Duck
Oxyura jamaicensis
Red-crested Pochard
Netta rufina Natural Range: Canada, the USA and the
West Indies; winters S to N Mexico.
Natural Range: C and S Europe, SW and C Naturalised Range: Europe: British Isles; ?Aus-
Asia, wintering in S Europe, N and NE tria; ?Belgium; France; ?Iceland; ?Italy;
Africa, and S Asia. In Europe the range is ?The Netherlands; Spain; ?Sweden; ?Switz-
discontinuous. erland. Asia: ?Turkey. Africa: ?Morocco.
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Naturalised Birds of the World
B I counties of England, but there were also
Ruddy Ducks now established in the British major concentrations in Cheshire, Greater
Isles are the descendants of some that escaped Manchester, Yorkshire and Anglesey; the
from the then Wildfowl Trust’s reserve at species was also breeding regularly in Fife and
Slimbridge in Gloucestershire; the first two on Tayside in Scotland, with perhaps –
birds flew away in the winter of –, pairs nesting in Northern Ireland (Hughes
followed by about more in , and by ). The present Irish pre-breeding popula-
a total of some juveniles are believed tion in Ulster and Wexford (Langley )
to have escaped (Hudson ). Four juvenile numbers at least individuals including
males spent the winter of – on – breeding pairs, and both range and
Chew Valley Reservoir in Somerset, where in population are increasing.
– they were joined by some females During the past – years the Ruddy
and where the first wild brood was observed Duck has shown one of the most explosive
in (King ). increases in population and distribution
In Ruddy Ducks began to appear on of any bird in Britain (Hughes ). This
several waters in Staffordshire, where breeding has been due largely to the availability of an
on Gailey and Belvide Reservoirs took place abundance of suitable breeding habitats; little
in , and from where the birds began to if any competition from native species; the
extend their range. Up to the mid-s, fact that eggs and chicks have a high survival
however, breeding numbers in Somerset and rate; brood parasitism by some females; and
Gloucestershire remained low, the principal the ability to rear two broods per season
expansion in distribution and increase in (Hughes ). Flooding of nests and some
numbers taking place in the west Midlands, predation seem to be the species’ principal
where the birds spread to Shropshire (), controlling factors.
Cheshire (–), Worcestershire (), A remarkable aspect of the Ruddy Duck’s
Leicestershire (), Warwickshire () rapid colonisation of Britain has been
and Derbyshire (). In Ruddy Ducks the equally speedy development of a
bred for the first time in Northern Ireland largely nocturnal and regular migration
(Lough Neagh), and in in Wales (Isle of
Anglesey) and in Scotland. From three
known breeding pairs countrywide in
the number had increased to by
. Hudson () estimated the
post-breeding population at a minimum
of individuals, including – breeding
pairs; by the following year the totals had
risen to – and – respectively; the
total population increased to (),
– (), (), and , ()
(Vinicombe & Chandler ), an average
annual rate of increase since of some
%. An increase in mortality during the
severe winter of – was followed by a
rapid recovery of the population to , by
–; by some pairs were breeding
in Britain (Hughes & Grussu ). By
the total population was around , birds
(Hughes ).
In the early s the stronghold of Ruddy
Ducks in Britain remained in the Midland Ruddy Duck
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:35 PM Page 93
Anatidae (Ducks, Geese and Swans)
pattern, as in North America (cf. Canada T N
Geese Branta canadensis and Mandarin Ducks Present in small numbers since at least ;
Aix galericulata). Following the birds’ late for – and – Lensink (a)
summer moult Ruddy Duck leave Cheshire, records a maximum of two breeding pairs
Shropshire and other major population annually. However, around birds winter in
centres, and disperse to lakes and reservoirs The Netherlands annually, with the majority
in Staffordshire and parts of Somerset dispersing – probably back to Britain – in
(Avon). Unlike all other species of British spring.
wildfowl, Ruddy Ducks also have a
complete pre-breeding moult in early spring S
(Vinicombe ). The earliest occurrence of Ruddy Ducks in
Spain was in , and by the early s more
E than birds (excluding winter migrants but
Although many, if not most, records of Ruddy including O. jamaicensis x White-headed
Duck in the Western Palaearctic are due to Duck O. leucocephala hybrids) were resident.
natural dispersal from the thriving British A Onrubia and T Andrés (in Martí & del
population, some are undoubtedly a result Moral ) record breeding by pure pairs
of local releases and/or escapes. As it is and records from provinces.
impossible to differentiate between the two,
all are included in the following brief S
summary derived from Blair et al. () and Between and a total of birds was
Hughes (). recorded.
A S
Individuals have been recorded in the wild Between one and three birds are reported
since the late s. annually.
B T
First reported in the s, since when only First observed in the late s; a hybrid with
about three birds are recorded annually. O. leucocephala was reported in .
F M
Present in France since well before . Ruddy Ducks have occurred in small
There is now a population of at least , numbers (up to ) in Morocco since ,
including ten (perhaps many more) breeding where breeding was first recorded in and
pairs in the west on Lac Grand-Lieu (Langley where Ruddy Duck x White-headed Duck O.
). leucocephala hybrids have been observed since
.
I
First recorded in . There are now some Impact: Ruddy Duck control in Morocco is
– individuals; breeding occurred for the complicated by the presence of a further two
first time in . locally rare species (Red-knobbed Coot Fulica
cristata and Marbled Teal Marmaronetta
Impact: Local persecution of Slavonian angustirostris) which necessitates great care
Grebes Podiceps auritus has been observed in when culling.
Iceland.
Impact Worldwide: Concern has been
I expressed about the potential impact on the
First recorded in ; four individuals native White-headed Duck (classified as Vul-
currently occur in two provinces. nerable by the World Conservation Union)
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:35 PM Page 94
Naturalised Birds of the World
through hybridisation with the naturalised G
Ruddy Duck in Spain and elsewhere. The Since the s a mixed flock of escaped or
former species breeds in small numbers in released Greater Flamingos (some of which
Europe in Spain, Romania, Hungary, Turkey may be of the American subspecies roseus) and
and the former USSR; in Africa in Tunisia, Chilean Flamingos have bred successfully at
Morocco, and perhaps Algeria; and in Asia in Zwillbrocker Venn near the Dutch border.
China. Some third-generation hybrids have Among about birds some % are ruber
been recorded; first- and second-generation with up to six breeding pairs: there are –
hybrid back-crosses seem to be fertile and breeding pairs of chilensis. When the weather
dominant but too few third-generation is favourable breeding appears to be annual
hybrids have been studied for meaningful with occasional successful hybridisation. The
results. The literature on whether or not to role played by recruitment from further
attempt to eradicate Ruddy Ducks in the escapes in maintaining this apparently stable
Western Palaearctic (particularly in Britain, flock has not been ascertained (Gebhardt
which is the source of most Palaearctic birds) , Blair et al. ).
in order to protect the local Spanish and other
populations of White-headed Ducks is exten- T N
sive, and the following references are only a Flamingos (mainly chilensis) occur through-
selection from the past decade: Gantlett , out the year, most, if not all, being wanderers
Green , Department of the Environment, from the German population. Winter counts
European Wildlife Division , Hughes of over birds in the Dutch Delta and
, , Perennou , Persson & Ur- Ijsselmeer in some years suggest that the
diales , Storkersen , Hughes et al. European population of both species may be
, Avery , Goodwin , Hughes et much larger than realised (Blair et al. ).
al. , Lawson , Walton , Nummi In – Lensink (a) listed nine to
, Bear , Smout . The author breeding pairs of chilensis and one or two pairs
considers such proposed eradication entirely of ruber.
unjustified (see e.g. Smout ).
European Summary: Were the Chilean
Flamingo, which is a hardier species than
P. ruber, to become established in Europe in
less marginal habitats and conditions than
PHOENICOPTERIDAE those in Germany and The Netherlands, it is
(FLAMINGOS) likely to thrive when its numbers have reached
the critical figure to stimulate successful
Greater Flamingo reproduction, regardless of further recruit-
Phoenicopterus ruber ment (Blair et al. ).
Natural Range: Caribbean coasts of C and S U S
America and the West Indies; S Europe, C There are several deliberately released wild
Asia, NW India, and N, E and S Africa. mixed flocks of ruber and chilensis Flamingos
in the United States, the breeding
Chilean Flamingo status of which is uncertain. A flock of
Phoenicopterus chilensis deliberately introduced P. r. roseus, dating
perhaps from the s, was established in the
Natural Range: Peru and Uruguay to Tierra wild in Hialeah, Florida (Blake ), for
del Fuego. some years before apparently dispersing
back to its normal Caribbean range (Blair et
Naturalised Range: Europe: Germany; The al. ).
Netherlands. North America: USA.
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:35 PM Page 95
Ardeidae (Herons, Bitterns and Egrets)
THRESKIORNITHIDAE Future Trends: Blair et al. () considered
(IBISES AND SPOONBILLS) that Sacred Ibises will probably attempt to
establish colonies elsewhere in Europe (in-
Sacred Ibis cluding possibly the British Isles) before .
Threskiornis aethiopicus
Potential Impact: If it becomes widely estab-
Natural Range: Sub-Saharan Africa, Iraq, lished in Europe, the Sacred Ibis may cause
Aldabra I. and W Madagascar. damage to seedlings of winter wheat. Its
Naturalised Range: Europe: France; Italy; apparent dominance of heronries will have a
?Spain. Asia: ?UAE. Atlantic Ocean: Can- local impact on Grey Herons Ardea cinerea,
ary Is. Little Egrets Egretta garzetta, and Night
Herons Nycticorax nycticorax (Blair et al. ).
F
Sacred Ibises were accidentally and/or deliber- U A E
ately introduced at Golfe de Morbihan on the Richardson () recorded a free-flying popu-
coast of Brittany probably in the late s or lation of around based on al Ain zoo, with
early s. Initially the birds nested in occu- smaller numbers on Sir Bani Yas Island and
pied heronries, but as the number of Ibises perhaps elsewhere. Blair et al. () said that
grew the herons declined. For a time the Ibis between and up to ten pairs out of a
colony apparently stabilised at around population of birds bred in wetlands at al
breeding pairs, but after the establishment of Ain and on Sir Bani Yas Island (Ain al Fayda),
a further colony at Lac Grand Lieu near but that the species’ present status was un-
Nantes the total population in was esti- known.
mated at about birds, and by the
numbers had increased to over , individ- C I.
uals, with some breeding pairs. New J. Clavell (in Martí & del Moral ) says
colonies continue to be formed, based on that breeding has occurred in the Canaries
marshes, lake margins, and muddy coastal since .
regions. The species is likely to continue to in-
crease and spread in France (Blair et al. ).
Langley () recorded it in Morbihan in
Loire-Atlantique, Briere, and Grandlieu. ARDEIDAE
I (HERONS, BITTERNS AND
Since or a small population con- EGRETS)
taining around ten breeding pairs has been
established at Lake Fiume Sesia in northwest- Black-crowned Night Heron
ern Italy, where breeding first occurred in Nycticorax nycticorax
and where in the population numbered
. Sacred Ibises have been reported from five Natural Range: C and S Europe (and N
provinces and as probably nesting in most Africa) eastwards to E China and Japan,
years in mixed heronries in two provinces in Taiwan, the Sunda Is. and the Philippines;
the northwest and northeast, where the popu- winters in C Africa and SE Asia. Also from
lation may be slowly increasing (Baccetti et al. SE Canada to SW Peru, Chile, and SW Ar-
, Bertolino , Blair et al. ). gentina, and the Hawaiian and Falkland Is.
Naturalised Range: Europe: British Isles.
S
J. Clavell (in Martí & del Moral ) records B I
the presence of a wild colony in the grounds In some Black-crowned Night Herons of
of Barcelona zoo since . the North American race hoactli escaped from
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:35 PM Page 96
Naturalised Birds of the World
Edinburgh zoo in Scotland, where five months
later they were joined by the remainder of the
captive colony which had been established
since . Dorward () estimated the pop-
ulation in at , and by the early-s
Young & Duffy () judged it to be between
and . Since their escape the birds have
regularly nested within the zoo grounds,
where breeding has been recorded in every
month except August and September when
the adults are moulting. Insufficient food may
account for the high (perhaps % or more)
rate of fledgling mortality. Although the birds’
main source of food has been from within the
zoo grounds, some have flown up to –km
to feed on intertidal waters of the Firth of
Forth and on the River Almond (H. G. Young
and K. Duffy, pers. comm. , ).
In Ogilvie & RBBP () reported
the presence of at least birds in the zoo
grounds, including five to ten breeding pairs;
the total for the following year was estimated
to be individuals (Ogilvie & RBBP ).
Ogilvie & RBBP () were also informed
that a free-flying colony of up to Black-
crowned Night Herons of the nominate
European subspecies was established in Great
Witchingham Park in Norfolk. The birds in
Edinburgh zoo do not breed outside the zoo Cattle Egret
grounds, and both colonies are said to depend
on supplementary feeding. Edinburgh zoo is
apparently trying to reduce the number of its Naturalised Range: Indian Ocean: Chagos
free-flying birds. According to Blair et al. Archipelago; ?Mascarene Is.; Seychelles Is.
(), both the above colonies seem to be Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
stable or declining only slowly.
C A
In Captain Georges Lanier imported
Cattle Egrets from the Seychelles to the
Cattle Egret Chagos Archipelago to control insect pests
Bubulcus ibis (nine others may have been introduced two
years previously), and by a colony of
Natural Range: Originally only locally in SW nests had become established at Point Est on
Palaearctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental re- Diego Garcia (Bourne ).
gions, including parts of N and tropical
Africa, S Iberia, and SW Arabia sporad- Impact: If Cattle Egrets were to spread to other
ically E to S China and Japan, Taiwan and islands in the archipelago they might have a
E Malaysia. Since the late s (AOU negative impact on colonially nesting seabirds.
) the species has dramatically extended
its range naturally in the Western Hemi- M I
sphere (see Crosby , Lever ). Cattle Egrets may have been successfully
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:35 PM Page 97
Cathartidae (New World Vultures)
introduced to the island of Rodrigues (Roun- Egrets were introduced to the Hawaiian
tree et al. ). Islands in an attempt to control flies that were
damaging hides and causing lower weight
S I gains in cattle (Breese ).
It is possible that Cattle Egrets were originally
introduced to the Seychelles in the late nine-
teenth or early twentieth century. In ,
some were released on Frégate and Praslin
Islands to control insect pests, where they CATHARTIDAE
became well-established; they later spread to (NEW WORLD VULTURES)
other islands in the group and also to the
neighbouring Amirante Islands (Penny ). Turkey Vulture
Cathartes aura
Impact: On Frégate, Cattle Egrets prey on the
eggs and chicks of White Terns Gygis alba, Natural Range: From S Canada and the N
and may have affected the surviving popula- USA, S through C America to Patagonia
tion of the endemic Seychelles Magpie-robin and the Falkland Is.
Copsychus sechellarum, which is classified Naturalised Range: North America: West
as Critically Endangered by the World Indies.
Conservation Union. Other species, such as
Sooty Terns Sterna fuscata, have been attacked W I
on Bird Island (Feare ), and in the Amir- The status of the Turkey Vulture as a naturally
antes Cattle Egrets preyed on nesting seabirds occurring species or as an introduced exotic in
on Noeufs Island.
H I
In , Cattle Egrets from Florida (Rob-
bins ) were released on Kauai, Molokai,
Maui, Oahu, and Hawaii where the first
successful breeding occurred in the following
year. In a further Egrets were liberated
on Oahu, where a year later the population
was around (Thistle ). Pratt et al.
(: ) said that Cattle Egrets were ‘… now
abundant from Kauai to Hawaii. Rare visitor
to NW Hawaiian Is. and Johnston Atoll,
probably as strays from the main islands’. The
AOU (: ) records the species as ‘…
established on most of the larger Hawaiian
Islands, wandering to French Frigate Shoals
and Midway’.
Impact: On Oahu, Cattle Egrets feed on
Louisiana Red Crawfish Procambarus clarkii,
whose burrows cause flooding by undermin-
ing embankments and irrigation ditches
around taro and watercress paddies (Breese
). On Kauai, concern has been expressed
that they might displace nesting Red-footed
Boobies Sula sula in Kilanea Crater. Cattle Turkey Vulture
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Naturalised Birds of the World
parts of the West Indies is equivocal. Accord- and established on Puerto Rico. All three
ing to Wetmore (), birds of the nominate authorities treat C. aura as a native or natural
subspecies (southern Canada to Costa Rica colonist elsewhere in the West Indies.
and Cuba) are said to have been introduced
by Spanish government agencies from Cuba
to Puerto Rico in about , where they
become established in the southwest, but
increased only slowly. Wetmore () esti- FALCONIDAE
mated the population in at no more than (FALCONS AND CARACARAS)
; it had doubled a decade later. They occur
mainly in open country and near large towns, Chimango Caracara
probably as a result of the absence of Black Milvago chimango
Vultures Coragyps atratus which occupy these
habitats on the mainland. Natural Range: From Paraguay and Uruguay
Turkey Vultures may also have been to S Argentina, and from S Chile to Tierra
introduced to Hispaniola (after ) and, del Fuego.
according to Blake (), to Grand Bahama. Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Easter I.
According to Bond (: ) Turkey Vul-
tures were ‘introduced in Puerto Rico from E I
Cuba (about ), and only recently estab- In Chimango Caracaras (presumably of
lished in Hispaniola, where now known from the form C. m. temucoensis) were introduced
both the Dominican Republic and Haiti’. from mainland Chile to Easter Island in the
Raffaele et al. (: ) say ‘There is uncer- South Pacific, where Harrison () reported
tainty as to whether or not Turkey Vulture was that although they numbered no more than
introduced to … Hispaniola and Puerto Rico about they occurred over most of the
or extended its range naturally’. The AOU island, where their presence was confirmed by
() lists the species as introduced to Araya & Millie ().
Chimango Caracara
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:35 PM Page 99
Accipitridae (Secretary Bird, Osprey, Kites, Hawks and Eagles)
Impact: Harrison () found that on the neighbouring island of Moorea they
Chimango Caracaras were controlling the frequent marshland near Papetoai and the
populations of two other alien species, the central plateau. Throughout the Society Is-
Chilean Tinamou Nothoprocta perdicaria lands they hunt in a variety of habitats, in-
which had been introduced in , and the cluding bracken-covered hills, montane
House Sparrow Passer domesticus which forests, valleys, plantations, prairies, culti-
arrived from the Chilean mainland also in vated land around villages, and occasionally
. By preying on the young of colonially- on beaches and rocky reefs (Holyoak ).
nesting seabirds Caracaras have had a marked Holyoak and Thibault () traced the
effect on such species as the Red-tailed natural dispersal of Western Marsh Harriers
Tropicbird Phaethon rubricauda and the from Tahiti to other islands in Polynesia,
Kermadec Petrel Pterodroma neglecta. where between the early s and the early
Chimango Caracaras also feed on insects s they became established on Bora-Bora,
associated with the faeces of domestic Huahine, Maupiti, Raiatea, Tahaa, Tetiaroa
cattle Bos ‘taurus’ and domestic horses Equus and Tupai. Pratt et al. (), who give the
‘caballus’. However, they also probe their hides date of introduction to the Society Islands as
for ticks, causing damage which not only , say the species is common on Bora-Bora,
injures the animals but also reduces the Raiatea, Moorea, Tahiti and Tetiaroa.
commercial value of the hides (Johnson et al.
). Caracaras are, however, efficient and Impact: Although rats and mice remain the
useful scavengers. main constituents of Marsh Harriers’ diet in
the Society Islands, their predation is believed
to have at least contributed to the decline in
Polynesia of the Grey-green Fruit Dove
Ptilinopus purpuratus, the Pacific Imperial Pi-
ACCIPITRIDAE geon Ducula pacifica, the Polynesian Imperial
(SECRETARY BIRD, OSPREY, Pigeon D. aurorae, the White Tern Gygis alba,
the Blue Lorikeet Vini peruviana, the Spot-
KITES, HAWKS AND EAGLES) billed Duck Anas poecilorhyncha and the
Western Marsh Harrier
Circus aeruginosus
Natural Range: Europe, NW Africa and the
Middle East to C Asia, wintering in S
Europe, Africa, and S Asia.
Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Society Is.
(with natural dispersal from Tahiti to other
islands in Polynesia).
S I
In or Western Marsh Harriers were
introduced by the German Consul to control
rats on Tahiti in the Society Islands. In the
early s the population was said to be low,
but by the s was apparently increasing
and years later the species was said to be
abundant. On Tahiti, Marsh Harriers occur
mainly in the mountains below ,m and
on the plateau of the southwest coast, while Western Marsh Harrier
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Long-billed Reed Warbler Acrocephalus caffer. by Oliver ), Wekas may have been first
Seitre & Seitre (), however, considered introduced to Macquarie Island in . The
that the possible extinction on Tahiti of earliest documented importation, however,
D. aurorae could be due, at least in part, to was made in by whalers and sealers who
hunting by man, while predation by Black released Stewart Island Wekas G. a. scotti as a
Rats Rattus rattus (see Lever ) is more source of food. More, believed to have been of
likely to be the principal cause of the decline the nominate subspecies, were introduced
of V. peruviana in the Society Islands and on between and .
Bora-Bora. According to Brothers & Skira (), from
whom much of the following is derived, most
Wekas on Macquarie Island occurred in tus-
sock grassland (Poa foliosa and Stilbocarpa
polaris) on the coastal terraces, especially in
RALLIDAE (RAILS, WATER- the northwest, covering an area of some sq
HENS AND COOTS) km above sea level. A few birds were discov-
ered in low coastal valleys up to m above
Weka sea level and one km inland, and a small num-
Gallirallus australis ber on the high plateau. Brothers & Skira
() estimated the population at up to .
Natural Range: New Zealand (North Is., Chick mortality of Wekas on the island
South Is., Stewart Is.). appears to be high, the main predators being
Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Chatham feral Cats Felis catus and Brown Skuas Sterco-
Is., Macquarie I. Open Bay, Motunui, rarius antarcticus lonnbergi, both of which also
Jacky Lee, Big Solander, Codfish, Kapiti occasionally kill adult Wekas; some eggs
and Kawau Is. may be taken by Black Rats. Although few
introduced Rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus are
C I eaten by Wekas, introduced House Mice Mus
According to Peters (), Wekas of the nom- musculus and Black Rats (see Lever ) may
inate subspecies (north and west South be important food items.
Island) were introduced to the Chatham The comparative scarcity of Wekas on
group, but he provides no date. Atkinson & Macquarie until at least the s has been
Bell (: ), who say that two races for- attributed to a combination of their own low
merly occurred on the islands, state that ‘The fecundity and predation by feral Cats. The
Weka now on Chatham and Pitt Islands population explosion that took place around
[south of Chatham] is the Buff Weka (Galli- is believed to have occurred following
rallus australis hectori) of eastern South Island, the introduction of Rabbits in –: the
which was introduced to the Chathams in rapid increase and spread of Rabbits provided
’. The birds have thrived in the Chatham an alternative and easier source of food for
Islands, where they became widely distributed. Cats, and the Wekas’ prospects were further
enhanced by the abundance of burrow-
Impact: Wekas, together with introduced feral nesting petrels and other birds as a readily
Cats Felis ‘catus’ and Black Rats Rattus rattus available food source. The Weka population
(see Lever ) may be jeopardizing the on Macquarie has tended to be highest when
survival of the endemic Chatham Island that of Rabbits is also greatest (both providing
Magenta Petrel Pterodroma magentae, listed by an easily accessible food for Cats) and in
the World Conservation Union as Critically habitats inimical to both mammals. Thus,
Endangered. wherever there are few Rabbits, predation on
Wekas by Cats is intensified. The introduc-
M I tion to Macquarie in of the European
According to Sir Walter Lowry Buller (quoted Rabbit Flea Spilopsyllus cuniculi as a vector of
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:35 PM Page 101
Rallidae (Rails, Waterhens and Coots)
myxomatosis was followed by a decline in
the Rabbit population and a corresponding
increase in predation by Cats on Wekas, which
Brothers & Skira () reported to be then
rare throughout the island.
Impact: Although Brothers & Skira (:
) claim that ‘the presence of Wekas on
Macquarie Island for over a century has had a
disastrous effect on the native fauna’, it is hard
to determine the individual roles played by
Wekas, Rats and Cats in exterminating
between and the endemic ground-
nesting Red-fronted Parakeet Cyanoramphus Weka
novaezeelandiae erythrotis and, by ,
the endemic race of the Buff-banded Rail islands. By the late s, Fairy Prions had
Gallirallus philippensis macquariensis, and in considerably declined, allegedly due to
extirpating from the main island such predation of their chicks by Wekas, and
burrow-nesting species as the Blue Petrel Blackburn () reported heavy Weka preda-
Halobaena caerulea, Grey Petrel Procellaria tion of Mottled Petrels Pterodroma inexpectata
cinerea and Common Diving Petrel Pele- on Codfish Island, where they are presumed
canoides urinatrix, all of which breed on to have been responsible for the earlier
nearby terrestrial predator-free islets. Most eradication of a large colony of Cook’s Petrels
reports tend to implicate Cats as the prime P. cookii. Miller () says that the decline in
culprits, although Wekas do prey at times on numbers and distribution of the endemic
Sooty Shearwaters Puffinus griseus and White- Open Bay Islands Leech Hirudobdella
headed Petrels Pterodroma lessoni; Antarctic antipodum may be due to predation by intro-
Prions Pachyptila desolata became restricted to duced Wekas.
the high plateau herbfield on Macquarie
where Wekas are rare. (See also Cooper ).
Open Bay, Motunui, Jacky Lee, Purple Swamphen
Big Solander, Codfish, Kapiti Porphyrio porphyrio
and Kawau Islands
In the early s, Wekas from Stewart Island Natural Range: From SW Europe, NW Africa,
(G. a. scotti) were successfully introduced as a and sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar,
source of food for sealers and ‘mutton-birders’ eastwards to Thailand, Indochina and
(hunters of ‘mutton birds’: Short-tailed Shear- Yunnan. Also occurs on numerous Indone-
waters Puffinus tenuirostris) to all the above sian islands, the Philippines, New Guinea
offshore islands of New Zealand (Atkinson & and its associated islands, Australia, New
Bell ). Oliver records that G. a. hectori Zealand and many Pacific islands.
(eastern South Island) is believed to have been Naturalised Range: North America: USA.
successfully introduced by Sir George Grey
(then Governor of New Zealand) to Kawau U S
Island in Hauraki Gulf in . Pranty et al. () have traced the origin,
current status, and distribution of the Purple
Impact: On all these islands Wekas have been Swamphen in the United States. The species
implicated in the predation of various was first reported, at Pembroke Pines in
burrow-nesting petrels, and also of the Buff- south-central Broward County, Florida, in
banded Rail, which is common on Weka-free (Pranty & Schnitzius ). Successful
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:35 PM Page 102
Naturalised Birds of the World
breeding was recorded in , and by early H I
the population numbered at least Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse of the Asian race
individuals. The birds are believed to be hindustan, or according to Berger () erlan-
confined to five shallow artificial wetlands, in geri from Saudi Arabia, were in released
what was formerly a part of the Everglades, for sporting purposes on Hawaii, Molokai
that have been planted with a variety of native and Kauai, but only survived on Hawaii.
trees and forbs. The population, which These plantings of birds were followed in
appears to be predominantly or solely P. p. by the liberation of a further at Ahu-
poliocephalus (India to Yunnan and the Malay moa, Puu Hualalai, Hale Laau and Pohakuloa
Peninsula), is believed to be derived from on Hawaii (Paton et al. ), where Bump &
escapes from local aviculturists. Bohl (: ) claimed the experiment was
‘the most successful to date’. Between
Potential Impact: Since Purple Swamphens in and the early s various authors described
Pembroke Pines seem to breed throughout the birds as having either disappeared or
the year, and rear two or even three broods as being, at best, established but rare. A. J.
annually, it might be expected that they will Berger (pers. comm. ) wrote that ‘a popu-
soon begin to expand their range outside lation estimated to be in the low hundreds [is]
suburban Pembroke Pines; Pranty et al. in the Waimea plains area of the island of
(), however, considered that Swamphens Hawaii’, where they occurred over an area of
were unlikely tocolonise native wetlands such more than sq km of pastures dominated
as the Everglades, which are favoured by na- by exotic herbs and grasses. Pratt et al. (:
tive Purple Gallinules P. martinica. On the ) said that Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse
other hand, in their native range Purple were ‘apparently established in the S Kohala
Swamphens have been known to disperse for District S and W of Waimea’, where Pratt
up to ,km so they have the potential to () confirmed the birds’ survival. The
colonise large parts of Florida. AOU (: ) says the species is ‘estab-
Although mainly vegetarians, in their native lished … [in the] North Kona district of
range Swamphens also eat molluscs, fish, Hawaii’. The birds’ principal limiting factor
lizards, frogs, snakes, birds’ eggs, nestlings and appears to be the generally lower temperatures
small adult birds; they also on occasion cause of Waimea compared with those in their
damage to grain and vegetable crops. No native range (Bump ).
interaction with native species or economic
damage has yet been reported in Florida.
COLUMBIDAE
(DOVES AND PIGEONS)
PTEROCLIDIDAE
(SANDGROUSE) Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon)
Columba livia
Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse
Pterocles exustus Natural Range: Originally confined to Palae-
arctic and Oriental regions, extending
Natural Range: Africa: from Senegal, Gambia S into parts of the Ethiopian region.
and Mauretania E to Sudan, Egypt (Nile Naturalised Range: The Rock Dove is the
Valley), Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya ancestor of the Feral Pigeon, which is now
and Tanzania. Also S and W Arabia, SE virtually cosmopolitan and whose distribu-
Iran, Pakistan, and India. tion is confused by extensions of range
Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is. through hybridisation with domestic stock.
The following are the better documented
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Columbidae (Doves and Pigeons)
accounts of the species’ introduction and In Finland, Feral Pigeons are descended
present naturalised status throughout the from courier birds introduced in the nine-
world. (See also Johnston & Janiga ). teenth century, which in the s established
wild populations in larger urban areas in the
Europe: British Isles; European mainland. south (Saari ). In about , Feral
Asia. Africa. North America: Canada; Pigeons were introduced to various parts of
Mexico; USA; West Indies. South America. Finnish Lapland (Alapulli ), where they
Australasia: Australia; New Zealand. Atlantic became permanently established only at
Ocean: Bermuda; Cape Verde Is; St Helena I; Rovanimi – the northerly sites of Pelhosen-
South Georgia I. Indian Ocean: Andaman nimi, Sodentyta, Ivalo and Kemijarvi being
and Nicobar Is; Comoro Is; Madagascar; occupied more briefly (the last-named until
Mascarene Is; Seychelles Is. Pacific Ocean: the First World War) – although stray courier
Easter I; Galápagos Is; Hawaiian Is; Juan Fer- or racing pigeons can be encountered almost
nandez I; Lord Howe I; Norfolk I; Polynesia. anywhere in Finnish Lapland. Today, Feral
Pigeons breed in all European countries,
B I where large cities may support populations in
Feral Pigeons in the British Isles are the excess of , birds and densities of
descendants of native Rock Doves that were breeding pairs or more per square kilometre
probably first captured and domesticated by (Saari ).
Neolithic man; some were subsequently
released or escaped when meat became more Impact: Large numbers of Feral Pigeons in
readily available through improved methods some European cities may well account for
of preservation and distribution. Exactly when the recent urban increase of such predators as
this occurred is unknown but by the the Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis and
late fourteenth century Feral Pigeons were Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus (Würfels
well established in London, and probably ).
elsewhere.
Wherever Rock Doves and Feral Pigeons A
have come into contact they have tended to In Asia, Feral Pigeons occur to at least oE.
interbreed, and since the twentieth century They are common in much of southeast Asia,
they have occasionally been joined by lost and are also found in Korea, Inner Mongolia,
racing pigeons. This interbreeding must have parts of China, Japan, Taiwan and Hainan. In
greatly influenced the genetic composition of Thailand, where they are believed to have
many wild populations, and while urban and been introduced many years ago from India,
inland rural colonies of Feral Pigeons are Feral Pigeons are widely established near
entirely descended from released or escaped human settlements. Populations in Korea,
domesticated stock, many coastal commun- Manchuria and on Honshu (Japan) are prob-
ities are composed of hybrids, with few pure ably descended almost exclusively from
Rock Doves remaining (Fitter ). escaped or released domestic birds, while
those elsewhere in China and in Mongolia
C E may include a mixture of Rock Dove stock. In
Rock Doves were domesticated in the eastern Malaysia, isolated populations occur in the
Mediterranean (perhaps first in Egypt) around Batu Caves north of Kuala Lumpur and in
. The history of their establishment Selangor, and since about in Singapore
on the European mainland is probably much (Goodwin ). In Japan, where the OSJ
the same as in the British Isles, starting () records the species in Hokkaido,
perhaps in the eleventh century (Saari ). Honshu, Sado, Shikoku, Kyushu and the
They are now widely distributed, mostly in Amami and Ryukyu Islands, Brazil () says
urban inland localities, at least as far north as that as early as it ranged from Hokkaido
oN in Norway. to the Nansei Shoto.
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Naturalised Birds of the World
A In the West Indies, Bond () recorded
Domesticated pigeons from Holland were Feral Pigeons in Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico,
first introduced to Cape Town, South Africa, St Croix, Trinidad and Antigua (and probably
in by the Governor, Jan van Riebeeck. elsewhere). Raffaele et al. (: ) found C.
Racing pigeons did not appear until the s, livia in the West Indies to be ‘common … in
when some were imported by the British for the northern Bahamas, Greater Antilles, the
carrying despatches during the Boer War. Virgin and Cayman Islands, and in most large
From both of these sources birds must from towns in the Lesser Antilles. It is semi-feral
time to time have escaped to the wild though, and may be entirely feral, locally, on Puerto
as elsewhere, when this took place is not Rico and perhaps on other islands’.
recorded. Feral Pigeons are expanding both In the western United States (e.g. in the
their population and range in South Africa Great Basin) and in high montane habitats
(Brooke et al. , Richardson et al. ). the Feral Pigeon population is low, but the
In other countries in southern Africa, Brooke species is present throughout the year, albeit
() traced populations of Feral Pigeons in at low density, in central Utah, southwestern
Angola, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Wyoming, southeastern Colorado, and central
Elsewhere on the continent, Feral Pigeons are montane New Mexico (Johnston & Garrett
found in northern Algeria, Morocco and ). In the Channel Islands of California C.
Tunisia in northwest Africa; in most of Egypt livia is only a transient visitor (Power ).
and the northern Sudan (northeast Africa); and Schorger () traced records of Feral
in west Africa in Benin, Chad, Ghana, Guinea, Pigeons in Wisconsin and Illinois in the late
Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Togo. s, and Spiker () recorded Rock Doves
Temperature appears unimportant in shap- nesting in the wild in Iowa. In some parts of
ing the distribution of Feral Pigeons in Africa, Colorado and Oregon, Feral Pigeons have
where they occur in the warmest and coolest reverted to living on cliffs away from man
regions; nor are they apparently affected by (James ).
the amount of precipitation or by drought. As In Canada, according to Marc Lescarbot,
commensals of man, their distribution seems quoted by Saunders (), ‘pigeons’ were first
to be almost entirely dependent only on the introduced to New France by Poutrincourt in
presence of human settlements that provide ; a few populations occur away from
food, shelter and nesting-sites (Brooke , human settlements, e.g. in parts of the
Richardson et al. ). Okanagan Valley in British Columbia.
In Mexico, Feral Pigeons occur in many
Impact: C. livia is known to interbreed in urban, and in some rural, habitats, but are
captivity with the Speckled Pigeon C. guinea. scarce or absent in Yucatán and Campeche
Hybridisation and competition for food and (Peterson & Chalif ).
nesting sites must be a possibility where the In parts of North America many thousands
two species coexist in southern Africa. of pigeons are still reared annually for homing
and racing, and some of those birds that fail to
C; M; U S; ‘home’ supplement the feral population each
W I year (Robbins ).
Domesticated pigeons were probably first
imported to the United States by early settlers Impact: In the United States, Feral Pigeons in
in (Schorger ), and their feral the Front Range in Colorado are a useful
descendants are today widely established in source of food to Peregrine Falcons Falco
close proximity to man throughout much of peregrinus that have been reintroduced to
North and Central America from the central their former range (Johnston & Garrett ).
parts of the Canadian provinces southwards
through Mexico, including Socorro Island S A
(AOU ), into Central America. Most large urban conurbations in South
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Columbidae (Doves and Pigeons)
America, especially those in the south, Port Jackson, New South Wales, in . They
support colonies of Feral Pigeons (Goodwin were sufficiently well-established on Rottnest
), whose range extends as far south as Island by to be polluting the water
Tierra del Fuego in Chile and Argentina. supply. In they occurred in Perth and
Those in towns and villages of the Peruvian Fremantle, and a decade later were recorded
Andes, and on the coast, are said to be on Garden Island and in various parts of the
descended from birds imported by the Span- Perth metropolitan district.
ish conquistadors in the sixteenth century. Today, Feral Pigeons occur mainly in
The subspecies introduced to Argentina is eastern Australia as far north as Queensland
the nominate C. l. livia from the western and south to Kangaroo Island, South
Mediterranean, central Europe and northern Australia (where they were first recorded in
Africa. ), southwestern Western Australia, and
In Chile, Feral Pigeons were not mentioned Tasmania (Barrett et al. ).
by Hellmayr (), though this may have
been because of their semi-‘domesticated’ N Z
status. Philippi () and Johnson () As in Australia, domestic pigeons were proba-
both refer to the species’ presence in the Juan bly introduced to New Zealand by the early
Fernandez Islands but say nothing about its settlers, perhaps in the s (Wodzicki ).
occurrence on the Chilean mainland. Araya By the mid-s Oliver () found Feral
& Millie (: ), however, state that Feral Pigeons in most urban and rural districts
Pigeons were then common ‘in parks and gar- throughout the country, and a decade later
dens of our cities’ but give no information on Wodzicki () reported them to be
distribution other than to say that wild-type common, though of restricted distribution,
birds occur on Masatierra (Juan Fernandez on both North and South Islands. Kinsky
Islands) and on the mainland at Vega del () found Feral Pigeons to be most
Chanaral. Sick (: ) said that Feral abundant in parts of Hawke’s Bay, Marlbor-
Pigeons occurred ‘in all towns’ throughout ough, Canterbury, Otago and in all principal
South America (all quoted by Vuilleumier cities. In some places, Feral Pigeons have
). reverted to their Rock Dove ancestors’ sea cliff
habitat (Falla et al. ). Feral Pigeons in
Impact: In some Bolivian cities, C. livia is New Zealand are described by Heather &
encroaching on the habitat of the native Eared Robertson (: ) as ‘widespread and
Dove Zenaida auriculata, on which it may be locally common’.
having a negative impact.
B
A Domestic pigeons were first introduced to
Domestic pigeons were probably originally Bermuda in the early eighteenth century.
introduced to Australia by the First Fleet in Feral birds nest on some of the island’s more
. The earliest recorded liberation was at precipitous coastal cliffs (Wingate , pers.
Cape Liptrap in Victoria before . Feral comm. ) and the species is now abundant
Pigeons are now established in many of the in the islands (Raine ).
larger urban areas and in some suburban
and rural ones over most of the continent Impact: It is believed that the large numbers
(especially in the east and southeast), and of Feral Pigeons breeding on Bermuda’s cliffs
according to Frith () occasionally well have caused White-tailed Tropicbirds Phaeton
away from human settlements – for example lepturus to abandon some of their ancestral
in the wheat-lands of Victoria. nesting sites (Raine ).
Long () traced the spread of Feral
Pigeons in Western Australia, where they were C V I
probably introduced by the early settlers from Escaped domestic pigeons are recorded as
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Naturalised Birds of the World
nesting on cliffs on São Nicolau and São C I
Thiago before (Moseley ). The birds’ Hawkins & Safford (in prep) consider that
survival is confirmed by Hazevoet (). Columba livia is not fully naturalised in the
archipelago, but occurs on all four islands,
S H with keepers in numerous villages and
The earliest report of domestic pigeons, intro- towns on Mayotte and Grand Comore; lesser
duced from Europe (Gosse ) and ‘several numbers occur on Moheli and Anjouan
parts of India’ (D. F. Navarrete in Cummins (Louette ).
: ), on the island of St Helena seems to
have been by Odoardo Lopez in M
(Hartwell ). They were recorded again in Feral Pigeons occur in settled localities
by J. C. van Neck (Commelin ), and throughout Madagascar (Morris & Hawkins
by various visitors to the island in the ).
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. By the
early nineteenth century, Feral Pigeons were M I
described as abundant on the island (Barnes Domesticated pigeons from Europe were
), and Mellis () found them to be probably first introduced to Mauritius
extremely common in both the wild and in about by the French East India
domestication. Carrier pigeons, kept by the Company, and were originally restricted to
military during the First World War, may the St Denis, Port Louis and Signal Mountain
have been released after the cessation of hos- regions (Meinertzhagen ). They now
tilities in (Haydock ). occur mainly in parks, gardens, cultivated
Rowlands et al. (: –), from land and urban areas (Jones ), but also in
whom the above references are derived, montane areas and on sea cliffs, e.g. at Corps
described Feral Pigeons on St Helena as: de Garde, Moka Range, Black River Gorges
and Souillac (Hawkins & Safford in prep).
… common throughout the island apart
On Rodrigues, where Feral Pigeons were
from the most arid and most thickly
introduced sometime between and ,
wooded parts. Population at least ,
they are present in most urbanised areas and
with the largest numbers found on pas-
tures, arable land and around settlements. also nest on cliffs at Cascade Victoire and
A roost has existed for at least a century at East Coast (Probst , Showler ). In
Heart Shape Waterfall in James Valley , Showler (: ) found them to be
and today contains s of birds … and ‘widespread but not common’.
s [roost] in the gorge leading to Pros- Feral Pigeons were well established on
perous Bay. … In abundant Réunion by the s (e.g. Maillard ),
throughout the island. and today occur on sea cliffs and in inland
ravines as well as in settled areas (Hawkins &
S G I Safford in prep).
Watson () reported the presence of Feral
Pigeons at the whaling station on South S I
Georgia in . Feral Pigeons are found on the granitic islands
of Mahé, Praslin, La Digue and Silhouette;
A N I their arrival may be fairly recent, since in the
Kloss () mentions an introduction of s they were known only on Frégate. On
domestic pigeons in to Car Nicobar, Mahé the population greatly increased during
where he saw numbers of them two years the s, from where if not controlled it is
later. Abdulali () says that Feral Pigeons likely to spread (Skerrett et al. ).
were established around Nancowry on
Camora Island in the Nicobars and also at E I
Port Blair on South Andaman. Domesticated pigeons are believed to have
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Columbidae (Doves and Pigeons)
been introduced to Easter Island in , Molokai (common); Kauai, Maui, and
the same year as the Chimango Caracara Hawaii (uncommon), and on Lanai (local and
Milvago chimango and House Sparrow Passer uncommon). Scott et al. (: ) say that
domesticus. Feral Pigeons ‘occur on all main islands and
are well established in many urban areas’; this
G I is confirmed by Pratt et al. () and the
Feral Pigeons were first recorded in the AOU ().
Galápagos Islands in or (Harmon et
al. ). They have been reported on all the J F I
inhabited islands – Santa Cruz, Isabela, San Domestic pigeons were possibly introduced to
Cristóbal and Floreana (C. A. Valle pers. the Juan Fernandez Islands by the first epony-
comm. ). Although the species is not mous colonist in . Philippi (: ) said
mentioned by Harris (), Swash & Still that Feral Pigeons occurred ‘al estado comple-
(: ) say that Feral Pigeons are ‘a fairly tamente silvestre en la isla de Masatierra (Juan
common, introduced resident occurring Fernandez)’, and their presence is confirmed
around human habitation’. by Johnson (), Sick (: who says
that only in Juan Fernandez in the South
Impact: In the Galápagos Islands (and American region has C. livia reverted to its
elsewhere) C. livia displays a high prevalence Rock Dove ancestors’ wild habitat), Araya &
of Trichomonas gallinae and some evidence Millie () and Jaramillo et al. ().
of cancer. The former is now found in the
endemic Galápagos Dove Zenaida galapa- N I; L H
goensis wherever Feral Pigeons occur (Harmon I
et al. ). According to Smithers & Disney (), a few
Feral Pigeons were established around build-
H I ings and in coastal caves on Norfolk Island.
Domesticated pigeons were first introduced They have also been observed on Lord Howe
to the Hawaiian Islands in (Schwartz & Island (Barrett et al. ).
Schwartz ). They were formerly abundant
on all islands except Kauai but in the early P
twentieth century the population declined as In eastern Polynesia, Feral Pigeons are estab-
a result of over-shooting, changing land- lished in the Cook, Society, Tubuai, Tuamotu,
usage: which lessened their feeding range, and Gambier and Marquesas groups and have
probably tapeworm infestation. Schwartz & been on Tahiti since the early nineteenth
Schwartz () estimated the total popula- century (Holyoak & Thibault ). In west-
tion at around ,, of which , (%) ern Polynesia, the Feral Pigeon ‘is not a recent
were on Hawaii, with about each on arrival, for it was certainly present soon after
Lanai and Molokai and on Oahu. The the turn of the [twentieth] century and there
birds roosted and nested throughout the year is evidence that it may have first arrived with
on sheltered coastal cliffs, in rocky gulches, missionaries as early as the s’ (Watling
and in collapsed lava tubes at up to ,m : ). In Fiji, Feral Pigeons became locally
elevation on the slopes of Mauna Kea on common on all the larger islands; they were
Hawaii. first noted in Samoa on Savaii in .
Peterson () found Feral Pigeons locally As elsewhere, Feral Pigeons in Polynesia are
on all the above islands and also on Midway, centred on towns and villages, especially in
,km to the northwest. The Hawaiian Fiji, though some, e.g. in the Marquesas, have
Audubon Society () recorded the presence reverted to nesting on coastal cliffs. Popula-
of Feral Pigeons also on Kauai and tions that seem to be least dependent on man
Maui, while Zeillemaker & Scott () occur in the Gambier archipelago and the
reported their occurrence on Oahu and Marquesas (Holyoak & Thibault ).
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Pratt et al. (: ) say of Feral Pigeons The reasons for the species’ dramatic range
in Polynesia that they ‘can be expected almost expansion have yet to be established.
anywhere in the Pacific, and have often been Naturalised Range: Asia: Bahrain; Qatar; China;
overlooked in the literature. Reported from Japan. North America: USA; West Indies.
Hawaii, Fiji, French Polynesia, Samoa, and
Micronesia’. B; Q
Eurasian Collared Doves have for many years
Impact: Where the two species occur together been imported as cage-birds from India and
in Polynesia, Holyoak & Thibault () Iran to Bahrain and Qatar, where some were
believed that Feral Pigeons may compete for released in the s and where the species
nesting-sites with the native Blue Noddy subsequently became established in the
Procelsterna cerulea. wild. Since then the population has greatly
increased, and S. decaocto is now one of the
Worldwide Impact: Research has shown that most numerous birds in Bahrain. Although the
pigeons (among other species) are responsible Eurasian Collared Doves’ invasion of Arabia
for the spread of a number of diseases, could be part of their natural range expansion,
including psittacosis or ornithosis, cryptococ- Hirschfeld & King () suggest that they
cal meningitis, histoplasmosis, toxoplasmosis may well have been introduced to Arabia,
and encephalitis, which are communicable to since early breeding records in Bahrain
humans. Pigeons also damage and deface coincide with reported releases.
buildings with their droppings, weaken mor-
tar by pecking at it for its lime content, block C
gutters, downpipes, and drains with nesting According to Stresemann & Nowak (),
material, reduce the yield of agricultural crops with whom Goodwin () agrees, S. de-
(especially grain), and compete with domestic caocto was transported by man from India to
fowl for food. In some places Feral Pigeons northern China, where it escaped and spread
have become a local hazard at airports. into Mongolia, Manchuria, and North and
South Korea. Vaurie (), however, considers
that the species arrived in northeastern China
naturally and/or by introductions from west-
Eurasian Collared Dove ern Inner Mongolia and/or western China.
Streptopelia decaocto
J
Natural Range: Originally probably confined Eurasian Collared Doves from China were
to Afghanistan, India, Burma, Sri Lanka imported as cage-birds to Honshu in the
and Chinese Turkestan, from where many eighteenth or early nineteenth century (cer-
years ago it colonised naturally (and/or was tainly before about ), where they escaped
perhaps introduced to) Iran. Thence it and by had become established in the
spread westwards to Turkey, possibly as Kwanto region near Tokyo (Fisher ). By
early as the sixteenth century but certainly the s they were confined to the Kanto
by the early s. From Turkey the species Plain in Saitama where, however, they were
expanded its range further west into main- said to be increasing (Brazil ), having pre-
land Europe, first arriving in England viously almost died out due to over-shooting
in , and by the early s most of (Brazil ).
continental Europe, apart from northern
Scandinavia and the Iberian Peninsula, had U S
been colonised. S. decaocto also invaded Eurasian Collared Doves were probably intro-
much of the Middle East and parts of duced by man, or colonised naturally south-
North Africa, and is presently ‘saturating eastern Florida from the Bahamas (where the
the Iberian Peninsula’ (Hengeveld ). species was introduced in ), in the late
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Columbidae (Doves and Pigeons)
s or early s, where by they had northern islands in the Bahamas (Grand
formed a breeding colony in Dade County. In Bahama, Abaco, Bimini, Eleuthera, An-
the following decade they spread north, ini- dros), to Cuba, to the Lesser Antilles
tially along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, and (Montserrat, St Kitts, Dominica, Guade-
became established state-wide, from where loupe) … apparently spreading in the
they are ‘rapidly colonising in North America’ Caribbean.
(Sibley : ). Populations that became
established in Texas and North Carolina in According to Raffaele et al. (: –)
the early s may derive from Florida the Eurasian Collared Dove in the West Indies
(Smith , Stevenson & Anderson , was:
James , Ramagosa & Labisky ).
According to the AOU (: ) Introduced to New Providence in the
Eurasian Collared Doves are now: Bahamas in , it is now a common
year-round resident in the northern Ba-
… common to abundant from the Tampa hamas (New Providence, Abaco, Bimini,
and Palm Beach areas south to Key West, Grand Bahama, Andros and several of the
breeding locally west to Destin in the Berry Islands) and is still expanding its
Panhandle; also established locally in range. It apparently spread to Cuba from
coastal Georgia, South Carolina, and the Bahamas in the s and is now
southeastern Louisiana, occurring casu- fairly common locally around Havana
ally north to North Carolina (nesting and at the extreme western tip of the
) and Pennsylvania, and west to Guanahacabibes Peninsula. … a common
southwestern Louisiana, Arkansas, and resident in the Cayman Islands, likely the
central and northwestern Texas (origin result of a separate introduction. Intro-
uncertain); a small population in south- duced to Guadeloupe in , the species
eastern Colorado is of uncertain origin. is locally common, including on nearby
Les Saintes. It is now locally common on
Martinique where first reported in .
Impact: In Pinellas County, Florida, S.
A few individuals have been reported
decaocto is hybridising with a feral population
from St Christopher [St Kitts], Nevis,
of the Ringed Turtle Dove or Barbary Dove
Montserrat and Dominica; nesting has
S. risoria (James ), a domesticated variety been recorded on the latter two islands.
believed to be derived from the African It can be expected that the entire West
Collared Dove S. roseogrisea. Indies will soon be colonised by birds
from the existing populations.
W I
In a small number of Eurasian Collared
Doves were released on the island of Guade- Impact Worldwide: Wherever it occurs, S.
loupe, where a population became established decaocto is a pest of stored grain; it also
based in the town of Saint-Claude. S. decaocto competes with other species for resources such
now occurs throughout Guadeloupe, and has as food, and contributes to the transmission
spread to Martinique, Dominica, Montserrat of diseases (Ramagosa & Labisky ).
and Nevis. This population is clearly distinct
from one in the Bahamas, from where
Eurasian Collared Doves have colonised
Florida, Cuba and other islands (Barré et al. Barbary Dove (Ringed Turtle Dove)
). The AOU (: ) says that S. Streptopelia risoria
decaocto in the Caribbean is established:
Natural Range: The African Collared Dove
in the Bahama Island (New Providence S. roseogrisea, the ancestor of the domestic
), whence it has spread to other Barbary Dove, occurs from Senegal,
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Gambia and Mauritania to Sudan, Eritrea, N Z
Ethiopia, N Somalia and SW Arabia. A small population of Barbary Doves became
Naturalised Range: Europe: Spain. North temporarily established in Masterton Park in
America: USA; West Indies. Australasia: North Island in the s (Stidolph ).
New Zealand. Atlantic Ocean: Canary Is. Small colonies, probably totalling less than
individuals, now occur near Whangarei,
S in South Auckland, Rotorua, Whakatone and
The earliest record of the Barbary Dove in especially near Havelock North (Heather &
Spain was from the city of Valencia in . Robertson ).
F. J. García (in Martí & Del Moral )
reported at least – pairs nationally, Impact: In rural localities Barbary Doves feed
principally on the east coast in Valencia, on newly sown grain (Heather & Robertson
where the population is declining as that of ).
the Collared Dove S. decaocto increases. Two
pairs have been recorded in Mallorca in the C I
Balearic Islands. Langley () says that in the Canaries
Barbary Doves are scattered throughout the
U S islands, where the population is increasing
According to D. Goodwin (pers. comm. on all the main islands except El Hierro.
), all pre- records of introductions to F. J. García (in Martí & Del Moral )
the United States of ‘Ringdoves’ and ‘Collared estimated the total population at between
Doves’ refer, unless clearly stated otherwise, to and pairs.
Barbary Doves.
Barbary Doves are established locally in
parts of Florida (e.g. Winter Park, Orange
County, and St Petersburg, Pinellas County), Madagascar Turtle Dove
from where they have colonised parts of Streptopelia picturata
Alabama, where by they occurred in
Athens, Birmingham, Auburn, Montgomery, Natural Range: Madagascar, Aldabra (South
Hayneville and Mobile, and the Houston Is.), Isles Glorieuses and Comoros. (May
region of eastern Texas (Long ). The AOU also be native on some other islands in the
(: ) records S. risoria as ‘introduced Malagasy region).
and established in west-central Florida Naturalised Range: Indian Ocean: Agaléga Is;?
(Pinellas County) … and apparently also Chagos Archipelago; Mascarene Is;
eastern Texas (Houston region) and Alabama Seychelles Is.
(Montgomery). Other North American
populations (e.g. in Los Angeles) have failed The status of S. picturata on Indian Ocean
to become established’. Sibley (: ) islands is extremely complex and has yet to be
says that the ‘Ringed Turtle Dove … fares satisfactorily resolved. Hawkins & Safford (in
poorly in the wild. Small populations may prep.) say it is endemic in the Malagasy region
persist in some southern cities’. See also i.e. Madagascar, the Comoros, Seychelles,
Vuilleumier , Johnston & Garrett , Mascarenes, the Iles Eparses (a collection
James . of French-administered islands – Glorieuses,
Juan de Nova, Bassas da India, Europa
W I and Tromelin – surrounding Madagascar),
Bond (: ) lists ‘Streptopelia risoria’ as Cargados Carajos/ St Brandon, and Agaléga.
occurring in a semi-feral state on New However, although it is apparently endemic
Providence in the Bahamas and on Puerto to the region it does not occur naturally on all
Rico. The AOU () confirms the bird’s the islands in the region.
survival on these two islands. Benson (a) suggests that Madagascar
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Columbidae (Doves and Pigeons)
native to the Mascarenes (Mauritius, Réunion
and Rodrigues), but the species was presum-
ably eradicated before being replaced by
importations from Madagascar. Staub ()
reported S. picturata to be widely established
on Mauritius but to be scarce on Réunion
except around Saint Philippe in the southeast.
It was clearly well-established on the latter by
the s (e.g. Maillard ). Jones ()
listed it as widespread in suitable habitats on
Madagascar Turtle Dove Mauritius.
Turtle Doves may have been imported to the S I
Amirantes, the Chagos Archipelago and the From Mauritius or Madagascar S. p. picturata
Seychelles (and possibly to other Indian has apparently been imported to the
Ocean islands) by seventeenth- or eighteenth- Seychelles, where according to Newton ()
century pirates and corsairs as a source of food. the species was then established but uncom-
mon on Mahé, to which it was believed to
A I have been imported around . Diamond
According to Guého & Staub (), & Feare () record the species as breeding
S. picturata was introduced from the on all the main islands. Madagascar Turtle
Mascarenes to the Agalégas soon after the Doves (possibly picturata x rostrata hybrids)
islands were settled by the French in . The were translocated to the Amirantes before
species survives there in small numbers. , where they interbred with S. p. ald-
abrana: formerly endemic to Aldabra (Benson
C A a).
Madagascar Turtle Doves were well estab-
lished and widely distributed on Diego Garcia Impact: Except on Cousin, Cousine and pos-
in the early s, having possibly been intro- sibly Frégate (Diamond & Feare ), intro-
duced from the Seychelles (Hutson ). duced S. picturata has produced a hybrid
Some authorities have even assigned a swarm in the Seychelles with the rare endemic
subspecific name to the Chagos population S. p. rostrata (Penny , Simberloff ).
which could, however, be a hybrid of intro-
duced races. Alternatively, the species could
even be native to the archipelago, in which
case it would not, as is currently believed, be Spotted-necked Dove
endemic to the Malagasy region (R. J. Safford (Spotted Dove)
pers. comm. ).
Streptopelia chinensis
M I Natural Range: From Pakistan eastwards
Although Cheke (: ) admits that ‘the through Nepal, Bhutan, Assam, India, Sri
information is too poor even to establish Lanka, Bangladesh, Burma and mainland
whether the Malagasy Turtle Dove Strepto- SE Asia to C and E China, Taiwan and
pelia picturata [on Mauritius and Réunion] is Hainan.
introduced or native’, he goes on to argue per- Naturalised Range: Asia: Indonesia. North
suasively in favour of the former, possibly in America: Mexico; USA; West Indies. Aus-
the eighteenth century (Mauritius) and tralasia: Australia; New Zealand. Indian
nineteenth century (Réunion). It is now Ocean: Mascarene Is. Pacific Ocean: Fiji Is;
known from subfossil deposits (Mourer- Hawaiian Is; New Britain; New Caledonia;
Chaviret et al. ) that S. picturata was once Philippine Is; Polynesia.
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Naturalised Birds of the World
I seem to be contracting their range in Santa
Meyer () records the introduction of S. c. Barbara County and in the San Diego region,
tigrina to several eastern Indonesian islands, but may be continuing to spread in the San
including Sulawesi (from Java around ), Joaquin Valley (Johnston & Garrett ).
the Moluccas and some small islands in Peterson () refers to an expansion of
the Flores Strait. The AOU () also range into southern Arizona.
refers to the species’ successful introduction
to Sulawesi. Dickinson () says that S. Impact: Although in some suburban habitats
chinensis has been introduced to the Sunda S. chinensis seems to outnumber the smaller
Islands and eastward to Timor in Indonesia. native Mourning Dove Zenaida macroura,
White-winged Dove Z. asiatica and Band-
U S; M tailed Pigeon Columba fasciata, there
Spotted-necked Doves of the nominate sub- seems little evidence of any interspecific
species were first introduced from eastern competition (Gottschalk ).
China to California in the early twentieth cen-
tury, where by they were common resi- W I
dents in North Hollywood (Grinnell & Miller According to the AOU (: ), ‘A small
). By the early s they had become population may persist on St Croix, [US]
abundant throughout much of the Los Angeles Virgin Islands (introduced in )’. Raffaele
basin and a decade later had spread west to et al. (: ) said that S. chinensis was ‘very
Santa Monica, south to Inglewood, north to local around Estate Canaan in the Virgin
Pasadena and to Alhambra. By around Islands (St Croix) resulting from releases in
they had expanded their range eastwards over . It bred in small numbers in the wild
the coastal plains south of the San Gabriel before Hurricane Hugo struck St Croix
Mountains, were to be found in Los Angeles in . Its present status is unknown’. This
and Orange Counties, and had been recorded population is not mentioned by Bond ().
in San Bernardino County eastwards to River-
side County. By the s, Spotted-necked A
Doves had spread northwards to Santa Bar- The offspring of eight Spotted-necked Doves
bara and Santa Monica, eastwards to Pear of the nominate subspecies, imported to the
Blossom, southeast to Palm Springs and south Botanic Gardens in Melbourne by the
to Oceanside and San Diego, and subse- Victoria Acclimatisation Society (see Lever
quently to the Salton Sea. By the early s ), were released near Melbourne and
the population appeared to have stabilised at Cape Liptrap between and .
and the rate of expansion had decreased, Twenty more were unsuccessfully liberated in
probably due to the presence of deserts and an Adelaide, South Australia, in , and the
absence of the species’ favoured Eucalyptus present population in that state is descended
trees (Hardy , Vuilleumier ). Spotted- from birds that escaped from the Adelaide zoo
necked Doves appeared on Santa Catalina in in . Spotted-necked Doves in Perth, West-
the Channel Islands after the mid-s, ern Australia, are derived from stock deliber-
probably as a result of an independent ately released by the South Perth zoo in and
introduction (Johnston & Garrett ). after . The species was reported by
The AOU (: ) says that Spotted- Chisholm () to be then common in
necked Doves are currently ‘established … in Sydney, New South Wales, from where it had
southern California (primarily from Santa spread inland to the Blue Mountains. Spot-
Barbara, where now rare, and Bakersfield ted-necked Doves may have been introduced
south to San Diego and the Coachella Valley) to southern Queensland in (Chisholm
and (probably) extreme northwestern Baja ), but the population in the north of the
California (Tijuana area [Mexico]), casually state is descended from birds liberated at
to Imperial Valley’. Spotted-necked Doves Gordonvale in the s.
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Columbidae (Doves and Pigeons)
By the early s, Spotted-necked Doves M I
were well established in Perth, in Adelaide and Oustalet () quotes J. Desjardins as saying
many adjacent rural areas, in parks and that Cossigny de Palma imported tourterelles
gardens in Melbourne, in some of the larger from Bengal to the island of Mauritius in
provincial cities in Victoria, and in Sydney and which Oustalet () suggested were
Brisbane. In the south and in Western Aus- S. chinensis – a proposal with which Cheke
tralia they occurred mainly in urban environ- () concurred. The earliest definite record
ments, but in Queensland also in rural areas. of the species in Mauritius was in by
Pizzey () recorded Spotted-necked Doves Oustalet (). Meinertzhagen (), Staub
within their range as common and well estab- () and Cheke () reported S. chinensis
lished in urban and some rural localities from to be common on the island, where it is now
Cooktown in northern Queensland to the ubiquitous (Jones ). The form present
Eyre Peninsula and Kangaroo Island in South is believed to be the Asiatic S. c. tigrina
Australia. Populations in Tasmania were cen- (Hawkins & Safford in prep.).
tred on Hobart (since ) and Launceston;
the species was also present on Rottnest and F I
other offshore islands. The position is little In about (Pratt et al. () say in the
changed today (Barrett et al. ) early s) Spotted-necked Doves from
Australia were imported as cage birds to Viti
Impact: Where the two species occur sympat- Levu, where they were first recorded as being
rically (e.g. in New South Wales), S. chinensis established in . Thirty years later they had
has largely displaced the native Bar-shoul- spread from here to all the main islands,
dered Dove Geopelia humeralis. In Western including Nukulau and the coasts of Taveuni,
Australia, Spotted-necked Doves have been and to some of the smaller islands, and were ‘a
accused of spreading the flea Echidnophaga very common species in most man-modified
gallinaceae. In parts of eastern Australia they habitats’ (Watling : –), mainly below
damage germinating pine seedlings and horti- ,m elevation (Pratt et al. ).
cultural crops, and consume food intended
for domestic poultry (MacLean ). Impact: In the Fiji Islands Spotted-necked
Doves are a serious pest of sorghum and
N Z lodged (wind- or rain-flattened) or harvested
Wodzicki (: ) said that the ‘Malay rice (Parham , Watling ).
Spotted Dove’ (= S. chinensis) was introduced
to New Zealand early in the twentieth cen- H I
tury, and was then ‘locally abundant, North Spotted-necked Doves of the nominate sub-
Island’, where it became established and com- species are believed to have been first
mon in and around Auckland, from Albany introduced to Hawaii from China in ,
south to Papakura and Karaka. According to and according to Caum () were very com-
Heather & Robertson (: ): mon on Oahu by . Schwartz & Schwartz
() said they were well established in the
The Spotted Doves in the Auckland area,
from Albany to Pukekohe, probably ori- archipelago before the turn of the century,
ginated from escaped cage birds and from and Fisher () said they had colonised Ni-
a substantial liberation at Mt Eden in the ihau from Kauai (where they had been intro-
s. They are mainly found … around duced around ) by about . In about
Howick, Whitford, Clevedon and they were also introduced to Maui,
Karaka; a few birds have been recorded Hawaii, Molokai and Lanai (Caum ).
as far south as Miranda on the Firth Schwartz & Schwartz () said they were
of Thames. Small populations have widespread throughout the islands, mainly up
established recently in rural Bay of Plenty to ,m elevation though in some places to
near Te Puke and Opotiki. ,m, and in a wide variety of habitats.
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Naturalised Birds of the World
They estimated the total population to became naturalised in the extreme north
number , birds. In , eight around Rabaul.
Spotted-necked Doves from California were
successfully released on the Puu Waawaa N C
Ranch on Hawaii. Delacour () says that S. chinensis tigrina
Zeillemaker & Scott () said that from southeast Asia was introduced in to
Spotted-necked Doves were common in New Caledonia, where it became established
agricultural land and pastures, in exotic forests in numerous villages and cultivated localities,
and scrubland, and in mixed Metrosideros but was greatly reduced in numbers by
collina and Acacia koa native woodland shooting in Noumea.
on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui and
Hawaii, while Walker () lists them as also P I
present on Kahoolawe. Although the AOU () lists S. chinensis
Scott et al. () found that during the as occurring naturally in the Philippines,
preceding years the species’ range had Dickinson () says it was introduced there.
greatly expanded on Hawaii, Maui and Molo-
kai. In Kona, considerable numbers occurred P
at Puu Waawaa, at Kahuku, and in agricul- According to the AOU (: ), Spotted-
tural localities in south Kona (Honomalino to necked Doves are established on ‘various
Manuka) and south and east of Kailua. On islands of Polynesia’, but no further data are
eastern Maui, S. chinensis was present on the provided. Pratt et al. () make no mention
northwest slopes of Haleakala, at low altitude of populations in Polynesia.
in the Keanae Valley, and at low densities
across Kahikinui. On Molokai, the species
showed a massive intrusion into the northern
valleys. In western Maui, Lanai and Kauai Laughing Dove
Scott et al. () found little change in the Streptopelia senegalensis
species’ distribution from that recorded by
Schwartz & Schwartz (). Throughout the Natural Range: Sub-Saharan Africa. Also NW
islands, Scott et al. (: ) found Spotted- Africa, the Levant, southern Arabia, the
necked Doves to be ‘widely distributed at all Indian subcontinent and E to Xinjiang.
elevations in low numbers, although they are Naturalised Range: Australasia: Australia.
usually absent from high elevation forests and Atlantic Ocean: Principe I. Indian Ocean:
grasslands’. The AOU (: ) said the ?Mafia I. Mascarene Is; ?Socotra I.
species was established ‘on the main islands
from Kauai eastward’. A
In – Laughing Doves of the nominate
Impact: Spotted-necked Doves in the Hawai- form (western Arabia and sub-Saharan Africa)
ian Islands are implicated in the dispersal of were released near Perth, Western Australia, by
the exotic Banana Poka Passiflora mollissima the South Perth zoo, where they were regarded
and of Lantana Lantana camara (Lewin ). as established before . Until at least
More seriously, Shehata et al. () found numbers were recaptured for transfer elsewhere
a high prevalence (%) of Plasmodium in the state, where they appear to have thrived
relictum capistranoae malarial infection in S. wherever pine trees were available for nest-
chinensis in the islands, which poses a threat to ing. Since the mid-s Laughing Doves have
native birds. been extending their range in southern Aus-
tralia; by they were established in several
N B localities between Geraldton and Tambellup
According to Mayr (), the race tigrina has east to Beacon and Merriden, with discrete
been introduced to New Britain, where it populations at Kalgoorlie and Esperance
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Columbidae (Doves and Pigeons)
(Sedgwick , Jenkins ). By the late Naturalised Range: Asia: Sumatra. Pacific
s they had reached Cue and Mount Mag- Ocean: Mariana Is.
net east of Geraldton. Pizzey () recorded
them east to Southern Cross (km from S
Perth), north to Geraldton (km) – occasion- Although firm evidence is lacking, Delacour
ally to Shark Bay (km) – and km south () considered that the presence of
to Albany. Laughing Doves became established S. bitorquata on the island of Sumatra is
on Rottnest Island (around ) and sub- probably due to human intervention.
sequently on Garden Island off the Perth coast
(Storr ). They remain confined to south- M I
western Western Australia (Barrett et al. ). According to Pratt et al. (), Island
Collared Doves of the Philippine and Borneo
P I race dusumieri were introduced in the s,
According to Snow (), Laughing Doves presumably by the Spanish, to the Mariana
from São Tomé in the Gulf of Guinea were Islands from Guam north to Saipan. Until at
introduced in to another Portuguese least the mid-s they were abundant in
island, Principe, km to the north, where rice fields, grasslands and open country in the
they became common in settled areas and in south, but thereafter declined, according to
plantations. How the species arrived in São Ralph & Sakai (), surviving only in small
Tomé is unknown. numbers on Guam, Rota and Saipan. Pratt et
al. (: ), however, say the species
M I remains ‘common’.
Mackworth-Praed & Grant () consider
that Laughing Doves of the nominate
subspecies may have been introduced to
Mafia Island off the coast of Tanzania. Zebra Dove
Geopelia striata
M I
Laughing Doves in the Mascarenes are Natural Range: From S Burma through Thai-
restricted to Mauritius, where the descendants land to Sumatra, Philippines, Java and
of around birds that escaped or were Lombok.
released from an aviary in about / Naturalised Range: Asia: Borneo; Sabah;
(R. J. Safford pers. comm. ) are now Sulawesi; Molucca Is. Atlantic Ocean: St
established in the Tamarin and Black River Helena I. Indian Ocean: Agaléga Is; Chagos
area in the southwest. The form in Mauritius Archipelago; ?Îles Glorieuses; Juan de Nova
is believed to be the Asiatic S. c. cambayensis I; Madagascar; Mascarene Is; Seychelles Is.
(Hawkins & Safford in prep.). Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is; Philippine Is;
Society Is.
S I
Laughing Doves on Socotra Island may be B; S
natives or introduced (Hawkins & Safford Smythies () says that the few Zebra
in prep.). Doves then surviving in southern Borneo
were descended from birds released by local
tribesmen. In , two pairs were liberated at
Tanjong Aru, Kota Kinabalu, on the coast of
Island Collared Dove Sabah in northern Borneo, where Gore ()
Streptopelia bitorquata found the species to be established.
Natural Range: Philippine Is. and N Borneo, S; M I
and from Java E to Timor. According to Peters (), Zebra Doves were
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Naturalised Birds of the World
probably introduced to Sulawesi and also to Raymond Mein, introduced Zebra Doves to
Ambon in the Moluccas. Stresemann () the Chagos Archipelago, where in the same
recorded them on the southern peninsula and year a group of was observed by Loustau-
in the south-central region of Sulawesi, where Lalanne () at Pointe Este. Hutson ()
Escott & Holmes () reported them at reported that local islanders claimed that in
Gorontalo in the extreme north. about a dozen birds had been released on
Diego Garcia, but he treated the report as
S H I suspect as Zebra Doves were first seen there
Zebra Doves may have been introduced to St some six years previously. By Zebra
Helena as early as the second half of the eigh- Doves had dispersed from Pointe Este, but
teenth century by French ships homeward were nowhere common.
bound from Mauritius, which are known
to have stopped in St Helena. Unidentified Î G
doves seen on the island from could have Benson et al. () were informed by
been of this species (Rowlands et al. ). M. Penny that H. Desramais had introduced
The only known introduction was reported by Zebra Doves in to Îles Glorieuses, where
Melliss (), at an apparently unrecorded they still occur (Probst et al. ).
date but before the early s when the
species was reported to be fairly common. J N I
Today, Zebra Doves on St Helena are a domi- Introduced Zebra Doves occur on Juan de
nant species, being common, tame and virtu- Nova Island off the west coast of Madagascar
ally ubiquitous, occurring in settlements and (Bertrand ).
wherever there is vegetation, including tall
trees, though generally avoiding high, exposed M
and arid habitats (Rowlands et al. ). They Although Rand () said that introduced
are also known to visit some of St Helena’s Zebra Doves had apparently died out on
offshore islands. See also McCulloch . Madagascar, Staub () found them to
be common in lowland areas. Presumably
A I either Rand was mistaken or there was a
According to Guého & Staub (), Zebra further introduction to the island.
Doves (probably introduced from the
Mascarenes) are well established on both Île M I
du Nord and Île du Sud in the Agalégas. Bernardin (), writing of his visit to
Mauritius in –, referred to a ‘tourterelle’
C A which Cheke () believed was the Zebra
In an immigrant from the Seychelles, Dove noted by Sonnerat () shortly there-
after. Meinertzhagen () said the species
had been introduced to Mauritius from the
Malay Peninsula around , while Benedict
() and Staub () said the birds were
imported from the Sunda Islands and
Malaysia by Cossigny de Palma in . They
reached (or were transferred to) Round
Island off Mauritius before , and later
appeared on neighbouring Flat Island. Zebra
Doves are now common and widespread on
Mauritius (Showler , Hawkins & Safford
in prep.).
By the s, Zebra Doves were well
Zebra Dove established also on Réunion (e.g. Maillard
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Columbidae (Doves and Pigeons)
), and remain so today up to an altitude agricultural land and pastures and in residen-
of c. ,m (Barré et al. ). tial areas and community parklands on Kauai,
According to Staub (, ), Zebra Oahu, Molokai, Lanai and Maui, and
Doves were introduced to Rodrigues in . common on Hawaii; the species has also
Bertuchi (), however, says they did not occurred on Kahoolawe. Berger (), Pratt
arrive until , when some were released by et al. () and Pratt () confirm its
the crew of a visiting vessel. Jones () continuing abundance an all the main islands.
recorded the species to be widely established in
suitable habitats. According to Showler (: Impact: Zebra Doves in the Hawaiian Islands
) the Zebra Dove ‘… is very common, espe- are associated with the spread of introduced
cially in open woodland, at all altitudes’. grasses, herbs, and shrubs (Stone ). They
were found by Shehata et al. () to
S I be entirely free from Plasmodium relictum
Newton () found Zebra Doves to be well capistranoae malarial infection.
established in lowland regions in the
Seychelles, where they became one of the P I
commonest land birds, especially near Whitehead () suggested that Zebra Doves
settlements, in the archipelago (Barré & may have been introduced as cagebirds to the
Barau ). They now occur on all the main Philippines. Du Pont () says that Zebra
granitic islands: Bird, Denis, Coëtivy, Doves from Borneo have been imported to
D’Arros, St Joseph, Desroches, Farquhar and Lubang, Luzon, Mindoro and Verde.
Assumption; on the last-named they were
introduced from Mauritius in (Skerrett S I
et al. ; Hawkins & Safford in prep.). In W. A. Robinson successfully released
According to Benson (b) and Penny Zebra Doves from the Hawaiian Islands at
(), the species was probably introduced to Paea in Tahiti. By the early s they had
Cosmoledo Atoll, where Hawkins & Safford colonised maritime areas of Papara on the
(in prep.) imply it may have died out. south coast to Arue on the north via the entire
west coast, and by the mid-s they were
H I established and common continuously along
Zebra Doves were introduced to Oahu by the the coast from Arue to Papeari (Thibault &
Honolulu City Council in and to Kauai Rives ). Pratt et al. () said that
by Dora Isenberg, and also to Maui and G. striata was expanding its range on Tahiti
Molokai (Caum ). By the mid-s G. and Holyoak & Thibault () considered
striata was established on all the main islands that new populations might be developing on
except Hawaii, to which, according to Munro the neighbouring island of Moorea.
(), it had only recently been transferred,
but which Schwartz & Schwartz () say
was probably colonised naturally from Maui
between and . By the late s, Common Ground Dove
Zebra Doves were well established in suitable Columbina passerina
habitats on all the larger islands except
Hawaii, where they occurred only on the Natural Range: From the S USA, S through
Kona coast and in parts of North Kohala. C America and the West Indies to S
Schwartz & Schwartz () censused the Venezuela W to N Brazil.
total population at nearly ,. Naturalised Range: Atlantic Ocean: Bermuda
In –, Zebra Doves were released
on the Puu Waawaa Ranch on Hawaii, where B
they are now established. Zeillemaker & Scott According to D. B. Wingate (pers. comm.
() said G. striata was abundant on ), the Common Ground Dove was
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Naturalised Birds of the World
‘probably introduced [to Bermuda] as a caged Mourning Dove
bird from the Bahamas [where the form is Zenaida macroura
C. p. bahamensis] in the s or s
because no specific mention was made of Natural Range: From northern N America S
small doves by the first settlers’. However, through the Caribbean to Costa Rica and
the AOU () and Raine () treat W Panama.
C. passerina as a native resident in Bermuda. Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
(See also e.g. Bourne ).
H I
Mourning Doves were unsuccessfully intro-
duced to the island of Hawaii in or
Emerald Dove (Walker ). Between and a total
Chalcophaps indica of birds were released on the Puu Waawaa
Ranch on Hawaii, where they became locally
Natural Range: From India and SE Asia established (Lewin ). Although Zeille-
through Indonesia to N and E Australia. maker & Scott () make no mention of
Naturalised Range: Asia: Hong Kong (China). Z. macroura in the islands, Pyle (: , )
lists it as a ‘new introduction: apparently
H K (C) established and breeding, but for less than
According to Webster (), Emerald Doves years’: it had actually been on Hawaii for a
have been introduced to Hong Kong (China), maximum of years. Berger () said that
where some are resident and breed in the Tai Mourning Doves were established only in the
Po Kau Forestry Reserve and possibly in parts North Kona region on Hawaii. Scott et al.
of the new territories. See also Viney et al. (: ), who were told that in the
. population numbered between and ,
birds, found the species to be ‘restricted to the
Caribbean Dove
Leptotila jamaicensis
Natural Range: N Yucatán peninsula and
islands, NE Belize, Honduran Is, Cayman
Is, Jamaica, San Andrés Is. (off EC
Nicaragua).
Naturalised Range: North America: West
Indies.
W I
Brudenell-Bruce () says that Caribbean
Doves of the nominate subspecies were
introduced from Jamaica to New Providence
in the Bahamas as part of a project to restore
the islands’ avifauna decimated by hurricanes
in the s. Bond () and the AOU
() confirm the species’ introduction
to and establishment on New Province,
where Raffaele et al. () describe it as an
uncommon and local resident.
Mourning Dove
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Psittacidae (Cockatoos and Parrots)
north slopes of Hualalai and the high-elevation to be breeding on St John’s Island south of
open woodland on Mauna Loa’ in the Kona Singapore in the s (T. Silva pers. comm.
area. Pratt et al. (), Pratt () and the ).
AOU () confirm the species’ continuing
presence on Hawaii, where Pratt et al. ()
say the population may be gradually increasing.
Tanimbar Corella
Cacatua goffini
Natural Range: Tanimbar I.; Tula (Kai Is.).
PSITTACIDAE (COCKATOOS Naturalised Range: Asia: Singapore.
AND PARROTS)
S
Galah Dickinson () describes this species (listed
Eolophus roseicapilla by the World Conservation Union as ‘Lower
Risk: Near Threatened’) as occurring in the
Natural Range: Australia and Tasmania. wild on Singapore Island, to which Wells
Naturalised Range: Australasia: New Zealand. () adds its satellites (St John’s, Sentosa).
N Z
A shipment of smuggled Galahs released by a
vessel off the coast of Horowhenua in the Yellow-crested Cockatoo
s failed to become established. Recently, Cacatua sulphurea
however, escaped cage-birds have formed wild
breeding populations in South Auckland and Natural Range: Sulawesi and adjacent islands,
in the northern Waikato, and have been Masalembu Besar I. (Java Sea), the main
observed on Pakihi and Ponui Islands in Lesser Sunda Is. (Lombok to Alor and
the inner Hauraki Gulf. The bulk of the Timor) and Sumba I.
population, estimated at fewer than , is Naturalised Range: Asia: ?China (Hong
centred on Ponui Island/the Hunua Ranges Kong); Singapore.
and the Pukekohe/Port Waikato regions. The
largest recorded flock comprised birds C (H K)
(Heather & Robertson ). Webster () recorded the presence (but not
the breeding) of this species in Happy Valley
Impact: Since E. roseicapilla is a major pest and at the university, while Viney ()
of grain crops in Australia (Heather & saw it in Happy Valley, at the university,
Robertson ), the species requires careful at Victoria Barracks, and on Stonecutters
monitoring in New Zealand. Island west of Kowloon, where breeding
was strongly suspected. See also Viney et al.
.
Little Corella S
Cacatua sanguinea Rowley (in Forshaw ) said that small
groups of C. sulphurea appeared to be estab-
Natural Range: S New Guinea and much of lished in the Botanic Gardens in Singapore,
Australia apart from the S. and T. Silva (pers. comm. ) said that in
Naturalised Range: Asia: Singapore. some had been seen on Sentosa Island.
Dickinson (: ) says the species is ‘Feral
S in Singapore’.
Little Corellas were established and presumed
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Sulphur-crested Cockatoo From the s onwards large numbers
Cacatua galerita of Sulphur-crested Cockatoos were imported
from Australia to New Zealand, where
Natural Range: New Guinea and adjacent escaped pets became established near
islands, Aru Is., N, E and SE Australia, and Auckland and at Wellsford, Hunua Hills,
Tasmania. Glen Murray and Fordell, and in Turakina
Naturalised Range: Asia: ?Indonesia; Singa- Valley, Hunterville, Waikato, and Wainuio-
pore. North America: ?USA; West Indies. mata (Oliver ). This distribution was
Australasia: New Zealand. Pacific Ocean: confirmed by Kinsky (). Falla et al.
Palau Is. () found C. galerita to occur in limestone
country between the lower Waikato and
I Raglan, and in the watersheds of the Turakina
Sulphur-crested Cockatoos of the New and Rangitikei in North Island, with a small
Guinea race triton may have been introduced colony in the Wainuiomata Valley. Heather &
to Ceramlaut and Goramlaut in the Moluccas
(Long ).
S
Although Madoc () states only that
escaped Sulphur-crested Cockatoos were
occasionally found in the wild in Singapore,
C. J. Hills (pers. comm. ) says they have
been breeding there for over years. Seng
() lists this species only as escaped.
U S
Although the species is not mentioned by the
AOU () and is included by Sibley (:
) among those species of which there are
‘as yet no stable feral populations’, Troops &
Dilley (: ) say ‘Nest sites documented
in the Miami area’, while Lee et al. ()
state that the species has been established in
southern Florida since the late s.
W I
Sulphur-crested Cockatoos first bred success-
fully on New Providence in the Bahamas in
the mid-s, where by there was a pop-
ulation of six free-flying birds (Lee et al. ).
N Z
Writing of the Sulphur-crested Cockatoo in
New Zealand, Thomson (: ) stated that
‘This species is frequently to be seen on the
Waitakerei Ranges, where it appears to have
established itself ’, having been introduced in
the early s (Heather & Robertson ).
Baker () says the first introduction took
place in . Sulphur-crested Cockatoo
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Psittacidae (Cockatoos and Parrots)
Robertson (), who estimated the Red Shining Parrot
probable population at less than ,, said Prosopeia tabuensis
that the species occurs in scattered locations
from Northland to Canterbury (South Natural Range: Fiji Is.
Island), the principal sites being western Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Tonga Is.
Waikato (c. ), Turakina (c. ) and
Wellington (c. ). T I
According to Watling (: ):
Impact: In the past, Sulphur-crested Cocka-
toos have been accused of damaging haystacks There is little doubt that the range has
by pulling them apart to get at the seed heads. been extended by human agency. … there
However, according to Heather & Robertson was a considerable trade with the
(), although they occasionally feed on Samoans and Tongans for its red feathers,
grain crops they cause only minor damage, and there is documented evidence of live
probably because the population is regularly parrots being taken to Tonga in the eigh-
cropped for the pet trade. teenth century. Either it was purposely
introduced to the islands of ’Eua and
P I Tongatapu there, or escaped birds became
Sulphur-crested Cockatoos of the New naturalised there. The population on
Guinea form triton have been introduced Tongatapu has died out … but it still
to the Palau Islands, where around thrives on ’Eua.
they were said to be breeding and spreading
(Ripley ). According to Pratt et al. (: Red Shining Parrots are today common on
) they were ‘Introduced after World ’Eua in inland forests, in deep wooded gullies,
War II … found … from Koror to Eil Malk.
May be spreading. Population small but
increasing’.
Kuhl’s Lorikeet
Vini kuhlii
Natural Range: Rimitara I. (Tubai Is.).
Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Line Is.;
Kiribati Is.
L I; K I
Kuhl’s Lorikeets are said to have been
imported from Rimitara to Teraina and
Tabuaeran by local people, where they
are believed to have become established
before and where they are now common.
In six were transferred to Kiritimati
Island. Although Pratt et al. () say that
V. kuhlii has disappeared from Kiritimati,
Dickinson () lists it as still occurring
there and also as present in the Kiribati
Islands.
Red Shining Parrot
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Naturalised Birds of the World
and in forest ecotone in the east of the island. Natural Range: SE Queensland to SE South
They also occur in plantations and in Australia and Tasmania.
coastal forests (Pratt et al. ). Rinke () Naturalised Range: Australasia: New Zealand.
estimated the population at ,, ± %. Pacific Ocean: Norfolk I. (elegans).
Because of increasing deforestation and
predation by the island’s human population N Z
(for feathers, meat, and pets) Rinke () In a small shipment of Crimson and
believed that the number of Red Shining Eastern Rosellas that had been refused entry
Parrots on ’Eua will decline. to New Zealand was released off Otago Heads
on South Island, where before they
became established in the Waitakere Range.
Wodzicki (: ) described them as
Crimson Rosella ‘locally common, North and South Islands’,
Platycercus elegans while Kinsky () said that in North Island
Eastern Rosellas were well established and
Natural Range: NE Queensland to SE South spreading throughout Northland, and also
Australia, including Kangaroo I. occurred in Wairarapa, Waikanae and the
upper Hutt Valley; in South Island they were
found mainly in Otago. Falla et al. () said
Eastern Rosella that Rosellas were well established in North
Platycercus eximius Island near Auckland from where they were
spreading south, and in South Island a small
population survived near Dunedin. Since
– a small colony of P. elegans is said to
have been established in suburban Welling-
ton. Baker () confirms the two species as
members of New Zealand’s exotic avifauna.
Impact: As early as the s damage to
orchards by Eastern Rosellas was being
reported near Dunedin (Oliver ). This,
however, is said to have been more than
compensated for by their destruction of
the larvae of the Golden-haired Blowfly
Calliphora laemica which had also been
introduced from Australia.
N I
Introduced Crimson Rosellas were well
established and abundant on Norfolk Island
by at least the late s (Smithers & Disney
). See also Barrett et al. .
Impact: Competition for food and nesting sites
with Crimson Rosellas has probably con-
tributed to the decline of the endemic Norfolk
Island Parakeet Cyanoramphus cookii (King
–), which is classified as Critically En-
dangered by the World Conservation Union.
Crimson Rosella
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Psittacidae (Cockatoos and Parrots)
in central and southwestern Honshu (Tokyo,
Yamanashi, Okayama).
U S
By the early s, several thousand free-
flying Budgerigars, the descendants of escaped
or deliberately released cage-birds, were
established near St Petersburg on the Gulf
coast of Florida. By the mid-s they had
spread north to New Port Richey and km
south to Englewood, with smaller colonies
established elsewhere. The population in St
Petersburg was estimated to number some
,. On the Atlantic coast, Budgerigars
were established at Cocoa, Dade County, and
by occurred at Jacksonville near the
border with Georgia.
Shapiro (: ) wrote that:
the budgerigar is abundant in Ft Laud-
erdale and Ft Pierce on the east coast, and
ranges extensively from Spring Hill in the
north down to Sanibel Island on the west
coast. Very few sightings were noted in
the interior or the northern part of
the state. The heaviest concentrations
appear to be near Venice, St Petersburg,
Seminole, Largo and Holiday.
Wenner & Hirth () summarised the
Eastern Rosella status and distribution of Budgerigars in Flor-
ida as being restricted to residential localities,
breeding in colonies of or more on the
Gulf coast from Hudson to Fort Myers, with
Budgerigar transient flocks occurring elsewhere. On the
Melopsittacus undulatus Atlantic coast, Budgerigars bred near Fort
Pierce, Port St Lucie and Fort Lauderdale,
Natural Range: The interior of Australia. with transient flocks from Miami and
Naturalised Range: Asia: Japan. North Amer- West Palm Beach to north of Fort Pierce,
ica: USA. Atlantic Ocean: ?Canary Is. and sporadically north to Jacksonville. The
densest populations occurred from Charlotte
J to Citrus Counties, in New Port Richey,
Budgerigars occur in much of lowland coastal Clearwater, St Petersburg, Largo, Seminole,
Honshu north to Miyagi-ken, Shikoku, and Sarasota, Bradenton, Venice, Englewood and
western Kyushu, and also on Okinawa, and Port St Lucie, where some roosts were
may have bred at Niigata-Ken, Honshu. Birds estimated to hold more than , birds.
that escape from captivity regularly augment Budgerigars were virtually absent from the
the naturalised population. In winter, Bud- interior of Florida.
gerigars often join flocks of Eurasian Tree James () listed M. undulatus as
Sparrows Passer montanus (Brazil ). The occurring in Pinellas and Pasco Counties and
OSJ () lists M. undulatus as breeding elsewhere on the Gulf coast. The AOU ()
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Naturalised Birds of the World
additional source of food for Red-shouldered
Hawks B. lineatus and Red-tailed Hawks B.
jamaicensis. They compete for food and/
or nesting sites with Purple Martins Progne
subis, Red-bellied Woodpeckers Melanerpes
carolinus and Mourning Doves Zenaida
macroura. Localised damage to citrus trees has
been reported (A. E. Shapiro pers. comm.
).
C I
J. Clavell (in Martí & del Moral ) refers
to a colony of up to pairs having nested in
Tenerife.
Eclectus Parrot
Eclectus roratus
Natural Range: The Moluccas, Sumba, Tan-
imbar, Aru, Biak, Admiralty, Bismarck and
Solomon Is; New Guinea and neighbour-
ing islands; Cape York Peninsula, Australia.
Naturalised Range: Asia: Seram. Pacific
Ocean: Palau Is.
Budgerigar S
Forshaw () records the successful intro-
duction of the New Guinea form polychloros
said the species was established in west-central to the Gorong Islands southeast of Seram.
Florida (Charlotte and Citrus Counties).
According to Peterson (), thousands used P I
to be established on the west coast of Florida Ripley () records the presence of this
with lesser numbers on the southeast coast, species in the Palau Archipelago. Forshaw
but that in recent years the population has () believed the birds were probably of the
dramatically declined. New Guinea race. Pratt et al. (: ) says
A. E. Shapiro (pers. comm. ) listed a that Eclectus Parrots were ‘Introduced after
number of factors that contributed to the World War II to Palau where confined to the
establishment of the Budgerigar in Florida: forested “rock islands” from Koror to Eil
precocious breeding; breeding throughout the Malk. Uncommon ….’
year; the ability to raise more than one brood
annually; the ability to survive for lengthy
periods without water; the species’ ready use
of artificial nest boxes and feeding tables; its Rose-ringed Parakeet
nomadic tendency which helped it to expand (Ring-necked Parakeet)
its range; and its ability to adapt to inclement Psittacula krameri
weather conditions.
Natural Range: From S Mauritania and
Impact: Budgerigars in Florida provide an Senegal to Sudan and Somalia. Also NW
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Psittacidae (Cockatoos and Parrots)
Pakistan through India and Sri Lanka to SE
recorded from numerous counties in Eng-
China.
land, Wales, and Scotland, and breeding had
Naturalised Range: Europe: Austria; Belgium; been confirmed in England in Berkshire,
British Isles; Germany; The Netherlands; Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Norfolk, Greater Man-
Portugal; Spain. Asia: Arabia; China; Iran; chester, Greater London, Merseyside and West
?Iraq; Israel; Japan; Singapore. Africa: Yorkshire, and in Wales in Clwyd. B. Hawkes
Egypt; Kenya; South Africa; Tanzania (pers. comm. ) estimated the total British
(Zanzibar). North America: USA. Atlantic population at about ,, of which % were
Ocean: Canary Is; ?Cape Verde Is. Indian in Greater London () and Kent ().
Ocean: Mascarene Is; Seychelles Is. Pacific Pithon & Dytham () reported that
Ocean: Hawaiian Is. in there were some , Rose-ringed
Parakeets in the four main roosts, in Esher
A and Reigate in Surrey, at Lewisham in Greater
Langley () records the presence of a London, and Ramsgate in Kent. Ogilvie &
colony of Rose-ringed Parakeets in the city of RBBP () recorded P. krameri in as
Innsbruck. breeding in Buckinghamshire, Kent, Middle-
sex, Surrey, Berkshire and Dorset, and said
B that the total population may have numbered
Cramp et al. () state that small popula- several thousand; the roost at Esher peaked at
tions of Rose-ringed Parakeets have been around , birds. Ogilvie & RBBP ()
established in Brussels since about , and estimated the national total in as in ex-
also in Antwerp. Their survival is confirmed cess of ,. By this figure had risen to
by Hawkes () and Lever (). over ,, with more than , at the
Esher roost; Butler (), however, suggests
B I that the true totals may have been higher than
Rose-ringed Parakeets first bred in the wild recorded. Despite reports in the popular press
in Britain (in Norfolk) as early as , and (e.g. Utton ) that the population was
according to Chandler () may have then around , and is expected to reach
occurred in south London between and , by the end of the decade, the present
. However, in the twentieth century total is likely to be between , and ,,
P. krameri first appeared in the wild in the and is continuing to increase except in parts of
British Isles (in England) in , and by northwest England.
populations had become established near The rise in the population of Rose-ringed
London in Surrey and Essex, and around Parakeets in Britain has been attributed by
Gravesend in Kent (Hudson ). Breeding C. Butler (in Owen ) to their ability to
was first confirmed in Surrey in , and breed at a young age; high fledgling success;
within two years successful nesting was also the absence of natural predators; and
recorded in Greater London and Kent. By the longevity. To these can be added their ability
mid-s, the species had expanded its range to withstand the harshest weather, and their
in Kent and had become established in acceptance of artificial feeding in winter
south Buckinghamshire and east Berkshire, (pers. obs.). The sources of the British (and
and later in neighbouring parts of the Thames European) populations are likely to have been
Valley (Lever ). ‘homing’ birds that failed to return and
In northwestern England, Rose-ringed escaped and deliberately released pets owned
Parakeets became established in the southern by sailors returning to London and Liverpool
suburbs of Greater Manchester, where breed- (Lever , ). The subspecies imported
ing was first recorded in , westwards into Britain appear to originate entirely from
to Liverpool, Merseyside, where successful the Indian part of the birds’ natural range
nesting first took place in . (borealis/manillensis) (Morgan , Pithon &
By , Rose-ringed Parakeets had been Dytham ).
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Common Kestrels Falco tinnunculus, and for
winter food at bird-tables with various other
species (pers. obs.).
Lever (, ) recorded damage caused
by Rose-ringed Parakeets to the buds and
blossom of various trees and shrubs, and
to pears, plums and especially apples, and
expressed the view that were the birds to
increase and spread in fruit-growing counties
such as Kent serious depredations were likely
to occur. This is unfortunately coming
to pass, and damage is being increasingly
reported by viniculturists, orchardists and
farmers. Crops to have suffered include apples,
cherries, grapes, pears, plums, raspberries,
strawberries, barley and maize (Owen ).
Were Rose-ringed Parakeets to become
established in even greater numbers in urban
and suburban habitats they could pose a
threat to humans from psittacosis.
G
In six Rose-ringed Parakeets became
established in the grounds of Köln zoo, where
breeding occurred two years later. Thereafter
the population rapidly increased, and by
numbered between and , including
breeding pairs. New breeding sub-popula-
tions were subsequently formed at Brühl
(), Erfstadt and Bonn, where breeding
first occurred in , and probably also at
Wiesbaden and between Leverkusen and
Düsseldorf, where around were counted
in (B. Hawkes pers. comm. , Cramp
et al. ). The species’ survival in Germany
Rose-ringed Parakeet is confirmed by Hawkes (), Ernst (),
Gebhardt () and Lever ().
Impact: Breeding takes place before that of
most British birds – in favourable years as T N
early as January (pers. obs.) – the birds nesting Rose-ringed Parakeets first bred in The Hague
mainly in the old nest-holes of Great Spotted in the late s, where by – the
Woodpeckers Dendrocopos major and Green population numbered about . A few years
Woodpeckers Picus viridis. Hence P. krameri later a colony settled in Rotterdam, and by
competes advantageously with such native – Amsterdam, Haarlem and parts of
hole-nesting species as European Starlings Zeeland had been colonised (Teixeira ).
Sturnus vulgaris, Great Tits Parus major, The national population rose between
Eurasian Nuthatches Sitta europaea, Eurasian and from – to several hundred
Tree Sparrows Passer montanus, Eurasian (Taapken , Cramp et al. , Lensink
Jackdaws Corvus monedula, Tawny Owls ). Lensink (a) put the number of
Strix aluco, Little Owls Athene noctua and breeding pairs at – in – and –
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Psittacidae (Cockatoos and Parrots)
in –, and listed the species as definitely Parakeets breed on Al Batinah, especially near
established. The claim by Lensink () that Al Khaburah and Suwaiq (de Schauensee &
Rose-ringed Parakeets are vulnerable to harsh Ripley , in Forshaw ). In Yemen at
winters in The Netherlands is not in accord least pairs were established in Tawahi,
with the position elsewhere (see e.g. Murgui Crater, Ma’alla and north to Shaykh Uthmān
: ). (Ennion ). The species also occurs in
Hijaz in Saudi Arabia, and probably breeds
P south of Kuwait on the Arabian Gulf (Jen-
‘… it has been recorded regularly in the city of nings a, b, Stagg ), and seems well
Lisbon and in Cascais town, where it proba- established at King Abdul-Aziz University in
bly breeds. Several roosts are known, but no Jeddah (Felemban ). Jennings () lists
figures are available’ (Costa et al. : ). P. krameri as breeding in Qatar (Dohar),
Saudi Arabia (Dharan, Riyadh, and Jeddah),
S Bahrain (Manama), United Arab Emirates
A breeding population has been present in (Dubai and Abu Dhabi), Oman (Muscat and
Barcelona and Málaga since the mid-s Salalah), Yemen (Sa’aa) and Aden.
(Batllori & Nos ). The Spanish breeding
bird Atlas (A. Román Muñoz in Martí & del C (H K M)
Moral ) found – breeding pairs, a P. krameri in Hong Kong and Macau since
figure considered to be a considerable under- before may be descended from natural
estimate. Birds were concentrated along the dispersers or more probably from escaped
Mediterranean coast, with – pairs in cage-birds. By the mid-s the species was
Barcelona alone. Elsewhere, Sevilla and abundant and widespread, particularly in
Madrid, and Mallorca in the Balearic Islands, northern Hong Kong, on the Mong Tseng
supported small numbers. The species was re- Peninsula and near Homantin and Kowloon
ported to be increasing and extending its range Tong (Forshaw ). Its survival is confirmed
steadily since the beginning of the s.. by the AOU (). See also Viney et al. .
A I
Gallagher & Woodcock () say that the Free-flying flocks have been observed in
Rose-ringed Parakeet has been introduced Tehran and at Bandar Abbas, but establish-
to the Arabian Gulf, northern Oman, and ment is unconfirmed (Forshaw ().
Yemen (Aden), where populations are derived
from escaped cage-birds (Jennings b). The I
species is established and breeding in Bahrain, Between and free-flying Rose-ringed
the United Arab Emirates and on the Musan- Parakeets occurred near Baghdad, and in
dam Peninsula on the Arabian Gulf (Mein- and later others were reported at Karradah
ertzhagen ). In Bahrain, Rose-ringed Sharqiyah and at Al Kut where, however,
Parakeets have been established since at least the population may have been declining
, and roosts of up to individuals occur (Marchant & McNab ).
in Manama. Between May and September
many birds migrate to Saudi Arabia (Hirsch- I
feld & King ). Rose-ringed Parakeets Rose-ringed Parakeets first escaped from Tel
were first reported in the United Arab Emi- Aviv zoo and private collections in the s,
rates in , where numbers are increasing in since when they have increased and spread
suburban areas along the coast between Dubai over most of the coastal plain and the Jordan
and Abu Dubai and also in inland localities. and Galilee Valleys (B. Hawkes pers. comm.
In March, some birds migrate northwest from , Cramp et al. ). Some birds may also
the Gulf coast over-flying Das Island be natural dispersers from Egypt. The species
(Richardson ). In Oman, Rose-ringed is now common also in the northern valleys,
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Naturalised Birds of the World
and in the Jordan Valley as far south as Parakeets P. k. borealis (Pakistan and India to
Jericho. Roosts of hundreds and perhaps China) were first noted around Sordwana Bay,
thousands exist along the coastal plain and Zululand, in , where up to occurred in
elsewhere (Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov ). a single flock. These birds could have been
natural dispersers from Zanzibar or more
J likely escaped cage-birds. P. A. Clancey (pers.
Rose-ringed Parakeets are fairly common comm. , and T. B. Oatley pers.
around Tokyo in central Honshu, and breed in comm. ) said that Rose-ringed Parakeets
considerable numbers in Osaka, Nagoya, and were also established and breeding in the Bur-
Tokyo, and as far south as the Ehima Prefec- man Bush at Durban, where they were first
ture on Shikoku, and Miyazaki-ken in south- observed in and where by the early s
ern Kyushu. Since , a large communal flocks of up to were not uncommon, and
roost of individuals has been established the species is probably increasing (Maclean
at Tokyo Kogyo Daigaku (Brazil , , ). Since the Rose-ringed Parakeet is
Eguchi & Amano ). The OSJ () lists preadapted to arid and semi-arid savanna, it
P. k. manillensis (southern India and Sri Lanka) has the potential to extend its current range
as breeding in central Honshu (Chiba, Tokyo). into the drier regions of South (and southern)
Africa (Brooke , Richardson et al. ).
S According to Weissenbacher & Allan (),
Escaped Rose-ringed Parakeets were said by flocks of adult and juvenile Rose-ringed
Medway & Wells () to have established Parakeets had occurred in and around Johan-
breeding colonies in Singapore. Their survival nesburg since ; whether these colonies
is confirmed by the AOU () and Wells survive is uncertain.
().
T (Z)
E Mackworth-Praed & Grant () say that
Rose-ringed Parakeets of the form P. k. Rose-ringed Parakeets of the form borealis
manillensis from southern India and Sri Lanka (Pakistan and India to China) were intro-
(Goodman ) escaped from Giza zoo duced to Zanzibar before , where they still
between and , and are said to have survive (AOU ) in and around Zanzibar
been already abundant when others were set town.
free in in the Egyptian delta (Nicholl
). By they were apparently well estab- U S
lished in and around Cairo and at El Giza. By Small numbers of Rose-ringed Parakeets,
they had spread to Zamalek, where believed to be of the form manillensis (south-
breeding was confirmed, and by the middle of ern India and Sri Lanka), occur in Florida and
the decade several hundred birds were said California. The earliest recorded breeding
to be established in the Cairo/Giza locality record for Florida was in in North
(Cramp et al. ). The birds’ survival is con- Miami, Collier County but prior breeding is
firmed by the AOU (). believed to have occurred. Although Steven-
son & Anderson () considered that the
K species was established in Dade, Collier, and
Rose-ringed Parakeets were found to be Dixie Counties, James (), who lists it as
breeding in the Nairobi National Park in occurring in North Miami, suggests there was
. These may have been escaped cage-birds no well-established breeding population. The
(Cunningham van Someren ) or possibly AOU () says that Rose-ringed Parakeets
naturally occurring vagrants (Forshaw ). are established in small numbers in Dade,
Collier, and Dixie Counties.
S A A small colony of Rose-ringed Parakeets
Vincent () mentioned that Rose-ringed that may have been established near Los
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Psittacidae (Cockatoos and Parrots)
Angeles, California in had died out naturally on Mauritius, they were in fact
by (Hardy ). By the mid-s, introduced by man. Carié () records that
however, another population of about – some escaped from an aviary in Grand Port
became established in Santa Clara County. Louis in about , where they rapidly
Small (: ) said that they occurred increased and became established in native
principally ‘in the vicinity of Pt Dume and lowland forest (especially the Macabé Forest)
nearby Zuma Canyon LA, where more in and around the Black River Gorges in the
than birds reside. A few occur at the southwest. Carié () also recorded another
Los Angeles County Arboretum …‘. Garrett population at Pamplemousses, and Guérin
(: ) describes P. krameri as present (–), who said that the former popula-
tion had spread across Mahébourg Bay to
in coastal Los Angeles County, mainly in Pointe d’Esny and Beau Vallon, considered
Malibu (especially lower Zuma Canyon), that the birds were still centred on St Louis
Playa del Rey, and Westchester. There is a
and Pamplemousses, as also did Rountree et
small population in the San Gabriel Val-
al. (), who added that they were also to be
ley (Temple City) and scattered reports
from other areas. … The population in
found on coastal plains in the south and
lower Zuma Canyon has diminished southeast and at Alma and Quartier Militaire.
from thirty or more individuals to eleven Newton () recorded them prior to
or fewer since the mid-s … The over- also at Reduit and Vacoar, and regarded them
all population in the greater Los Angeles as more widely distributed than had Rountree
area is estimated at > individuals. et al. (). James () recorded them as
widely established in suitable habitats. See
Although Sibley () says that Rose- also Sinclair & Langrand .
ringed Parakeets are found in both Florida
and California, the AOU () makes no Impact: Cheke () and others (e.g. Feare
mention of them in the latter state, but says ), have drawn attention to the potential
that since a small population has existed threat posed by P. krameri to the endemic Mau-
in Hampton, Virginia. ritius Parakeet P. echo (classified by the World
Conservation Union as Critically Endangered)
C I where the two species occur sympatrically, as
Perez () recorded the first breeding of in the Macabé Forest. Although no hybridisa-
escaped P. krameri in on Gran Canaria, tion is known to have taken place, nest site
where a decade later Trujillo Ramirez () competition is believed to occur.
found the species in Maspalomas, Ayaguares The Grey-headed Lovebird Agapornis
and Los Palmitos Park. Small numbers of canus, introduced from Madagascar, was once
breeding birds have since been reported from common on Mauritius, but disappeared in
Tenerife and Fuerteventura, and birds have the s when P. krameri became widely es-
been observed in Lanzarote (A. Román tablished (Cheke , Jones , ). The
Muñoz in Martí & del Moral ). Rose-ringed Parakeet would have competed
with A. canus for maize (Guérin –,
C V I Jones , ), although as Jones ()
According to Mackworth-Praed & Grant points out, the latter died out on Réunion and
(), Rose-ringed Parakeets were probably Rodrigues in the absence of the former.
introduced to the Cape Verde Islands. Some local damage to maize Zea mays crops
The species is, however, not referred to by by Rose-ringed Parakeets has been reported
Bannerman & Bannerman (). on Mauritius (Benedict ).
M I S I
Although Gallagher & Woodcock () Although it has been suggested that P. krameri
indicate that Rose-ringed Parakeets occur could be a natural colonist in the Seychelles, it
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Naturalised Birds of the World
is known that at least one introduction was RBBP ), where a population has yet to
made (in ), and other birds may have also become established.
arrived on ships from India. It is now a breed-
ing resident on Mahé (Skerrett et al. ). B
Alexandrine Parakeets have been recorded in
Impact: If a viable population were to develop the wild in Bahrain since , and from
in the Seychelles, Rose-ringed Parakeets could small flocks have been regularly reported in
restore an important part of the natural seed gardens in Busaytin, Muharraq, southeastern
dispersal and pollinator niche that is essential Manama, and the Sehla area of Manama,
to the ecosystem of the archipelago and which where Hirschfeld & King () believed they
was lost with the extinction of the endemic were likely to become established. This is
parakeet P. wardi (Skerrett et al. ). confirmed by Jennings ().
H I J
Munro () indicated that escaped The OSJ () says that Alexandrine Para-
Rose-ringed Parakeets had occurred in the keets breed in Tokyo, central Honshu.
Hawaiian Islands (principally on Oahu) for
many years without becoming permanently S A
established. In the s about were Jennings () lists this species as also breed-
observed near Kalaheo on Kauai, and in ing in Jeddah.
Paton et al. () found the species in
Hanapepe Valley and near Kukuiolono on U A E
Kauai and confirmed breeding. Pratt et al. One or two pairs of Alexandrine Parakeets
() recorded very local breeding in the have bred around the fort at Abu Dhabi and
Hanapepe Valley, Kauai; Waimanalo, Oahu; the species occurs throughout the year at
and Hilo, Hawaii, but said the birds were only Zabeel and other places in Dubai and in Abu
well established on Kauai. Pratt () and the Dhabi, where Richardson () believed
AOU () confirmed the species’ presence there were several breeding populations. This
on these three islands. is confirmed by Jennings ().
Alexandrine Parakeet Grey-headed Lovebird
Psittacula eupatria Agapornis canus
Natural Range: From E Afghanistan to Natural Range: Madagascar.
Bangladesh, E Assam, N Burma, N and W Naturalised Range: Indian Ocean: ?Seychelles
Thailand and Indochina. Also Sri Lanka Is; ?Comoros Is.
and Andaman Is.
Naturalised Range: Europe: ?British Isles. Asia: S I
Bahrain; Japan; ?Saudi Arabia; UAE. Grey-headed Lovebirds were introduced to
Mahé in the Seychelles in , where they
B I became abundant. In the s they were still
Between and one or two pairs of very common, but thereafter suffered a
Alexandrine Parakeets out of a population of dramatic decline and became rare except in
around a dozen bred successfully at Fazacker- Victoria, Port Launay, Anse la Mouche and
ley, Merseyside (Ogilvie & RBBP –). Anse Boileau in the west. A small colony,
In and hybrid P. eupatria x P. descended from a separate introduction,
krameri birds nested successfully at Sidcup in became established on the island of Silhouette
Greater London (Butler , Ogilvie & (Penny , Diamond & Feare ).
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:35 PM Page 131
Psittacidae (Cockatoos and Parrots)
wild in the former country by the mid- to late
s. Yellow-collared Lovebirds colonised
residential parts of Nairobi, while Fischer’s
Lovebirds settled around Lake Naivasha and
some other localities (Cunningham van
Someren , , Zimmerman , Ellis
). In about , both species became
established on the coast near Mombasa
(especially at Nyali Beach) where hybridis-
ation has occurred (Barlass ).
Impact: In agricultural districts, damage to
grain crops (especially millet) has been
recorded (Long , Lever ).
Blue-and-Yellow Macaw
Ara ararauna
Grey-headed Lovebird Natural Range: E Panama S to Paraguay, S
Brazil and N Argentina.
C I Naturalised Range: North America: ?West
Grey-headed Lovebirds have been introduced Indies.
to the Comoros archipelago, where by the late
s they were quite common in cultivated W I
and open country on Anjouan and Mayotte T. Silva (pers. comm. ) reported that this
and occurred in smaller numbers on Moheli species had recently been observed in the wild
and Grand Comore (Peters , Benson in Puerto Rico, but that no breeding had
). yet been recorded. Successful breeding and
establishment was first reported by Pérez-
Rivera (). This species is not mentioned
by Raffaele et al. ().
Fischer’s Lovebird
Agapornis fischeri
Natural Range: Rwanda and Burundi to NW Chestnut-fronted Macaw
Tanzania. Ara severus
Natural Range: Panama S to E Venezuela,
Yellow-collared Lovebird N Bolivia, N and C Brazil and the Guianas.
Agapornis personatus Naturalised Range: North America: USA.
Natural Range: NE and C Tanzania. U S
Naturalised Range: Africa: Kenya. According to O. T. Owre (pers. comm. ,
), Chestnut-fronted Macaws had for
K several years been nesting successfully around
Fischer’s and Yellow-collared Lovebirds, Miami in Dade County, Florida, where he es-
introduced to Kenya from Tanzania as cage- timated the population to number at least .
birds, were established and breeding in the Troops & Dilley (: ) said that ‘Paired
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Naturalised Birds of the World
the wild in England at Bromley in Greater
London in , and in at nearby
Beckenham. In a nest containing four
eggs was found in Bromley (Butler ,
Butler et al. ). Since this species can
survive at high elevations in South America,
the climate of southern England should not
prevent its establishment there.
S
Breeding has been recorded in four -km
squares in Catalonia (ICO )
U S
Since the early s, Blue-crowned Parakeets
have occurred in the upper Florida Keys,
where they may be breeding (Robertson &
Woolfenden , James , Kaufman
, Sibley ). Garrett () recorded
flocks of up to regularly in the west-central
San Fernando Valley in California, especially
at Northridge, and others in the Simi Valley,
Ventura County; in Redondo Beach; and in
the San Gabriel Valley in Monrovia: the total
Los Angeles population was estimated at
fewer than individuals. This species is not
Fischer’s Lovebird (above) and included by the AOU ().
Yellow-collared Lovebird (below)
birds have been present in Miami for several
years. Numerous nest sites have been Mitred Parakeet
documented’. Nevertheless, Stevenson & Aratinga mitrata
Anderson () and James () claimed
that there is no evidence for establishment, Natural Range: C Peru to NW Argentina.
although Sibley () lists the species as oc- Naturalised Range: Europe: Spain. North
curring mainly in Florida. See also AOU (). America: USA.
S
A population of – birds is established
Blue-crowned Parakeet in Barcelona and others probably breed in
Aratinga acuticaudata Gerona. A group of five individuals has been
present in Mallorca (Balearic Islands) since
Natural Range: N Venezuela, NE Colombia, S (J. Clavell in Martí & del Moral ).
and NE Brazil, E Bolivia, N Argentina, W
Uruguay. U S
Naturalised Range: Europe: ?British Isles; Mitred Parakeets were present in Long Beach,
?Spain. North America: USA. Los Angeles County, California, by
(Garrett , Johnston & Garrett ).
B I Small () recorded flocks of up to in the
Blue-crowned Parakeets were first noted in San Francisco and Sacramento areas, in
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Psittacidae (Cockatoos and Parrots)
downtown Los Angeles, near Pt Dume, on Pt fifteenth-century tower beside the Botanical
Fermin, in the San Gabriel Valley and in west- Gardens (Murgui ). The species also
ern San Diego County, and believed they were occasionally breeds in Barcelona (J. Clavell in
then the most numerous psittacid in the Los Martí & del Moral ).
Angeles area. Mitred Parakeets were reported
by Gallagher () in Malibu (especially U S
Zuma Canyon and Pt Dume), west Los Ange- Troops & Dilley () reported attempted
les, Culver City, Venice, central Los Angeles, breeding by this species in Miami, Florida,
Manhattan Beach, Redondo Beach, San where James () confirms its presence in
Pedro, Long Beach, Huntington Beach, Dade, Monroe and Palm Beach Counties. In
Highland Park, Temple City, Arcadia and El California it was not mentioned by Hardy
Monte. Flocks of up to were observed, () and was only recorded sporadically by
and the total population in the Los Angeles Johnston & Garrett (). More recently,
area was estimated at . small flocks have been observed in Temple
Kaufman () and Sibley () say that City and adjacent Monrovia, and in Redondo
A. mitrata also occurs in Florida. The AOU Beach, where the greater Los Angeles popula-
() makes no mention of this species. tion has been tentatively estimated by Garrett
() at about . This species is not
included by the AOU (), although Sibley
() lists it as occurring mainly in Florida
Green Parakeet and California.
Aratinga holochlora
Natural Range: Mexico (including Socorro I.),
and E Guatemala to N Nicaragua. Orange-fronted Parakeet
Naturalised Range: North America: USA. Aratinga canicularis
U S Natural Range: Pacific slope of Mexico to W
Green Parakeets are established in large Costa Rica.
numbers (Kaufman ) in the lower Rio Naturalised Range: North America: USA;
Grande Valley in southern Texas, probably as West Indies.
a result of introductions (AOU ) but
perhaps partly as a consequence of natural U S
vagrancy from Mexico (Sibley ). T. Silva According to Owre (: ), Orange-
(pers. comm. ) referred to successful fronted Parakeets have been ‘reported from
breeding in Texas near Corpus Christi. throughout the Miami area [of Florida] and
from northward along the Atlantic Coastal
Ridge’, where breeding was suspected. Troops
& Dilley () say that Orange-fronted
Red-masked Parakeet Parakeets were believed to be breeding in
Aratinga erythrogenys Miami and Fort Lauderdale, Florida. The
AOU () quotes Stevenson & Anderson
Natural Range: W Ecuador, NW Peru. () as saying that reports from Florida are
Naturalised Range: Europe: Spain. North based on escaped cage-birds. Peterson ()
America: USA. records this species as also occurring locally in
southern California.
S
Since Red-masked Parakeets have been W I
established in Valencia where about a dozen ‘Introduced to Puerto Rico, probably in the
pairs now breed and roost in holes in the s, this species is locally uncommon at
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Cabezas de San Juan near Fajardo where it W I
occurs in small numbers’ (Raffaele et al. : Salvadori (–), quoting Graf von
). The species’ presence in Puerto Rico is Berlepsch, said that Brown-throated Parakeets
confirmed by the AOU (). were introduced to St Thomas in the Virgin
Islands before the s (apparently from
Curaçao where the subspecies is the nominate
pertinax), where a century later the popula-
Brown-throated Parakeet tion was widespread and numbered about
Aratinga pertinax (Forshaw ). T. Silva (pers. comm.
) believed that the birds had not been
Natural Range: Panama S to N and E introduced by man but had probably arrived
Colombia and N Brazil and the Guianas, naturally as storm-borne vagrants. Brown-
including Aruba, Curaçao, Bonaire, throated Parakeets are today fairly common
Tortuga and Margarita Is. residents, particularly in the east. From St
Naturalised Range: North America: ?USA; Thomas the birds spread naturally to Tortola,
West Indies. St John, Puerto Rico, Culebra, Vieques, Saba
and Dominica. Brown-throated Parakeets are
U S uncommon on Saba, where there appear to be
According to Owre (: ), the Brown- two separate colonies, one at Wall’s Bay and
throated Parakeet ‘is reported to have bred at the other in the Bottom, and on Dominica
Key West, Florida [in –], and there are (Raffaele et al. ). The populations on the
increasing reports of the species in the Miami other islands have died out (Wiley , AOU
area’. Troops & Dilley () found this ). The species has recently been recorded
species to be becoming increasingly common on Guadeloupe and Martinique (Raffaele et
around Miami, where the AOU () quotes al. ).
Stevenson & Anderson () as saying that
reports from Florida are based on escaped
cage-birds.
Nanday Parakeet (Black-hooded
Parakeet; Nanday Conure)
Nandayus nenday
Natural Range: SE Bolivia and SW Brazil to
C Paraguay and N Argentina.
Naturalised Range: Europe: ?Spain. Asia:
Israel. North America: USA; ?West Indies.
Atlantic Ocean: Canary Is.
S
Four pairs nested in Málaga province in ,
and breeding has also occurred in the Llobre-
gat Delta and perhaps elsewhere in Barcelona
(J. Clavell in Martí & del Moral ).
I
Nanday Parakeets first appeared in Israel in
Emeq Hefer and south to the Carmel (Pardes
Hanna and Binymina) in the s,
becoming established there during the s
Brown-throated Parakeet (A Keller, pers. comm. to Mendelssohn
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Psittacidae (Cockatoos and Parrots)
), presumably originally as escaped cage- San Gabriel Valley, Huntington Beach, Or-
birds. ange County, the Palos Verdes Peninsula and
the San Joaquin County foothills (Vuilleu-
U S mier , Johnston & Garrett , Small
Hardy (: –) says that ‘this South , Garrett , AOU , Kaufman
American species has been observed for , Sibley ). Small () estimated
several years in Loma Linda, San Bernardino the Californian population at fewer than ;
County [California]’, where Fisk & Crabtree Garrett () said the total was over .
() believed the breeding colony was Nanday Parakeets are also established and
derived from birds that escaped from captivity breeding in St Petersburg, Dade County, near
in Yucaipa in . In the s and s Miami, Florida (Troops & Dilley ,
birds were seen in Pasadena, west Los Angeles Robertson & Woolfenden , James ,
and the Palos Verdes Peninsula (Los Angeles AOU , Kaufman , Sibley ).
County) and at Moss Landing, Monterey
County. By the s, Nanday Parakeets were W I
established in residential areas and neighbour- Although T. Silva (pers. comm. ) said that
ing canyon bottoms dominated by California Nanday Parakeets were not uncommon in
Sycamores Platanus racemosa from Brentwood, Puerto Rico (Mayaguez), Raffaele et al. (:
western Los Angeles to Pacific Palisades, and ) reported the species to be ‘Rare and local
from central Malibu to lower Zuma Canyon. on Puerto Rico where it was introduced
They have also been reported from Culver probably in the early s. The species
City and Rancho Park, West Los Angeles, the occurs in very small numbers primarily along
the northeastern coast’. The AOU (: )
says only that the species is ‘widely reported’
in Puerto Rico.
C I
According to J. Clavell (in Martí & del Moral
), Nanday Parakeets may breed in the
Canaries.
Monk Parakeet
Myiopsitta monachus
Natural Range: Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay,
Uruguay and N and W Argentina.
Naturalised Range: Europe: Belgium; British
Isles; Czech Republic; ?Germany; Italy;
?The Netherlands; ?Portugal; Spain. North
America: USA; Canada; West Indies. South
America: ?Venezuela. Atlantic Ocean:
Canary Is.
B
Released and escaped Monk Parakeets had by
formed a colony of – breeding pairs
in Brussels (Rabosee et al. , Truffi &
Nanday Conure Št̂astný ).
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Naturalised Birds of the World
B I breeding pairs of Monk Parakeets in The
Ogilvie & RBBP () reported the estab- Netherlands in –, where Truffi &
lishment in of a breeding colony of Št̂astný () regard the population as non-
Monk Parakeets at Borehamwood in viable.
Hertfordshire, which had increased to ,
including five or six breeding pairs, by the fol- S; P
lowing year (Ogilvie & RBBP ). (Myiop- Monk Parakeets are well established and
sitta monachus is the only parrot among over spreading in Spain, where the Atlas
species that builds a large communal nest found a population of at least , pairs,
of sticks, in which several pairs of birds can which is increasing by some % annually
breed, and which is also used for roosting). (A. Román Muñoz in Martí & del Moral
This colony had further increased to , ). Monk Parakeets were first recorded in
including seven breeding pairs, by (But- the wild in Barcelona in (Batllori & Nos
ler , Ogilvie & RBBP ). Previous ). By a total of were counted in
colonies in Devon (–) and Cheshire Catalonia, principally in coastal areas near
(–) have died out (Butler ). Barcelona, and in – nests were
noted in the city. In – nests were
C R found at sites in Barcelona (Clavell et al.
The population of escaped and released Monk , Sol et al. , Truffi & Štastný , Sol
Parakeets in the town of Sázava and the ) including Ciutadella (Langley ),
Sázava River valley in central Bohemia num- and in nests were counted in the city,
bered in , and by had risen to where the birds were almost ubiquitous
(Žoha , Truffi & Št̂astný ). (J. Clavell in Mayer ). The Atlas
(Martí & del Moral ) similarly found
G pairs in Catalonia, where the rate of increase
Although Truffi & Š t̂ astný () say that
Monk Parakeets have not succeeded in
establishing viable populations in Germany,
Gebhardt () lists them as having been first
introduced in and as established locally.
I
Since a colony of escaped or released
Monk Parakeets has been established in
Genoa, where the population numbers about
–. Since the early s, another small
colony has been present in Friuli (Udine),
where ten birds were counted in . At least
pairs have bred regularly since in the
Pastrengo zoo-park (Truffi & Št̂astný ).
Biondi et al. () identified two breeding
colonies in Infernetto-Castlefusano and Ostia
Antica-Dragona, while Bertolino ()
recorded nesting in Piemonte at Saint
Giovanni de Busca in . Truffi & Št̂astný
() said a colony at Lake Maggiore is not
self-sustaining.
T N
Lensink (a) lists between one and ten Monk Parakeet
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Psittacidae (Cockatoos and Parrots)
has been –% annually since the s. () found the species to be widely
Other large concentrations noted by Martí & distributed in southern Florida, with smaller
del Moral () are pairs in Andalucía populations in suburban habitats on the east
(chiefly along the coast in Málaga province) coast from Jacksonville, Duval County, to
and in coastal Valencia ( pairs). There Plantation Key, Monroe County. Monk Para-
are also populations in the Balearic Islands, keets also breed in the Tampa–St Petersburg
especially in Mallorca but also in Menorca region and elsewhere on the Gulf coast.
and Ibiza. The AOU (: ) described Myiopsitta
Away from the coast, Monk Parakeets have monachus as:
nested in Madrid since around , where
although Pascual & Aparicio () said the Introduced and established in the eastern
population did not exceed a dozen birds, at United States from Illinois, Michigan,
least nine nests were found in (editorial southern Quebec, southern New York,
comment in Mayer ). The Madrid popu- Connecticut and Rhode Island south to
lation was at least pairs at the time of the New Jersey, with individual reports west
Atlas. Langley () recorded the and south to California, Oregon, Idaho,
species as abundant in Casa de Campo, Oklahoma, Kentucky, and Virginia
Madrid, and as also occurring in Portugal. (control measures in progress in several
Langley () estimated the total localities); and in Texas [and] Florida.
European population (including the Canary
Islands) at over , pairs. The birds in southern Quebec, Canada,
presumably represent a natural dispersal from
U S; C one of the northeastern states.
Free-flying Monk Parakeets were first Kaufman (), Sibley (), and Peter-
reported in the United States in New York in son () reported breeding in Connecticut,
, where nesting occurred in . New York, Florida, Texas, Illinois (Chicago),
Successful breeding was confirmed in Florida Oregon and elsewhere.
in or before (Owre ); Michigan All free-flying Monk Parakeets in North
(); Ohio, Oklahoma, North Carolina, America are descended from escaped or
North Dakota and Nebraska (); and released cage-birds. The population was esti-
Texas () (see e.g. Niedermeyer & Hickey mated in the mid-s to number several
). In the late s/early s, Monk thousand (S Pruett-Jones in James ).
Parakeets were seen in Connecticut, New
Jersey, Pennsylvania and Massachusetts (Clark Impact: In their native range Monk Parakeets
, Devine & Smith , Olivieri & are extremely destructive to a wide variety of
Pearson ), and by the mid-s the crops. In the United States they feed on
species was said to occur in southern and maize, wheat, sorghum, barley, oats, passion-
eastern states from Texas, Alabama and fruit, citrus fruits, tomatoes, figs, apricots,
Florida north to Wisconsin and Maine. Sev- plums, persimmons, loquats, pears, grapes,
eral small colonies became established in mulberries, peaches and cherries. Shields et al.
Chicago, Illinois, where T Silva (pers. comm. () observed that in New Jersey young
) believed many may die in severe winters. American Elms Ulmus americanus had the top
On the west coast, Hardy () reported a metre of their crown completely stripped
number of short-lived populations in the of buds, flowers, and fruits. Many willows
early s in southern California (see also Salix spp. also suffered considerable damage,
Johnston & Garrett , Garrett ). probably due to their utilization by the birds
In an eradication programme for food and nesting material.
considerably reduced both the number and
distribution of Monk Parakeets in the United W I
States (Small ). Nevertheless, James Although Bond () makes no mention of
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Monk Parakeets in the West Indies, Raffaele et
al. (: ) say the species was:
Introduced to Puerto Rico, probably dur-
ing the s, it is common around El
Morro in Old San Juan, the Isla Grande
Reserve in Santurce and on the campus of
the University of Puerto Rico in Río
Piedras. It is also fairly common in the
Luquillo Beach–Fajardo area and uncom-
mon elsewhere on the coast. The species
is expanding its range on the island. A
feral breeding population exists in the
Cayman Islands in George Town on
Grand Cayman. Monk Parakeet is rare on
Guadeloupe where there is one active nest
site …. The population on Eleuthera in
the Bahamas, first recorded about ,
appears to be extirpated.
Green-rumped Parrotlet
The AOU () lists Myiopsitta monachus
as introduced to and established on all the Old Harbour around ; thereafter they
above islands, and also in the Dominican expanded their range and became ‘widespread
Republic [Hispaniola]. in rather open country in lowlands on the
southern side of the island’, and also in
V natural forests and cultivated localities in
Ulloa & Badillo ) refer to the risk posed upland areas. In the early s they were
by the introduction of Myiopsitta monachus to also introduced to Barbados, where they
Venezuela, but do not indicate if the birds are became rare and were decreasing (Bond ,
established and breeding. AOU ). They have also been introduced,
unsuccessfully, to Martinique (Raffaele et al.
C I ).
Monk Parakeets are common and increasing
in Tenerife and Gran Canaria, and have also
been reported on Fuerteventura, La Gomera
and La Palma (A. Román Muñoz in Martí & Canary-winged Parakeet
del Moral ). (White-winged Parakeet)
Brotogeris versicolurus
Natural Range: SE Colombia and NE Peru to
Green-rumped Parrotlet S French Guiana and CN Brazil.
Forpus passerinus
Natural Range: N Colombia and N Venezuela Yellow-chevroned Parakeet
S through the Guianas to Brazil. Brotogeris chiriri
Naturalised Range: North America: West
Indies. Natural Range: N, C, and S Bolivia, Paraguay,
N Argentina to NE, C and SE Brazil.
W I
Bond (: ) says that Green-rumped Naturalised Range: North America: USA;
Parrotlets were introduced to Jamaica near West Indies.
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Psittacidae (Cockatoos and Parrots)
U S
These two forms were previously considered
as conspecific, but were split by Collar ()
on the grounds of morphological differences
and near sympatry (Sibley & Monroe ).
By the early s, Canary-winged Para-
keets, imported as cage-birds, were established
in San Pedro and the nearby Palos Verdes
Peninsula, Los Angeles County, and in River-
side County, California (Hardy ), and in
breeding was recorded at Pt Fermin, San
Pedro. Since the s, when the species had
spread over much of the Los Angeles basin, B.
versicolurus has been gradually replaced in
southern California by B. chiriri (Johnston &
Garrett ), and flocks of parakeets in the
Los Angeles basin have been composed Canary-winged Parakeet
principally or exclusively of the latter species
(Garrett ). Today, Yellow-chevroned Para- the source, and thus in species, of birds
keets are widely distributed in the Los Angeles imported into the United States (Johnston &
Basin, from south-central and downtown Los Garrett ). See also: AOU (), Kauf-
Angeles westward to West Hollywood and man (), Sibley (), Peterson ().
Beverly Hills and northward to Highland
Park, Eagle Rock, South Pasadena and San Impact: In Miami, Canary-winged Parakeets
Marino. Populations also occur from San were said by Owre () to be damaging
Pedro and the Palos Verdes Peninsula north to Mango Mangifera indica and other fruit
Redondo Beach and Torrance (Garrett ). crops.
The southern California population of both
species was estimated by Small () at W I
probably less than . Garrett () put the Bond () and Raffaele et al. () said that
Yellow-chevroned Parakeet population at a in the s B. versicolurus was introduced to
minimum of and that of the Canary- Puerto Rico, where Forshaw () recorded a
winged Parakeet at not more than . population of several hundred and where
From the s, Canary-winged Parakeets the species is now locally common with
also maintained wild populations in Florida, flocks exceeding , individuals. It has also
largely in Sarasota and Tampa–St Petersburg been recently recorded from the Dominican
along the Gulf coast and between Miami and Republic in Hispaniola (Raffaele et al. ).
Fort Pierce on the Atlantic coast (James ).
In , nearly were counted at a roost in
Coconut Grove, and the total population in
the Miami metropolitan area was estimated Hispaniola Parrot
at between , and , birds. By , Amazona ventralis
when flocks several hundred strong were not
uncommon, Canary-winged Parakeets were Natural Range: Hispaniola and satellite
said to be the commonest parrot in Florida. In islands.
recent years, B. chiriri has, as in southern Naturalised Range: North America: ?USA;
California, almost entirely replaced B. West Indies.
versicolurus in southern Florida (Robertson &
Woolfenden ; Smith & Smith ). This U S
temporal replacement is a result in changes in This species frequently occurs in the wild in
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Florida, but establishment is unproven (Sibley in Temple City (Mabb a). Large popula-
). tions are also present in the northern San
Fernando Valley (Panorama City and Mission
W I Hills west to Northridge and north to
According to Forshaw (), a shipment of Sylmar), with a smaller colony on the Malibu
Hispaniola Parrots refused entry to Puerto coast near Pt Dume and the lower Zuma
Rico was liberated off the port of Mayaguez in Canyon. Frequent breeding has been
the west of the island, where several hundred confirmed in the San Gabriel Valley (Mabb
became successfully established. They b), in Orange County (Gallagher )
are today locally common in forests and and at Pt Dume, Malibu (Garrett ). The
woodlands of the foothills, especially in last-named author conservatively estimated
western and north-central localities (Raffaele the California population at , individuals.
et al. ). Vuilleumier (: ) describes the population
According to the AOU (), Hispaniola as ‘very small and geographically restricted’.
Parrots have also been successfully introduced Owre (: ) said that Red-crowned
to St Croix and St Thomas in the Virgin Parrots were ‘the most abundant of the
Islands. amazons [members of the genus Amazona]
now present in southeastern Florida, They
have been reported from the Florida Keys and
are commonly seen throughout metropolitan
Red-crowned Parrot Miami and in Fort Lauderdale. Troops &
(Green-cheeked Parrot) Dilley () found A. viridigenalis to be fairly
common in urban areas of Miami and Fort
Amazona viridigenalis
Lauderdale, especially in Coconut Grove,
Natural Range: NE Mexico. Coral Gables, South Miami and along the
Naturalised Range: North America: USA; Middle River and at Colohatchee Park in Fort
West Indies. Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is. Lauderdale. The AOU () and Kaufman
() confirm the species’ presence in Dade
U S and Monroe Counties in southern Florida.
‘A breeding population in southern Texas
(lower Rio Grande Valley, recorded northwest
to Falcon Dam) is most likely established
from escapes from captivity, but a wild origin
for some of the individuals cannot be ruled
out’ (AOU : ). Sibley () and
Peterson () concur with this assessment.
First recorded in California in , Hardy
() considered Red-crowned Parrots to be
both extremely local and rare, but the species
has been increasing in urban Orange County
since the early s, where Gallagher ()
recorded flocks of – in Santa Ana, Or-
ange, Tustin, Anaheim and Fullerton. Small
() reported small flocks in the Hacienda
Heights and Monrovia areas and in San Diego
County, and estimated the state population at
around . The principal centre of this
species in California is from Altadena,
Pasadena and Highland Park east to Glen-
dora, and up to birds have been estimated Red-crowned Parrot
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:35 PM Page 141
Psittacidae (Cockatoos and Parrots)
W I (Although A. oratrix, A. ochrocephala, and the
‘Introduced to Puerto Rico probably in the Yellow-naped Parrot A. auropalliata have
late s, the species occurs in small num- frequently been regarded as conspecific,
bers very locally around the coast. Near Sali- Dickinson () follows the AOU () in
nas, as many as birds have been reported treating all three as separate species.)
in a single flock’ (Raffaele et al. : ).
U S
H I Troops & Dilley (: ) recorded A. ochro-
‘… a small group has persisted since in cephala in Florida as ‘Established in local
the Hawaiian Islands (on Oahu)’ (AOU colonies in Coconut Grove, Coral Gables,
). This population is not mentioned by South Miami and at Colohatchee Park and
Pratt et al. (). along the Middle Road in Fort Lauderdale’.
In southern California few attempts have
been made until recently to distinguish
between A. oratrix and A. ochrocephala, and
Lilac-crowned Parrot the introduction of both species was reported
Amazona finschi indiscriminately, with the birds occurring
widely in the western San Gabriel Valley, west
Natural Range: W Mexico. Los Angeles and elsewhere, where Hardy
Naturalised Range: North America: USA. (: ) reported them to be ‘locally fairly
common … in flocks … to an estimated
U S individuals’ over a wide area, including
Since at least Lilac-crowned Parrots have Glendale, Alhambra, Pepperdine College,
been established and breeding in the San north Pasadena, Westwood, west Los
Gabriel Valley of California, with smaller Angeles, Lomita, San Bernardino, Brent-
numbers in the northern San Fernando Valley wood, Altadena, Glendora, Ontario, Pomona
and the Malibu coast (Zuma) to Santa Monica/ and Loma Linda. Peterson () reported
West Los Angeles (Peterson , Small , local breeding in and around Los Angeles and
Garrett , Kaufman , Sibley ). in the western San Gabriel Valley, and that the
This population, which is not mentioned by birds were also frequently seen elsewhere.
the AOU (), was estimated by Garrett According to Small (), only A. oratrix has
() to number nearly individuals.
Yellow-headed Parrot
Amazona oratrix
Natural Range: SW and S Mexico (including
Tres Marias Is.) and Belize.
Yellow-crowned Parrot
Amazona ochrocephala
Natural Range: E Mexico to Colombia and
Bolivia east to N and W Brazil and the
Guianas.
Naturalised Range: North America: USA;
West Indies. Yellow-crowned Parrot
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Naturalised Birds of the World
been confirmed as breeding in California, It is uncommon in metropolitan San Juan in
where at one time the range of these parrots small numbers and is unrecorded elsewhere
extended from central Los Angeles and Holly- on Puerto Rico. The species is moderately
wood west to Beverly Hills and Santa Monica, widespread in central Martinique where
and from the foothills of the Santa Monica breeding occurred in ’ (Raffaele et
Mountains south through Culver City. In al. : –). The AOU () records
recent years the population has considerably probable breeding in the San Juan area,
declined, especially in the Beverly Hills, West- Mayaguez, Salinas and Río Piedras.
wood, Brentwood and Mar Vista areas;
Garrett () routinely saw flocks of ten to
Yellow-headed parrots in west Los Angeles
in the s, but only up to in the s.
The birds have, however, been recorded in CUCULIDAE
Pasadena, Monrovia, and near Arcadia, as well (CUCKOOS AND ALLIES)
as in Orange (since the s) and San Diego
Counties (Small , Gallagher ).
Recent breeding was recorded by Gallagher Smooth-billed Ani
() in Garden Grove, Orange County. Crotophaga ani
Garrett () estimated the total southern
Californian population at less than . Natural Range: C and S Florida, USA, the
West Indies (from the Bahamas to Trinidad
W I and Tobago), and from Mexico through
Raffaele et al. (: ) recorded A. oratrix as Colombia and Ecuador to Venezuela and
‘Introduced to Puerto Rico probably in the N Argentina.
early s, it is rare but known to breed. The Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Galápagos
species occurs very locally in small numbers Is.
along the north coast’, where the AOU ()
says it may be established. G I
Rosenberg et al. () and Sandler (),
from whom much of the following is derived,
have summarised the history and status of the
Orange-winged Parrot Smooth-billed Ani in the Galápagos Islands.
Amazona amazonica The species was first recorded in the archi-
pelago in the early s by Harris (),
Natural Range: N and E Colombia S to N Bo- who believed the birds were Groove-billed
livia and E through most of N S America. Anis C. sulcirostris. Although the birds’ origin
Naturalised Range: North America: ?USA; cannot be proved, it seems almost certain they
West Indies. were imported from Ecuador in the mistaken
belief that they would prey on ticks (Acarina)
U S and other parasites of cattle (Duffy ).
Populations in Dade County (James ) in Kramer (: ), however, believed the
southern Florida are likely to be escaped birds were ‘independent immigrants’ from the
birds or their descendants (Robertson & South American mainland, although Harris
Woolfenden ). Sibley () lists this () doubted the birds’ ability to make the
species as frequently encountered in Florida. ,km sea crossing.
After the initial s sightings the species
W I was not recorded again until , when it
‘Introduced to Puerto Rico probably in the was seen regularly in the farm zone (uplands)
late s and to Martinique more recently, on Santa Cruz. During the El Niño of
this species probably breeds on both islands. –, when the highest recorded rainfall in
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:35 PM Page 143
Tytonidae (Barn Owls)
the Galápagos triggered an exceptionally expand, and breeding will probably take place
successful landbird breeding season, the Ani on all islands with a humid vegetation zone
population greatly increased, and by the where insects are plentiful. Crotophaga spp.
birds were common on Santa Cruz with an are known to prey at times on nestlings and
estimated population of in the farm zone other small vertebrates, and this, combined
(Bellesteros ). During the – El with their aggressive nature, makes them a
Niño, Anis were also reported from Daphne, potential threat to native birds. They could
Genovesa, Santiago and southern Isabela, also compete for food with Galápagos Mock-
though by the late s they had not been ingbirds Nesomimus parvulus and Dark-billed
observed again on the first two islands. Since Cuckoos Coccyzus melacoryphus.
, Anis have been recorded on Floreana, Further threats posed by Smooth-billed
Pinzón, Santa Fé and San Cristóbal, and in Anis are the dispersal of alien plants, such as
on Fernandina. On Santa Cruz, Rosen- Guava Psidium guajava, to islands with a
burg et al. () estimated the population in moist vegetation zone, and the transmission
in the farm zone at , with a % of parasites and diseases such as malaria.
confidence interval of , to , individ- Nevertheless, D. Wiedenfeld (pers. comm.
uals; outside the farm zone they estimated ) said that ‘… there is no large-scale erad-
– Anis occurred in the c. ,ha high- ication effort under way nor being developed’.
land portion of the Galápagos National Park.
On southern Isabela the population was also
estimated to number between and birds.
Since the garúa (cool and misty) season
of the population of Smooth-billed TYTONIDAE (BARN OWLS)
Anis, especially on Santa Cruz, has declined
dramatically, probably due to the unusually Barn Owl
cold weather and/or drought; on Santa Cruz Tyto alba
the population in was estimated to
number around , representing a decrease Natural Range: Virtually cosmopolitan: does
since of over %. not occur in Canada, Greenland, Iceland,
According to Castro & Phillips (), northern Scandinavia, much of the
Anis then occurred in the farm zone on Is- northern Palaearctic, much of north-
abela, Santa Cruz and Floreana, with a colony central Africa, Japan, Philippines, parts of
of around a dozen on Santiago, but had been Indonesia, and New Zealand.
eradicated from Santa Fé and Pinzón. Swash Naturalised Range: Indian Ocean: Seychelles
& Still () recorded them as fairly Is. Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
common in the highlands of Isabela, Santa
Cruz, Floreana and Santiago. F. Cruz (pers. S I
comm. ) said they ‘… are numerous and On New Year’s Eve , Barn Owls of the
well established in all the inhabited islands as race affinis (Mauritania and Sudan to South
well as Santiago, Pinzón, Marchena and Pinta. Africa) were imported from South Africa and
There are plans to eradicate them from released at Union Vale on Mahé, and in
Fernandina and Genovesa’. D. Weidenfeld two further consignments of six birds each
(pers. comm. ) wrote that the Smooth- were liberated at Le Niol. The purpose of the
billed Ani ‘… is currently found on all the introduction was to control introduced Black
major islands and most of the minor ones, as Rats Rattus rattus (see Lever ). By
long as they have some vegetation. They are Barn Owls had spread to North, Silhouette
quite common, though not abundant’. and Praslin, and by to Aride; they
now occur on Mahé, Praslin, Curieuse, Aride,
Impact: As deforestation increases in the Silhouette, North and probably other granitic
Galápagos so will the Anis’ range doubtless islands (Skerrett et al. ).
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Naturalised Birds of the World
H I
Between and a total of Barn Owls
from California and Texas (T. a. pratincola)
were released at Kukuihaele on Hawaii, at
Hauula on Oahu, in western Molokai and on
Kauai (Tomich ), to control Black Rats
Rattus rattus in sugarcane plantations (see
Lever ). Today, Barn Owls are established
on all the main islands from Kauai eastwards
(Scott et al. , Pratt et al. , Stone et al.
, Pratt , AOU ).
Impact: Of Barn Owl pellets examined by
Tomich (), only nine contained traces of
Black Rats. As in the Seychelles, the potential
exists for T. alba in the Hawaiian Islands
to have a negative impact on the islands’
avifauna, including the local endemic race
of the Short-eared Owl Asio flammeus
sandwichensis (Lever , ).
Barn Owl
Impact: Barn Owls have proved singularly
ineffective in controlling Black Rats in the STRIGIDAE (OWLS)
Seychelles, preferring instead to prey on
more easily captured native birds. On Mahé, Great Horned Owl
Praslin, La Digue and Silhouette, they Bubo virginianus
contributed to the near eradication of the
local form of the White Tern Gygis alba Natural Range: from C Alaska, USA, S
candida. Diamond & Feare () recorded through Central America to C Peru, W
that on Cousin and Aride (and perhaps Bolivia and W Argentina.
elsewhere) they take White Terns, Lesser Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Marquesas
Noddies Anous tenuirostris, Audubon’s Shear- Is.
waters Puffinus lherminieri and Bridled Terns
Sterna anaethetus, and doubtless other species. M I
Fisher et al. () also implicated Barn Owls In Mgr Le Cadre acquired eight Great
in the decline, through aggressive competition Horned Owls from San Francisco (presum-
for nesting and roosting sites, of the ably B. v. saturatus or B. v. pacificus) to
endemic Seychelles Kestrel Falco araea and ‘combattre l’invasion des rats’ (see Lever )
Seychelles Scops Owl Otus insularis, classified on the island of Hiva Oa, where they became
respectively as Vulnerable and Critically fairly abundant both on the coast and inland
Endangered by the World Conservation up to ,m above sea level (Holyoak &
Union. As Feare () points out, however, Thibault ).
the decline of several other endemic species
that had been attributed to Barn Owls Impact: On Hiva Oa, Great Horned Owls
actually occurred before the alien’s arrival. have been reported to kill domestic poultry.
Skerrett et al. () say that Barn Owls are They have probably also been at least partially
accused of predation on endemic tenrecs responsible for the decline of the local
(Tenrecidae). race of the endemic White-capped Fruit
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Strigidae (Owls)
Meade-Waldo, who between and
released a total of birds in Kent. The Little
Owls in Britain today, however, are mainly
descended from a large number imported
from The Netherlands (A. n. vidalii) between
and by Lord Lilford. Little
Owls liberated in Hertfordshire (c. ) and
Yorkshire (c. and ) failed to establish,
but others set free in Sussex (–), Essex
( and ), and in Hampshire and
Yorkshire met with some success (Witherby &
Ticehurst ).
Although by the early twentieth century
Little Owls were only breeding regularly in
Northamptonshire, Bedfordshire, Rutland
and Kent, thereafter they spread more rapidly,
and by the s were found in every county
of England and Wales south of the River
Humber, apart from Cornwall and Caernar-
vonshire. These two counties were colonised
in the following decade, as were Yorkshire,
Durham and Northumberland. Westmore-
land and Cumberland (Cumbria) were
reached in the s and early s. Little
Owls have been recorded in Scotland (but not
north of Midlothian) since , but first
bred, near Eldron in Berwickshire, only in
(Glue , ). A few individuals have
Great Horned Owl been reported from Ireland but none yet from
the Isle of Man.
Dove Ptilinopus d. dupetithouarsii (Holyoak While the species was still spreading north
& Thibault ). in the s it suffered an apparent decline
in some southern and western counties,
probably due to some exceptionally harsh
winters. Between and it also
Little Owl noticeably declined in southeastern England,
Athene noctua possibly due to contamination of its prey by
toxic pesticides, and it has been slow to
Natural Range: Much of the Palaearctic region recover (pers. obs.).
N to around oN in Denmark and oN Fitter (: ) attributes the success of
in Manchuria, S to about oN in W Africa the Little Owl in Britain to the fact that in
and oN in Ethiopia and Somalia. the s there was ‘… a vacancy for a small
Naturalised Range: Europe: British Isles. diurnal, mainly insect-eating bird of prey’.
Australasia: New Zealand. Although Linn () follows Fisher ()
in claiming that the Little Owl is recorded in
B I Late Ice Age deposits in Britain, Harrison
Unsuccessful attempts to introduce Little () says that ‘A Pleistocene record from
Owls to Britain from continental Europe Chudleigh in Devon, often cited, is in fact
were made in or and in –. based on a Sparrowhawk [Accipiter nisus]
Limited success was achieved by E. G. B. bone, but it [the Little Owl] appears to have
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Naturalised Birds of the World
been present in the Mendips in the early Owls from Germany (presumably vidalii)
interglacial about , years ago. There is were imported to New Zealand by the Otago
no further evidence except for the odd Acclimatisation Society (see Lever ) by
vagrant, more frequent in the early nineteenth whom they were released in various localities
century’. (I am grateful to W. R. P. Bourne in South Island, including Canterbury.
for drawing my attention to the above By about –, Little Owls were said to
references). be established in several districts in South
Island, largely in central Otago. Thomson
Impact: In the s the Little Owl was widely (: ) said they had become ‘firmly
accused, even by such respected biologists as established in the south portion of South
C. B. Ticehurst, T. A. Coward, and J. Ritchie, Island … they are now quite common around
of predation on the chicks of domestic poul- Dunedin’. By the mid-s, Oliver ()
try and game-birds. Hibbert-Ware (–), found Little Owls to be abundant from
however, showed that the bulk of the species’ central Canterbury south to Foveaux Strait,
diet consists of largely injurious insects, with and said they had spread into North
lesser numbers of other invertebrates, Canterbury and to Stewart Island. Heather &
mammals (including such introduced pests as Robertson () reported them to be
House Mice Mus musculus, Brown Rats Rattus widespread on farmland and in towns in
norvegicus and young Rabbits Oryctolagus Nelson, Marlborough, Canterbury, Otago
cuniculus (see Lever ) and small birds. and Southland. A few occur in Westland and
Game-bird and poultry chicks are very rarely Fiordland, but there are no recent records
taken. Indeed, of the or so alien vertebrates from North or Stewart Islands.
naturalised in Britain, the Little Owl is the
only one that is actively beneficial to man. Impact: Little Owls were introduced to New
Zealand to prey on the various species of alien
N Z birds that had been introduced to control
Between and a total of Little insect pests but which had, instead, proved a
nuisance in crop-growing districts of Otago
(see Lever ). Although Thomson (:
) reported that as early as ‘several fruit
growers in Central Otago reported [Little
Owls] as having proved already a great boon
to their orchards’, the relief seems to have
been short-lived, and small birds remain a
pest of crops in Otago and Canterbury.
Although Oliver () claimed that Little
Owls may have contributed to the decline of
such endemics as New Zealand Fantails
Rhipidura fuliginosa, New Zealand Bellbirds
Anthornis melanura, New Zealand Tomtits
Petroica macrocephala and Grey Warblers
Gerygone igata, Marples () had previously
shown that, as in Britain, insects are the main
constituent of the Little Owl’s diet, and that
small birds comprise only some eight per cent
of their total food intake. Nevertheless,
Williamson and Fitter (: ) considered
that ‘The contribution of Little Owls to the
useful destruction of insects is as doubtful as
Little Owl their alleged useful effects in abating the small
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Apodidae (Swifts)
bird nuisance’. According to Druett (), on the floor. In the colony was believed
there is evidence that Little Owls have thrived to number individuals, with at least
at the expense of the native Morepork Ninox breeding pairs.
novaeseelandiae through competition for food. Since , most sightings have been made
within a km radius of the cave, suggesting
that the colony is restricted to a single
breeding site, and an apparent absence of
other suitable nesting places may limit any
APODIDAE (SWIFTS) significant expansion of the population, al-
though rumours exist of other small colonies
Marianas Swiftlet in remote parts of the Ko’olau Mountains.
Aerodramus bartschi Because of its small size, low winter
nocturnal temperatures and dampness, the
Natural Range: S Mariana Is. (Guam, Rota, cave in the North Halawa Valley is probably a
Aguiguan, Tinian, Saipan). marginal nesting site; on the other hand, there
Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian appears to be an absence of human intrusion
Is. and of cockroaches, which damage and
destroy nests in the Marianas.
H I Marianas Swiftlets were introduced to
Wiles & Woodside (), from whom much Hawaii for aesthetic reasons and, it is said, to
of the following account is derived, have control insect pests (Woodside ). In its
traced the history of A. bartschi in Hawaii. native range, where the population is believed
In May around Marianas Swiftlets to number only between , and ,
from Guam were released in the Niu Valley in individuals, the species is threatened by the
southeastern Oahu, where contrary to reports introduced Brown Tree Snake Boiga irregularis
of a lack of sightings after the release (Bowles
b, Donaghho , Berger ), the
birds were seen in the vicinity of the valley for
several months. In January , a second
shipment of about birds from Guam was
liberated at the Waimea Falls in the Waimea
Valley in northwestern Oahu. Both of these
consignments were taken from a cave on
Guam known as Firebreak .
No further observations of Swiftlets on
Oahu were made until , when Donaghho
() found around birds foraging in
the North Halawa Valley, from where, and in
adjacent localities, all subsequent sightings
have been recorded.
Shallenberger & Vaughn () discovered
the birds’ nesting cave, situated at an altitude
of m above sea level and some km from
Niu Valley and km from Waimea Falls. The
site is a small man-made tunnel, probably
excavated before the Second World War as a
potential source of irrigation; it is m in
length, .–.m wide, and .–.m high. The
cave is wet throughout the year, with water
dripping from the ceiling and lying in pools Marianas Swiftlet
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Naturalised Birds of the World
(see Lever ) and cockroaches, so the mainland where they had become common.
population on Oahu is of conservation By the early s, Laughing Kookaburras
significance. were said to be established in North Auckland
Note that the nomenclature of this species from Whangarei to Waitakerei Ranges, and
is confused: it was formerly classified as a race remained so on Kawau Island (Oliver ).
of the Uniform (or Island or Vanikoro) Swift- Wodzicki () described them as locally
let A. vanikorensis. Recent taxonomic research, rare, while Kinsky () found them on
however, has split it into three allopatric Kawau Island and between Auckland and
species, though additional investigations may Whangerei. Falla et al. () reported a small
result in further revision. Since it is not but apparently stable population between
endemic solely to Guam but to the other Cape Rodney and the Whangaparaoa
southern Mariana Islands, the vernacular Peninsula along the west coast of Hauraki
name of the Marianas Swiftlet (Dickinson Gulf. Kookaburras now occur in open
) seems more appropriate than the Guam country and on forest ecotones from near
Swiftlet (AOU , Wiles & Woodside Whangarei south to the northern Waitakere
). Earlier references (including Lever Range, especially at Glenbervie, Whangateau,
) refer to it as the Edible-nest Swiftlet. Dome Valley, Warkworth, Kaukapakapa,
Puhoi, Wenderholm and Waiwera. The
national population probably does not exceed
birds (Heather & Robertson ).
ALCEDINIDAE
(KINGFISHERS)
TYRANNIDAE
Laughing Kookaburra
Dacelo novaeguineae (TYRANT-FLYCATCHERS)
Natural Range: E Australia from the Cape York Great Kiskadee
Peninsula to SC South Australia, SW West- Pitangus sulphuratus
ern Australia and Tasmania. (The discrete
sub-population in Western Australia is Natural Range: From S Texas, USA, to
derived from the translocation of several Paraguay, Bolivia and N Argentina.
hundred birds from Victoria before Naturalised Range: Atlantic Ocean: Bermuda.
and between and : Serventy &
Whittell, –). B
Naturalised Range: Australasia: New Zealand. In , a West Indian lizard, Graham’s Anole
Anolis grahami (see Lever ), was intro-
N Z duced to Bermuda from Jamaica ‘to control
Between and several attempts were the Mediterranean fruit fly’. In about , a
made to introduce this species to New scale insect, Carulaspis minima, was acciden-
Zealand, including to Nelson, Otago, and tally imported in a shipment of nursery
Wellington. However, only one, made by Sir plants; within three years it had killed almost
George Grey (then Governor of New half of the islands’ endemic Bermuda Cedars
Zealand) to Kawau Island in Hauraki Gulf, Juniperus bermudiana, and by some %
Auckland, in the early s, was successful. had been destroyed. In an attempt to save the
Baker () gives the date of introduction as remaining trees, predatory ladybirds Cocci-
. In Thomson () was told that a nella spp. (Coleoptera) and Hymenoptera
few occurred on the coast of Kawau Island were imported to prey on the scale insects and
near Auckland, and according to Oliver () on aphids. By then, however, A. grahami was
by the late s some had crossed to the so abundant that it prevented the introduced
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Meliphagidae (Honeyeaters)
insects from becoming established. It was s showed that in Bermuda lizards
aided in this by two other alien lizards be- comprise less than % of the Kiskadee’s food,
lieved to have been introduced around , which consists principally of berries, vegetable
the Panther Anole A. bimaculatus leachii from matter, fish and the eggs and nestlings of
Antigua and the Barbados Anole A. extremus native birds. A further survey carried out a
(see Lever ), and two species of ant decade later by D. E. Samuel (, pers.
(Hymenoptera) which were themselves eaten comm. ), revealed that of Kiskadee
by lizards. stomachs analysed not one contained any
In , on the recommendation of F. J. trace of lizards. Nevertheless, according to
Simmonds of the Commonwealth Bureau of Raine (), Kiskadees in Bermuda prey on
Biological Control, and in spite of protests the endemic Rock Lizard Eumeces longirostros.
from Bermuda’s conservationists, some Although loss of habitat for urban develop-
Great Kiskadees from Trinidad (P. s. trinitatis) ment was doubtless a contributory factor, it
were released in Bermuda to try to control the seems likely that the decline of such terrestrial
lizards. Within a decade the Kiskadees had birds as the endemic White-eyed Vireo Vireo
colonised suitable habitats throughout the griseus bermudianus and Eastern Bluebird
islands and had become Bermuda’s third or Sialia sialis bermudensis (and the introduced
fourth most abundant bird (D. B. Wingate Northern Cardinal Cardinalis cardinalis) that
, pers. comm. , Crowell & Crowell occurred at this time, can be attributed at least
, pers. comm. ). in part to competition for food and predation
of their eggs and nestlings by Great Kiskadees
Impact: The introduction of the Great (D. B. Wingate pers. comm. , , ).
Kiskadee to Bermuda is a classic example of Samuel () observed Great Kiskadees using
the folly of introducing a species as a nest-boxes intended for Eastern Bluebirds as
biological controlling agent without having look-out perches, thus preventing the latter
previously researched the likely consequences. from occupying them.
The fact that P. sulphuratus is an adaptable, Great Kiskadees in Bermuda are also
generalised and opportunistic feeder with a regarded as a pest of soft fruit crops. In
catholic diet was apparently either overlooked addition, they are alleged to prey on the larvae
or ignored. A survey conducted in the early of Mosquitofish Gambusia affinis (see Lever
), which were introduced to control the
eponymous insects.
MELIPHAGIDAE
(HONEYEATERS)
Noisy Miner
Manorina melanocephala
Natural Range: NE Queensland, EC to SE
Australia. Also Tasmania.
Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Solomon Is.
S I
The Noisy Miner is said by French () and
Galbraith & Galbraith () to have been
Great Kiskadee successfully introduced to the Olu Malau
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Naturalised Birds of the World
(Three Sisters) group in the southeastern birds have continued to spread since then and
Solomon Islands. now occur in open pastures, patches of forest
and suburban areas throughout North Island
and on some offshore islands. On South
Island they occur in the east from Blenheim to
Southland, and on the west coast around
CRACTICIDAE Hokitika and the Grey and Inagua Valleys.
(BUTCHERBIRDS) Inland, they are scarce but increasing in
Marlborough, Nelson, Buller and South West-
Australian Magpie land. Both subspecies readily interbreed but
Gymnorhina tibicen hypoleuca predominates except in Hawke’s
Bay and North Canterbury, where up to %
Natural Range: SC New Guinea, Australia, are tibicen (Heather & Robertson ).
King and Flinders Is., and E Tasmania.
Naturalised Range: Australasia: New Zealand. Impact: Australian Magpies were introduced
Pacific Ocean: Fiji Is; ?Solomon Is. to New Zealand to prey on noxious insects.
They also feed on introduced House Mice
N Z Mus musculus (see Lever ), but in addition
Two forms of the Australian Magpie have prey on the eggs and nestlings of small birds as
been introduced to New Zealand, the well as on lizards and honey-producing bees.
Black-backed Magpie G. t. tibicen (coastal
southeastern Australia) and the White-backed F I
Magpie G. t. hypoleuca of eastern Tasmania According to Watling (: ):
and Flinders Island. Table lists these intro-
ductions, made between about and . On Taveuni, the Australian Magpie is a
Thomson () reported Australian Mag- common bird which was first introduced
pies to be fairly common in many parts of in the s to control the Coconut Stick
North Island from Wellington to north of Insect (Graeffea crouani), which can on
Whangarei, and four years later he found occasions be a serious pest of coconut
them to be also common north of Timaru in palms [Cocos nucifera]. There have been at
north Canterbury on South Island. By least two, and probably more, separate
there were three separate sub-populations; introductions from Australia. … some of
from the Bay of Islands to south Auckland; these birds went to plantations on islands
the southern North Island; and eastern South other than Taveuni, certainly to Vanua
Island from Kaikoura to near Dunedin. The Levu and probably also to Viti Levu, but
only on Taveuni are they established,
although they are frequently seen on the
southern coast of Vanua Levu.
Turbet () says that Australian Magpies
were then also established on the Lau Islands
southeast of Taveuni.
On Taveuni the birds are confined to
lowland plantations, mainly in the northwest,
where Pratt et al. () say they are fairly
common and that wanderers are occasionally
seen on Vanua Levu. Both the nominate
subspecies and G. t. hypoleuca have been
introduced to Fiji, where the population is
Australian Magpie now largely composite.
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Dicruridae (Drongos)
Introductions of Australian Magpies Gymnorhina tibicen to New Zealand, –.
Date Subspecies Numbers Introduced by Released Source
? ? ? Sir George Grey Kawau I., ?
Hauraki Gulf
G. t. tibicen Canterbury Acclimat- Canterbury Victoria
isation Society (A.S.)
– ? (or ) Otago A. S. Inch Clutha ?
& Dunedin
G. t. tibicen Canterbury A. S. Canterbury Victoria
G. t. tibicen Canterbury A. S. Canterbury Victoria
? Auckland A. S. Auckland ?
G. t. tibicen Canterbury A. S. Canterbury Victoria
s G. t. hypoleuca Canterbury A. S. Canterbury Tasmania
G. t. hypoleuca Large number E Dowling Glenmark Tasmania
? Auckland A. S. Auckland ?
G. t. hypoleuca Canterbury A. S. Canterbury Tasmania
G. t. hypoleuca ? Canterbury A. S. Canterbury Tasmania
? Wellington A. S. Wellington ?
G. t. hypoleuca Canterbury A. S. Canterbury Tasmania
Sources : Thomson ; Oliver .
S I widespread and abundant on both islands
Cain & Galbraith (, ) record the (Ralph & Sakai ), mostly in the lowlands
introduction of G. t. tibicen before to (Pratt et al. ).
Guadalcanal, where some were seen until at
least around : whether any survive today Impact: A decline in the population of the
is uncertain. Rota Bridled White-eye Zosterops rotensis,
classified as Critically Endangered by the
World Conservation Union, first became
apparent in the s when Black Drongos
had become abundant. The current range of
DICRURIDAE (DRONGOS) Drongos on Rota shows a negative correlation
with that of the White-eye, which now occurs
Black Drongo primarily in extensive stands of native Sabena
Dicrurus macrocercus forest (Craig & Taisacan ). Enbring et al.
() found Drongos to be abundant in the
Natural Range: SE Iran, E Afghanistan, lowlands, where White-eyes are rare, but
Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Burma to uncommon in forest areas. White-eyes seem
China, migrating in winter to SE Asia. Also particularly susceptible to predation by
Java, Bali and Taiwan. Drongos because they are very small flocking
Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Marianas Is. birds that forage in the exposed microhabit of
the woodland canopy. It is noticeable that all
M I native species too large for Drongo predation
In , the Taiwanese race (harterti) was are widespread and common on Rota (Craig
introduced by the Japanese to Rota Island in & Taisacan ). Fancy & Snetsinger (),
the southern Marianas, from where by the however, considered it highly unlikely that
early s it had spread, apparently without the largely insectivorous Black Drongo could
human assistance, to Guam, over km have been responsible for a widespread
to the south (Baker ). It soon became decline of the Bridled White-eye, and
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Naturalised Birds of the World
believed that the Drongo predation theory (see Haemig ) or as descended from
does not explain why White-eyes do not occur storm-borne waifs (Lever ), Haemig
in several blocks of apparently pristine (), from whom the following account
limestone forest at higher elevations where is derived, argues persuasively for a
Drongos are absent, nor why Micronesian pre-Columbian introduction by man.
Honeyeaters Myzomela rubrata and Rufous First made known to science as recently as
Fantails Rhipidura rufifrons have not experi- , the Tufted Jay was found by Moore
enced similar declines. Fancy & Snetsinger () to resemble the White-tailed Jay of
() concede, however, that in view of South America closely. The two species are
the very low White-eye population on Rota, very similar in appearance, the few differences
even the seemingly low rate of predation by being attributable to the Tufted Jay’s
Drongos could have a significant impact on lengthy geographic isolation and its gradual
the population of the endemic species. morphological adaptation – thus conforming
Although Baker () found Rufous to Bergmann’s and Gloger’s ecogeographic
Fantails to be common on Rota, Enbring et rules (these state respectively that there is a
al. () reported them to be less abundant tendency for the body size of endothermic
on Rota than on Saipan, Tinian, and Aquijan, animals to increase as the mean temperature
where Drongos do not occur. Fantails are, of their surroundings decreases; and that there
however, less prone to avian predation than is a tendency for the pigmentation of en-
White-eyes because they are territorial (and dotherms to darken as the mean temperature
thus more dispersed) and forage in the forest and humidity of their surroundings increase).
understorey. These conditions typify the tendency for one
species to become divided into two when it
has become separated into two discrete popu-
lations whose members no longer interbreed.
CORVIDAE
(CROWS AND JAYS)
Tufted Jay
Cyanocorax dickeyi
Natural Range: The natural range of the
White-tailed Jay C. mystacalis, the possible
ancestor of the Tufted Jay, is between
Guayaquil and Trujillo in coastal SW
Ecuador and NW Peru.
Naturalised Range: North America: Mexico.
M
The Tufted Jay occupies a very small range of
barely , sq km in the barrancos (ravines)
of the Sierra Madre Occidental in central and
northeastern Nayarit, southeastern Sinaloa
and southwestern Durango in western Mex-
ico. Some ,km north of its possible
ancestor, the White-tailed Jay C. mystacalis,
this is one of the most remarkable avian
disjunctions in the western hemisphere.
For long regarded as a relict population Tufted Jay
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Corvidae (Crows and Jays)
If the relict population and storm-borne northwestern South America should have
waif theories are discounted, Haemig () brought with them not only artefacts and a
argues convincingly for an introduction knowledge of metallurgy, but also White-
by man. The Tufted Jay’s restricted and tailed Jays, whose vivid plumage and engaging
disjunctive distribution; the fact that in habits would have enabled them to fill a dual
western Mexico it does not occur below role as both a source of feathers and as pets? As
,m, whereas the White-tailed Jay is a bird Haemig (: ) concludes, the Tufted Jay is
of the tropical lowlands; the species’ poor probably ‘… simply part of a general pattern
reproductive success, which hinders dispersal; of South American artefacts left in western
and its apparent maladaptation to its Mexico by ancient man’.
montane barranca environment, are all
strongly suggestive of a man-induced origin.
If, however, the Tufted Jay represents a
pre-Columbian introduction, why is it found House Crow
in remote and mountainous western Mexico Corvus splendens
rather than in the centre and south of the
country where the principal imperial cities Natural Range: Pakistan, India, Nepal,
were situated? Haemig () answers this Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Maldive Is,
apparent conundrum by pointing out that a Burma, S Yunnan and Thailand. Peters
large number and a wide variety of artefacts () suggested that the form C. s. insolens
that covered a timespan of many centuries (Burma, southern Yunnan, and Thailand)
have been discovered in various parts of west- may have been introduced by man to
ern Mexico; these are stylistically dissimilar to Thailand, Lekagul & Cronin () and
any of those found in the rest of Mesoamerica, Dickinson () treat the species as resi-
but bear a striking resemblance to objects of dent there.
the same kind from coastal Ecuador and Peru Naturalised Range: Europe: The Netherlands.
(home of the White-tailed Jay). Some appear Asia: Bahrain; China (Hong Kong); Israel;
not to occur in the intervening countries of Jordan; ?Kuwait; Malaysia; Oman; Qatar;
South and Central America, while those Saudi Arabia; Singapore; Socotra I; UAE;?
that are found there come principally from Yemen (Aden). Africa: Djibouti; Egypt;
western Mexico and northwestern South Ethiopia; Kenya; Mozambique; Tanzania
America. The fact that articles showing many (including Zanzibar); Somalia; South
distinctive styles have been discovered has led Africa; Sudan. Indian Ocean: Andaman Is;
anthropologists to believe that some form of ?Lakshadweep Is; Mascarene Is; ?Seychelles
cultural contact existed between the two Is.
areas, perhaps for millennia before the arrival
of the Spanish conquistadores; much of such Ryall (, , ), from whom much of
intercourse was probably through ship-borne the following accounts is derived, has sum-
trade, but at least some may well have been as marised the history of the spread of the House
a result of small-scale emigration from South Crow. See also Lever ().
America. Such emigration is further suggested
by the burgeoning in western Mexico around T N
of a flourishing metallurgical industry A small population of House Crows in the
that produced wares stylistically similar to docks in Hoek van Holland in had
those of Ecuador and Peru. increased, from both successful breeding by
As Haemig () points out, a thriving the founder pair and outside recruitment, to a
trade in the colourful feathers of several total of eight by (Ryall , ). They
species is known to have existed in pre- have since appeared in Park Ockenburg in
Columbian times, and what more natural than The Hague, and are believed to be slowly
that immigrants to western Mexico from spreading elsewhere (Langley ). This
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Elat, but they appear to be established and
increasing in Aqaba (A. A. Braunlich in Ryall
). Although there are a number of reports
from Sinai, only that of a pair at Nabq in
has been confirmed (Goodman & Meininger
). Today, the House Crow is a common
breeding bird in Elat, and is frequently seen in
the Arava to the north (Mendelssohn and
Yom-Tov ).
K
House Crow Although first reported as present in and
as breeding in –, Pilcher () does
population is of particular interest as it not consider that House Crows are permanent
shows that C. splendens can survive temperate residents in Kuwait, where their occurrence
winters and subsequently breed successfully may be due to natural immigration. Accord-
(Ryall ). ing to Gregory (), they have recently
bred annually at Shuwaikh.
W A
Between about and House Crows O
became established in all the principal Meinertzhagen () referred to House
Arabian Peninsula ports, but remained Crows resembling C. s. zugmayeri (Pakistan
absent inland, even in populated areas with and northwestern India) as occasional natural
a plentiful supply of water and refuse visitors to Muscat, where he noted (Mein-
tips (M. C. Jennings in Ryall ). ertzhagen ) that they were confined to the
Jennings () records breeding in Kuwait, coastal strip. They later spread a few kilometres
Saudi Arabia (Dharan and Jeddah), Bahrain inland, especially where there was extensive
(Manama), the United Arab Emirates (Abu construction work (Walker ). Gallagher
Dhabi and Dubai), Oman (Muscat and & Woodcock (), who regarded the birds
Salalah) and Aden (see also below). as either zugmayeri or intergrades with the
nominate race (India: apart from the north-
B west, Nepal, Bangladesh and Bhutan), said
Although first recorded in , House Crows that according to local people they had been
were only noted intermittently in the s imported to control ticks on livestock.
(Nightingale & Hill ), but since they Occasional sightings on the island of Al Masi-
have become residents in villages of north rah, km further south, may be a result of
Bahrain where breeding has been periodically winter dispersal. House Crows, however, still
reported (Ryall ). Hirschfeld & King () do not occur in southern Oman (Ryall ),
and Ryall () say the population is fairly although they are now found along the coast
stable but small, and that one or two pairs may between Muscat and Sohar and in some places
breed in the Mina Salman area of Manama. are spreading inland (Ryall ).
I; J Q
Krabbe () records that in Israel the first House Crows were first recorded in and to
pair of House Crows was seen in in Elat the north of Doha (Ras Laffan, Al Khar), at
at the head of the Gulf of Aqaba, where they various coastal localities and on some offshore
bred in the following year. From Elat, they islands, in (Ryall ).
have been seen flying across the Gulf to Aqaba
in Jordan, where they have also bred. Paz S A
() considered them as only sporadic in House Crows were first reported in Jeddah in
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Corvidae (Crows and Jays)
(Jennings a), where they are now programme was initiated (M. C. Jennings in
common breeding residents. They were first Ryall ). In , House Crows were more
observed in the Eastern Province in and common at Lahej, km inland, than they
were recorded as breeding three years later were in Aden (M. C. Jennings in Ryall ):
(Ryall ). A flock of was noted in the a few were also noted ten kilometres north of
port of Yanbu, km north of Jeddah, in Lahej, where they formed the most inland
(Baldwin & Meadows ). In a colony of the species in Arabia. Elsewhere
flock of House Crows was seen over Ras in Yemen, House Crows have occurred at
Tanura (F. E. Warr in Ryall ). A small Shagra, Mukulla and Ghaydah (respectively
number occurred in Haqil in the Gulf km, km and km east of Aden);
of Aqaba in (M. C. Jennings in Ryall since in North Yemen where a decade
). The species has yet to be seen more later there were two discrete colonies; and also
than a few kilometres from the sea. in at Hodeidd and km further south
at Al Khawka on the coast (M. C. Jennings in
S I Ryall ).
A pair of House Crows that arrived on
Socotra in or had increased to by Impact: In Aden, House Crows harass such
, but the population has since been valuable natural scavengers as Black Kites
reduced (Ryall ). Milvus migrans and Egyptian Vultures
Neophron percnopterus. They also pose a health
U A E and hygiene hazard (Jennings ).
Jennings (b) found House Crows to be
abundant in the late s/early s in C (H K)
coastal villages with palm plantations along Single House Crows were reported in
the east coast. By early , however, the Kowloon Tong and Mai Po in and
population had greatly declined, probably respectively. They may have been released
because this area had developed from a simple by aviculturists (Chalmers ), although
fishing community into a modern residential the coastal location of these sites makes a
one with a concomitant improvement ship-assisted arrival more likely, perhaps from
in hygiene (M. C. Jennings in Ryall ). Malaysia (Ryall ). A further two House
In , House Crows were recorded on Crows were seen in Kowloon Tong in ,
Das Island, at Abu Dhabi airport and where the species is now believed to be breed-
Hatta, Huwailat, a short distance inland ing and where flocks of – are regularly
(Ryall ). House Crows have occurred in seen (Ryall ).
Dubai since at least , where they are now
locally common (Richardson ); a recent M
importation from Sri Lanka (C. s. protegatus) Ward () reported a breeding population of
is referred to by Richardson (). House Crows in Klang, Selangor, as long ago
as . In , birds were imported from
Y (A) Ceylon (Sri Lanka) (C. s. protegatus) to prey
House Crows were seen in Aden in and on caterpillars that were damaging crops
by Barnes (), who said they had been (Willey et al. ). The species’ progressive
introduced in the s by an officer of the dispersal through Selangor and ultimate
Bombay Infantry. Locally it is believed they establishment in Kuala Lumpur is docu-
were imported by Parsee immigrants from mented by Medway & Wells (). House
India to scavenge on their dead (Ash b). Crows have continued to expand their range,
By the s they were established as especially in western coastal Malaysia, and
common breeding residents in both Aden and now extend from Jeram south to Malacca and
in Shaykh Uthman, where by the s the inland as far as Kulim (Ryall ), km from
population was so large that a poisoning Pinang. There is also a disjunct population at
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Johor Bahara in the south near Singapore. By () and Bijlsma & Meininger () out-
the Klang population numbered around lined the expansion of range of House Crows
, (Ryall ) and that at Kuala Lumpur of the nominate subspecies (India, Nepal,
up to , (Lever ). The House Crow Bangladesh and Bhutan) in the region, where
population in Malaysia continues to increase they estimated the population at between
and spread along the west coast and inland and . By , there were breeding
(D. R. Wells in Ryall ). Recent records colonies in several towns along the coast of
elsewhere include Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, the Red Sea from Ismailiya km south to
since (Ryall ). Quseir (Goodman & Meininger ).
S E
Gibson-Hill () reported a small colony of According to A. Mahamued (in Ryall )
House Crows in trees in the dockland area in House Crows were introduced to Ethiopia
, where years later a roost of between (presumably as scavengers) during the British
and birds had become established occupation after the Second World War.
(Ward ). Medway & Wells () Urban & Brown () believed that they may
believed the birds had probably arrived in then have been present in Mitsiwa (Massawa),
Singapore on ships. In the population where they were abundant by the mid-s.
was estimated by C. J. Hails (in Ryall ) at They arrived in Assab, where they are now
,–,, the lower than expected total numerous, more recently (R. T. Wilson in
being attributed to efficient refuse disposal on Ryall ).
the island. Hails believed that most of the
birds were flying in from roosts in adjacent K
Johor Bahara, Malaysia, where ample refuse Since their arrival on the coast at Mombasa in
had enabled a considerable population (Britton ), probably on a vessel from
to develop. By the population had the long-established population on Zanzibar,
increased to at least , (Ryall ). House Crows of the nominate subspecies
(India, Nepal, Bangladesh and Bhutan) have
D multiplied to pest proportions (Ryall & Reid
In , Clarke () saw several House ). In , D. G. Kimanga (in Ryall )
Crows in Djibouti Town, which he assumed estimated the population in Mombasa at over
had spread there from Aden, some km to one million. Ryall (a) described their
the northeast. Twenty years later, Ash () progressive expansion of range around
found them to be very common, and by Mombasa, and the formation in of
the population numbered several thousand a separate population at Malindi, km
and was increasing. Welch & Welch () further north on the coast.
observed about in the small town of Obock Since the early s, singletons have been
on the opposite coast of the Golfe de reported from Nairobi, km northwest of
Tadjoura. There are now smaller colonies Mombasa; these are considered by Ryall
in Tadjoura and Loyada (Archer ). () to result from deliberate releases or
escapes.
E
The House Crow has occurred at Port Tewfik, M
Suez, since about , ‘… where I observed it In , J. C. Sinclair (in Ryall ) discov-
first in and was told it had been estab- ered a small breeding colony of House Crows
lished for many years’ (Goodwin : ). on Inhaca Island in Algoa Bay, which the local
Ryall () says it was originally misidenti- inhabitants said had been established since
fied as the Eurasian Jackdaw C. monedula, and the s (Bijlsma & Meininger ). A
incorrectly states it was identified by D. decade later W. L. N. Tickell (in Ryall )
Goodwin from photographs. Meininger et al. counted around on the island. House
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Corvidae (Crows and Jays)
Crows have been present in Maputo also since the House Crow is partially governed by
. The population on Inhaca numbered temperature, the cooler winters in the Cape
around in (Ryall ). Town region may have restricted its popula-
tion growth (D. G. Allan in Berruti ).
S House Crows in South Africa have been
In four House Crows C. s. protegatus more frequently recorded in informal settle-
arrived at Cape Guardafui on a vessel from ments, industrial sites and harbours than
Colombo, Sri Lanka (Davis ), though in natural habitats. Any increase in the
they apparently failed to become established. area occupied by informal settlements and
The species was, however, later noted in the urbanisation will thus favour population
fishing village of Zeila in northern Somalia increases in House Crows in South Africa,
(Chazée ) and in several dozen provided there is a concomitant increase in
Crows were seen in Berbera on the north coast temperature. In the northern part of the
(Fry & Keith ), to both of which they species’ range, where winter temperatures are
may have spread from Aden or Djibouti normally higher, the expansion of informal
(Ryall ). settlements and urbanisation should ensure
population and range expansion in areas with
S A a high annual rainfall (Richardson et al.
House Crows may have occurred in Durban ).
since – (Newmann ). Two flew in
to Durban from the sea, presumably from a S
passing vessel, in (Oatley , Sinclair House Crows have occurred in Port Sudan
). In the species was recorded since well before , when a breeding colony
at Camperdown, some km inland from of some birds (Meinertzhagen ) was
Durban (Maclean ), and in nesting reported by Kinnear () on a bridge near
was observed by Cyrus & Robson (). In the harbour. The species is now numerous in
spite of attempted eradication, the species Port Sudan (Clarke , Ryall ).
spread rapidly, and is now well-established in
the Indian suburbs near Reunion airport T ( Z)
where a roost of over individuals The introduction of House Crows of the
assembles each evening (P. A. Clancey in Ryall nominate subspecies (India, Nepal, Bangla-
). House Crows also occur in northern desh and Bhutan) in the s by a Dr
Durban, and W. L. N. Tickell (in Ryall ) Charlesworth and the British diplomat Sir
estimated the total Durban population in Gerald Portal, to clean up the refuse of
at –, birds. Zanzibar Town (Vaughan ), resulted in
In , House Crows appeared in East the formation of the earliest African popula-
London, km south of Durban (Cyrus & tion of the species, which has acted as a
Robson ; Maclean ), presumably as a reservoir for introductions to the mainland of
result of a separate introduction, and in the both Kenya and Tanzania. Pakenham ()
docks at Cape Town in (Bijlsma & outlined the House Crow’s expansion of range
Meininger ) or (Maclean ). to other towns and villages on Zanzibar.
They have since spread northwards from Dur- According to Ryall (), a recent control
ban to Richards Bay (Allan & Davies ). campaign in Zanzibar Town met with
It is believed that House Crows made use of considerable, albeit temporary, success.
the increase in marine traffic down the east In , R. Fuggles-Couchman (in Ryall
African coast during the closure of the Suez ) saw a few House Crows, presumably
Canal between and to reach from Zanzibar, on a small island near Dar-
Durban (Brooke et al. ) and in the mid- es-Salaam; K M Howell (in Ryall ) first
s East London and Cape Town (Berruti reported them in that town in , where
). If, as is currently believed, the range of they subsequently multiplied and spread.
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Naturalised Birds of the World
By , N E Baker (in Ryall ) said they in the House Crow’s natural range. Even if the
numbered between , and , and species is not a native of the Lakshadweeps, a
had dispersed around km to the north and short natural extension of range north from
west. The species’ then distribution in Dar-es- the Maldives cannot be ruled out.
Salaam is described by Manyanza (). A
separate population that has been established M I
for many years in the coastal town of In about a number of House Crows be-
Tanya, some km to the north, doubtless came established on the island of Mauritius,
originates from another introduction from having apparently travelled on ships from
Zanzibar (Ryall ). India (Meinertzhagen , Guérin –) :
they were therefore presumably of the nomi-
Impact: In Tanzania (and Kenya), House nate form. A population became established
Crows destroy the nests, eggs, and young both centred on the Roche Bois abattoir (Rountree
of native birds such as the Collared et al. ) and the Port Louis meat market
Palm Thrush Cichladusa arquata, mouse- (Guérin –), from where the birds
birds (Coliidae), Golden Palm Weavers spread before southwest to Case Noyale
Ploceus bojeri, Camaroptera spp. and Rufous (C. M. Courtois in Cheke ). Although
Chatterers Turdoides rubiginosa, and also of the population in Port Louis was controlled to
domestic poultry. They have also been minimise the theft of food from the bazaar
accused of damaging farm crops and soft (Guérin –), a flock of around
fruits. In compensation, they consume locusts persisted at Roche Bois until wiped out by a
and termites. In some localities House Crows cyclone in (C. M. Courtois in Cheke
seem to be displacing native Pied Crows C. ; in according to Ryall ). In
albus as urban scavengers. On Zanzibar, the two birds flew ashore in Port Louis off a vessel
recent decline in the House Crow population from Sri Lanka, and the population in the
has been accompanied by a recovery in the Port Louis/Roche Bois area slowly recovered
numbers of native species that had suffered to around (Staub ). House Crows
from their predation (Alexander ). have also been observed at Cannoniers Point,
near Grand Baie in (Newton ), and
A I at Mahébourg (Staub ) and in Beau
House Crows were unsuccessfully liberated at Bassin (Cheke ). Diamond () and
Port Blair on South Andaman around to Feare & Mungroo () described the
act as scavengers in the penal settlement species’ spread to other settlements, and the
(Beaven ). In the mid-s, Pittie () latter estimated the total population at
saw six to ten C. s. proteagus from Sri Lanka or between and individuals. Hawkins
C. s. insolens from Burma, southern Yunnan & Safford (in prep.) refer to House Crows on
and southwestern Thailand in the grounds of Mauritius, especially in the Port Louis docks,
Bay Island Hotel in Port Blair. the Terre Rouge estuary, in the Pample-
mousses Botanic Gardens and in the Port
L (L) I Louis/Curepipe conurbation, and even occa-
Although Ryall () says that House Crows sionally over the forests of the southwest (R. J.
are not native to the Lakshadweeps, their Safford pers. comm. ). See also Simber-
origin in the islands is uncertain. Ali & Ripley loff , Jones and Moulton et al. .
(–) assigned them to the nominate
subspecies (India, Nepal, Bangladesh and Impact: According to Feare & Mungroo
Bhutan), but Goodwin () identified (), predation by House Crows on the
them as being of the Maldive Islands race nests of reintroduced Pink Pigeons Nesoenas
maledivicus and implied that they are native mayeri and Mauritius Kestrels Falco punctatus
in the Lakshadweeps. Dickinson (), on Mauritius (classified respectively as
however, does not include the Lakshadweeps Critically Endangered and Endangered by
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Corvidae (Crows and Jays)
the World Conservation Union) could pose a and North and South America (where it has
threat to the rehabilitation programmes for occurred but is as yet not established).
both species; native passerines, however, are Ryall (a) has summarised the status of
not generally at risk because they are mainly C. splendens as a pest species. As a versatile
confined to high native forest. commensal of man it feeds largely on stolen
food, crops, the young of domestic fowl,
S I small native passerines and invertebrates. It
A single House Crow of the nominate race also destroys domestic refuse bags, damages
arrived in Mahé in on a vessel from electricity cables, disorients television aerials,
Bombay but no breeding was recorded until causes bird-strikes on aircraft, deposits excre-
five more birds arrived in . Although the ment, spreads diseases, creates excessive noise,
population remained centred on Mahé, iso- destroys fruit, wheat, and maize crops and
lated individuals have also been seen on Bird, drying fish, and allegedly preys on neonatal
Aride, Praslin, Moyenne, Cousin, Silhouette calves, kids, and lambs (Lever ). It even
and Ile aux Vaches Marines (Skerrett et al. on occasion attacks humans. In most of the
). After reaching a peak on Mahé of places in which House Crows have become
about birds in , centred around Anse naturalised there has been a marked decline in
Etoile, the population seems to have been the native avifauna. Although House Crows
eradicated by (Ryall ), the are useful and efficient scavengers, the poverty
subsequent appearance of birds being attrib- and overcrowding in many African settle-
uted by Skerrett et al. () to new arrivals. ments provide an ideal breeding site for the
birds, thus exacerbating an already existing
Impact: House Crows have been observed problem, and their spread in Africa is being
destroying a nest of the endemic Seychelles expedited by the proliferation of new human
Sunbird Cinnyris dussumieri, indicating the settlements throughout the continent.
potential risk to native species should they
become established (Skerrett et al. ).
Summary: As Ryall () says, House Crows Rook
are spreading naturally throughout most of Corvus frugilegus
their naturalised range where, as commensals
of man, they thrive in areas of poverty and Natural Range: Europe, W and C Asia east to
squalor. In parts of Africa, such as Kenya, Tien Shan and N Altai, wintering in N
where the annual increase in the human Africa and SW Asia. Also Mongolia and C
population has been amongst the highest in and E China to S Yakutia, the Russian Far
the world, the range of the House Crow is East and Korea, wintering in E Asia.
expanding commensurately in both coastal Naturalised Range: Australasia: New Zealand.
and inland settlements. It will almost certainly
eventually reach Madagascar, either on N Z
ships from India or Sri Lanka or by natural Table lists introductions of Rooks to New
dispersal from Tanzania or Mozambique. This Zealand between and . In the
natural expansion of range is continuing years after the first successful introductions in
through islands of southeast Asia (where it the s Rooks expanded their range very
will doubtless spread naturally or by ship from slowly in New Zealand (Thomson ).
Klang in Malaysia km across the Straits of Although sub-populations became established
Malacca to the more densely settled parts of near Fielding in the s (Thomson )
Sumatra) towards Australia (where it has and near Pirinoa, southern Wairarapa, in the
already occurred but is not yet established), s (Oliver ), the spread continued to
eastern Asia, Europe (where it has occurred in be very slow until the sub-population in
Gibraltar and has bred in The Netherlands), Hawke’s Bay became so numerous that it had
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Naturalised Birds of the World
to be controlled in the s and s sprouting oats and wheat and other cereal
(Heather & Robertson ). Displaced birds crops (especially maize), pumpkins, potatoes,
then began to disperse more widely, and in peas, beans, stock feed and occasionally
the s colonies became established near leaves of clover and grasses. They were said
Miranda, Firth of Thames; Tolga Bay, Gis- sometimes to attack new-born lambs and
borne; and Waitotara, Taranaki. In the s even (presumably sickly) adult sheep. In
colonies were established in southern Hawke’s compensation, Rooks prey on a variety of
Bay and at Aokautere, Manawatu; and in the injurious invertebrates, including, in the
s in southern Waikato. In the first Hawke’s Bay region, the grass grub Costelytra
years after their introduction to Canterbury, zealandica (the larvae of a scarabaeid beetle
Rooks spread very little apart from the forma- that eats the roots and leaves of a number of
tion of a small colony near Middlemarch in pasture plants), flies, caterpillars (especially
North Otago (Heather & Robertson ). porina) and wasps.
Today, Rooks are locally common in The effectiveness of Rooks in controlling
hill country and arable land in Hawke’s injurious invertebrates is, however, open to
Bay, around Banks Peninsula, and near question. For example, McLennan & Mac-
Christchurch. In the total population Millan () found that in their study area in
numbered a little under , birds, of Hawke’s Bay although Rooks ate %–% of
which around , were in Hawke’s Bay the larvae of C. zealandica this predation was
and , in Canterbury. In the next years neither heavy enough to prevent further loss
pest-control programmes reduced the species’ in pasture productivity nor to inhibit future
population but increased its range in New generations of grass grubs from multiplying
Zealand, where occasional vagrants have to pest proportions. Furthermore, by their
occurred in Northland and Wellington and probing of the turf in search of grubs Rooks
on Stewart and the Chatham Islands (Heather themselves cause damage to pastures.
& Robertson ). McLennan & MacMillan () also
addressed the question of what role Rooks
Impact: As early as (Thomson ), might play in the control of other invertebrate
Rooks in New Zealand were being accused in pests, such as Black Field Crickets Teleo-
the Hawke’s Bay area of eating walnuts, gryllus commodus, White-fringed Weevils
Graphognathus leucoloma and army-worms
Introductions of Rooks Corvus (Noctuidae) which occasionally damage
frugilegus into New Zealand, –. pastures and crops. They found that when the
Rook population in the Hawke’s Bay area was
Date Number Introduced by reduced from around , to , reports of
Nelson Acclimatisation insect damage to crops and pastures did not
Society (A.S.) increase, and concluded (p. ) that ‘the
c. ? Canterbury A. S. (by controversy over whether Rooks are on
Watts Russell) balance beneficial or harmful to agriculture
Auckland A. S. has persisted for some years, but cannot
Auckland A. S. be resolved until the significance of their
or Christchurch A. S. predation on insect pests is assessed’.
– Christchurch A. S.
– ? Hawke’s Bay A. S., near
Mangateretere,
Hawke’s Bay A.S. American Crow
? Christchurch A. S.
Corvus brachyrhynchos
Sources: Thomson , , Oliver . All
importations came from England, and apart from Natural Range: North America, from W, C
the first two all appear to have been successful. and E Canada, S to S Florida.
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Alaudidae (Larks)
Naturalised Range: Atlantic Ocean: Bermuda. Common Magpie
Pica pica
B
According to Phillips (: ), ‘… the Natural Range: Much of the Palaearctic and
common crow of the Eastern States was parts of the northern Oriental regions.
introduced about to Bermuda, where for Naturalised Range: Asia: Japan.
a time it became abundant. Later it was nearly
exterminated but has continued to exist in J
small numbers ever since’. D. B. Wingate The form P. p. sericea (Amurland, Korea,
(pers. comm. ), however, antedates this China, Taiwan, Indochina and Burma) was
introduction by years. ‘Although Bermuda reputedly brought back to northern Kyushu
had a native crow when the islands were first (southern coastal areas of the Fukuoka and
settled’, he wrote, ‘this was apparently Saga Prefectures) by the Great Taicoon or
exterminated. The present crow population Sei-i-taishogun, Hideyoshi, on returning from
originated from a pet pair of crows introduced his successful invasion of Korea in
from Halifax, Nova Scotia [the nominate (Kaburaki ). It is still confined to north-
form] by Lady Paget … in ’. In the western Kyushu where it is locally common in
population was estimated to be about . Kumamoto, Fukuoka, Saga and Nagasaki
Today it is a common and widely-distributed (Kaburaki , Brazil , Eguchi & Kubo
species (Raine ). , Eguchi & Amano , OSJ ).
Individuals recorded from southern and
Impact: Because of the damage American eastern Kyushu, Honshu and Hokkaido are
Crows cause to agricultural and horticultural probably vagrants from Korea (Brazil ).
crops they are unprotected in Bermuda
(Wingate ). Some individuals have learnt Impact: Occasional telecommunications
how to remove the chicks of White-tailed disruption due to construction by Magpies of
Tropicbirds Phaeton lepturus by hovering their bulky nests on telephone poles is
before their cliff-face nests (Raine ). reported in Kyushu, and some damage has also
been recorded to agricultural crops. Predation
of eggs and chicks of native species also occurs.
Eurasian Jackdaw
Corvus monedula
Natural Range: Europe through N and C Asia ALAUDIDAE (LARKS)
to Kashmir, NW Xinjiang, W Mongolia,
and SC Siberia. Eurasian Skylark
Naturalised Range: Africa: Tunisia; Algeria. Alauda arvensis
T; A Natural Range: Much of the Palaearctic region
According to Payn (), the ancient colony south of the taiga in western Siberia, from
of Eurasian Jackdaws in the city of Tunis in where in winter birds migrate south to
Tunisia, and the small number km away S Europe, N Africa; SW, E and SE Asia,
in Constantine in eastern Algeria, are both China and Japan.
probably descended from escaped cage- Naturalised Range: North America: Canada;
birds. Dickinson (), who appears to treat USA. Australasia: Australia; New Zealand.
these populations as native, says the race Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
established in Tunisia and eastern Algeria is
C. s. cirtensis. C
In or pairs of Skylarks (or
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Naturalised Birds of the World
birds according to Cooke & Knappen ) of the population had increased fivefold.
the nominate subspecies (Europe apart from However, the population suffered a decline
the south) were imported from England and later in the decade, when much of the birds’
liberated on southern Vancouver Island, habitat was lost to urban development (Blake
British Columbia. They were followed by a ). Today, a few hundred survive only in
further birds in ; others may have been grasslands around the University of Victoria
unsuccessfully released at about the same time campus, on the Rithet Estate, near the airport,
on the lower mainland at the mouth of the along the eastern side of the McHugh Valley,
Fraser River. In or , G. W. Wallace near Duncan, and in a few other places on the
planted some more on the Saanich Peninsula Saanich Peninsula (Johnston & Garrett ,
of southern Vancouver Island, and in AOU , Sibley ).
Mrs E. A. Morton is said to have freed five at
Oak Bay. U S
Until about Skylarks on Vancouver Although there have been numerous attempts
Island seem to have done no more than main- to naturalise Eurasian Skylarks in the
tain their numbers, but thereafter they began United States (listed in Lever ), the only
to increase until they became quite numerous established population is derived from natural
(Phillips , Scheffer ). By they dispersal from the introduced population on
were, according to Cooke & Knappen (: Vancouver Island in British Columbia,
–), ‘as abundant as any of the other Canada.
small birds in the occupied area … [but] are In August Skylarks were first recorded
not yet numerous enough to spread to adjoin- on San Juan Island, Washington State (Bruce
ing sections’. In the following year, when the ), some km east of Vancouver Island
population was said to number birds, a across the Haro Strait, where breeding by
colony was discovered at Sidney, km north some of the dozen pairs present was reported
of Victoria. Twenty years later, when their in May . Although it was thought likely
numbers were about the same, Skylarks had that Skylarks would spread to other islands in
colonised suitable habitats around Victoria the archipelago and even to the Washington
and on the Saanich Peninsula (Scheffer ). mainland, this does not yet seem to have
By , when Skylarks had become estab- occurred (AOU ).
lished over an , ha area of low snowfall,
A
Table lists introductions of Eurasian
Skylarks to Australia between and .
As early as the Victoria Acclimatisa-
tion Society (see Lever ) reported that ‘the
Skylark may now be considered thoroughly
established’, and Ryan () said the birds
were well established around Melbourne,
where they were slowly increasing and spread-
ing. Tarr () reported that Skylarks were
fairly widespread in Victoria.
In South Australia, Skylarks were said to
be well-established by the late s on the
Adelaide Plains, and at the same time were
common along the coast of New South Wales
and westward to some inland areas (McGill
). In some were reported on Lord
Howe Island off the New South Wales coast
Eurasian Skylark (McKean & Hindwood ).
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Alaudidae (Larks)
In , the Tasmania Acclimatisa- It lives mainly in well-cultivated lands
tion Society (see Lever ) claimed that and long-established pastures. It has
Skylarks were established in several localities, success fully invaded the coastal heaths of
including Invermay, East and West Tamar, New South Wales. Throughout its range it
Ormley near Avoca, Cataract Cliffs, Risdon, lives side by side with [Horsfield’s Bush-
and Glenorchy near Hobart. By the late s lark Mirafra javanica] and the [Australian
the species was settled in many agricultural Pipit Anthus australis]. All three birds have
districts, especially in southern Tasmania and superficially similar habitat needs, but it
on King and Flinders Islands in Bass Strait is not known if the Skylark provides com-
petition for either of the native species.
(Blakers et al. ).
Frith (: ) reported that the Skylark
was: Pizzey () reported Skylarks to be
now widespread in south-east South common in Tasmania, in southeastern South
Australia, Tasmania, most of Victoria, Australia and around Adelaide, on Kangaroo
and the southern New South Wales coast Island, and throughout most of Victoria, but
and tablelands. It avoids the drier inland. less common on the Riverina and east coast
Introductions of Eurasian Skylarks Alauda arvensis to Australia, –.
Date Numbers Introduced by Released
or ? Robert Morrice Barrabool Hills, Victoria
? ? New South Wales
? Bird dealer ?
named Brown
? Bird dealer named Melbourne, Victoria
Neymaler
? ‘Mr Rushall’ Melbourne, Victoria
– , Royal Zoological Various localities in Victoria
& Acclimatisation
Society of Victoria
? South Australia ?
Acclimatisation
Society (A.S.)
or ? ? Tasmania
, –, + ? Near Sydney, New South Wales,
Blue Mountains,
Maneroo,
Ryde, etc.
? Queensland A. S. Unsuccessful
South Australia A. S. Adelaide; Enfield
c. pairs/ pairs South Australia A. S. Dry creek near Adelaide/Enfield
/ South Australia A. S. Near Adelaide/Kapunda
– ? ? Tasmania
After ? South Australia A. S. Various localities on many occa-
sions
Mr Talbot of Malahide Various localities
(Ireland)
Before ? Western Australia Unsuccessful
Acclimatisation
Committee
Source : Lever . All importations are believed to have been of the European nominate subspecies.
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Naturalised Birds of the World
tablelands of New South Wales. Today they Chatham Islands, and occur as vagrants
are especially common in northern Tasmania on the Kermadecs, Snares, Auckland and
and on King Island and the Furneaux Group Campbell Islands (Heather & Robertson
in Bass Strait (Barrett et al. ). ). There is some flocking and local
Although largely migratory in the North- movement in autumn, but as in Australia
ern Hemisphere, Skylarks in Australia appear there is no pattern of migration (apart from a
to be sedentary, nomadic or only partially small northerly one from Farewell Spit),
migratory, which may have contributed to which may help to explain the species’
their successful naturalisation but inhibited naturalisation in New Zealand.
their further dispersal.
Impact: Although at first sight the Skylark
N Z would seem to be an unlikely species to cause
Between and at least Skylarks of problems, as early as T. S. Palmer wrote
the European nominate subspecies (probably of Skylarks that although in their natural
many more) were released in New Zealand by range they were almost universally regarded as
the Nelson, Otago, Canterbury, Auckland beneficial, in New Zealand they had become
and Wellington Acclimatisation Societies an agricultural pest. This is confirmed by
(Thomson ), including on Stewart Thomson (: –) who wrote that
Island in and some on the Chatham ‘next to the [House] sparrow [Passer domesti-
Islands by L W Hood in the late nineteenth cus] the Skylark is considered by farmers to be
century (Oliver ), and also doubtless by the most destructive of the small birds which
nostalgic settlers. have been introduced to New Zealand. They
As early as the s, Thomson (: ) are particularly destructive in spring, when
was able to say that ‘The introduction of this they pull wheat and other grains out of the
bird was general throughout New Zealand … ground just as they are springing. They also
in every part they increased rapidly and spread uproot seedling cabbage, turnip and other
throughout the whole country, but they farm crops’. The depredations were confirmed
confine themselves to cultivated districts, and by Oliver ().
are not found in the bush or open mountain
country’. Forty years later, Wodzicki (: H I
) reported Skylarks in New Zealand to be Skylarks of the nominate subspecies (Europe
‘widely distributed and common, North, apart from the south) were first imported to
South, and Stewart Islands and Raoul [Ker- the Hawaiian Islands from England in ,
madecs], Chatham and Auckland Islands: the when ten were released at Leilhua on Oahu.
last three island groups were apparently colo- Here they were joined in by others sent
nised naturally – the Aucklands in ’. Falla from New Zealand by the Hon A. S. Cleg-
et al. () found Skylarks to be established horn: in the latter year, some were also set
on the main islands in all types of open free on Kauai by Frances Sinclair. Later
habitat up to ,m elevation, and on the importations of New Zealand Skylarks were
Chatham, Auckland and Kermadec Islands; liberated at Moiliili on Oahu, from where
the species’ status on Campbell Island is some were subsequently transferred to Kauai,
uncertain. Baker () recorded breeding Maui (), Hawaii (), and Molokai and
on the Chatham and Auckland Islands, but Lanai (). The introductions to Oahu and
presence only on the Kermadec and Campbell Maui were said by Henshaw () to have
Islands. Today, Skylarks are very common in been successful, and Bryan () found them
sand dunes, farmland, tussock grassland and to be common on grasslands on Molokai.
other open habitats from North Cape to Although Munro () states that the
Stewart Island, from sea level to subalpine form A. a. japonica (Sakhalin, Kuril and
herbfields at ,m. They also occur on some Ryukyu Islands and Japan) was unsuccessfully
offshore islands; they are common on the introduced in , the AOU () indicates
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Pycnonotidae (Bulbuls)
that this form, as well as the nominate one, is Stone () implicated them in the dispersal
established in the Hawaiian Islands. of introduced grasses, herbs and shrubs.
According to Fisher (), Skylarks were
released on Niihau before by Francis [sic]
Sinclair, who later released some of his birds
on Kauai. By , Skylarks were apparently PYCNONOTIDAE (BULBULS)
fairly common on Lehua Island (to which
they had presumably flown from Niihau), Red-whiskered Bulbul
and in Fisher () found the species Pycnonotus jocosus
to be scarce but widespread on the latter
island. Natural Range: India, the Andaman Is.,
By the mid-s, Skylarks were said to Nepal, Bangladesh, Burma, Assam, Yun-
occur on Hawaii, Oahu and Lanai, and Peter- nan, S China, N Vietnam, S Indochina,
son () reported them to be widely distrib- and Thailand S to SC Malay Peninsula.
uted on Niihau, Maui and Hawaii, local on Naturalised Range: Europe: ?Spain. Asia: ?Java;
Oahu, Molokai and Lanai, and scarce on ?Sumatra; ?UAE. North America: USA.
Kauai. A decade later, Berger () recorded Australasia: Australia. Indian Ocean:
Skylarks as common on Hawaii, Maui and Comoros Is; Madagascar; Mascarene Is;
Lanai, slightly less so on Oahu, and rare or Nicobar Is; Seychelles Is. Pacific Ocean:
absent on Kauai, where they are believed to Hawaiian Is.
have died out around . The Hawaiian
Audubon Society () claimed that Skylarks S
were established on all the main islands, but According to Langley (), the Red-
were most common on the slopes of Mauna whiskered Bulbul may be in the process of
Kea and Mauna Loa on Hawaii and on those becoming established in Spain.
of Haleakala on Maui. Zeillemaker & Scott
() recorded Skylarks as local and uncom- J; S
mon on Oahu and Lanai, as uncommon on Medway & Wells () and Long () say
Molokai, as common on Maui and Hawaii, that Red-whiskered Bulbuls may have been
and as accidental visitors to Kauai. It is introduced to Java and Sumatra, where the
noticeable how, between the mid-s and species is a popular cage-bird, but they supply
mid-s, the status (and even presence) of no supporting data.
Skylarks on the various islands apparently
varied from decade to decade. U A E
More recently, Pratt et al. (: ) say Jennings () lists breeding by this species
that Skylarks were ‘… abundant on Hawaii, in Dubai and Abu Dhabi.
Maui, and Lanai. Less common on Molokai,
Niihau, Lehua, and Oahu. … Straggler from U S
Siberia to NW Hawaiian Is. (Kure, Midway)’. The escape into the wild of the Red-
Pratt () curiously omits the Skylark from whiskered Bulbul in Florida resulted, as Owre
his list of introduced and established birds in () points out, in the naturalisation of
Hawaii, where the AOU () states that a new family of passerines in the Western
they occur on the main islands eastward from Hemisphere.
Niihau. It is said that the Skylarks’ expansion In , between five and ten pairs that had
of range in the Hawaiian Islands has been been imported from Calcutta (where the form
adversely affected by the growth of pineapple is P. j. emeria) escaped from a bird farm in
and sugar-cane plantations. Kendall, Dade County, where they bred suc-
cessfully in the wild in the following year and
Impact: Caum () reported damage caused from where by the autumn they had ventured
by Skylarks to lettuce seedlings on Kauai, and as far afield as Princeton, km southwest of
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Miami. In a flock of was counted () say there have been no population
in Kendall, and by the following year the estimates since the s. The species’ survival
population had increased to between and in Dade County, Florida, centred on Miami
. Fisk (: ), who suggests the form in and Coral Gables, is also confirmed by the
Florida may be P. j. pyrrhotis (northern India AOU () and Sibley ().
and Nepal) claims that the population had In about some Red-whiskered Bulbuls
increased to ‘perhaps roosting in a flock’. became established in the Los Angeles County
During their first decade in the wild there Arboretum (Arcadia), and in Huntington
was an annual increment in the population of Gardens and San Morino, California, where
some –% to a little under birds by they are popular cage-birds (Hardy ). Ini-
–, when some . sq km of Kendall tially the population increased considerably
had been colonised. By the population and spread in the Pasadena/San Gabriel Valley
had doubled to around , and was continu- (Small ), and in spite of subsequent
ing to increase and spread slowly in a attempts to eradicate them, a small number
southerly direction. The reluctance of the continue to survive (Johnston & Garrett
species to expand its range more rapidly has , Small , Islam & Williams ).
been attributed to the birds’ attachment to
communal roosts. Although the claim by Car- Impact: Red-whiskered Bulbuls feed princi-
leton & Owre () that ‘no obvious ecolog- pally on small drupaceous fruits, berries and
ical factors exist that will prevent colonisation syconia of over two dozen exotic species, for
of the entire tropical zone of south-eastern which they compete with several native birds.
Florida’ may prove incorrect, the suggestion To a lesser extent they also feed on the exotic
by James (: ) that ‘It now seems more Brazilian Holly or Pepper Schinus terebinthi-
likely that the family Pycnonotidae will be folius which has been widely disseminated by
extirpated in the Western Hemisphere’ may birds in southeastern Florida, on alien Ficus
be somewhat premature. Although P. W. spp., on seven alien Lantana spp., and on up
Smith (in James ) claimed the population to species of exotic jasmines (Oleaceae) –
was continuing to decline, Islam & Williams all of which they help to spread, to the disad-
vantage of native species (Carleton & Owre
). Although in much of its natural range
P. jocosus is regarded as an agricultural and
horticultural pest, Carleton & Owre ()
found no evidence of damage to citrus and
other commercial fruit crops in Florida. In
California, on the other hand, the birds
became a threat to local citrus crops (Islam &
Williams ).
A
Red-whiskered Bulbuls imported to New
South Wales in from China (where
the nominate form occurs) apparently
disappeared. Others introduced around the
turn of the century fared better, and a number
became established near Sydney. Some were
reported at Homebush in and at Double
Bay in . They were breeding at Hunters’
Hill in and at Wahroonga two years later,
and by about were apparently common
Red-whiskered Bulbul in the Sydney suburbs, where by flocks of
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Pycnonotidae (Bulbuls)
up to were established. By Red- prey on vine moth larvae and other injurious
whiskered Bulbuls had spread up to km invertebrates.
from Sydney, and a decade later were said to
be common within km of Sydney except in C I
the south (McGill ). According to Frith Louette () and R. J. Safford (pers. comm.
(: ) they were ‘… very abundant in ) say that Red-whiskered Bulbuls from
city and suburban gardens and [have] Mauritius have been introduced to Mayotte,
colonised some nearby semi-rural districts’. most southerly of the Comoros Islands.
Frith () believed it was unlikely that P. jo-
cosus would be able to spread very far north of M
Sydney through the dry sandstone gullies and Bertrand () records the presence of
Eucalyptus forests where there is little fruit. P. jocosus on Juan de Nova off the west coast
Red-whiskered Bulbuls were first recorded of Madagascar.
in Victoria at Ashfield in – and at
Geelong and in gardens in Melbourne in M I
, where a decade or so later they were said In a consignment of Red-whiskered
to be fairly well established. Bulbuls of the form P. j. emeria (India,
Between and there were sporadic Bangladesh, Burma and Thailand) arrived in
records of Red-whiskered Bulbuls in northern Port Louis, Mauritius, where in the following
Adelaide and Westbourne Park, South year their aviary was destroyed by a cyclone
Australia (Paton ), where Long () said and all the birds were killed (Carié ,
they had become common. Guérin –). A second shipment of
Pizzey () described the national between one and six pairs, imported like the
distribution of P. jocosus as follows: common previous one by Gabriel Reynaud, arrived in
and widespread in New South Wales around or shortly after (Moulton et al. ()
Sydney, extending into the Lower Hunter incorrectly give the date as ). These birds
Valley, and also occurring (doubtless as a subsequently escaped from captivity and by
result of a separate introduction) at Coffs were distributed throughout Mauritius
Harbour km north of Sydney; in Victoria, (Carié , Meinertzhagen ). Carié ()
a smaller colony occurred in and around found the species to be already the most
South Yarra; in South Australia the species was abundant bird on the island – a status con-
found at various places near Adelaide. Blakers firmed by Cheke (). Hawkins & Safford
et al. (: ) described the Red-whiskered (in prep.) found P. jocosus to occur throughout
Bulbul as ‘now present on the coast from Lake Mauritius and also on offlying islets.
MacQuarie to the Shoalhaven River, and west In Red-whiskered Bulbuls were
to the Blue Mountains’ in New South Wales. imported to St Philippe in southern Réunion,
Barrett et al. () indicate the species’ apparently by someone returning from Mau-
survival in New South Wales. ritius (Staub a, , Barau , Barre &
It is noteworthy that whereas in Florida the Barau ). In they were recorded at Ste
Red-whiskered Bulbul is an almost exclusively Marie in the northeast, to which they had
urban and suburban species, in New South probably been taken by human agency.
Wales it has ventured into rural areas, thickets Between and the birds rapidly
and heavily timbered gullies. colonised the east coast of Réunion, and by
they occurred in many parts of the
Impact: As early as the s Red-whiskered island, including the central plateau at an
Bulbuls were being accused of damaging peas, altitude of ,m, and in the west where they
figs and strawberries in New South Wales inhabited gardens and areas of scrub. By
(MacPherson ), and Frith () said that they had dispersed from the western scrub-
in Sydney they were regarded as a pest in land and had colonised numerous forests: the
gardens and orchards. In compensation, they first of which was the Salazie crater. By
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Naturalised Birds of the World
they were observed in small numbers in other threat to the survival of the endemic sub-
craters such as Cilaos and Mafate, and were species of the Olivaceous Bulbul Hypsipetes
established throughout the island up to borbonicus olivaceus (classified as Vulnerable
,m elevation (Besnard et al. , Barré by the World Conservation Union), and Jones
et al. , Mandon-Dalger et al. , () considered that competition with the
Clergeau & Mandon-Dalger ). They are two aliens was preventing H. b. olivaceus and
said by Hawkins & Safford (in prep.) to be the Mauritius Cuckoo-shrike Coracina typica
increasing their range rapidly. (also Vulnerable) from spreading outside
Mandon-Dalger et al. () found that the native forest. On Réunion, Barré & Barau
warm and rainy eastern slopes were colonised () believed that Bulbuls (and Mynas) were
first, and remain the most densely populated competitors and predators of H. b. borbonicus.
region. They noted a negative correlation
between the numbers of birds and the N I
altitude. On Réunion, unlike other alien Red-whiskered Bulbuls (P. j. whistleri) have
birds, P. jocosus enters native forest and is not been introduced from Port Blair in the
confined to anthropic localities. Clergeau & Andaman Islands to the Nicobars, where they
Mandon-Dalger () calculated the average are said to be common on Trinkat and
rate of dispersal at around .km a year Camorta Islands, and possibly also on
between and and about .km a Nancowry, but they are not believed not to
year in the decade from , and concluded occur elsewhere (Abdulali , ).
that the rate of spread of the species in the
Mascarene Islands was much faster than in S I
other places to which it has been introduced. In Prŷs-Jones et al. () saw at least six
Red-whiskered Bulbuls on Assumption Island
Impact: As early as , Richard Meinertz- in the Seychelles, the origin of which was
hagen was recording orchard damage caused Mauritius (R. J. Safford pers. comm. ).
by Red-whiskered Bulbuls on Mauritius. In , Roberts () counted about
Jones () refers to competition on Mauri- pairs in one locality, and estimated the total
tius for geckos (Gekkonidae) between could be double that figure, widely spread in a
P. jocosus and the Mauritius Kestrel Falco variety of habitats throughout the island. By
punctatus (classified as Endangered by the the total had risen to between , and
World Conservation Union) and for the flow- , individuals (Skerrett et al. ).
ers of Nuxia verticillata between P. jocosus and
the Pink Pigeon Nesoenas mayeri (classified as Impact: The small atoll of Aldabra, which was
Critically Endangered). On Réunion, Barré & added to the World Heritage List in , lies
Barau () believed that Red-whiskered only km from Assumption Island. Prŷ s-
Bulbuls may eat the eggs and nestlings of Jones et al. () and Roberts () have
small native passerines. Cheke () consid- drawn attention to the threat that would be
ered that although nest-predation by P. jocosus posed to the unique and near pristine fauna
caused heavy losses to endemic Mascarene and flora of Aldabra were Red-whiskered
White-eyes Zosterops borbonicus mauritianus Bulbuls ever to gain access to the atoll. The
and Mauritius Olive White-eyes Z. chloro- former authors reviewed the potential
nothus, the former remains common and the threats to the Aldabra avifauna from
latter is far from rare within its dwindling for- disease, hybridisation, competition and nest-
est habitat; this may be because native passer- predation by P. jocosus.
ines are largely restricted to upland forest
(Feare & Mungroo ). Temple () H I
states that on Mauritius competition for food In two Red-whiskered Bulbuls were seen
with the Red-whiskered Bulbul (and Com- on the Lower Makiki Heights on Oahu,
mon Myna Acridotheres tristis) was a major where several were observed in the following
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 169
Pycnonotidae (Bulbuls)
year and two dozen were reported in . Naturalised Range: Europe: ?Spain. Asia:
Pratt et al. (), Pratt (), and Shehata et UAE; ?Kuwait; ?Qatar; ?Saudi Arabia.
al. () give the date incorrectly as ; the Australasia: ?New Zealand. Pacific Ocean:
AOU () says the introduction took place Fiji Is; Hawaiian Is; ?Marshall Is; New
in . Islam & Williams () correctly Caledonia; Samoa; Society Is; Tonga Is.
give the date as ). The birds later spread to
Pacific Heights, Kaimuki and the Punchbowl S
areas and along the length of Manoa Valley First recorded in Spain in . One or two
(Berger ). pairs have nested in Torremolinos, Málaga,
The subsequent expansion of the numbers since (J. Clavell in Martí & del Moral
and range of the Red-whiskered Bulbul on ).
Oahu has not been as dramatic as that of the
Red-vented Bulbul (Berger a, Van Riper U A E
et al. ). Zeillemaker & Scott () Jennings (b) says that the Red-vented
recorded Red-whiskered Bulbuls as local and Bulbul is breeding in small numbers in the
uncommon in residential districts and United Arab Emirates, where it has hybridised
community parklands on Oahu, where by with the native White-spectacled Bulbul
they occurred from Hawaii Kai to Pearl P. xanthopygos in Abu Dhabi and Dubai; its
City Heights. Pratt et al. () recorded them establishment is confirmed by Richardson
as well established in the Honolulu area, and () and Jennings ().
said that they could be expected anywhere on
the island within a few years. P. jocosus was Kuwait; Qatar; Saudi Arabia
first recorded on the windward side of the Islam & Williams () and Jennings ()
Ko’olau Mountains in about , and it has refer to the presence of a small population in
bred successfully in the Kāne’ohe– Kailua area. Kuwait (Manama), where breeding was
The Honolulu Christmas Bird Count for confirmed in . Jennings () also
recorded only two birds; by the total had mentions breeding in Qatar (Doha) and
risen to (Islam & Williams ). Saudi Arabia (Jeddah).
Impact: Red-whiskered Bulbuls on Oahu N Z
showed a prevalence of .% Plasmodium According to Turbott (), Red-vented
malarial infection during the period of study Bulbuls of the race bengalensis (northeastern
by Shehata et al. (), which is consistent India, S Assam, and Bangladesh) were
with their potential to act as a potent source released in Auckland in , and within two
of pathogens among Oahu’s indigenous years the population in such suburbs as
avifauna. It is known that on other islands the Takapuna, Mount Eden and Remuera, and in
Hawaii Amakihi Hemignathus virens is a Stanley Bay, numbered some birds. By
suitable host for Plasmodium strains occurring these potential pests had apparently been
in the archipelago, and that its survival rate eradicated, but since Heather & Robert-
when infected is low; thus the endemic son () record the presence of small num-
Oahu Amakihi H. flavus may well be at risk bers in North Shore and Mount Eden; these
(Shehata et al. ). may be survivors of the original introduction
or represent a new importation.
F I
Red-vented Bulbul The arrival of Red-vented Bulbuls in Fiji
Pycnonotus cafer around can, according to Watling
(b, ), be linked to that of Indian
Natural Range: Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, labourers who might well have brought the
Assam, Bangladesh, Burma, W Yunnan. birds with them because they have a special
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 170
Naturalised Birds of the World
place in Indian literature, folklore and poetry, ) said that ‘This abundant species now
and as fighting birds. Most of the Indian occurs from Hanauma Bay and Koko Crater
immigrants came from Uttar Pradesh, with to Waipahu and Wahiawa on the leeward side
large numbers from Bengal and Bihar, where of Oahu and from Waimanaloa to Laie on the
P. c. bengalensis (the form established in Fiji) windward side. It will not take many years
occurs. before the species is found throughout the
By the s, Red-vented Bulbuls were island’. Since then, the population and distri-
common only on Viti Levu and on some bution of Red-vented Bulbuls have exploded
small off-lying islands such as Beqa; on the dramatically (much more so than those of the
former they are abundant in both agricultural Red-whiskered Bulbul), and they now occur
and residential districts, are frequently seen in almost all parts of Oahu (Islam & Williams
in clearings and patches of immature ). Nine birds were counted in the
secondary seral associations (floodplains, Honolulu Bird Count in ; by the
riverine habitats and landslips) in forests, and total had risen to ,. Islam & Williams
occasionally in mature woodlands. Lesser () list first records for other islands as
numbers have occurred on Ovalau, Wakaya follows: Hawaii (Kona, ; Hilo, );
and Taveuni, which may have derived from western Molokai (); Kauai (near Anahola,
natural dispersal or deliberate translocations ; near ’Ele’ele, ); Maui (Pukalani–
(Watling ). Makawao area, ); and Kahoolawe ().
Since bulbuls are largely sedentary and most
Impact: Watling () found that in the sightings on other islands have been close to
Sigatoka Valley (the most important horti- the coast, these birds may have travelled on
cultural region of Fiji) agricultural crops board inter-island boats or be the result of
comprise less than % of the birds’ diet. separate releases (Williams b).
Minor damage was done to tomatoes,
aubergines, brassicas, cowpeas, pigeon peas Impact: See under P. jocosus. P. cafer
and longbeans, but none of commercial examined by Shehata et al. () in the Lyon
significance. Although bulbuls are aggressive Arboretum in Honolulu, Hawaii, in –
birds, Watling () observed only a limited were found to have a prevalence of %
amount of attacks on native species. The only Plasmodium malarial infection.
indigenous bird with which P. cafer competes
for food appears to be the White-throated M I
Pigeon Columba vitiensis (for an expanded Red-vented Bulbuls first arrived in the
account see Lever : –). Marshall Islands on Majuro in , where
they became established principally in the
H I agricultural region of Laura. The birds
In a flock of at least half-a-dozen are believed to have either been introduced
Red-vented Bulbuls was sighted at Waipahu deliberately or to have arrived as ship-borne
on Oahu (Donaghho ); these birds stowaways (Van der Velde ).
may have escaped while in transit at the
Honolulu airport, but were more probably Impact: This is the first record of the species
deliberately (and illegally) released in the in Micronesia, and Van der Velde ()
previous year with Red-whiskered Bulbuls expressed her concern for colonisation of
(Berger a, Williams b). By they other islands in the Marshalls and elsewhere
had been recorded near Fort Shafter, (e.g. Pohnpei and Kosrae) in the region.
in Kailua, and at Waimanalo, from where Competition for food could have a negative
they later spread to Manoa Valley and the impact on Majuro’s only native land bird, the
Moanulua Gardens. local race of the Micronesian Imperial Pigeon
Zeillemaker & Scott () recorded their Ducula oceanica ratakensis, and predation
status as still uncommon, but Berger (: could seriously affect the endemic Arno Skink
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 171
Pycnonotidae (Bulbuls)
Emoia arnoensis. The notoriously invasive Ninafo’ou. In the s, some of their
Lantana Lantana camara has so far been fairly descendants were transferred by Prince Tungi
quiescent in the Marshall Islands but could to control insect pests on Tongatapu, from
well be spread by Bulbuls. where they dispersed to ’Eua, a distance of
some km. Dhondt (a) recorded them as
N C abundant on Tongatapu, and in Watling
Heather & Robertson () and Islam & (b) found them to be widely distributed
Williams () record the establishment of but less common than on Fiji. Pratt et al.
Red-vented Bulbuls in New Caledonia, but () recorded Red-vented Bulbuls only on
provide no further details. Nukualofa and ’Eua.
S
In some Red-vented Bulbuls from Fiji
(P. c. bengalensis), destined for New Caledo- Sooty-headed Bulbul
nia, were diverted to Western Samoa, where Pycnonotus aurigaster
they were landed and later released at Apia on
Upolu. By at least , when some were Natural Range: Burma, Indochina, Java, Bali,
observed at Pago Pago (but probably by the Thailand, China and Vietnam.
late s), they had made the -km sea Naturalised Range: Asia: Singapore; Sulawesi;
crossing (or had been deliberately transferred) Sumatra.
to Tutuila in American Samoa, where
they were reported to be abundant by . S
They did not appear on Savai’i – only km In about Sooty-headed Bulbuls, the
from Upolu – until . The species became descendants of cage-birds imported from Java,
common in residential and agricultural (but became established in the suburbs of Singa-
not in natural) habitats on Upolu and Tutuila, pore where, although C. J. Hails (pers. comm.
but less so on Savai’i (Pratt et al. ). Gill et ) said they were dying out (or had done
al. () found P. cafer on Savai’i only in the so), Dickinson () indicates their survival.
southeast and northwest, and Gill ()
recorded the species throughout Upolu. S
Stresemann () recorded the introduction
S I from Java of P. a. aurigaster to Sulawesi,
Red-vented Bulbuls were first recorded on where it became established on the southern
Tahiti, in the residential district of Patutoa, peninsula, and where Dickinson ()
Papeete, in (Bruner ), where their confirms its survival.
establishment was confirmed by Pratt et al.
(). Their means of arrival on Tahiti is S
apparently unrecorded. Before the mid-s, Sooty-headed Bulbuls
of the nominate subspecies (Java and Bali)
Impact: Aggressive behaviour by introduced were successfully introduced from the former
Red-vented Bulbuls on Tahiti has contributed island to Medan on the northeast coast of
to the decline of the endemic race of the Sumatra (Kuroda –), where Dickinson
Tahitian Monarch Pomarea n. nigra, classified () confirms their survival.
as Critically Endangered by the World Conser-
vation Union (Blanvillain et al. ).
T I Yellow-vented Bulbul
In or a pair of Red-vented Bulbuls Pycnonotus goiavier
(probably, as in Fiji, bengalensis) was released
or escaped from captivity on the island of Natural Range: The Malay Peninsula and
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Naturalised Birds of the World
associated islands, Borneo, Indochina, south. In the Koolau Range the species is
Thailand and the Philippine Is. found from Waialae Iki Ridge to Waimea
Naturalised Range: Asia: Sulawesi. Valley and Pupukea, as well as on the wind-
ward side of the Pali as far north as Kahuku
S (Elepaio : ). The birds are common at the
In May , small groups of Yellow-vented Makiki nursery in Honolulu and in
Bulbuls were observed by Escott & Holmes Moanahua Valley’. Bush Warblers were heard
() at Ujung Pandang in southern on Molokai and Lanai in (Pyle ,
Sulawesi, where they became established. The Conant ) and on Maui in
form present in Sulawesi is P. g. analis (the (Carothers & Hansen ). Since the mid-
Malay Peninsula eastwards to Lombok). Nat- s the population on Molokai has
ural immigration can probably be discounted increased dramatically (Scott et al. ).
because of the lengthy sea crossing involved. Pratt et al. (), who erroneously say
Japanese Bush Warblers were first introduced
to Oahu in the s, record the species as
abundant on Oahu and as having recently
spread to Molokai, Lanai, Maui and perhaps
SYLVIIDAE Kauai, a distribution confirmed by Pratt
(OLD WORLD WARBLERS) () and the AOU ().
Japanese Bush Warbler
Cettia diphone
Natural Range: China, Korea, the S Russian
Far East, Sakhalin, Kuril, Ryukyu,
Borodino and Bonin Is., and C and S
Japan. Winters south to S China and SE
Asian mainland.
Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
H I
Japanese Bush Warblers were first introduced
to control insect pests on Oahu in (Caum
). Between the following year and
a further were liberated, some in the
Nu’u-anu Valley. Although the birds were
apparently doing well in , it was a further
decade before the first nest was found (Berger
). By Japanese Bush Warblers were
expanding their range on Oahu, and occurred
in moist areas in the Koolau Range and
especially in the upper Pa Lehua sections of
the Waianae Mountains (Berger ).
Zeillemaker & Scott () recorded C.
diphone as uncommon, in exotic forests and
scrub and mixed indigenous forests. Accord-
ing to Berger (: ), the Japanese Bush
Warbler occurred ‘in the Waianae Range from
Peacock Flats in the north to Pa Lehua in the Japanese Bush Warbler
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Timaliidae (Babblers and Parrotbills)
TIMALIIDAE following a major fire in the Chinese quarter
(BABBLERS AND PARROT- of Honolulu in . More of the nominate
subspecies (China, Laos and Vietnam) were
BILLS) brought in from China and released on Maui
in and on Molokai and Hawaii in
Melodious Laughing Thrush , and in birds from Oahu were
Garrulax canorus translocated to Kauai. Caum () found
them to be then well established on Oahu.
Natural Range: China, Laos, Vietnam, According to Munro (), the Melodious
Hainan and Taiwan. Laughing Thrush soon became widely
Naturalised Range: Asia: Japan. Pacific Ocean: distributed and abundant, and managed to
Hawaiian Is. penetrate deeper into the native forests than
any other alien species: it was common on
J Kauai, local on Oahu and Hawaii, and scarce
Eguchi & Amano () list the Melodious on Molokai and Maui. Richardson & Bowles
Laughing Thrush among those introduced () found it to be common on Kauai,
species that have established long-term where it occurred from sea level up to ,m
self-sustaining populations in Japan, where in montane forest, in moist forested valleys
the OSJ () describes it as a resident and in barren and arid canyons on the south
breeding species in parts of central Na Pali coast. It was equally at home in exotic
Honshu (Fukushima, Tokyo, Kanagawa and and in native woodland with a high annual
Yamanashi) and Kyushu (Fukuoka, Saga and rainfall in the Alakai Swamp region where, in
Oita). Kokee, it was especially common. Ord ()
recorded it as also abundant on Hawaii, Maui
H I and Oahu, from m up to the tree limit.
In the late nineteenth century the Melodious Scott et al. () found the Melodious
Laughing Thrush was imported as a cage-bird Laughing Thrush to be well-established in
by Chinese immigrants to Oahu, where considerable numbers in various parts of
according to Caum () a number escaped Hawaii from sea level to ,m; to be fairly
common in low- to mid-elevation (up to
,m) mesic and hydric forests, and in xeric
areas along gulches and near water on east
Maui, but absent from high-altitude wet
forests; on Kauai, the species occurred in low
densities that decreased in the higher and
moister areas of the south Alakai. Scott et al.
() failed to find the species on either
Molokai and Lanai. On all islands where it
occurs, the Melodious Laughing Thrush is
most common below ,m.
Pratt et al. () and the AOU () list
G. canorus as common on Kauai, Maui and
Hawaii, and uncommon and local to rare on
Oahu and Molokai.
Impact: Stone () lists the Melodious
Laughing Thrush as one of those alien species
implicated in the dispersal of exotic grasses,
herbs and shrubs in the Hawaiian Islands.
Melodious Laughing Thrish
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Greater Necklaced Laughing Collins ) and (Bremer ) suggest
Thrush that the species may persist in small numbers’.
Garrulax pectoralis
Natural Range: Nepal, Assam, Burma, Thai-
land, Laos, SE China and Hainan I. Masked Laughing Thrush
Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is. Garrulax perspicillatus
H I Natural Range: C and E China to N and C
In , Greater Necklaced Laughing Vietnam.
Thrushes were imported by Dora Isenberg to Naturalised Range: Asia: Japan.
Kauai (Caum ), and around others
(probably from Kauai) are believed to have J
been released on Oahu (Bryan ). By The Masked Laughing Thrush is one of the
they were apparently sparsely distributed on introduced species listed by Eguchi & Amano
the former island in the Wailu Homesteads () as having established long-term and
region (Richardson & Bowles ). Pratt et self-sustaining populations in Japan. The OSJ
al. () listed G. pectoralis as ‘Uncommon () lists it as a regular breeding species
and local, apparently nomadic, along stream in broadleaved and mixed forests and low
valleys in the lowlands [of Kauai]. Most often altitude bamboo in central Honshu (Tokyo,
seen along Huleia Stream’. Pratt () and Kanagawa).
the AOU () confirm the species’ survival
on Kauai.
Red-billed Leiothrix
Leiothrix lutea
Grey-sided Laughing Thrush
Garrulax caerulatus Natural Range: The Himalayas eastward
through Assam, Burma and Vietnam to SE
Natural Range: Nepal, Assam, Burma and W China.
Yunnan. Naturalised Range: Europe: France; ?Spain;
Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is. ?Germany. Asia: Japan. Indian Ocean:
Mascarene Is. Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
H I
Caum () said that in five unidentified F
Garrulax sp. were released on Oahu, but it According to Langley (), between
was not until that the species was identi- and pairs of the Red-billed Leiothrix are
fied as G. caerulatus (Taylor & Collins ). established in France, mainly in the Pyrénées-
Pratt et al. (: ) say of the Grey-sided Atlantique, with a smaller colony near Paris.
Laughing Thrush that it was ‘Introduced to
Oahu sometime before . Apparently S
established in N. Koolau Mts. (Poamoho Langley () says that L. lutea is becoming
Trail) but rarely seen’. The AOU (: ), established in Spain. It has occurred and bred
having in the edition expressed reserva- near Barcelona since (J. Clavell in Martí
tions about the specific identification by & del Moral ).
Taylor & Collins, says that the species ‘… was
frequently reported in the northern Koolau G
Mountains along the Poamoho Trail during Pannach () and Grimm & Doerr ()
the s and s; well-substantiated record the occurrence in the wild of L. lutea
reports in the same locality in (Taylor & in Grosskantine and in Rheinland-Pfalz
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 175
Timaliidae (Babblers and Parrotbills)
respectively, but the species’ status today, if it species nested in close proximity no direct
survives, is unrecorded. interaction was observed between them.
However, there is likely to be some indirect
J competition; a high density of nests could
Since the s, many naturalised populations attract predators, and the breeding success of
of the Red-billed Leiothrix (probably of the the Bush Warblers may be low as a result of
nominate subspecies) introduced from China interference competition with the Leiothrix.
have become established in central and Amano & Eguchi (b) also studied the
southwestern Japan (Yamashina Institute for foraging niches of L. lutea and such sympatric
Ornithology , Tojo , Eguchi & natives as C. diphone, the Long-tailed Tit
Amano ). The expansion of the species’ Aegithalos caudatus, the Great Tit Parus major,
range and the increase in the population have Coal Tit P. ater, Varied Tit P. varius and Wil-
been greatest above ,m in Kyushu low Tit P. montanus with a similar altitudinal
(Eguchi & Amano ). Between and distribution (Eguchi & Masuda ). The
only a single individual was seen in the Leiothrix was found to forage in the lower
Massif Tsukuba, where in – it was vegetational layer with bamboo, intermediate
common and recorded frequently (Tojo in height between the foraging levels of
). It is found mainly in Tsuga and Abies C. diphone and the various Parus spp. Foraging
deciduous broadleaved forests with a dense height, the extent of foraging on deciduous
understorey of dwarf bamboo, and favours trees and foraging techniques were quite
low layers of forest vegetation (Eguchi & distinct between L. lutea and the native
Masuda ), in central Honshu (Ibaraki, species, and the invasion by the Leiothrix
Tokyo, Yamanashi, Shizuoka, Wakayama, caused no apparent niche shift. Aerial insects
Osaka and Hyogo) and Kyushu (Fukuoka, tended to be more abundant about one metre
Kumamoto, Oita and Miyazaki). above the bamboo canopy, where they were
vulnerable to the Leiothrix’s foraging
Impact: Amano & Eguchi (a) studied the technique of jumping. Parus spp. and C.
nest-site selection and characteristics in diphone seldom forage by jumping, and thus
Kyushu of the Red-billed Leiothrix and exploit different food resources to those
the sympatric native Japanese Bush used by L. lutea, which may have invaded
Warbler Cettia diphone. Both species nest a vacant ecological niche – the lower layer of
exclusively in bamboo. L. lutea constructs deciduous broadleaved forest – in Kyushu.
well-concealed pendulous nests in the
bamboo canopy, whereas C. diphone builds M I
nests on bamboo stalks in places of high stalk The Red-billed Leiothrix was first seen in
density in dense vegetation. This segregation moist lowland forests on the east coast of
of nesting microhabitats enables both species Réunion (La Plaine des Lianes, Grand Etang,
to breed sympatrically. Even when the two and at Cilaos, and perhaps also La Plaine des
Fougères and at La Montagne) in . This
fairly wide distribution suggests that the
introduction is not very recent (perhaps in
the s), or that there were several different
releases in various localities. There are no
recent references to this species on Réunion,
although because it is very secretive it could
have been overlooked (Le Corre ). See
also Tassin & Rivière .
H I
Red-billed Leiothrix Although Caum () claimed that the
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Red-billed Leiothrix was first introduced ,m. They hypothesised that the long-term
to the Hawaiian Islands (Kauai) by Dora Isen- survival of lowland populations is made
berg in , Fisher & Baldwin () indicate problematical by high temperatures. This
that as early as of the nominate race could explain the absence or infrequency of
(central and eastern China) were imported as birds at lower elevations, and may also
cage-birds from southeastern China, followed account for the near-disappearance of the
by others from the same source in , species on Oahu and Kauai.
and , some of which are believed to have
escaped and to have become established in the Impact: Stone & Loope () say that S.
wild before . (According to Ali & Ripley Conant (in Mueller-Dombois et al. )
(–) the race introduced to Hawaii was points out that the Red-billed Leiothrix does
calipyga of the Himalayas, Assam, Manipur, not seem to compete for food with the
Burma and southeastern Xizang). In – endemic Hawaiian Thrush Myadestes obscurus
more were imported from the Far East by W. because the former feeds principally less than
H. McInerny who released them on Oahu, seven metres from the ground, whereas the
and at the same time others were set free on latter forages in the forest canopy.
Molokai, Maui, Hawaii and Kauai. According to Lewin (), L. lutea is one
Caum () recorded L. lutea to be present of the alien species in the Hawaiian Islands
in considerable numbers on Kauai and to be implicated in the spread of the exotic Banana
apparently breeding on Molokai, Maui and Poka Passiflora mollissima; it also causes some
Hawaii. Berger () described the species as local damage to several soft fruit and vegetable
widely distributed on all the main islands, but crops (Keffer et al. ).
to be less common on Kauai. Zeillemaker & The Red-billed Leiothrix in the Hawaiian
Scott () said the Red-billed Leiothrix Islands appears (like several other
occurred in exotic and native forest and naturalised species) to have acquired some
scrub on Hawaii (where it was widespread immunogenetic protection or behavioural or
and abundant); on Oahu (numerous in physiological non-immunogenetic defences
the Koolau and Waianae Mountains); on against bird pox and malaria or their vectors,
Maui (common in damp forests on Haleakala and thus appears to be relatively unaffected by
and in the west); on Molokai (uncommon in avian diseases; Shehata et al. () found that
mountain valleys); on Lanai (uncommon); L. lutea had one of the lowest rates (.%) of
and possibly on Kauai. malarial infection among alien birds in their
Scott et al. () found L. lutea to be well study area on Hawaii. Thus, the reasons for
distributed above ,m on the windward the large historical population fluctuations in
side of Hawaii; widespread and common in the archipelago remain unexplained (Ralph et
well-watered areas of eastern Maui, where al. ).
since it had greatly increased in range
and numbers on northwest Haleakala; on
Molokai L. lutea occurred mainly above
,m. Pratt et al. (: ) said the species
was ‘Introduced (s) to the Hawaiian ZOSTEROPIDAE
Islands. Abundant on most islands by s (WHITE-EYES)
but has been declining since. Now rare on
Kauai, Oahu; still common on Molokai, Japanese White-eye
Maui, Hawaii’. This status is confirmed by the Zosterops japonicus
AOU ().
Scott et al. () drew attention to the fact Natural Range: From S Sakhalin I., S through
that whereas in the Hawaiian Islands the Japan and many of its satellite islands to
lower elevational limit of L. lutea is around China, N Vietnam and Hainan I.
,m, in Burma it occurs mainly above Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
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Zosteropidae (White-eyes)
H I Amahikis Hemignathus spp., and Hawaii
According to Keffer et al. (), local avicul- Creeper Oreomystis mana (Mountainspring &
tural dealers released Japanese White-eyes in Scott ), and with other introduced species
the Hawaiian Islands in . A year later and in lowland localities (Moulton & Pimm ),
in subsequent years others (of the nominate for the blossom nectar of Ohi’a Metrosideros
subspecies from Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku polymorpha. Z. japonicus has been implicated
and Tsushima) were freed on Oahu where in the dispersal of the introduced Banana
they became established (Caum ). In Poka Passiflora mollissima (Lewin ).
at least were liberated on Hawaii, and oth- The Japanese White-eye is known to be a
ers were released on Maui, Molokai, Lanai host of both the endoparasite Plasmodium
and perhaps Kauai, and by at least the late vaughani, which causes avian malaria, and
s they had colonised all the main islands. also of bird pox, which is spread by the
According to Berger (: –) Z. introduced tropical mosquito Culex pipiens
japonicus was quinquefasciatus, against which native species
have no resistance. This lack of inbuilt immu-
now certainly the most abundant land nity, together with interspecific competition
bird in the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on for food or nesting sites, has contributed to
all the main islands and is found from sea the serious decline or even extermination
level to tree line on Maui and Hawaii. It of some endemic Hawaiian honeycreepers
occurs in very dry areas … and very wet (Drepanididae) and of some other native
areas ( or more inches [cm] of rain species in Volcanoes National Park. Neverthe-
a year). less, in their study area in the Lyon Arbore-
tum in Honolulu on Hawaii, Shehata et al.
Scott et al. () found Z. japonicus from () found only a .% malarial infection
sea level to ,m on Hawaii and up to prevalence among Japanese White-eyes.
,m on Maui. Densities of over birds Limited local damage to some soft fruit
per sq km occurred below ,m on Hawaii crops by Z. japonicus has been recorded. How-
and Kauai, and at all elevations on Molokai ever, the species also kills injurious insects.
and Lanai; densities were lowest on Maui.
Distributional patterns on Hawaii, Maui,
Molokai and Kauai suggest the invasion of
montane forests by lowland populations. Silver-eye
Pratt et al. () confirm the species’ status Zosterops lateralis
as probably the most abundant bird in the
archipelago, and add that it has even been Natural Range: Australia, from the Cape York
reported far out to sea and on Johnston Atoll, Peninsula S and W to S Western Australia.
southwest of Hawaii. The AOU (: ) Also Tasmania and numerous islands in the
says that Z. japonicus is ‘now widespread and W Pacific east of Australia as far as the Fiji
common on the main islands from Kauai Is. (A natural colonist of New Zealand in
eastwards’. , and of some of its off-lying Islands).
Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Society Is;
Impact: Stone & Loope (; quoting S. Tubuai Is.
Conant in Mueller-Dombois et al. ) said
that the introduced Japanese White-eye S I
normally feeds in the lower canopy where it Silver-eyes of the nominate subspecies
does not compete with the endemic Hawaiian (Tasmania, Flinders and Norfolk Is. and New
Thrush Myadestes obscurus which uses the full Zealand) were first introduced (from New
canopy range; the former may, however, be a Zealand) to the Society Islands in about
significant competitor with native birds, such by E. Guild (), who released some on
as the Elepaio Chasiempis sandwichensis, Tahiti. They are now widely distributed and
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 178
Naturalised Birds of the World
abundant there and have spread to other (Horsburgh Island), where until at least the
islands in the archipelago as follows: late s it was restricted but abundant (Gib-
Moorea (; very common); Huahine (; son-Hill a). It is believed, like the Island
uncertain); Raiatea (; widespread); Tahaa Thrush Turdus poliocephalus, to have since
(; widely distributed); Bora Bora (; spread to some other islands in the group. In
uncommon); Maupiti (; only at Paumea). it remained abundant on Pulo Luar only,
They may also have colonised Mehetia in remnants of the original forest vegetation
and Tupai. In they were unsuccessfully along the lagoon shore (Stokes et al. )
released on Tetiaroa (Holyoak & Thibault
). Pratt et al. (), who erroneously say
the introduction took place in , record
the species’ presence on Tahiti, Moorea,
Raiatea and Bora Bora. MIMIDAE (MOCKINGBIRDS
AND THRASHERS)
T I
According to Pratt et al. (), Silver-eyes Northern Mockingbird
were introduced to the Tubuai archipelago Mimus polyglottos
more recently than to the Society Islands, and
are now common to abundant on Raivavae, Natural Range: S Canada and N USA to
Tubuai and Rurutu. Mexico. Also Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto
Rico and Jamaica.
Naturalised Range: North America: West
Indies. Atlantic Ocean: ?Bermuda. Pacific
Christmas Island White-eye Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
Zosterops natalis
W I
Natural Range: Christmas I. (Indian Ocean). ‘A common resident throughout the
Naturalised Range: Indian Ocean: Cocos Bahamas. …. Introduced to New Providence
(Keeling) Is. at about the turn of the th century, it now
outnumbers the native Bahama Mockingbird
C (K) I [M. gundlachii]. An introduced population
The Christmas Island White-eye was intro- on Barbados is now extirpated’ (Raffaele et al.
duced between and to Pulo Luar : –).
B
Northern Mockingbirds introduced to
Bermuda in died out shortly after .
Nevertheless, the AOU (: ) claims the
species is ‘introduced and established … in
Bermuda’, where it now occurs only as a rare
and occasional vagrant (Wingate , Raine
).
H I
According to Caum (), Northern Mock-
ingbirds were released in Honolulu on Oahu
in , ‘ostensibly as game birds [sic]’. Berger
() said that more were freed on Oahu in
–, and on Maui in the latter year. The
Northern Mockingbird birds first reached Hawaii through natural
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 179
Sturnidae (Starlings)
dispersal in , and by the late s they islands in the West Indies and off the coast
were established on Maui (where they had of S America.
first appeared in ), and occurred locally on Naturalised Range: South America: Panama.
Oahu, Molokai (since ), and Lanai, and
occasionally on Hawaii (Munro ). P
In , Hawaii was recolonised, this time Ridgeley () indicates they were first
from Maui, and shortly afterwards Mocking- reported in Panama in , where de
birds appear to have spread to all the larger Schauensee () said that they were intro-
islands and some of the smaller ones to the duced. Tropical Mockingbirds are now said to
northwest such as Nohoa, Tern in the French be common throughout the former Canal
Frigate Shoals (c. ) and Necker (c. ) Zone, and have spread east to Tocumen and
(Berger ). Portobelo and west as far as La Chorrera and
Zeillemaker & Scott () found M. Boca del Rio in Colón and Panamá Provinces.
polyglottos to be common on Maui, uncom-
mon on Kauai (where it may have arrived as
early as ), Oahu, Molokai, Lanai and
Hawaii, and as occurring only as a vagrant in
the northwestern islands. STURNIDAE (STARLINGS)
Pratt et al. (: ), who erroneously
date the first introduction to , recorded Hill Myna
Mockingbirds as ‘… on the six largest Gracula religiosa
[islands]. Fairly common and widespread on
Kauai, uncommon and local elsewhere. Natural Range: India, Sri Lanka, Burma,
Vagrant to … Midway, French Frigate Shoals, Thailand, Indochina to S Yunnan and
Necker, Nihoa’. This distribution is con- Hainan. Also the Andaman and Nicobar Is,
firmed by Pratt () and the AOU (). the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo,
Scott et al. () (who incorrectly say M. Java, islands off W Sumatra, Palawan, and
polyglottos was first released on Oahu in from Sumbawa to Alor (Lesser Sunda Is.).
and was first reported on Hawaii in ), Naturalised Range: North America: USA;
found that the species occurred in a wide West Indies. Indian Ocean: ?Christmas Is.
spectrum of vegetation and elevations, favour- Pacific Ocean: ?Hawaiian Is.
ing xeric habitats on Hawaii and Maui. Pratt
() said the birds had yet to penetrate into U S
native forests. In , escaped Hill Mynas, introduced as
cage-birds because of their skill at mimicry,
Impact: Northern Mockingbirds are among became established in a narrow coastal strip of
those introduced species accused of helping southeastern Florida from Homestead to at
the Banana Poka Passiflora mollissima to least as far north as Boynton Beach – a
spread in the Hawaiian Islands (Warshauer et distance of around km – and breeding was
al. ). confirmed in numerous places in Palm Beach,
Broward and Dade Counties (Owre ,
Blake ).
Since then the species’ status in Florida has
Tropical Mockingbird been debatable. O. T. Owre (pers. comm.
Mimus gilvus , ) wrote that since his paper
‘Some species are noticeably more abundant,
Natural Range: From S Mexico to Guatemala, e.g. the Hill Myna [which] remains a
Honduras and El Salvador, and from common breeding bird throughout urban
Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, French areas of southeastern Florida’, where Troops &
Guiana and Surinam to Brazil. Also some Dilley (: ) said that ‘Hill Mynas nest
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 180
Naturalised Birds of the World
Island in about , from where they
disappeared within a decade (Chasen ).
Nevertheless, the AOU () claims they are
still established on the island.
H I
In –, eight Hill Mynas escaped from a
pet shop in Honolulu on Oahu and settled in
the Upper Manoa Valley, from where they
later spread to Tantalus, Makiki Valley and
Kahana Valley, on the northwest coast, where
they became established and bred. Pratt et al.
(), who said that a small colony survived
in the Lyon Arboretum in Honolulu, and the
AOU (), do not consider the species to be
established.
Crested Myna
Acridotheres cristatellus
Natural Range: S and E China, Indochina,
Hainan and Taiwan.
Hill Myna Naturalised Range: Europe: ?Austria. Asia:
Japan; ?Malaysia; Philippine Is; UAE.
throughout the suburban area. Found … North America: Canada; USA.
from Homestead to Palm Beach County.
Quite numerous near Matheson Hammock, A
Fairchild Gardens, University of Miami, and In a small colony of Crested Mynas
South Bayshore Drive’. Nevertheless, James of uncertain origin was found living in
() included the Hill Myna in his list of gardens, parks, orchards and pastures on the
introduced species that did not have well- Graz-Liebenau housing estate in the outer
established breeding populations in Florida, a suburbs of Graz in southeastern Austria. By
view with which the AOU () concurred. the population had risen to , including
Sibley () said that the small numbers in one to three successful breeding pairs (Kresse
Florida (and California) may be augmented & Kepka , Sackl ).
by frequent escapes.
J
W I Since at least Crested Mynas have been
Introduced to Puerto Rico probably in the recorded on Honshu (Tokyo, Kanagawa-ken
late s, Hill Mynas of the nominate form and Hyogo-ken), Kyushu (Kagoshima-ken
are uncommon and very local residents on the and Izumi), and the Senkaku Islands
north and east coasts (Raffaele et al. ), (Iriomote-jima and Yonaguni-jima). A small
from where they are casual vagrants to the breeding colony occurs around Tokyo, and
islands of Mona and Vieques (AOU ). birds are regularly seen in the Oi-koen–
Haneda area. The population, which is largely
C I descended from released or escaped pets, is
Hill Mynas of the nominate Malaysian augmented by natural vagrants from Taiwan
subspecies were introduced to Christmas (Brazil , ). The OSJ () lists the
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Sturnidae (Starlings)
nominate subspecies from China as a A. cristatellus had become the dominant
breeding resident in cultivated fields and terrestrial species in the city of Vancouver, and
wooded residential areas in central Honshu had expanded its range over an area of some
(Tokyo, Kanagawa, Osaka, Hyogo). , sq km including North Vancouver,
across the Burrard Inlet, on Sea and Lulu
M Islands in the Fraser River delta, in New
Since at least escaped or released Crested Westminster and in Coquitlam in the east and
Mynas (A. c. brevipennis from Hainan and Ladner in the south.
Indochina) have been common and breeding By , when the Vancouver population
residents in and around Georgetown on had risen to between , and ,, the
Penang Island (Gibson-Hill b). Since direction of dispersal was mainly to the
a few have been observed along the southeast. Two years later the city population
Kelang River south of Kuala Lumpur where, had increased dramatically to around ,,
however, D. R. Wells (pers. comm. ) was and wanderers had dispersed km south to
uncertain of the birds’ status. Bellingham in Washington, where they later
became established at Lake Washington,
P I at Juanita Bay, and near Seattle (Phillips
Between and Crested Mynas of the ). By the birds had spread km
Chinese nominate subspecies were imported inland from Vancouver as far as Chilliwack.
to the Philippines to control locusts on the By the mid-s the population had
island of Luzon. By – the birds had still considerably declined, and Crested Mynas
not spread far outside the capital, Manila were mainly restricted to Vancouver, New
(Whitehead ), and by had only Westminster and to Lulu Island, with smaller
managed to colonise a few townships away numbers on Sea Island, Victoria, Nanaimo,
from Manila (Wood ). Du Pont () Union Bay, Alert Bay and Courtenay
said the species had spread south to Negros. on Vancouver Island. By the total
The AOU () confirms the Crested Myna’s population was estimated at between ,
survival on Luzon. and ,, representing a sharp decrease since
the mid-s. By the mid-s the birds
U A E were largely confined to Greater Vancouver
Although Richardson () does not include (MacKay & Hughes ), which remains
this species in his list of introduced birds in their stronghold today (AOU ), where
the United Arab Emirates, Sackl () says Sibley () says the small population
that a breeding population probably exists continues to decline. The birds in British
there. Columbia are of the nominate subspecies
from China.
C; U S
‘Little appears to be known’, wrote Phillips Impact: Although Phillips () recorded
(: ), ‘as to how the [Crested Myna] some damage by Crested Mynas to soft fruits
arrived in Vancouver [British Columbia]; the such as cherries, blackberries and apples, in
introduction dates from about and may the early years after their establishment in
or may not have been accidental. It is Vancouver, serious depredations were not
supposed that birds escaped from some ship subsequently reported. The species’ failure to
touching at this port …‘. The species’ become a significant pest has been attributed
presence was first confirmed in Vancouver in to competition for nesting sites with the
by Brooks & Swarth (). Soon after introduced European Starling Sturnus vulgaris
a small number crossed the Strait of and a less than optimum climate and habitat
Georgia to Vancouver Island, while occasional that restricts Mynas to a single brood annually
individuals were recorded in Washington (Laycock ).
and Oregon in the United States. By ,
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Jungle Myna is not mentioned by Raffaele et al. () so it
Acridotheres fuscus has presumably died out.
Natural Range: Pakistan, India, Assam, Burma A I
and the Malay Peninsula. Beavan () records that Jungle Mynas (of
the nominate subspecies from Pakistan to
Burma) were imported from the latter country
White-vented Myna to Port Blair on South Andaman by Colonel
Acridotheres javanicus R. C. Tytler soon after the establishment of a
penal settlement there in . From there
Natural Range: Java. they spread to Ross Island. Their present
Naturalised Range: Asia: Japan; Malay Penin- status in the Andamans is unknown.
sula; Singapore; ?Sumatra;. North America:
?West Indies. Indian Ocean: ?Andaman Is. F I
Pacific Ocean: Fiji Is; Western Samoa. According to Pernetta & Watling (),
Jungle Mynas were introduced to Viti Levu in
Early records of introductions of these two Fiji from India (Lyon-Field () said possi-
species are very confused; for a full account see bly from Burma) in about to control
Lever : –. Orthoptera (crickets, grasshoppers and
locusts) in sugar-cane plantations. Numerous,
J but only partially successful, attempts were
The OSJ (: ) lists ‘Acridotheres fuscus made to transfer large numbers from Viti Levu
javanicus … resident on Java’ as a breeding to Vanua Levu and other neighbouring islands
species in cultivated fields and parks in (Lyon-Field ). Although Blackburn ()
central Honshu. Presumably the species is the said that Jungle Mynas were common only on
White-vented Mynah. Viti Levu and Nukulau, Pernetta & Watling
() found them to be abundant in suitable
S; M P habitats on all the main islands except Taveuni.
White-vented Mynas have occurred in Singa- Watling (: ) said that the Jungle Myna
pore since before (Chasen ). They in Fiji ‘is found only on Viti Levu and its
are now widespread and very common there offshore islands and on Vanua Levu –
and have spread south to Tandjungpinang Is- although on the latter island it is very rare. …
land and in north to Johor Baharu on the Jungle Mynahs were introduced to Viti Levu
mainland. D. R. Wells (pers. comm. ) says in about , but not until did they
that since then the population has rapidly in- become established on Vanua Levu, where
creased north of the causeway and has spread they have not flourished. It was purportedly
km up the coast from Johor Baharu. introduced to control army-worms [noctuid
larvae], which can be a pest to many crops’.
S Pratt et al. () say the species remains
Ripley () says that ‘Orange-billed Jungle common in Fiji, where the birds favour
Mynas (A. javanicus)’ have been introduced to man-modified habitats such as gardens, parks
Sumatra; the species present is in fact the and pastures in urban and suburban districts,
White-vented Myna, and it is probably a and lightly wooded areas, though they also
natural immigrant from Java. frequently venture into denser forests.
W I Impact: Watling () recorded attacks by
According to the AOU (), White-vented Jungle Mynas on the plumules (emergent
Mynahs have been introduced to the Bayamón shoots) of commercially valuable ground-nut
region of Puerto Rico, where their present (Peanut Arachis hypogaea) crops. Competition
status is uncertain (Raffaele ). The species from A. fuscus in Fiji has caused a change in
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Sturnidae (Starlings)
habitat of the endemic race of the Polynesian occurred. In the mid-s a small population
Starling Aplonis tabuensis vitiensis, which now became established on St John’s Island, km
occurs only in forested localities (Pernetta & south of Singapore, where breeding has been
Watling ). assumed. These birds are believed to have been
released by smugglers in an attempt to evade
W S the authorities (C. J. Hails pers. comm. ).
Jungle Mynas were first recorded in Western According to Seng () the species has been
Samoa on ’Upolu in (Green ), recorded from Queenstown, St John’s and
although both he and Dhondt (b), who Kusu Islands, but is now markedly declining.
saw them only around Apia where he reported
them to be breeding, apparently misidentified
them as Common Mynas A. tristis (Gill et al.
). Watling (a) recorded a few small Pale-bellied Myna
flocks of A. fuscus in and near Apia, as did Acridotheres cinereus
Child (). Reed () found considerable
numbers of Jungle Mynas on ’Upolu, where Natural Range: Endemic to S Sulawesi.
they were no longer confined to Apia, and in Naturalised Range: Asia: Sarawak.
Muse & Muse () observed hundreds
of birds roosting in Apia and said they were S
spreading over much of northern ’Upolu. Between and Pale-bellied Mynas
Pratt et al. () stated that Jungle Mynas appeared at Kuching in southwestern Sara-
were increasing around Apia. Gill et al. () wak, west of Borneo, where the population is
found them over much of ’Upolu with a few rapidly increasing; the birds probably arrived
also in southeastern Savai’i, where they were in Kuching by ship (Gregory-Smith ).
first recorded by Beichle (). How, why,
and from where A. fuscus was introduced to
Western Samoa is apparently unrecorded (Gill
). Bank Myna
Acridotheres gingianus
Recent Expansion: Rinke () said that Jun-
gle Mynas had recently colonised Niuafo’ou Natural Range: Pakistan, India, Nepal and
in the Tonga archipelago, apparently without Bangladesh.
human assistance and probably from Fiji, and Naturalised Range: Asia: Japan; ?Kuwait;
expressed concern that they might compete ?Oman; ?Saudi Arabia; ?UAE.
for nest-holes with the Blue-crowned Lorikeet
Vini australis. Pratt et al. () make no J
mention of the species in Tonga. The OSJ () lists the Bank Myna as
a breeding resident in cultivated fields and
residential areas around Tokyo on Honshu.
Black-winged Myna United Arab Emirates; Kuwait;
Acridotheres melanopterus Saudi Arabia; Oman
Richardson () records the establishment
Natural Range: Java, Bali, and ?Lombok of small localised populations of Bank Mynas
Naturalised Range: Asia: ?Singapore. in the UAE; about were reported in Abu
Dhabi in – with smaller numbers in
A: S Dubai in –; in the species was
Since about escaped Black-winged noted at al Ain, and in several flocks
Mynas have from time to time been observed of or more were counted at Digdaga,
in Singapore, where successful breeding has near Ras al Khaimah, providing evidence of
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Naturalised Birds of the World
further extensions of range (Richardson ). origin for these birds, Mauersberger &
Jennings () confirms continued breeding Möckel () argue that they are more likely
in Abu Dhabi and Dubai, and also lists to be derived from escaped cage-birds.
breeding in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and at
Muscat in Oman. S
One pair was established on Mallorca in the
Balearic Islands between at least and
, and reared four young successfully in
Common Myna (J. Clavell in Martí & del Moral ).
Acridotheres tristis
B
Natural Range: From S C Kazakhstan, First recorded in , Common Mynas are
Turkmenistan and E Iran through main- now well-established in urban areas of
land S Asia to W Malaya and Indochina. Bahrain, where breeding has also occurred at
Also Sri Lanka. Badan Farm in and at Meerouge Farm in
Naturalised Range: Europe: ?Italy; Russia; , and in spring presumed breeding pairs
?Spain. Asia: Bahrain; Brunei; China (Hong are regularly observed at Busaytin and Arad
Kong); Japan; Kuwait; Oman; Sarawak; on Muharraq Island, at Manama, around
Saudi Arabia; Sumatra; UAE. Africa: Bahrain Fort, and at Janabiyah and Hamalah.
Botswana; South Africa. North America: In winter, flocks assemble mainly at Badan
USA. Australasia: Australia; New Zealand. Farm but also at Busaytin, where birds that
Atlantic Ocean: Ascension I.; Canary Is; St have been feeding in fields around Dair and
Helena I.; Indian Ocean: Agaléga Is; An- Ghalali villages, Muharraq, congregate in
daman Is; Comoros Is; Chagos Archipel- roosts (Hirschfeld & King ).
ago; Lakshadweep Is; Madagascar; Maldive
Is; Mascarene Is; ?Nicobar Is; Seychelles Is. B; S; S
Pacific Ocean: Fiji Is; French Polynesia Hawkins & Safford (in prep.) quote Feare &
(Cook, Tubai, Society, Tuamotu, Marque- Craig () as saying that Common Mynas
sas Is.); Hawaiian Is;? ?New Caledonia;? have been introduced to Brunei and Sumatra,
Solomon Is; ?Vanuatu; Western Samoa Is. while Gregory-Smith () says that between
and they arrived in Sarawak.
All naturalised populations of the Common
Myna are believed to be of the nominate C (H K)
subspecies A. t. tristis, which includes Common Mynas were first reported in Hong
A. t. tristoides (Dickinson ). It occurs Kong in , when a small breeding popula-
throughout the range apart from Sri Lanka. tion, believed to be derived from escaped
cage-birds, became established on the Mong
I Tseng Peninsula (Webster ).
Biondi et al. () and Baccetti et al. ()
indicate that the Common Myna has bred J
successfully at Castelfusano in coastal Eguchi & Amano () list A. tristis among
Romano, where its present state is uncertain. those alien species that have established
long-term self-sustaining populations in
R Japan, where the OSJ () describes the
A self-sustaining population of Com- nominate subspecies as a breeding resident in
mon Mynas is established around Sochi and cultivated fields and residential areas in
Gagra on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus central Honshu (Chiba, Kanagawa).
in southern Russia (Cramp et al. –;
Gillings ). Although D. R. Wells (pers. K; O
comm. to Gillings ) suggested a natural Common Mynas are listed as also breeding in
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Sturnidae (Starlings)
Kuwait and at Muscat in Oman by Jennings B
(), who says they are one of the most Common Mynas were first introduced in
widespread and successful exotics in Arabia. Botswana in the grounds of the Grand Palm
Hotel in the capital, Gabaronne, in .
S A Since the initial sightings there have been
Felemban () said that in the last decade many more in the same area, from where the
the resident population of Common Mynas birds seem to be spreading and are rapidly
had increased steadily around Jeddah, where increasing in numbers (Tyler ).
six pairs were apparently well established
on the campus of the King Abdul-Aziz Impact: Tyler () expressed concern that
University. Common Mynas will have a negative impact
on such native hole-nesting species as barbets
U A E (Ramphastidae: Lybiinae).
First recorded in in Dubai and Abu
Dhabi, where captive birds were deliberately S A
released (F. E. Warr pers. comm. to Richard- Common Mynas imported from Mauritius,
son ), Common Mynas now flourish in to which they are believed to have been intro-
and around urban areas and are spreading duced in to control injurious insects,
annually to fresh localities (Richardson ). were first introduced to South Africa, at Dur-
According to Gallagher & Woodcock (), ban, by Leon St Guillaume in . A second
the species was said to be then established at introduction, probably from India, occurred
Al Ain. Up to , birds assemble at dusk around (Kent ) or in (Van
to roost at sites in Dubai and Abu Dhabi. Nierop ). By the s they had colonised
Common Mynas are said to be benefiting most of KwaZulu-Natal (Craig ) and had
from the increase in grassland and agricultural spread to Johannesburg, Bramley (around
plots (Richardson ). ), Germiston, Pretoria and the Witwater-
srand in the Transval; to the Orange Free State
Impact: According to Richardson (), A. (Calder ); and to Cape Province, where
tristis may be displacing native Laughing they first appeared at Kimberley in . The
Doves Streptopelia senegalensis in some urban species is now naturalised throughout Natal
localities. and the Witwatersrand and in parts of the
Transvaal Highveld, and has spread down the
coast through Cape Province (Maclean ,
Richardson et al. ).
If Brooke et al. () are correct in sug-
gesting that Mynas may not be pre-adapted to
cooler regions, they may well have reached
their southern distributional limits in the
South African interior; any increase in tem-
perature, however, could alter the southern
limits of the species’ distribution southwards
and into the arid and semi-arid South African
interior (Richardson et al. ). Warmer
temperatures and mild winters have allowed
Mynas to spread along the coast from Durban
to Port Elizabeth and Cape Town (Craig
), though Richardson et al. ()
believed that breeding populations were not
yet established. The species’ apparent inability
Common Myna to colonise parts of KwaZulu-Natal and the
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Naturalised Birds of the World
moist savanna of the north (Craig ) could A
be due to unsuitable patterns of human Between and over Common
land-use (Richardson et al. ). Since Mynas were released at various places in
Mynas occur principally in areas with an Victoria (Ryan ). In New South Wales,
average annual rainfall of over mm they Mynas are believed to have been introduced
may be restricted to wetter localities (Richard- to Sydney at around the same time as
son et al. ). Although largely commensals in Victoria. In or about Mynas from
of man and frequently nesting on buildings Melbourne, Victoria, were taken to northern
and other man-made structures, Mynas are Queensland to control locusts and beetles
adaptable in the choice of nest-sites and also (Lepidoderma (Dermolepida) albohirtum and
breed in tree-holes (Richardson et al. ). Lepidiota frenchi) in sugar-cane plantations.
They were released at Townsville and on the
Impact: ‘The ecological effect of mynahs is Herbert and Johnstone Rivers, from where
mainly to chase other bird species away. They they soon succeeded in colonising other local
are very aggressive when breeding and will not townships but failed to control the insects,
tolerate smaller birds in their territory, apart thus leading to the introduction in of the
from being omnivorous and usurping the Cane Toad Bufo marinus (Lever ). In
niches of others’ (J. Vincent pers. comm. ). more were freed at Cairns and Toowoomba in
In some localities Common Mynas have the Darling Downs, and around the
been accused of causing damage to soft-fruit Hon A. J. Thynne released others around
crops. In warm weather their nests can Biddeston (Tarr ).
become infested with mallophagan bird lice Common Mynas were liberated, appar-
(Kent ) and Sarcoptes itchmites that can ently without success, near Hobart, Tasmania,
cause severe dermatitis in humans (Liversidge in the early s, but after they are be-
). lieved to have arrived naturally from Victoria.
Mynas were not recorded in South Australia,
U S around Adelaide, until (Condon ).
The Common Myna was first recorded in In New South Wales, Common Mynas had
Miami, Florida, in , and by the middle of reached Ryde by about and were
the decade it was said by Troops & Dilley common in the suburbs of Sydney by ,
() to be rapidly increasing in numbers but did not start to spread outside the city
and to have spread from downtown Miami to until the late s or early s. A decade
Palm Beach, the Everglades and the Gulf later they were established and common south
Coast. By the late s breeding had been re- of Sydney Harbour, and were recorded north
ported in Cocoa Beach and Broward County of the Parramatta (Tarr ). They were
(Stevenson & Anderson ). It has been observed in the Thirroul area in , were
increasing in numbers around shopping cen- breeding at Woolongong in the following
tres and malls in southern Florida since the year, and by were well established at Lane
early s (Robertson & Woolfenden ), Cove and North Ryde. By the middle of
and Stevenson & Anderson recorded breeding the following decade Mynas were firmly
in five counties. James () considered it entrenched along the km of coast between
was soon likely to be well-established in Sydney and Woolongong, and had been seen
Florida. Stevenson & Anderson (), the inland at Marulan and Marrangaroo and
AOU () and Sibley () say the popu- north at Tweed Heads. Hone () reported
lation is still increasing and expanding. Mynas to be widely distributed in urban
habitats in eastern New South Wales, with
Impact: According to Troops & Dilley (), separate populations based on Sydney, Can-
Common Mynas in southern Florida are berra (where some had been introduced in the
known to compete successfully for nest-sites late s), Newcastle and in the northeast.
with native Purple Martins Progne subis subis. In the past century, Sydney and its human
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Sturnidae (Starlings)
population have expanded greatly, thus and crevices in buildings can make them a
providing the commensal Myna with a nuisance locally.
corresponding increase in suitable habitat. An Because of the disturbed habitat they
important factor in the species’ dispersal has frequent, Mynas in Australia do not often
been the growth in road and rail transport come into conflict with native species which
that has provided ‘corridors’ to new localities tend to prefer undisturbed habitats, but
(Hone ). compete for food and nesting-sites with
In Victoria, Mynas had colonised Mel- introduced European Starlings Sturnus
bourne and some of the larger nearby towns vulgaris, House Sparrows Passer domesticus
by around , but away from these localities and Feral Pigeons Columba livia, which
spread only slowly. In Queensland, the birds similarly favour urban habitats as commensals
were recorded in the Atherton shire in , of man and may have contributed to the
were established and common in sugar-cane Myna’s relatively slow rate of dispersal. Where
plantations and at Cairns by the mid-s Mynas do live alongside native species (on the
(when some were seen for the first time in the border between urban and rural areas) such
southeast) and in Townsville by the early s as rosellas Platycercus spp., lorikeets
(Lavery & Hopkins ). (Loriinae) and Laughing Kookaburras Dacelo
Frith () described Mynas as firmly novaeguineae (which are not only larger than
established in urban areas of southeastern Mynas but also equally aggressive), the Mynas
Victoria, in Sydney, New South Wales and in kill the natives’ nestlings and evict the adults
northern Queensland from Cairns to Towns- from their nests (Phillips ).
ville. By the following decade, Common
Mynas were well-established in coastal north- N Z
ern Queensland from the Mossman–Atherton Between and well over Common
tablelands south to MacKay, and in the south- Mynas were released in Canterbury and
east from the Darling Downs to Brisbane; in Otago on South Island and in Wellington and
coastal northeastern New South Wales, in the Hawke’s Bay on North Island, but only those
Newcastle/Sydney/Illawarra area inland to at on the latter met with lasting success. By
least the Blue Mountains Plateau; and since they were said to be abundant around Napier
the late s in the Australian Capital in Hawke’s Bay, when they began also to
Territory, where were released in the Can- increase on Tutira. In they were reported
berra suburb of Forrest in – (Phillips to be fairly plentiful in Tuparoa. Although
). Mynas also became well-established in not common around Wellington they
Victoria, where they dispersed from Mel- had spread up the coast to Wanganui and
bourne eastwards to Orbost, west to Geelong New Plymouth, throughout Taranaki and
and Ballarat, through central Victoria, and to eastwards to Wairarapa (Thomson ).
the Murray Valley between Cobden and Swan Probably in part due to competition with
Hill (Pizzey , Blakers et al. ). In the the also introduced European Starling Sturnus
early s, Mynas colonised the large coun- vulgaris, Common Mynas seem initially to
try town of Blairnsdale in East Gippsland, have spread only slowly in New Zealand. By
Victoria (Phillips ). In Tasmania, Mynas the s they occurred in two discrete
were recorded near Launceston in , and a sub-populations – one in the east from
small colony may persist in South Australia in Waipukurau to East Cape and the other in the
northern Adelaide. The map in Barrett et al. west from Wanganui to the Waikato. From
() shows little overall change in the about they spread more rapidly and
species’ range, but an absence from Tasmania. colonised the Volcanic Plateau and Auckland
by about , when they were still confined
Impact: In Queensland, damage by Mynas to to only five towns in the Wairarapa; they were
some soft-fruit crops such as figs has been abundant in Hawke’s Bay, and uncommon in
reported, and their habit of nesting in holes the Manawatu south of Wanganui. Common
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Mynas reached Tauranga and the Rotorua Impact: On Ascension Island Common
around , the Bay of Islands about Mynas prey on the eggs and nestlings of Sooty
and Kaitaia in (Heather & Robertson Terns Sterna fuscata (Stonehouse ).
). Wodzicki () described them as
widespread and abundant in the northern half C I
of North Island to Doubtless Bay. Kinsky In spite of attempts at eradication, Common
() found Mynas to be well-established Myna have bred successfully on Tenerife since
north of about oS. South of Wanganui and (J. Clavell in Martí & del Moral ).
Waipukurau Mynas were, and still are, local
and rare, and in South Island they appeared S H I
only as occasional vagrants. Falla et al. () Common Mynas are believed to have been
said that Mynas were established over much first imported to St Helena in to control
of North Island, especially in the north, and cattle ticks (Gosse ). Brooke et al. ()
were increasing on Volcanic Plateau. Heather and Lockwood et al. () incorrectly say the
& Robertson () recorded Mynas as locally first introduction took place in , and that
abundant in farmland, orchards and suburban no introductions after were successful.
gardens in northern North Island, but said Although the descendants of these birds
that the species’ southerly limit is shifting survived until at least the s (Baker ),
slowly northwards; they also reported the present population seems to be descended
that Mynas had succeeded in colonising from only five birds released at the Briars by
some offshore islands such as Poor Knights, Phoebe M. Moss in (Gosse ). The
Waiheke, Kawau and Great Barrier. They species quickly became established and, with a
seldom venture far into forests, but can be population of several thousand, is now the
common on the forest ecotone. most abundant and widely distributed land
bird on St Helena (Rowlands et al. ). It
Impact: Common Mynas in New Zealand has also occurred on some offlying islands. See
prey on the eggs and nestlings of introduced also McCulloch .
Feral Pigeons Columba livia, native Silver
Gulls Larus novaehollandiae scopulinus and Impact: Common Mynas compete for food
Kelp Gulls Larus d. dominicanus, and also with, and also prey on, the eggs and young of
on those of small native and introduced the endemic St Helena Plover Charadrius
passerines, with some of which (e.g. House sanctaehelenae (Rowlands et al. ),
Sparrows Passer domesticus, European Star- (classified as Endangered by the World
lings Sturnus vulgaris and Blackbirds Turdus Conservation Union) and other small birds,
merula) they also compete for food and and are implicated in the spread of such alien
nesting-sites (Oliver , Wodzicki ). vegetation as Lantana camara and Juniperus
Mynas have been accused of damaging fruit bermudiana (Cronk ). They also cause a
crops such as apricots, apples, pears, strawber- considerable amount of damage in orchards
ries and gooseberries. In compensation, they (Haydock ). See also Lockwood et al.
destroy numerous injurious pests, including ().
sheep and cattle ticks.
A I
A I Sometime before – possibly by Auguste
Common Mynas were imported to control Le Duc between and – Common
insects on Ascension in about , where Mynas from Mauritius were imported to
Stonehouse () records the presence of a control insects and scorpions in the Agalégas
population in the late s of some (Guého & Staub ). Although the
individuals. Rowlands et al. () say the population suffered a sharp decline in ,
species remains ubiquitous on the island. See probably as a result of a severe cyclone in the
also McCulloch . previous year, Cheke & Lawley () found
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Sturnidae (Starlings)
Mynas still to be abundant on both Agaléga Common Mynas probably occur in the
Islands in –. Lakshadweep and Maldive archipelagos as a
result of human agency, where on some
A I; N islands they are abundant. Their alien status is
I confirmed by Feare & Craig ().
According to Beaven (), Common Mynas
were introduced as scavengers to Port Blair on M
South Andaman by Colonel R. C. Tytler On at least two occasions Common Mynas
shortly after the establishment of a convict have been imported to control grasshoppers
settlement on the island in . Palmer () (Acrididae) and other insects on Madagascar
indicates that the introduction took place be- – first in the late eighteenth century and
fore . Wood () says they were released again in on the east coast at Tamatave
around on Ross Island, where according (Toamasina) by the then French Consul,
to Hume () they had greatly increased. By Alfred Grandidier. Milon et al. () quoted
the turn of the century they had flown to Grandidier as saying that by Mynas were
South Andaman, where they became one of abundant around Tamatave.
the commonest terrestrial species (Abdulali By , Mynas were well established and
). They were said by Butler () to be plentiful between Tamatave and Brickville,
common on Nancowry and Camorta Islands and had been recorded as far north as
in the neighbouring Nicobars, but were not Maroantsetra and Fénérive. By they
found there by Abdulali (). had spread inland towards Tananarive
(Antananarivo) (Milon et al. ) as far as
C A Rogez and Mouneyres, and four years
Common Mynas that had escaped or been later had colonised Vatomandry, Mananjary,
released from captivity were established in Manakara and Vohipeno on the coast south of
considerable numbers on Egmont Atoll in Tamatave, as well as much of the intervening
, from where by they had spread to country. By the early s Mynas were estab-
Diego Garcia. In or a shipment of a lished and common in the south at Farafan-
dozen birds from Agaléga was released on gana on the east coast and inland towards
Diego Garcia, where a decade later A. tristis Ihosy. In – several pairs were released at
was one of the commonest land-birds on the Ambanja in the extreme northwest, and more
island, and flocks of – were frequently recently some were transferred to the nearby
reported (Loustau-Lalanne , Bourne , island of Nossi Bé (Rand , Van Someren
Hutson ). ) and Ile Sainte Marie off the south
coast of Madagascar (Goodman ). On the
C I Madagascar mainland, Common Mynahs are
Common Mynas are believed to have been widespread in and around human habitation
first introduced to the island of Anjouan on the central plateau, and are increasing their
before ; Benson () found the species range in the northwest, north, east and south,
to be established and common on Grande from sea level to ,m (Morris & Hawkins
Comore, Mohéli, Mayotte and Anjouan. , Hawkins & Safford in prep.).
Louette () reported Mynas to occur
throughout all four islands except above Impact: Maillard () said that Mynas were
–m on Mont Karthala on Grande found to be eating few of the insects they had
Comore (though they existed at ,m on La been imported to control, but had themselves
Grille) and above ,m on Anjouan. become a pest in the orchards they had been in-
troduced to protect. Nevertheless, the species’
L (L) spread on Madagascar has been helped by
I; M I translocations, ostensibly for insect control, and
Ali & Ripley (–) believed that by the further release or escape of cage-birds.
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Naturalised Birds of the World
M I causing damage to the crops they were
Cheke (), from whom much of the imported to protect.
following account is derived, has traced the On Mauritius, Common Mynas are said to
introduction of the Common Myna to the compete for nesting-sites with the Mauritius
Mascarenes. (For further details and full list of Parakeet Psittacula echo, classified as Critically
references see Cheke ). Endangered by the World Conservation
The earliest introduction of A. tristis to Union. Temple () believed that com-
Réunion took place between and , petition for food with Common Mynas (and
but the birds were subsequently eradicated Red-whiskered Bulbuls Pycnonotus jocosus)
because they were believed to eat sown grain. was a major threat to the survival on
The governor, who had arranged the original Mauritius of the endemic subspecies of the
importation to Réunion, obtained replace- Olivaceous Bulbul Hypsipetes borbonicus oli-
ments from Tranquebar in Madras which vaceus (classified as Vulnerable by the World
were apparently introduced to both Réunion Conservation Union), and Jones ()
and Mauritius in . This more or less considered that competition with the two
coincides with a statement made in that aliens was preventing H. b. olivaceus and the
the birds had greatly increased on Mauritius Mauritius Cuckoo-shrike Coracina typica
since their arrival some eight to nine years (also classified as Vulnerable) from spreading
earlier (i.e. around –), and Bernardin outside native forest; Mynas eat large insects
de St Pierre () reported Mynas to be and geckos (Gekkonidae) that are the main
abundant in Mauritius by –. Cheke foods of C. typica (Cheke , Jones ).
() believed that the introduction was On Réunion, Barré and Barau () consid-
the first made to Mauritius. ered that Mynas (and Bulbuls) were competi-
The exact date of the introduction of tors with, and predators of, H. b. borbonicus.
Common Mynas to Rodrigues is apparently
unrecorded, but according to Slater () S I
they had been present on the island for several Common Mynas were probably first
years before , following a number of introduced to Mahé from Mauritius shortly
failed introductions. after by the governor, Count Mahé de la
A. tristis has remained abundant on Bourdonnais, to control insect pests and/or as
Mauritius, Réunion and Rodrigues since its pets soon after the islands were first colonised.
introduction (Staub , Cheke , Sim- Newton () found Mynas to be the most
berloff , Brooke et al. , Moulton et al. abundant bird on Mahé, and they remain
, Showler , R. J. Safford pers. comm. today the commonest species there and in the
, Hawkins & Safford in prep.). It also lowlands and lower hills on all the main
occurs on the larger islets (Bell et al. ). granitic islands except Aride (Hawkins &
Safford in prep.) and on Bird and Dennis
Impact: The introduction of Common Mynas Islands (Skerrett et al. ).
to the Mascarenes was one of the earliest
recorded attempts at the biological control Impact: Newton () believed that compe-
of an insect pest. Since , when Red tition for nesting-sites between Mynas and the
Locusts Nomadacris septemfasciata had been endemic Seychelles Magpie Robin Copsychus
(presumably accidentally) introduced from sechellarum (now classified as Critically En-
Madagascar, the islands’ crops had suffered dangered by the World Conservation Union)
heavy depredation. The disappearance of was responsible for the decline of the native
locusts around has been attributed to species, a belief also held by Gillings (). It
predation by Mynas, but manual destruction has, however, been suggested that predation
of the pests by slaves may have made a by the skink Mabuya wrightii may be a
substantial contribution (Cheke ). Mynas contributory factor in the Magpie Robin’s
in the Mascarenes have also been accused of decline. Some predation of the eggs and
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Sturnidae (Starlings)
nestlings of White Terns Gygis alba has also be enough to hinder their progress. They live
been recorded. Numbers of Mynas on Frégate near human settlements, in coconut groves, in
have been considerably reduced to protect the plantations, and on the ecotone of secondary
Magpie Robin (Skerrett et al. ). forests. They prefer open habitats and are less
often found in dense woodland, and seldom
F I ascend above –m.
Although Wood & Wetmore () suggest
that Common Mynas may have been intro- Impact: Introduced to control injurious
duced to Fiji as early as , most authorities insects in plantations, Mynas also remove
consider they were probably first imported biting parasites, especially ticks, from the
(with the Jungle Myna A. fuscus) from India backs of cattle, but also cause damage to
between and to control Orthoptera cultivated fruits (Holyoak ).
in sugar-cane plantations. Their dispersal to Through their aggressive nature, competi-
other islands was probably assisted by the East tion for food and nesting sites, and the
Indian human population, who on their inter- dissemination of avian malaria, Common
island travels carried pet Mynas with them in Mynas have contributed to the decline of a
cages from which some inevitably escaped or variety of native bird species, especially such
were released. Thus by the s, A. tristis was hole-nesters as lories (Vini spp.) and kingfish-
abundant on several of the inhabited islands, ers (Halcyon spp.). By robbing their nests,
and although many died on Viti Levu during Mynas may have been at least partially
a severe hurricane in , within years they responsible for the extinction on Hiva Oa of
had recovered to its former numbers. Pernetta the Red-moustached Fruit Dove Ptilinopus
& Watling () found Common Mynas to mercierii tristrami, and of the decline of the
be established as commensals of man in Long-billed Reed Warbler Acrocephalus caffer
disturbed habitats on the main islands and on mendanae in the Marquesas, A. c. caffer on
some of those close offshore, as well as on Vat- Tahiti, and the possible extinction of A. c.
ulele and Lakeba. Pratt et al. () referred to longirostris on Moorea (Holyoak & Thibault
them only on Viti Levu and Taveuni. ). Through their aggressive behaviour
Common Mynas have had a negative impact
Impact: In controlling Orthoptera, Mynas on the Tahitian Monarch Pomarea nigra. Both
proved not very effective (Stoner ), prefer- A. c. caffer and P. nigra on Tahiti are classified
ring instead to eat the emergent stems of respectively as Vulnerable and Critically En-
commercially valuable ground nuts (peanuts dangered by the World Conservation Union.
Arachis hypogaea), and sometimes to prey on
the eggs and young of terns Sterna spp. and H I
noddies Anous spp. On the other hand, the According to Caum (: ), the Common
disappearance of some native birds from Myna was ‘introduced from India in by
man-modified habitats, which has been Dr William Hillebrand to combat the plague
attributed to aggression from Mynas and of army worms [Noctuidae] that was ravaging
other introduced species, is more likely to be the pasture lands of the islands. It has spread
due to the natives’ inability to adapt to and multiplied to an amazing extent … it is
disturbed habitats (Watling ). now extremely common throughout the
Territory’. It was introduced to (or colonised
French Polynesia (Cook, naturally) the other main islands around .
Tubuai, Society, Tuamotu, and Common Mynas were first recorded on
Marquesas Islands) Niihau in the s, and on Kure and Midway
Table gives details of early records of in ; on the latter the population had
Common Mynas in Polynesia. In Polynesia, increased to several hundred by . All
A. tristis colonised some islands very rapidly, subsequent authorities, including the AOU
but a sea crossing of only a few kilometres can (), confirm the species’ near-ubiquity in
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Naturalised Birds of the World
suitable habitats (i.e. not in closed canopy Common Mynas may be significant predators
forests) in the archipelago. of the eggs of Wedge-tailed Shearwaters
Puffinus pacificus.
Impact: Common Mynas apparently became In the ornamental plant Lantana
established in montane forests in the s Lantana camara was introduced to Hawaii
(Bryan & Seale , Perkins ), but this from Mexico, and before long was being
occupation seems to have been of short dura- widely disseminated by Mynas (and alien
tion (Bryan ). Although during their time Spotted-necked Doves Streptopelia chinensis)
in the high-elevation forest Mynas may have which avidly consumed its berries, which
competed for nesting-sites with the Hawaii were ignored by native species (Fisher ).
O-o Moho nobilis, Kauai O-o M. braccatus, Elton () traced an interesting sequence of
and other hole-nesting species that began events that followed. In an attempt to control
to decline at this time (Scott et al. ), their Lantana several species of insect were im-
temporary tenure of this habitat lends ported to Hawaii, to such good effect that the
credence to the belief (e.g. by Caum , exotic plant noticeably declined. This led to a
Munro , Berger ) that Mynas played corresponding decrease in the population of
little if any part in the decline of native birds Mynas, which had become largely dependent
around the turn of the twentieth century. on Lantana berries, thus enabling the recovery
More recently, Byrd () indicated that of the noctuids that Mynas had been
Early records of the Common Myna Acridotheres tristis in Polynesia.
Island Date Remarks
Aitutaki Well distributed.
Manuae & Auotu Fairly common.
Atiu Well distributed.
Mauke Abundant near human habitation and in settlements.
Rarotonga – Introduced from Tahiti between and , in said to be
abundant; in commonest coastal bird.
Mangaia – Very common by .
Palmyra s released; apparently died out.
Rurutu A few seen.
Tubuai Fairly common near human settlements; in plentiful on the
coast and on inland grasslands.
Bellingshausen ? s —
Scilly Not recorded by Whitney expedition in . In occurred in
limited numbers near settlements.
Mopelia Not recorded by Whitney expedition in . In found in small
numbers near settlements on main islet.
Raiatea & Tahaa – Not found by Whitney expedition in . In – very common.
Huahine – Not found by the Whitney expedition. In – seen frequently.
Moorea Early th Found to be common by Whitney expedition in . Either
century introduced or natural colonist from Tahiti.
Tahiti – Well distributed by time of Whitney expedition in ; between
and found at lower elevations and on coast.
Hao & Mururoa c. Present in small numbers.
Nuku Hiva c. Killed shortly afterwards.
Hiva Oa c. Six introduced; within three years had multiplied to c. ,.
Very common in coastal areas and occurs in lesser numbers at higher
elevations.
Source : Holyoak & Thibault . See also e.g. Holyoak .
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Sturnidae (Starlings)
introduced to control. It was then discovered individuals. Whether the absolute numbers of
that Lantana was being replaced by other fuscus have declined was not determined.
exotic shrubs that proved more difficult to
control.
Mynas in the Hawaiian Islands are hosts of
bird mites and harbour a parasitic ocular European Starling
nematode (Oxyspirura mansoni) which is also Sturnus vulgaris
present in some other alien species, and the
malarial parasite Plasmodium circumflexum Natural Range: Much of the Palaearctic
(Alicata ). region, from the British Isles eastwards
Mynas also feed extensively on such culti- to W Mongolia and W Xinjiang, N to
vated fruit as avocados, papayas, mangoes, northern Scandinavia and S to CS Europe.
guavas and especially figs. Winters S to N Africa, the Middle East,
S Asia, Nepal and N India.
N C Naturalised Range: Africa: South Africa. North
Delacour () said that introduced Mynas America: Canada; Mexico; USA; West
were common in villages, gardens and Indies. Australasia: Australia; New Zealand.
cultivated land in New Caledonia, where their Pacific Ocean: Fiji Is; Lord Howe I.; Mac-
current status is unknown. quarie I.; Norfolk I.; Tonga Is; ?Vanuatu.
S I S A
Common Mynas were successfully intro- Cecil John Rhodes, the former Prime Minis-
duced to Guadalcanal, Russell, and the Olu ter, imported the first Starlings from England
Malau (Three Sisters) islands in the southeast- to Table Bay Harbour in April . They
ern Solomons (Cain & Galbraith , French were probably released at Groote Schuur
, Galbraith & Galbraith , Long ). in Rondebosch (R. K. Brooke pers. comm.
Their present status on the islands is ). Within a few years they were well
uncertain. established on the inhabited slopes of Table
Mountain, and had been reported on the
V interior side of the Cape Flats in Stellenbosch.
According to Mayr (), A. tristis is believed By at least they had spread to Wynberg,
to have been introduced successfully to some some km from Cape Town, and by had
islands in the New Hebrides (Vanuatu). expanded eastwards across the Cape Flats to
Gordon’s Bay at the foot of the Hottentot’s
W S I Holland Mountains. By , large flocks
Beichle () reported the discovery of at occurred on the Cape Flats and elsewhere
least Common Mynas in Apia, the capital in the South West Cape (Winterbottom &
of ’Upolu, in , when nest building was ob- Liversidge ).
served. This was the first record of the species Starlings also expanded northwards
for Western Samoa. Gill et al. () found that through the Swartland, reaching Darling
Mynas had spread from central Apia as far around the turn of the twentieth century and
west as Vaitele, east to Fagali’i airstrip, and Velddrift, at the mouth of the Berg River,
from the end of Mulinu’u Point in the north, between and . Winterbottom &
south to the hospital at Moto’otua. Censuses Liversidge () recorded their then most
of mynas on ’Upolu revealed that % were northerly locality as Kleinvlei, km north of
A. tristis, with the remainder being fuscus. Six Clanwilliam, where they arrived in .
years later, in , Gill () found the By the early s, Starlings were thus
proportion between the two species had established in the South West Cape along the
dramatically altered, with % of those coast from Graafwater and Clanwilliam south
counted being tristis. One flock numbered and east to Plettenberg Bay, inland to a line
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Naturalised Birds of the World
running through Citrusdal, the southern areas of intensive cultivation and in villages
border of the Cold Bokkeveld, Orchard (near and towns. ‘No factor other than the occupa-
De Doorns), Robertson, Montagu, Barrydale, tion of human habitation’, wrote Liversidge
Ladismith and the Outeniqua Mountains (: ), ‘is evident in the spread of the
(Winterbottom & Liversidge ). This area species’, whose population is estimated to
is almost exclusively below the m contour number several million (Richardson ; see
and had a fairly dense European human also Richardson et al. ).
population. Richardson () considered that the Star-
From the South West Cape Starlings began ling’s ‘phenomenal performance’ as a colonist
to spread slowly into the Eastern Cape, where can be attributed to a number of factors,
they were first confirmed as breeding, in including its pre-adaptability to living as a
Uniondale, in or . By around , commensal of man; its catholic feeding habits;
Starlings were established and breeding in its reproductive strategies; and its genetic
Humansdorp and Port Elizabeth and in the constitution. Nevertheless, the species is not
residential suburbs of Walmer, Skoenamakers preadapted to the warmer parts of southern
Kop, Swartkops and Redhouse. They were first Africa, where it is unlikely to expand its
noted at East London in , at Gonubie current range which is virtually restricted to
Mouth and Keisammahoek in , and at the western and eastern Cape (Craig ).
Kei Mouth and Seymour in . ‘From Cape The species is, however, well adapted to cooler
Town’, wrote Winterbottom (: ), ‘the temperatures, and may thus be able to
Starling … has penetrated a considerable colonise new regions at higher elevations
distance northward into the Karoo, even to (Richardson et al. ). Starlings appear to
the Orange River at its mouth. However, its be sensitive to drought conditions, and an
establishment in the Karoo seems rather alteration in rainfall patterns could change
insecure and it is liable to retreat thence local movements and habitat usage (Craig
during a drought’. Maclean () described , Richardson et al. ).
Starlings as occurring throughout much of the
Cape, in the Karoo, and in southern Natal as Impact: In orchards near the Hottentot’s
far as Durban. The species has also become Holland Mountains some damage to soft-fruit
common in the southern Orange Free State crops by Starlings has been reported, but in
(Richardson ), and occurs at Alexander compensation various injurious insects are
Bay (Frauenknecht ). also eaten. Although Starlings have nowhere
Although Starlings appear to be non- invaded pristine (undisturbed) habitats, they
migratory in the Western Cape, there is out-compete such native hole-nesting
evidence of some seasonal movement in the species as woodpeckers (Picidae) and barbets
Eastern Cape. Colonisation of new areas in (Ramphastidae: Lybiinae) for breeding sites
South Africa was not, as is usual with most (Richardson ). That they have not had a
other species, by mass emigration due to over- more significant impact in South Africa is
population, but rather by the arrival of a sin- because they do not yet occur in the vast
gle pair that bred and then departed, followed murmurations that are prevalent in their
later by the appearance of several pairs that natural range (Oatley ).
nested at the same site; thereafter there was a
simple increase in the colony proportionate to U S; C; M
the rate of successful breeding. Colonisation As early as (Laycock ) and again in
has tended to be by ‘leap-frogging’ rather than –, , and , unsuccessful
from one township to another, with interven- attempts were made to introduce European
ing areas being occupied later. Although Starlings to the United States.
initially slow to spread, and almost exclusively The earliest successful introduction was
an urban species, Starlings have moved into made by an eccentric drug manufacturer,
the interior and occur throughout the Cape in Eugene Schieffelin, who conceived the bizarre
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Sturnidae (Starlings)
idea of introducing to the United States all the eastern South Dakota, Nebraska and Kansas.
bird species mentioned in Shakespeare. Ac- Wing () estimated that Starlings occupied
cordingly, in – he acquired pairs of some seven million sq km and numbered up
European Starlings from England, which were to million; half a century later this figure
liberated in Central Park, New York (Phillips had risen to a figure given by Richardson
): other sources say that pairs, indi- () as billion [sic] (? million).
viduals or individuals were released. Breed- Unsuccessful attempts to introduce Star-
ing began almost immediately, and by – lings to Canada (Quebec) were made in ,
flocks up to strong were being reported. and . Natural emigrants from the
By the following year Starlings had become United States first appeared in Ontario in
common in many parts of New York City and and in the following year in Nova Scotia.
had spread to Long Island, where three years Thereafter they spread to Quebec in ,
later they were said to be abundant. New Brunswick in , Prince Edward
In , further unsuccessful attempts were Island in –, Manitoba in , Alberta
made to introduce Starlings to Massachusetts, in , Saskatchewan in , Newfoundland
Pennsylvania, New York and possibly else- in , mainland British Columbia in
where. The birds in Central Park, however, – and the Queen Charlotte Islands and
continued to thrive, although initially they Vancouver Island in (Kessell ).
increased and spread only slowly, dispersing By –, Starlings were found through-
no more than km in their first decade. out southern Canada and in the whole of the
Thereafter they expanded their range explo- United States apart from southern Florida
sively, and by had colonised parts of and northeastern New Mexico. They were
Connecticut, New Jersey and southeastern breeding widely in both countries northeast
Pennsylvania. By they had appeared in of a line extending from south-central British
Ohio and in the following year in Georgia. Columbia, northeastern Oregon and north-
Their rate of expansion then declined, follow- ern Utah to southern Mississippi. Southwest
ing heavy mortality in the severe winter of of this line they occurred mainly as winter
–, and by around the population migrants.
appeared to have stabilised (Phillips ). Starlings may have crossed the border from
According to Kessell () Starlings first Texas into Mexico as early as . By the
reached Alabama in , Kentucky in , s they had spread south to Guanajuato,
Louisiana in , Illinois and South Carolina northern Veracruz and Yucatán, from where
in , Texas in , Oklahoma in , they are still spreading southwards.
northern Mississippi and Iowa in , The explosive spread of the European Star-
Minnesota in , Arkansas and South ling in North America has been little short of
Dakota in , Missouri in , Nebraska phenomenal. It is even more remarkable
and Wyoming in ; New Mexico, Colorado because, as Feare () points out, it has
and Nevada in ; North Dakota, Montana taken place on a continent that already
and Utah in , Idaho in , California possesses several native bird species with simi-
in , Oregon and Washington in , lar ecological requirements, such as blackbirds
Arizona in and Alaska in . (Agelaius), grackles (Quiscalus) and cowbirds
The method of dispersal of Starlings in the (Molothrus). The Starling’s colonisation of
United States was much as in South Africa North America seems to have been facilitated
(see above). By they had spread to oW by three principal factors; first, although in its
and were breeding as far west as the Missis- native European range it is seldom found
sippi and probably eastern Texas. Cooke & above m, in North America it appears
Knappen () recorded Starlings as breeding equally at home on the Great Plains, much of
as far south as northern Florida, as far north which lie at between , and ,m;
as the St Lawrence River in Canada, east to second, it competes successfully with hole-
eastern Anticosti Island, Quebec, and west to nesting species such as the Wood Duck Aix
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Naturalised Birds of the World
sponsa, Eastern Bluebird Sialia sialis and Sibley (: ) says that in North
Red-headed Woodpecker Melanerpes erythro- America the European Starling ‘is now found
cephalus. In California, it has been recorded as in virtually all human-modified habitats’.
also competing successfully with naturalised
Mandarin Duck Aix galericulata (L. L. Shurt- Impact: Since at least the s, the European
leff pers. comm. ). Finally, in contrast to Starling has been recognised as an agricultural
introductions elsewhere, at least some of the pest, and the benefit it conveys by probing the
birds imported into the United States were, or ground for grubs, wireworms and beetles (in
later became, migratory, thus assisting in the summer up to % of the species’ diet may be
species’ dispersal. Indeed, the movement of composed of invertebrates) is far outweighed
Starlings in North America in general mirrors by its depredations on commercial fruits,
that in Europe, i.e. some populations are berries, corn (maize), grain, rice and seeds. In
sedentary, some are migratory, and some urban areas, the accumulated guano of
migrate in some years but not in others. vast roosting murmurations damages
Although, following human settlement buildings and fosters histoplasmosis. Starlings
westward, the Starling’s distribution advanced also transmit other diseases such as
more rapidly in southern and south-central avian tuberculosis, toxoplasmosis, psittacosis,
states, it extended its breeding range more cryptococcal meningitis, avian malaria and
rapidly in the north. Within years of its in- Newcastle disease. Several aircraft crashes have
troduction it was, said Feare (), one of been attributed to damage caused by Starlings
the most numerous birds in North America, being sucked into jet engines. Millions of
with a breeding range extending from Arctic dollars have been spent annually in attempts
Canada to sub-tropical Mexico. Although the to control the species’ numbers but with only
species’ distribution may now have stabilized, limited success.
in some areas its population density seems still Various authors (e.g. Vuilleumier , Rob-
to be increasing, although in others it may be bins , James and Dinsmore )
declining (Johnston & Garrett ). Star- have drawn attention to the success of the
lings are now common residents on all of Starling in competing for nesting sites with a
California’s Channel Islands (Power ). wide variety of indigenous birds. Koenig
The AOU (: ) described the (), however, who compared the mean
European Starling’s range in North America densities of native cavity-nesting species
as breeding before and after invasion of their territory by
Starlings, found that only ten of the
species showed significant effects potentially
From east-central and southeastern attributable to Starlings, and only % of
Alaska, southern Yukon, northern British these were partially negative. In two of the five
Columbia (including the Queen species that showed negative effects, evidence
Charlotte Islands), southern Mackenzie,
for a decline in one analysis was counter-
southern Keewatin, northern Manitoba,
balanced by an increase in the other, while
northern Ontario, northern Quebec,
in two others declines were probably due to
southern Labrador, and Newfoundland
south to central Baja California, northern factors other than competition from Starlings.
Sinaloa, southern New Mexico, southern Only sapsuckers (Sphyrapicus spp.) showed
Texas, the Gulf coast, southern Florida declines potentially attributable to Starlings
(to Key West), and Bermuda [as a natural that were not counterbalanced by other data.
colonist], with an isolated population in Although declines in native species may still
Mexico City and a breeding record from occur if Starlings continue to increase, Koenig
Veracruz. Winters throughout the breed- () believed that the available data fail to
ing range and south to Veracruz, the support the widely held belief that Starlings
Bahama Islands (south to Grand Turk), have had a serious impact on populations of
and eastern Cuba. native cavity-nesting birds, that have so far
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Sturnidae (Starlings)
apparently managed to survive the Starling locally by , and had spread to the Eyre
invasion in spite of the interlopers’ abundance Peninsula by around the turn of the century
and aggressive commandeering of sometimes and to Kangaroo Island before . Starlings
limited nesting-sites. were established throughout settled areas of
New South Wales by the mid-s, and by
W I the mid-s had become a serious horticul-
European Starlings were released near tural pest in the Riverina (Tarr ).
Annotto Bay in Jamaica in or . Colonisation of Queensland, where Star-
Although Taylor () records that they were lings were first recorded, at Stanthorpe
not established at the release site in the s, in , is believed to have been through
he says that in flocks of between and natural dispersal from New South Wales. On
occurred in the Parish of St Ann, km to Tasmania, Starlings were common in and
the west. Although initially Starlings spread around Hobart by the early s, and had
only slowly they later began to disperse more been recorded up to km inland.
rapidly, and Lack () recorded them as Tarr () recorded Starlings as established
widely distributed in lowland pastures and in in cultivated regions throughout most of New
some mid-elevations, but as seldom occurring South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania, and on
in undisturbed habitats. Bond (), who King and Flinders Islands in the Bass Strait. In
reported Starlings at Brown’s Town, in the Queensland they were common along some
Castleton Botanical Gardens and at Ocho Rios km of the coast between Brisbane and
(all within km of Annotto Bay) in –, Maryborough. In South Australia they were
said that they occurred mostly in open farm- abundant on Eyre Peninsula and Kangaroo
ing country, chiefly in the hills. Raffaele et al. Island, but probably occurred no further
() say that Starlings are now fairly north than Port Augusta.
common locally in Jamaica; their failure to Pizzey () found Starlings to be well
become more widely established may be due established in much of southern and eastern
to the lower rate of deforestation on Jamaica Australia and on many coastal islands from
compared with other West Indian islands. Eyre Peninsula and Kangaroo Island to about
Although the AOU () says that the Tropic of Capricorn in Queensland.
Starlings are also established on Puerto Rico, Today, Starlings are widespread and abundant
Raffaele et al. () say they have not taken almost universally in New South Wales,
hold there. Victoria, Tasmania and islands in the Bass
European Starlings are fairly common Strait; in South Australia they occur north of
breeding birds on Grand Bahama and the Lake Eyre, and west to beyond Ooldea. Feare
Biminis (as natural migrants from the United () believed that formation of townships
States), and have also been recorded on Cuba, along the south coast of Australia is likely to
the Virgin Islands (St Croix) and the Cayman enable Starlings to ‘leap frog’ their way into
Islands (Cayman Brac) (Raffaele et al. ). Western Australia, but apart from a very few
isolated records this has not yet happened,
A and breeding has not been recorded (Barrett
Between and about well over et al. ).
European Starlings were released in Australia The preferred habitats of Starlings in
in Tasmania, New South Wales, Victoria, Australia are settled and cultivated areas. As
South Australia and Queensland. elsewhere, in Australia they are sedentary,
As early as large flocks of Starlings were migratory, and nomadic (Pizzey ).
established in the Royal Park and in the
grounds of the university in Melbourne, and Impact: Starlings in Australia damage fruit,
by the whole of southern Victoria had corn, vegetable crops and newly seeded fields,
been overrun (Ryan ). In South Australia, and in Victoria in autumn and winter they eat
Starlings rapidly increased, were common vast quantities of grain on commercial poultry
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Naturalised Birds of the World
farms. They are vectors of parasites and Northland. Heather & Robertson ()
diseases, contaminate buildings and kill trees recorded Starlings as breeding on the
with their droppings, and compete for food Kermadec, Antipodes, Snares, Auckland and
and nesting sites with native species – espe- Campbell Islands, and said that they had been
cially parrots (Psittacidae) and some waterfowl seen on the Bounty Islands. Baker () said
(Anatidae) (Frith ). In compensation, they were also breeding on Three Kings,
Starlings eat locusts, larvae, wireworms, Chathams and Macquarie Islands.
blowflies, cutworms and ticks. In winter they
form vast murmurations up to , strong Impact: Starlings compete advantageously for
that provide an additional source of food for food and nesting sites with a variety of native
native Australian Hobbies Falco longipennis birds. They damage many grain and fruit
and Brown Goshawks Accipiter fasciatus. crops, especially pears, plums, peaches, grapes,
cherries, currants and strawberries, and eat
N Z beneficial bumble bees (Bombus spp.) and
Between and a total of European Honey Bees Apis mellifera. Starlings also eat,
Starlings were introduced to New Zealand by and disseminate, the seeds and fruits of several
local acclimatisation societies (see Lever ) noxious plants, and their droppings damage
to combat insect pests, and at least more buildings. Their consumption in autumn of
were imported by private individuals. As early the fruits of kahikatea deprives Tuis or Parson
as they were said in some places to have Birds Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae and New
become very numerous, and Thomson () Zealand Bellbirds Anthornis melanura of a
recorded them as abundant virtually through- valuable source of winter food (Heather &
out New Zealand. Robertson ). Turbott () points to
On the country’s off-lying islands Starlings competition for nesting sites with native
were introduced to the Chathams by L. W. Sacred Kingfishers Todiramphus sanctus. In
Hood before . They were first recorded compensation, Starlings eat armyworms, crane
on Campbell Island around , on the Ker- fly larvae, click beetles, ticks, grass grubs,
madecs before , on Macquarie in about caterpillars, worms and snails. Feare ()
, the Snares in and on the Antipodes said that the dispersal of Starlings in New
in . Oliver () reported Starlings also Zealand has been assisted by the widespread
on Three Kings, Mokohinau, Hen, Great and provision of nesting boxes in the belief that
Little Barrier, Poor Knights, Mayor, Kapiti, the birds help to control insect pests.
Karewa, Stewart and Auckland Islands.
Wodzicki (: ) said that Starlings were F I
‘widely distributed and abundant, North, Pernetta & Watling () suggest that
South, Stewart and Raoul [Kermadecs], European Starlings may have arrived on
Chatham, Snares, Auckland, Campbell and Ono-i-Lau, a tiny islet some km southeast
Macquarie Islands’. Kinsky () confirmed of Viti Levu, around : other possible dates
their presence on the Chathams, Kermadecs, are , the later s and . When first
Snares, Auckland, Campbell and Macquarie discovered, in , a population of around
Islands, and Williams () added that they , adults was well established and widely
nested on Three Kings, the Kermadecs, distributed on Ono-i-Lau, and the species was
Chatham, Antipodes, Campbell, Auckland also found on Tuvana-i-Tholo and Tuvana-i-
and Macquarie. Falla et al. () said that the Ra to the south; on Votua (several hundred)
European Starling was one of the most famil- km north-north-east; and on Doi (Carrick
iar birds in New Zealand, occurring in most & Walker , Manson-Bahr ). Although
habitats, apart from dense native bush or over Hill () suggested that the birds arrived as
,m above sea level. In the mid-s natural immigrants from the Kermadecs,
Starlings became established on Cavalli Island some ,km to the south, Pratt et al. ()
(Motuharakeke) off the east coast of and the AOU () say the species was
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Turdidae (Thrushes)
introduced to Fiji – a seemingly more likely TURDIDAE (THRUSHES)
explanation; the former authors and Pernetta
& Watling () say the birds are common in Eurasian Blackbird
agricultural areas and in villages on Ono-i- Turdus merula
Lau and also on Vatoa.
Natural Range: Palaearctic and Oriental
L H I; N regions, from the British Isles eastwards
I through Europe (N to around oN in
Starlings have been recorded on Lord Howe Norway), Asia Minor, India, Sri Lanka and
and Norfolk Islands (Barrett et al. ) since N Burma to CS China, N Vietnam, and C
and respectively. Laos. Also Madeira, the Azores and the
Canary Is. in the Atlantic, and Morocco,
M I Algeria and Tunisia in N Africa.
Starlings are listed as breeding on Macquarie Naturalised Range: Australasia: Australia; New
Island (Barrett et al. ). Zealand. Pacific Ocean: Lord Howe I.;
Macquarie I.; Norfolk I.
T I
In the absence of competing Common Mynas A
Acridotheres tristis, European Starlings Between and Eurasian Blackbirds
are common on the island of Tongatapu, from England were released on some occa-
especially in the capital Nuku’alofa (Dhondt sions in Australia, principally in Victoria (in
a, Pratt et al. ). They probably arrived the Melbourne Botanic Gardens, on Phillip
in Tonga through human intervention. Island south of Melbourne, at Western Port
Attempts to eradicate European Starlings and at Gembrook: Ryan ) and in the
in Fiji and Tonga were unsuccessful, but Royal Park near Sydney in New South Wales
the birds have not spread as much as (Chisholm ), but also at Hobart on Tas-
was initially feared, probably because the mania (Dove ), Adelaide and elsewhere in
climatic conditions are unsuitable (Watling South Australia, and at Brisbane, Queensland.
). By , Blackbirds were said to be ‘thor-
oughly established’ in the Melbourne Botanic
V Gardens, and by they were apparently
According to Cain & Galbraith (), Euro- ‘breeding freely’ elsewhere in Victoria.
pean Starlings have been reported from By the mid-s, Blackbirds were estab-
the former New Hebrides; whether they are lished in the Botanic Gardens at Sydney
established there is unknown. (where they later died out and were reintro-
duced in ) and at Albury near the border
with Victoria (Coleman ). A quarter of a
century later they had become widespread
Asian Pied Starling and quite numerous in South Australia on the
Sturnus contra Adelaide Plains, around Mount Lofty, at
Victor Harbour, at Coorong and near Mount
Natural Range: N and C India to Laos, Cam- Gambier northwards to Oodnatta, and in
bodia and SW Yunnan. various parts of Victoria. Blackbirds first ap-
Naturalised Range: Asia: Japan. peared on Kangaroo Island (South Australia)
in (Cooper ), at Canberra (ACT)
J and on Flinders Island in Bass Strait (where
This species is listed by the OSJ () as they may have been originally introduced in
a breeding resident in cultivated fields and about ) around , at Deniliquin (New
residential areas around Tokyo on Honshu. South Wales) in , at Doveton in and
at Dareton in . By the early s they
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Naturalised Birds of the World
occurred in citrus orchards along the Murray In about Blackbirds were first released
River in New South Wales, in the Riverina, on Stewart Island, where by around
on the central tablelands, at Baroonga, Thomson (: ) recorded them as ‘seen
Tocumwal, Mathoura, Tooleybuc and Good- every breeding season near settlements’.
night, in the Sunraysia district and on the According to Williams (), Blackbirds had
coast north of Sydney. Blackbirds appeared at dispersed naturally to Campbell Island and
Broken Hill in –, at Cobar in and the Chatham and Auckland Islands by the
at Armidale in (Frith ). turn of the twentieth century, the Snares in
In Tasmania, Blackbirds were first recorded and the Kermadecs by , while
as breeding in the wild around (Dove Drummond () said they were established
); by – they had spread to Port on the Auckland Islands. By the mid-s,
Davey in the southwest, and by the end of Blackbirds had also been recorded on Three
the following decade they were widely Kings, Poor Knights, Hen, Little Barrier,
distributed. By the s they occurred on the Mayor, Karewa, Kapiti and Solander Islands.
coast at Recherche, Bound Bay, Spain Bay, In Southland (South Island) Philpott (:
Point Eric, Cox Bight and Moth Creek. ) recorded that ‘Unlike the thrush the
Blackbirds in Australia initially dispersed blackbird is to be found in the heart of the big
only slowly from their points of release; after bushes. I have met with the bird wherever I
the Second World War, however, they began have gone, and found it as common on
to spread more rapidly, and had soon the Hunter Mountains at , feet [m]
colonised most of the southeastern mainland, elevation, as in the bush near Invercargil’.
Tasmania, and islands in Bass Strait, but until Guthrie-Smith () suggested that Black-
the early s remained uncommon in much birds (and Song Thrushes) in New Zealand
of New South Wales. Their present distribu- dispersed from Auckland via the coast of the
tion remains largely unchanged (Barrett et al. Gulf of Thames, the Coromandel Peninsula,
). down the Bay of Plenty, round the East Cape
and onwards to Hawke’s Bay; he found Black-
Impact: Eurasian Blackbirds can be a serious birds in the heart of forest country. Thomson
pest to such soft fruit crops as grapes, cherries () saw no reason why, since the interven-
and figs (Frith ). In Victoria, they eat the ing strip of bush was relatively narrow, Black-
fruits of such native species as Pittosporum birds (and Song Thrushes) should not have
undulatum and Exocarpos cupressiformis, spread over from the Thames Valley direct to
which they are spreading to new localities. the east coast. Although Blackbirds were rare
Their impact on native species, such as the or absent north of Whangarei in North
Bassian Thrush Zoothera l. lunulata, in south- Island, in many other places they were one of
eastern Australia, Tasmania and islands in the country’s commonest introduced birds
Bass Strait, has yet to be fully determined. (Thomson ). Oliver () found Black-
birds to be distributed throughout both the
N Z main islands, while Wodzicki () and
Table shows that between about and Kinsky () referred to them also on Stew-
a total of around Eurasian Black- art, Raoul (Kermadecs), Chatham, Snares,
birds from England were introduced to New Auckland and Campbell Islands. Falla et al.
Zealand, where by about the Otago () recorded the species to be one of New
Acclimatisation Society (see Lever ) was Zealand’s commonest birds, and as occurring
admitting, somewhat naively, that the birds on the main islands from sea level to around
were ‘now exceedingly numerous and we ,m. Today they are common and proba-
regret to say are found to be rather partial to bly the most widely distributed bird in New
cherries and other garden fruits’. (Heather & Zealand, occurring in suburban gardens,
Robertson () say that around , birds parks, orchards, hedged paddocks, exotic
were introduced up to ). plantations, scrub and native forest to at least
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Turdidae (Thrushes)
,m. They are well established on the L H I
Kermadecs, Chathams, Snares, Auckland and On Lord Howe Island, where Blackbirds were
Campbell Islands, while a vagrant has been first observed in and where by the end of
recorded on the Antipodes Islands. They were the decade they were widely but thinly distrib-
reported by Baker () as breeding on Three uted, they are believed to have arrived as nat-
Knights, Kermadecs, Chathams, Campbell, ural immigrants from New Zealand (McKean
Auckland and Snares Islands. Blackbirds are & Hindwood ). See also Barrett et al. .
uncommon only on offshore islands with
pristine native bird and forest communities M I
such as Little Barrier and Kapiti (Heather & Barrett et al. () record T. merula on
Robertson ). Macquarie Island.
An important factor in the Blackbird’s
successful colonisation of New Zealand is N I
likely to have been that the introduction Williams () suggests that Blackbirds were
was of the partially migratory nominate probably introduced to Norfolk Island in
subspecies of western Europe. about , where some years later they
were said to be abundant (Smithers & Disney
Impact: Thomson () reported that in ). See also Barrett et al. .
New Zealand T. merula sometimes kills such
native species as the Tui or Parson Bird
Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae, while Smithers
& Disney () suggested probable competi- Song Thrush
tion on Norfolk Island with the endemic race Turdus philomelos
of the Island Thrush Turdus p. poliocephalus,
which is now extinct (Dickinson ). (For Natural Range: From the British Isles and Eu-
the impact of T. merula in orchards and on rope through N Turkey, the Caucasus, and
native and alien shrubs and weeds see under N Iran to W and C Siberia: winters S to S
T. philomelos). Europe, N Africa and SW Asia.
Introductions of Eurasian Blackbirds Turdus merala to New Zealand,
–.
Year Number Introduced by
c. Nelson Acclimatisation Society (A.S.)
? Auckland A.S.
A pair Otago A.S. Released at Dunedin
A pair Canterbury A.S.
Otago A.S. Released at Dunedin
Canterbury A.S.
c. Auckland A.S.
Auckland A.S.
Otago A.S.
Canterbury A.S.
Otago A.S.
Otago A.S.
or Mr R Bills (on behalf of Canterbury A.S.)
Canterbury A.S.
Canterbury A.S. ( released at Levels, Otipua,
Waimate, Otaio, Geraldine, Albury and Timaru)
Sources : Drummond ; Thomson .
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Naturalised Range: Australasia: Australia; New Southland (South Island) Philpott (: )
Zealand. Pacific Ocean: Lord Howe I.; found that:
?Macquarie I.; Norfolk I.
The song thrush does not appear to pene-
A trate far into the big forests, nor to spread
Between and several hundred Song into unsettled areas. In the coastal forests
Thrushes were introduced from England to of Fiord Country they are seldom to be
Australia by various acclimatisation societies heard, though plentiful enough about the
(see Lever ), who released them in settlements of Tuatapere and Papatotara.
Victoria (at Melbourne; Phillip, Sandstone Nor does the bird favour the mountains; I
and Churchill Islands; Yarra Bend; Geelong; do not think I have ever heard one above
Gembrook), New South Wales (Sydney), the bush-line (about , feet) [c. m].
Queensland (Brisbane), and South Australia
(Adelaide). In North Island, Thomson () believed
By around the turn of the twentieth that Song Thrushes (like Blackbirds)
century Song Thrushes in Victoria had spread dispersed east and south from Auckland (for
from their points of release in the Botanic their route of dispersal see under T. merula),
Gardens and Royal Park all over Melbourne and said (p. ) that ‘at the present day
and its suburbs (Ryan ), and by the late thrushes are found from one end of
s were fairly common in the city and had New Zealand to the other in enormous
dispersed to Sherbrooke Forest, Macedon, abundance’.
Geelong (where some had been planted in On New Zealand’s offshore islands, Song
), Belgrave and perhaps Ararat (Chisholm Thrushes have been recorded on Poor
, Tarr ). Frith (: ) said that Knights, Hen, Little Barrier, Three Kings,
the Song Thrush was ‘quite common in Kapiti, D’Urville, Raoul (in the Kermadecs,
Melbourne and is widespread in small prior to ), the Chathams (before ), the
numbers in towns and heavily developed Antipodes, Campbell, the Snares (about the
districts in southern Victoria generally. It turn of the twentieth century), Stewart, Cod-
has disappeared elsewhere’. Pizzey (), fish, the Aucklands and Macquarie Islands.
who recorded Song Thrushes in Melbourne, Today, the Song Thrush is one of the
Warragul, the Mornington Peninsula, commonest and most widely distributed birds
Dandenong, Yellingbo, Macedon, Werribee, in New Zealand, occurring in a variety of
Geelong and Lorne, described the species as habitats from farmland hedgerows, orchards,
rather rare and local near human habitation. parks, and suburban gardens at sea level to
Barrett et al. () indicate a very limited subalpine scrub at ,m, exotic plantations
range centred on Melbourne. and forest. The species is, however, still scarce
in pristine native forest and on islands such as
N Z Little Barrier and Kapiti, where indigenous
Table shows that between and forest and bird communities remain virtually
over Song Thrushes from England were intact (Heather & Robertson ). Baker
introduced to various parts of New Zealand. () recorded breeding on Three Kings,
(Thomson : says ‘about ’. Since Kermadecs, Chathams, Campbell, Aucklands
he () and later authors give the date as and the Snares Islands, but not on the
the former is presumably a literal or was Antipodes or Macquarie Islands.
subsequently revised. Baker () says the
date was , which is clearly an error). Impact: Since the early years of the twentieth
Although in Auckland and Otago the birds century, Song Thrushes and Blackbirds in
became established in native bush, they New Zealand have been responsible for the
were slower to do so in the comparatively dispersal of native and introduced plants and
more open country of North Canterbury. In for serious depredations in orchards (Philpott
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 203
Turdidae (Thrushes)
, Thomson ). The cultivated fruits ‘common’ in (Smithers & Disney ),
most affected include cherries, plums, while on the latter about were present in
apricots, currants, raspberries, strawberries, and breeding was reported in the early
boysenberries, grapes, gooseberries, pears, s (McKean & Hindwood ). See also
apples and tomatoes (Dawson & Bull ). Barrett et al. .
Non-commercial introduced plants eaten and
spread in native forests and agricultural crops
include Blackberry Rubus fruticosus, Sweet-
briar Roses Rosa rubiginosa, Cape Fuchsia Island Thrush
Leycesteria formosa, Elderberry Sambucus Turdus poliocephalus
nigra, Inkweed or Pokeweed Phytolacca
octandra and Barberry Berberis vulgaris. Natural Range: Numerous islands in Indone-
In compensation, both T. merula and sia and the Pacific Ocean from Sumatra
T. philomelos consume large quantities of and Java to Fiji and Samoa.
injurious insects and snails. Naturalised Range: Indian Ocean: Cocos
(Keeling) Is.
M I
Barrett et al. () say that T. philomelos has C (K) I
been recorded on Macquarie Island. Between and Island Thrushes from
Christmas Island, where the form is T. p.
N I; L H erythropleurus, were released on Pulo Luar
I (Horsburgh) in the Cocos (Keeling) archipel-
According to Williams (), T. philomelos ago some km to the west. By the late s
probably arrived on Norfolk Island around they had spread to Atas (South Island) and to
and on Lord Howe Island about – in Panjang (West Island), and by the s were
both cases probably as natural immigrants said to be abundant on all three (Gibson-Hill
from New Zealand. On the former, Song a, Van Tets & Van Tets ).
Thrushes were breeding in the s and were
Introductions of Song Thrushes Turdus philomelos to New Zealand, –.
Year Number Introduced by
Nelson Acclimatisation Society (A.S.)
Otago A.S.
Auckland A.S.
Canterbury A.S.
Otago A.S.
Canterbury A.S.
Auckland A.S.
Otago A.S.
R Bills for the Otago A.S.
? Canterbury A.S.
Otago A.S.
? R Bills for the Canterbury A.S. (Released Christchurch
Gardens, Bluecliffs, Four Peaks, Timaru)
pairs Canterbury A.S.
Wellington A.S.
pairs Canterbury A.S.
Sources : Drummond ; Thomson , .
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Naturalised Birds of the World
MUSCICAPIDAE
(CHATS AND OLD
WORLD FLYCATCHERS)
White-rumped Shama
Copsychus malabaricus
Natural Range: From India, Nepal, Sri Lanka
and the Andaman Is. to Burma, Thailand,
Indochina, Malaysia, Borneo, Java, and
Sumatra and many Indonesian islands.
Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
H I
In , White-rumped Shamas of the form
C. m. indicus (Nepal, northeastern India,
southern Yunnan, northwestern Thailand and
northern Indochina) were released on Kauai
by Alexander Isenberg, where Richardson &
Bowles () found them to be a fairly
common, albeit local, resident in a variety of
habitats, but principally in settled lowland White-rumped Shama
areas. In , more were liberated in the
Nuuanu Valley and on the Makiki Heights on where they are thus a primary reservoir for the
Oahu, where some were observed at Pauoa maintenance of the disease among native
Flats in , in the upper Manoa Valley in passerines.
, and at Tantalus in (Harpham ).
Berger () reported C. malabaricus to be
fairly common in damp habitats in the upper
Manoa Valley, Tantalus, the upper Nuuanu
Valley, along the Koolau Range and on the PASSERIDAE (SPARROWS,
slopes of the Pali. A decade later, Berger () SNOWFINCHES AND ALLIES)
said that Shamas were common on both the
windward and leeward sides of Oahu, where House Sparrow
although they preferred areas of lush vegeta- Passer domesticus
tion they also occurred in various other
habitats, including residential Kailua. Scott et Natural Range: Much of the Palaearctic
al. (), who incorrectly give the first date of region, from the British Isles eastwards
introduction as , observed Shamas on the through Europe (N to N Scandinavia), the
edge of the Alakai Swamp on Kauai. Pratt et Middle East, Arabia, NW Africa, Libya,
al. (), Pratt (), and the AOU () Egypt, Sudan, and Asia to Kamchatka,
confirm the presence of the species on both Sakhalin, Hokkaido and NW Manchuria
Kauai and Oahu, where the first-named (S of the Arctic Circle). P. domesticus has
authors describe its status as ‘common’. considerably extended its range eastwards
naturally during the past years.
Impact: Shehata et al. () found a high Naturalised Range: Asia: ?Java. Africa: ?Chad;
prevalence (.%) of Plasmodium avian Guinea-Bissau; Kenya; Mozambique;
malaria infection among White-rumped ?Niger; Senegal [Mauretania, The Gambia,
Shamas in the Lyon Arboretum on Oahu, Liberia]; ?Somalia; South Africa [Botswana,
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Passeridae (Sparrows, Snowfinches and Allies)
Malawi, Namibia, Zaire, Zambia, Zim- Lourenço Marques (Maputo) by a Portuguese
babwe]; Tanzania (including Zanzibar). immigrant in late ; they spread rapidly
North and Central America: Canada; USA and by the end of the decade were thoroughly
[? Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guate- established. House Sparrows that became
mala,? Honduras, Mexico, ?Nicaragua, widespread in the Sul do Save (Da Rosa Pinto
Panama]; West Indies. South America: Ar- ) were probably natural indicus immi-
gentina [Uruguay]; Brazil; Chile; Peru [Bo- grants from South Africa (Harwin & Irwin
livia, ?Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, ). By , House Sparrows had spread
?Venezuela]. Australasia: Australia; New km north to the border with Southern
Zealand. Atlantic Ocean: Ascension I.; Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) where they were wide-
Azores Is; Bermuda; Canary Is.; Cape spread and abundant (Harwin & Irwin ).
Verde Is; Falkland Is. Indian Ocean: An- In northern Mozambique, indicus birds
daman Is; Chagos Archipelago;Christmas I; were established in Tete before , having
Comoros Is; Madagascar; Maldive Is; Mas- probably arrived as natural immigrants from
carene Is.; ?Nicobar Is; ?Seychelles Is. Salisbury (Harare) (Payne & Payne ).
Pacific Ocean: Easter Is; Hawaiian Is; Juan
Fernandez Is; New Caledonia; Norfolk I; S
?Vanuatu. House Sparrows arrived, probably as ship-
borne stowaways, in Dakar in about .
Countries and islands that have been From here they subsequently spread km
colonised by the natural extension of range of inland up the Sénégal River (Clement et al.
naturalised populations are enclosed (above ) to Podor, and also Kaolack and
and in the following text) within square Diourbel, and northwards to Nouakchott
brackets. For further details see Lever . (Ndao ).
[From Senegal, House Sparrows spread
J naturally north to Mauretania in the s
Summers-Smith () quotes R Meinertzha- and south to The Gambia (Gore ) and
gen as saying that House Sparrows were Liberia (Monrovia –: Borrow &
introduced to Java sometime after , where Demey )]. The species has also been
they became established in some settled claimed for central Chad and the form tingi-
areas. However, they are not mentioned by tanus (Morocco to northeastern Libya) for
MacKinnon & Phillips (). northeastern Niger (Borrow & Demey ).
G-B S
In early May House Sparrows were According to Mackworth-Praed & Grant
observed for the first time in Guinea-Bissau, (), House Sparrows of the Egyptian race
where on May two nests were found in har- (P. d. niloticus) occurred at Berbera on the
bour structures in the old Bissau harbour of Gulf of Aden coast of Somalia, where they
Pidjiguiti, and where an estimated population were ‘probably introduced’ from Egypt by
of – birds was established over an area of ships via the Suez Canal and the Red Sea. The
approximately six hectares; no Sparrows were present status of the species in Somalia is
then seen in the Bissau city centre. The birds uncertain, but Clement et al. () say it may
were believed to be a very recent arrival, occur in Mogadishu.
probably, given the location, as ship-borne
stowaways rather than as natural immigrants S A
from Senegal (Catry & Monteiro ). Two forms of the House Sparrow, P. d. indicus
(southern Israel and Arabia through southern
M Asia to Laos) and the nominate domesticus
According to Da Rosa Pinto (), birds of (western Europe through northern Asia
the nominate subspecies were introduced to to northwestern Manchuria), have been
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Naturalised Birds of the World
introduced to East London in the Eastern eventually a successful colonist. Yet another
Cape and to Durban, Natal, in South Africa, possible factor, referred to by Harwin & Irwin
and various dates between and have (), has been its readiness to associate with
been suggested by different authors for the such nomadic natives as the Red-billed
earliest releases in different localities. (For full Quelea Quelea quelea. A possibly inhibiting
details see Lever : –). element, at least in the early years of the
‘The extension of range [of the House House Sparrow’s expansion, may have been
Sparrow in South Africa]’ wrote Summers- competition with the indigenous Cape Spar-
Smith (: ), ‘has been less spectacular row or Mossie P. m. melanurus and perhaps
than in other parts where it has been liber- the Southern Grey-headed Sparrow P. diffusus.
ated.’ The domesticus birds that were released In the northern Cape Province, the Trans-
at East London, which seem to have been vaal and elsewhere, the major dispersal of the
mainly or entirely sedentary, interbred with species seems to have begun in the late
indicus, which dispersed naturally and/or s/early s. As mentioned above, it was
was translocated from Durban, to produce not until half a century after the House Spar-
offspring with dual characteristics; these were row’s introduction to Durban between
subsequently superseded by others with the and that it colonised Natal. In it
appearance of the usually dominant indicus, crossed the Drakensberg Mountains, km
and it is birds of the latter form that have to the northwest. By it had spread
colonised the region (Harwin & Irwin ). throughout the Orange Free State and the
‘From Durban’, Summers-Smith (: ) central and southern Transvaal, and in it
continues, ‘the House Sparrow has spread appeared in Swaziland. Within a decade
over all Natal and into Transvaal and Orange House Sparrows had spread dramatically
Free State; from East London a spread has ,km or more southwest to the Cape
taken place along the coastal regions of Cape Peninsula and northwards to Great Namaqua-
Province joining up in the north with the land (Harwin & Irwin ).
birds from Durban.’ This expansion was Temperature seems unimportant in shaping
initially gradual and steady rather than explo- the distribution of House Sparrows in South
sive – it took around years, for example, for (and southern) Africa, where they occur in both
the whole of Natal to be colonised. warm and cool areas; they also appear to be
To quote Summers-Smith (: ) again, unaffected by the amount of precipitation or
‘When it is considered how sedentary the by drought (Brooke , Richardson et al.
House Sparrow is in most parts of its range it ).
is not surprising that the dispersal is rather Today, P. domesticus is virtually ubiquitous
variable. This is particularly the case when the in South Africa wherever there are human set-
suitable habitats are separated by even quite tlements to provide food, shelter and nesting-
short distances of unsuitable country’. In- sites (Brooke , Richardson et al. ).
deed, the species’ acquired ability in southern
Africa to disperse for a considerable distance Impact: Opinions differ on the impact, if
over apparently inimical terrain has, perhaps, any, of the House Sparrow on the native
been the most important element in its occu- P. m. melanurus, which it has been accused
pation of the region. Another factor has been of replacing particularly in urban and
the difference in the density of the human agricultural localities, and the evidence is
population (on which the species is largely de- contradictory and inconclusive.
pendent) between southern Africa and that
pertaining in much of its natural range, where [Central Africa]
even today its distribution is somewhat Following their introduction to South Africa
discontinuous; again, the species’ adaptability over years ago House Sparrows have been
– through a gradual modification of the spreading naturally northwards. The major
original genotype – has enabled it to become dispersal that led to the colonisation of other
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Passeridae (Sparrows, Snowfinches and Allies)
southern African countries began in the late were freed in over urban localities in
s/early s. The earliest recorded American states and four Canadian
appearances of P. domesticus are as follows: provinces. The species’ spread from its points
Botswana ( or earlier); Zimbabwe (); of release averaged some km in the first five
Namibia (); Zambia (); Malawi years, km after years, and over km
(); Zaire (? mid-s). (For full details after years – a remarkable rate of expansion
and routes followed see Lever : –). triggered by an equally remarkable increase in
Today, House Sparrows are widely distributed the population (Barrows ).
in southern Africa, where their range is Doughty (), from whom much of the
mainly controlled by the presence of human following account is derived, has traced the
settlements (Brooke , Richardson et al. establishment and spread of Passer domesticus
). in North America. The vast growth of urban-
isation and of the human population in the
T ( Z); late nineteenth/early twentieth century, with
K its concomitant formation of parks and
Summers-Smith (: ) says that ‘indicus municipal gardens and the preponderance of
birds were introduced from Bombay to Zanz- horse-drawn transport which ensured a
ibar about and are still confined to the continual source of food through grain spilled
city’. From Zanzibar, House Sparrows crossed from nose-bags and droppings, were of
to the coastal mainland of Tanzania (probably material assistance to the largely commensal
by ship), while the rest of the country was House Sparrow.
apparently colonised by natural immigrants Most introductions took place in the decade
from Zambia (Summers-Smith ). after , and urban colonies established in
House Sparrows have been reported such cities as Brooklyn, New York, Boston and
sporadically in Mombasa, Kenya, since at Philadelphia became the source of supply
least , and by the early s they had both for human translocations to other states
colonised most of the town and were spread- and, as the population increased, for natural
ing inland (M-Y. Morel pers. comm. to J. D. dispersal.
Summers-Smith). From the early releases in the s in New
York, Maine, Rhode Island and Massachu-
U S; C setts, House Sparrows spread westwards
House Sparrows were first introduced to the throughout those states, and by the following
United States by Nicholas Pike, Director of decade had reached the six central mid-west-
the Brooklyn Institute of New York, in , ern states in the Mississippi drainage system
in the hope, according to Barrows (: ), and Texas and South Carolina. Colonisation
that ‘they would control a plague of the of the four north-central states, of a further six
“hanging worm” or measuring worm’ (larva of in the south, of three between the Mississippi
the Snow-white Linden Moth Eunomos River and the Rocky Mountains, and of Cali-
subsignarius) that was defoliating trees. These fornia, occurred during the next decade. By
birds, liberated in , did not thrive, but a , Sparrows had gained a toehold in some
second and larger shipment imported from states, in the District of Columbia, and in
England in was more successful, and the one (or perhaps two) Canadian provinces,
birds, released in the Narrows (between Staten stretching south to South Carolina, Kentucky
Island and Brooklyn) and in Greenwood and Texas, and west to Missouri and Iowa,
Cemetery, quickly became established reaching the latter in (Dinsmore ),
(Palmer ). and north to Montreal in Canada. By the
Until at least well into the s large mid-s, they occurred in some states
numbers of House Sparrows (some , and five territories (future states), including
of which were imported from western Europe most states east of the Mississippi River (apart
and were thus of the nominate subspecies) from parts of Florida, where they reached
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Lake City in (James ), Alabama and had been overrun, and three years later it was
Mississippi) as well as portions of eight west- estimated that Sparrows were established over
ern states. Sparrows thus occurred in North . million sq km of North America, includ-
America from southern New Brunswick, ing more than , sq km of Canada; in
Canada, south to southern Georgia, central the following year a further . million sq km
Alabama and Mississippi, west to eastern were occupied. Palmer () reported
Arkansas, Kansas, Nebraska, north-central that only Montana, Nevada, Wyoming,
Iowa and southeastern Minnesota, and north Alaska, Arizona and New Mexico remained
to Wisconsin and upper Michigan, and to uninfested; in Ohio, Illinois, Michigan and
Ontario and Quebec in Canada. Large and Utah House Sparrows had become an offi-
thriving populations were also established cially designated pest. By , Sparrows had
around New Orleans, Louisiana. crossed the Great Plains to the eastern
In western Canada, House Sparrows are foothills of the Rocky Mountains, and by the
believed to have crossed the border into early years of the twentieth century only cen-
British Columbia, Alberta and Saskatchewan tral Nevada, southern California and parts of
shortly after their establishment in Washing- the Rockies remained uncolonised, and even
ton, Montana and North Dakota in the late here Sparrows were established locally by .
nineteenth century. By the late s they had Between and there is evidence of
spread along the railroads north to the limits a decline in the population in eastern North
of human settlement (Summers-Smith ). America coinciding with a decline in the use
House Sparrows were introduced into of horse-drawn transportation in favour
western states in or in California of motor vehicles. Nevertheless, Wing ()
(Sibley incorrectly says that House estimated the House Sparrow population to
Sparrows did not reach California until ) number up to a staggering million. There
and in or at Salt Lake City, Utah is evidence for a further decline since the mid-
(Robbins ). By the mid-s flourishing s (Robbins ) apart from in the west
populations occurred in the San Francisco where the population appears to be relatively
Bay area, and in the lower Sacramento and stable (Johnston & Garrett ).
San Joaquin River valleys in California According to Johnston & Selander (),
(Vuilleumier ), and in Salt Lake City. geographic morphological variations have
Today, House Sparrows occur in all parts of developed among House Sparrows in North
the western United States and Canada, but at America as a result of widely differing envi-
low densities in eastern Oregon, southern ronmental conditions; thus northern birds
Idaho and Montana, western Wyoming, tend to be larger than those in the south,
Colorado, and Arizona, and most of Utah and birds in the arid southwest are paler
(Johnston & Garrett ). than those in the west and east. (For further
The species was first recorded on Cali- references see Lever : and Sibley
fornia’s Channel Islands (Santa Cruz and San : ).
Clemente) in . It later became a breeding According to the AOU (: ), House
resident on Santa Rosa (where it was first Sparrows in North America are
recorded in ), San Nicolas (colonised
between and ), Santa Catalina (first presently resident from central and south-
reported in ) and San Clemente before eastern British Columbia, southwestern
. A breeding population never became Mackenzie, northwestern and central
properly established on Santa Cruz, and the Saskatchewan, northern Manitoba, cen-
species has now died out on Santa Rosa (H. L. tral Ontario, southern Quebec (including
Jones pers. comm. to Power ). Anticosti and Magdalen islands), and
Between and House Sparrows ex- Newfoundland south throughout south-
panded their range by around . million sq ern Canada, the continental United
km. By about a third of the United States States, and most of Mexico to Veracruz,
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Passeridae (Sparrows, Snowfinches and Allies)
Oaxaca, and Chiapas, locally in Central Pennsylvania, in (quoted by Laycock
America (where range expanding rapidly ) appeared to have been the first to draw
in recent years) south to Panama (east to attention to the threat posed by House Spar-
eastern Panamá province). rows. His warning was echoed by Barrows
() and Palmer (: ) who said: ‘The
[House Sparrows arrived in Mexico in the damage which it does in destroying fruit and
early twentieth century (Alvarez del Toro grain, in disfiguring buildings in cities and
), Guatemala in (Thurber ), El towns, and in driving away other birds, makes
Salvador in and Costa Rica in (Stiles it one of the worst of feathered pests’. It was
& Smith ). They colonised Panama in the warning given by Warren, Barrows,
, and later Belize, Honduras, and Palmer and other like-minded individuals,
Nicaragua (Summers-Smith )]. that persuaded Congress in to pass the
Lacey Act prohibiting further introductions
Spreading through the Americas: House of alien animals into the United States.
Sparrows arrived in Mexico in the early House Sparrows proved a signal failure in
twentieth century (Alvarez del Toro ), controlling geometrids such as the larvae of
Guatemala in (Thurber ), El Sal- the White-marked Tussock Moth Orgyia
vador in and Costa Rica in (Stiles & leucostigma and the Snow-white Linden Moth
Smith ). They colonised Panama in , Eunomas subsignarius.
and later Belize, Honduras, and Nicaragua The US Department of Agriculture has
(Summers-Smith ). recorded harassment by P. domesticus of more
than native bird species, mainly involving
‘The marvellous rapidity of the Sparrow’s competition for food and nesting sites (Dins-
multiplication’, wrote Barrows (: à), more ).
‘the surpassing swiftness of its extension, and House Sparrows are an economic threat to
the prodigious size of the area it has overspread farmers, consuming an estimated kg of grain
are without parallel in the history of any bird per bird per annum. They eat corn (maize),
?’. These were achieved firstly through the wheat, oats, rye, buckwheat, sorghum,
species’ deliberate translocation by nostalgic rice, barley, pears, plums, grapes, cherries,
European settlers; secondly, because of the currants, apples, strawberries, raspberries,
House Sparrow’s habit of riding the paddle- blackberries, tomatoes and peas. They spread
boats that regularly plied the major river cestode and nematode parasites among
systems; and thirdly by dispersal along railway domestic poultry, and foul stored food. They
tracks and highways where the birds found also block gutters, downpipes and drains, and
plenty of food from the spillage from boxcars damage brickwork. The only benefit they
on freight-trains and from carts. They were confer is the destruction of large numbers of
further helped by the provision of artificial introduced alfalfa weevils.
nest-boxes, the destruction of potential
predators and legal protection in the late s W I
in some states. According to Raffaele et al. (), House
Although adult House Sparrows are preyed Sparrows probably arrived in the West Indies
on by hawks, owls and cats, and their as stowaways on grain and tourist vessels.
nestlings and young by grackles (Quiscalus Lack () says they first reached Jamaica,
spp.) and Red-headed Woodpeckers Melaner- at Annotto Bay, around . ‘The species
pes erythrocephalus, heavy and prolonged flourished in the s, declined in the s
winter snow seems to be their main control- and appeared to have died out in the s.
ling factor. However, there is a sighting from south-
central Jamaica’ (Raffaele et al. : ).
Impact: Dr B. H. Warren, speaking to the In the Virgin Islands, a small population of
Microscopical Society in West Chester, House Sparrows was established in in the
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Naturalised Birds of the World
town of Charlotte Amalie on St Thomas, A
where Bond () said they had perhaps died An anonymous account says that House Spar-
out. Since then the birds have recolonised St rows were first introduced (? unsuccessfully) to
Thomas and have recently established them- Argentina by European farmers around .
selves on St John (Raffaele et al. ). In or E. Bieckert released about
From St Thomas, House Sparrows are said pairs in Buenos Aires in an unsuccessful
to have been introduced (or to have dispersed attempt to control a psychid moth Oiketicus
naturally) to Puerto Rico and Hispaniola. kirbyi (O. platensis in Summers-Smith ).
Although Raffaele & Kepler () record a More are believed to have been liberated
sight record for the species in Ponce in Puerto shortly thereafter, and by they had
Rico in , Pérez-Rivera et al. () suggest dispersed up to km from Buenos Aires. By
an earlier arrival, as the birds were already they had reached Chaco Province, km
common in . They hypothesise that to the north, and by had spread further
House Sparrows may have been illegally north still to Las Palmas and south to Cabo
introduced or arrived on a grainship for the San Antonia (Gibson ). By about
United States, the US Virgin Islands, or the Sparrows were established in settled localities
Dominican Republic. The species seems to throughout the country, and were beginning
have spread slowly from Ponce (Pérez-Rivera to invade unsettled areas (Navas ), and by
) until it began to disperse more rapidly the mid-s they had spread westwards
in the early s (Moreno ), and has along the railway to Neuquüén Province in
now established itself throughout the coastal the foothills of the Andes. By they had
plain and is currently colonising towns at high penetrated as far south as Ushuaia in Tierra
elevations (Raffaele et al. ). It reached the del Fuego, at o ’ S the most southerly
islands of Mona and Culebra in in and township in the world, and shortly thereafter
respectively (Moreno ). On Hispan- were established virtually countrywide (Olrog
iola, House Sparrows are said by Raffaele et al. ). See also Narosky & Yzurieta ()
() to be locally common in all urban areas and Mazar Barnett & Pearman ().
of the Dominican Republic. Raffaele et al.
() also record its presence in St Martin [B]
and Guadeloupe. Dott (), from whom much of the follow-
Spanish monks are said to have introduced ing account is derived, has traced the spread of
House Sparrows to Havana, Cuba in and the House Sparrow in Bolivia.
again in the late s. Today the species is Although according to Summers-Smith
very common and widespread (Raffaele et () the species first appeared, in the south,
al. ), especially in large towns such as in , Eisentraut () says that the first
Havana and Camagüey. record, at Villa Montes, dates from .
House Sparrows were unsuccessfully intro- Others were seen at three other southern
duced to the Bahamas, at Nassau on New localities in , which suggests that, in the
Providence, in (Palmer , Summers- absence of any documented introductions,
Smith ), where they were reported by Bolivia was colonised by natural immigrants
Gebhardt () to have been wiped out by a from Argentina and, perhaps, Paraguay, in the
hurricane in . In or House middle to late s. Thereafter, they may
Sparrows were seen again in and around Nas- have spread steadily northwards, but although
sau, and since then others have been recorded Summers-Smith () says they had reached
from Grand Bahama and Eleuthera. Today, the capital, La Paz, in west-central Bolivia, in
the species is locally common in the northern the early s, Dott () stated that by that
Bahamas and on Grand Inagua in the south- date they had not yet penetrated to central
ern Bahamas (Raffaele et al. ), at least as Bolivia.
far north as Walker Cay. These birds probably Between and the distribution of
arrived as stowaways on ships from Florida. House Sparrows altered dramatically, and
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Passeridae (Sparrows, Snowfinches and Allies)
many new and widely distributed new locali- central Brazil since almost certainly
ties were colonised – mostly at low or mid helped to facilitate the House Sparrow’s
elevations but a few at high altitude. On spread northwards; between and the
the sparsely vegetated and very cold high birds extended their range km along the
altiplano, the Andean plateau, Dott () Belém/Brasília highway to Maranhão and
found House Sparrows in small numbers in Pará states. House Sparrows made their first
and in Oruro and La Paz, both at an appearance in Brazilian Amazonia, at Itinga,
altitude of ,m, where in winter night- in , and by were widely established
time temperatures fall regularly to between (Smith ). See also Souza ()
–oC and –oC. This may be the highest
elevation at which House Sparrows have ever Impact: In São Paulo state, P. domesticus
been recorded. Since it is unlikely that they has been found to be host to the first instar
could have crossed km of antiplano and nymphs of Triatoma sordida – a vector of
mountain unaided, it seems probable that Chagas’ disease which can prove fatal to man.
they arrived in La Paz and Oruro via the
railway line. In the central and southern low- C
lands, Dott () found Sparrows in to House Sparrows were introduced to Chile by
be well established and abundant, though A. Cousino in , at Los Andes and Rio
only locally. In the humid Andean foothills Blanco in Aconagua in (Hellmayr )
and in the northern and eastern lowlands they and, according to Summers-Smith () at
were even more sparsely distributed. Today, Punta Arenas on the Strait of Magellan,
they mainly occur in the tropical and semi- probably by monks from Buenos Aires, in
arid slopes of the Andes in southern and . The birds spread rapidly, and by
central Bolivia and in towns and villages in were established from Tierra del Fuego and
the lowlands. Chiloé Island north to Arica on the Peruvian
border, which they reached around
B (Philippi ). They are today common
Summers-Smith () says that House countrywide in urban localities and farmland
Sparrows were imported to Brazil in to (Jaramillo et al. ).
kill caterpillars that were attacking ornamen-
tal shrubs in Rio de Janeiro; his map, however, Impact: Although Johnson (: –)
shows the year as – the same date as that claimed that House Sparrows in Chile have
given by Sick (). Smith (), on the ‘… ousted the indigenous Rufous-collared
other hand, says the birds were introduced to Sparrow [Zonotrichia capensis] and [Common]
kill mosquitoes in the city in , and that in Diuca Finch [Diuca diuca] from many of their
some were translocated to southern former haunts around the towns and forced
Brazil, where they quickly became established them to withdraw to the countryside’,
in Rio Grande do Sul. Vuilleumier () points out that the habitats
In the mid-twentieth century House of the two native species tend not to overlap
Sparrows expanded their range rapidly in with that of P. domesticus.
Brazil, reaching Mato Grosso in ; Espirito
Santo in ; Goiás (where they were released [E]
to kill noxious insects) in ; Piani in ; According to Ortiz-Crespo (), House
Minas Gerais in ; and Ceará in . Sparrows reached Guayaquil on the coast of
Summers-Smith () recorded that by the Ecuador (presumably from Peru) in .
early s the southern states of Rio Grande
do Sul, Santa Caterina, Parana, São Paulo, Rio [P]
de Janeiro, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais and Wetmore () records the presence of
parts of Goiás and Mato Grosso had been House Sparrows in the capital, Asunción, in
colonised. The construction of roads in , which they had probably reached as
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Naturalised Birds of the World
natural immigrants from Argentina. They capensis, Saffron Finches Sicalis flaveola,
now occur virtually throughout the country. Pale-legged Horneros Furnarius leucopus,
Bare-faced Ground Doves Metriopelia ceciliae,
P Hooded Siskins Carduelis magellanica, Palm
House Sparrows were introduced to parks in Tanagers Thraupis palmarum and Common
Lima in , where within years they Diuca Finches Diuca diuca.
outnumbered the native Rufous-collared
Sparrow Zonotrichia capensis (Leck ). A
Summers-Smith () says that in some Table gives details of early introductions of
were translocated to Callao, km west of House Sparrows to Australia.
Lima, where within a decade they had joined In , only one year after the first
up with Sparrows that had spread north from successful introduction, the Victoria Acclima-
Chile around and west from Bolivia. tisation Society announced that ‘the Sparrow
… may now be considered thoroughly estab-
U lished’ (Ryan ). In South Australia,
‘By the end of the th century the House House Sparrows were reported at Magill, near
Sparrow was advancing across the border Adelaide, in , at Mount Gambier in ,
[from Argentina] into Uruguay’ (Summers- and on Kangaroo Island in . On Tasmania
Smith : ). There is also believed to they became established at Launceston shortly
have been at least one deliberate introduction after their release in or . The popula-
from Buenos Aires to Colonia around . tion in Queensland is derived from natural
By House Sparrows were said to be dispersal from New South Wales, where
common throughout Uruguay (Wetmore Sparrows were established soon after their
). See also Narosky & Yzurieta () liberation. Stringent precautions, the presence
and Azpiroz (). of the Nullarbor Plain, and the change
from horse-drawn to motorised transport
Range in South America: By , J. D. Sum- prevented House Sparrows from becoming
mers-Smith recorded the establishment of settled in Western Australia (Tarr ).
Passer domesticus over most of the southern Ryan () reported that House Sparrows
half of South America south of o-oS, had spread out over much of Victoria, south-
including most of Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, ern New South Wales and South Australia, as
Paraguay, parts of Brazil, western Peru and well as occurring in Tasmania and islands in
parts of Bolivia and Ecuador. By the Bass Strait – as elsewhere usually following
mid-s the species had extended its range human settlement. Tarr () found them to
northwards into northern Bolivia and be abundant throughout New South Wales
Ecuador, and was continuing to spread and in many parts of Victoria; in Queensland
towards Colombia and Venezuela in the they had reached as far north as Rockhampton,
northwest and north, and towards the north- while in South Australia they ranged north to
east, through both natural dispersal and inter- Marree and west to Tarcoola; they were also
and intra-national translocations by man. The common in settled districts of Tasmania and
birds’ apparent reluctance to colonise parts of on King and Flinders Islands in the Bass Strait.
northern South America may be due at least A decade later, House Sparrows were well es-
in part to the need for considerable metabolic tablished on Kangaroo Island, and in Tasmania
and physiological adaptation in some regions had spread north to Moth Creek. In Queens-
(e.g. Kendeigh ). land they first appeared at Atherton in ,
and before the end of the decade had expanded
Impact in South America: In some parts of their range to Tolga and Kairi; by they
the continent House Sparrows are said to were breeding on islands in the Torres Strait.
compete for food and, especially, nesting sites, Frith (: ) described the House Spar-
with Rufous-collared Sparrows Zonotrichia row’s range as extending ‘from the eastern
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Introductions of House Sparrows Passer domesticus to Australia, s–.
Date Number Introduced to/by Remarks
? s ? Victoria ?
(or pairs) Victoria All died on the voyage from England.
Melbourne, Victoria ?
pair (?+) Sydney, New South Wales Imported from Melbourne, Victoria. Bred
successfully; fledglings transferred to
Murrurundi in , where they also bred
successfully.
? ? Released at Adelaide, South Australia.
(including Melbourne, Victoria released in Melbourne Botanic Gardens
some Chaffinches) and at Partridge Stockade (gaol).
or ? Hobart and/or Launceston, Imported from Melbourne, Victoria.
Tasmania More later imported from Adelaide,
South Australia. Released at Launceston.
J. O’Shannasy, Victoria Released at Boroodata.
Victoria Acclimatisation Released at Ballarat.
Society (A.S.)
? Victoria A.S. ?
? Thomas Austin, Victoria Released in various localities in Victoria
(see Lever : ).
Victoria A.S. Released in various localities in Victoria.
? ? Brisbane, Queensland All died shortly after arrival.
? ? First record for Western Australia (Perth).
Sources : Helms ; Littler ; Ryan .
edge of the Nullarbor Plain throughout South amendment to the Game Act excluded Passer
Australia, except the most arid parts, through- domesticus from its protection – thus in effect
out Tasmania, Victoria, New South Wales and declaring it a pest. When the Adelaide to
Queensland to as far north as Mount Isa at Perth railway line was being constructed
least in the inland and to Cairns on the coast between and a man was employed to
… it has failed to cross the deserts to colonise destroy any Sparrows that tried to follow the
the Northern Territory’. Pizzey () recorded line and glean scraps from the railhead camps.
Sparrows also on some offshore and Great Particularly in Victoria, and to a lesser
Barrier Reef islands, on those in the Bass extent in Queensland, House Sparrows
Strait, on Kangaroo Island, and on some consume large amounts of food on poultry
smaller coastal islets. The map in Barrett et al. farms. Wherever cereal crops are grown they
() shows that while House Sparrows eat growing and stored grain (especially maize
remain most abundant in southeastern and wheat) and germinating seedlings, fruit
Australia and have yet to cross the Nullarbor (mainly cherries, apricots and plums) and
Plain into Western Australia, they have vegetables (largely tomatoes and peas). They
spread north in Queensland to the Cape York damage and deface buildings with their
Peninsula and west across the deserts to the droppings, and block gutters, downpipes and
central Northern Territory. Overall, however, drains with their nesting material.
there has been some decrease in the popula- (For the interaction between P. domesticus
tion during the past two decades. and P. montanus see the latter species).
Impact: As early as complaints N Z
were being made about damage to fruit Table gives details of what appear to have
trees caused by Sparrows, and in an been the only recorded introductions of
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Naturalised Birds of the World
House Sparrows (of the nominate subspecies) () said that House Sparrows were wide-
to New Zealand. The birds were imported spread throughout New Zealand, not always
mainly for nostalgic reasons by immigrants (as elsewhere) in association with man. In the
from England, but also to control caterpillars north they frequent the unlikely habitats of
and insects in the grain fields of South Island saltings and mangrove swamps.
and in the orchards of North Island. They House Sparrows are now ‘common through-
soon became established and were widely out the mainland and inhabited offshore is-
distributed by . According to Thomson lands, and the Chathams and Norfolk Island,
(: ), they ‘very quickly increased in all are recorded from the Antipodes, The Snares,
parts until they became a very serious pest’. Auckland and Campbell Islands’ (Heather &
House Sparrows colonised, either naturally Robertson : ). Baker () records
or more probably by ship, the Chatham breeding on the Chathams, Campbell, Auck-
Islands around (the map in Summers- land and Snares Islands. They live principally
Smith (: ) indicates colonisation in arable farmland, rural and suburban gardens
between and , while Forbes () and parks, and in the vicinity of grain stores.
suggests an earlier date); Campbell Island
around (Summers-Smith’s map indicates Impact: As early as the Small Birds
between and ), where they died out Nuisance Act was passed in an attempt to
between and ; Great and Little Bar- control House Sparrows and other small
rier, Poor Knights, Kapiti and Stewart Islands introduced pest species. Dawson ()
around ; the Snares in about (Sum- estimated the average grain loss through
mers-Smith’s map indicates between and House Sparrow depredation at between five
); and Three King’s, Mokohinau, Mayor, and %. ‘House Sparrows’, wrote Heather &
Karewa, Codfish and the Auckland Islands by Robertson (: ), ‘are probably the most
(Summers-Smith’s map indicates coloni- economically important bird pest in New
sation of the Aucklands between and Zealand, by causing serious damage to wheat,
). Wodzicki () suggested a recent barley, and maize crops, and lesser damage to
occupation of White Island in the Bay of oats and seedling peas and brassicas. They also
Plenty, where Summers-Smith’s map indicates attack grapes, cherries, and other ripening
an arrival between and . Wodzicki fruit, and feed on grain products being fed to
(: ) described the House Sparrow as livestock and poultry’. In compensation they
‘widely distributed and abundant, North, eat large quantities of destructive beetles,
South, Stewart, and Chatham, Auckland, caterpillars, leafhoppers, grasshoppers and flies
Snares and Campbell Islands’. Falla et al. (Heather & Robertson ).
Introductions of the House Sparrow Passer domesticus to New Zealand, –.
Date Number Introduced by Remarks
? ‘Mr Brodie’ Soon disappeared.
Nelson Acclimatisation Society (A.S.) —
? Nelson A.S. Only a single bird survived the voyage
from England.
Auckland provincial government Two survivors released.
? Wanganui A.S. —
Canterbury A.S. Released at Kaiapoi and bred in .
Auckland provincial government Released.
Otago A.S. Released.
Otago A.S. Released.
Nelson A.S. Released at Stoke and soon established.
Source: Thomson .
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Passeridae (Sparrows, Snowfinches and Allies)
A I Islands. They are a recent arrival, probably by
House Sparrows introduced to Georgetown at ship, to Gran Canaria, where they first bred in
Christmas continue to survive in (Martí & del Moral ).
very small numbers (Summers-Smith ,
Clement et al. , Rowlands et al. ). See C V I
also McCulloch . Bourne () suggested that House Sparrows
may have reached the Cape Verde islands as
A I stowaways on ships from Europe between
According to Agostinho (), large numbers and , when a dozen were collected
of House Sparrows from Portugal (? P. d. on São Vicente. By they were common in
balearoibericus) were released at Lajes airport central Mindelo and the Porto Grande on São
on Terceira in , and within two years the Vicente, but apparently had spread to no
entire island had been overrun. By the other islands. In Summers-Smith ()
birds were breeding residents on Graciosa, found them to be restricted to the town and
São Jorge, Pico, and Faial (Le Grand ) and impoverished farmland in the south. On São
they had reached São Miguel in or Vicente, P. domesticus has hybridised with
and Flores a decade later. Only Santa Maria the Spanish Sparrow P. hispaniolensis, which
and Corvo were not yet overrun. Summers- arrived, presumably naturally, but possibly by
Smith () estimated the population in ship. House Sparrows remain restricted to São
to number between , and ,. Vicente, where they are common in Mindelo
and its environs, at Ribeira da Vinha, and at
B oases in the interior. (Hazevoet ).
D. B. Wingate (pers. comm. ) said that
the House Sparrow was a ‘deliberate introduc- F I
tion in and “for house fly control in Hamilton () states that about House
the towns”. The first introduction of a few Sparrows arrived in the town of Stanley on
birds was to St Georges by the mayor Mr W. East Falkland on board a whaling factory ship
C. J. Hyland. The second involving about from Montevideo, Uruguay, in October ,
birds was to Hamilton. Both introductions and in later years they were probably joined
were imported from New York, USA [where by more from other visiting vessels. Although
the birds are of the nominate form] …. The Bennett () claimed that by they had
Sparrow rapidly increased to abundant before spread throughout the archipelago, Hamilton
… it is now the most abundant land bird () found them only in Stanley. By about
on Bermuda’. House Sparrows had dispersed km
Until after the Second World War Ber- westwards to Darwin and km northwest to
muda relied exclusively on horse-drawn Teal Inlet (Cawkell & Hamilton ). Woods
transport, and this, as in North America, () recorded them at Goose Green Patch –
undoubtedly contributed to the House Spar- also on East Falkland.
row’s successful establishment in Bermuda, In – small group of House Sparrows
where it is now common and ubiquitous became established on West Point and
(Raine ). Carcass Islands off West Falkland; their origin
is uncertain, but they may have arrived by
Impact: House Sparrows in Bermuda have ship or as storm-borne waifs from South
largely displaced the endemic race of the America or on inter-island boats from Stanley,
Eastern Bluebird Sialia sialis bermudensis as a or alternatively as natural dispersers. Although
cavity-nester on the islands. by the West Point colony numbered
around individuals (R. Woods pers. comm.
C I ) it is believed to have since died out.
According to Langley (), House Spar- Today, House Sparrows are numerous only in
rows are becoming established in the Canary Stanley.
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A I; N C I
I Hawkins & Safford (in prep.) record the pres-
Abdulali () says that about half-a-dozen ence of House Sparrows on Christmas Island.
House Sparrows of the form indicus were
imported to Ross Island by O. H. Brookes in M
, followed by more in ; Abdulali On Madagascar, House Sparrows are confined
() found them to be quite common at to an area of around km around Tamatave
Port Blair on South Andaman, with some also on the east coast (Hawkins & Safford in
at Choldhari. From the Andamans House prep.). Their date of arrival and origin are
Sparrows may have spread naturally to the apparently unrecorded. In F. Hawkins
Nicobar Islands. saw one in Antananarivo, which represents a
significant extension of range (R. Safford pers.
C A comm. ).
House Sparrows were first recorded by the
Percy Sladen Trust expedition of on the M I
islands of Salomon and Peros Banhos, to According to Ash (a), House Sparrows of
which they were said to have been introduced the form P. d. indicus were a recent immigrant
from Mauritius (Bourne ). Hutson () in the Maldives, where they occurred only on
found them to be still common on both these Malé. Whether they arrived naturally from
islands. southern India or by ship is unknown.
C I Impact: Ash (a) expressed his concern
House Sparrows were first recorded on should P. domesticus spread to other islands in
Grande Comore in , in settled areas of the archipelago on which millet Panicum sp. is
Mohéli in (Grote ) and on Pamanzi grown.
in where, according to Summers-Smith
(), they were introduced by occupying M I
troops, and are of the Sudanese race Clark () says that British soldiers brought
rufidorsalis. Watson et al. () recorded House Sparrows from India (P. d. indicus) to
Sparrows as common on Grande Comore and Mauritius in about or , and that they
as present in settled localities on Mohéli and were released in the barracks at Port Louis,
on Pamanzi. Summers-Smith (: ) said where by they were well established and
that ‘on Mohéli they are present in every rapidly increasing. They were numerous
village, while on the Grand Comoro they are throughout the island by (Meinertzha-
found in only one; C. W. Benson … could gen ) and remain so (Staub , Cheke
not detect any difference between the islands ), including in forest clearings and on
…’. Louette () and Hawkins & Safford small islets (Hawkins & Safford in prep.), but
(in prep.) say that House Sparrows occur especially in parks, gardens, and urban areas
in many (perhaps most) towns on the islands (Jones ).
of Grande Comore and Mohéli, but that the House Sparrows that had escaped from an
populations may fluctuate. House Sparrows aviary were recorded as breeding on Réunion
have not been recorded on Anjouano. On in by Henri (). During the next few
Mayotte, where they are also established, the years the birds spread throughout St Denis,
House Sparrows’ range is increasing, but they and are now widespread and abundant on the
are currently restricted to Dzaoudzi, island (Staub , Barré & Barau ,
Mamoudzou and to the adjacent coastal Cheke ) in villages but are less common
area from Koungou to Dembeni and Mbouzi at higher elevations (Hawkins & Safford in
islet (Louette , , Hawkins & Safford prep.).
in prep.). See also Sinclair & Langrand Bertuchi () reported the presence of
(). Sparrows on Rodrigues in , although
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Passeridae (Sparrows, Snowfinches and Allies)
Cheke () believed they may have been able to trace was to ‘a further supply’ in ,
introduced earlier. They are common signifying an earlier introduction that
and widely distributed today (Cheke ), presumably failed. In nine Sparrows from
including in forest clearings and on most islets New Zealand were released in Honolulu on
(Hawkins & Safford in prep.). They have also Oahu, where by the end of the decade they
been seen on Île Coco (Showler ). were said to be numerous. As late as ,
however, they were not reported from outside
Impact: A. S. Cheke (pers. comm. to Jones Honolulu, and it was not until that they
) pointed out that the decline and subse- began to appear on other islands, presumably
quent extinction on Mauritius of the Java as a result of further importations and/or
Sparrow Lonchura oryzivora in the mid- and translocations (Caum ). Peterson (),
late nineteenth century respectively coincided Summers-Smith (), Zeillemaker & Scott
with the establishment of P. domesticus. () and Berger () reported them to be
common on all the main inhabited islands
S I (but less so on Kauai and Niihau) and to
Gaymer et al. () found House Sparrows occur as vagrants on Kure and Midway atolls.
to be established and common on the islands They live principally in settlements, ranch
of Alphonse and D’Arros. According to Sker- paddocks, feedlots and camping grounds
rett et al. (), they are of the form indicus (Scott et al. ). Pratt et al. (: )
(Israel to Laos) . Penny (: –) said ‘It describe House Sparrows as ‘common to
occurs and breeds on Desroches, Resource, St abundant in cities and towns’ and the AOU
Joseph, D’Arros and probably other islands (:) says they have spread ‘throughout
…’. Skerrett et al. () and Hawkins & Sa- all main islands’. According to Johnston &
fford (in prep.) record it as also occurring on Selander (), House Sparrows in the
Rémire, Desnoeufs, Marie-Louise, Bijoutier, Hawaiian Islands differ markedly in their
St François and Alphonse, and as breeding on plumage from European and North American
Ressource, Var and St Joseph. It has also been mainland populations.
recorded on the granitic group of islands.
Although the origin of House Sparrows in Impact: Three out of a flock of nine House
the Amirantes is uncertain, Skerrett et al. Sparrows on Oahu were found to be infected
() point out that the Asian form of the with the malarial parasite Plasmodium
Indian House Gecko Hemidactylus brookii cathemerium – the first record for this species
(see Lever ) exists in the Seychelles only from any Pacific Island (Berger ).
on Desroches (where it was introduced prior
to ), and it is likely that it and P. domesti- J F I
cus were stowaways on vessels from India. House Sparrows arrived in the Juan Fernan-
Alternatively, House Sparrows could have dez archipelago in about , probably as
arrived in the Amirantes via Mauritius, the stowaways on a ship from Valparaiso in Chile,
source of other introductions to the Seychelles. and are established on Más á Tierra and Más á
Fuera Islands (Summers-Smith , Philippi
E I , Vuilleumier , Jaramillo et al. ).
In House Sparrows were introduced
from Chile to Easter Island, where they N C
quickly became established; the reason for the Palmer () reported the presence of House
introduction is unknown (Philippi , Sick Sparrows on New Caledonia, where they soon
, Vuilleumier , Jaramillo et al. ). became established in settled areas (Leach ,
Delacour , Long ).
H I
The earliest reference to House Sparrows in N I
the Hawaiian Islands that Thrun () was Williams () says that House Sparrows
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Naturalised Birds of the World
colonised Norfolk Island in about ; the range on the west coast [appears likely]
map in Summers-Smith (: ) indicates a …. It seems improbable … that the
date between and . It seems probable House Sparrow will for long be denied
that they arrived as stowaways on a ship from entry to Western Australia but extensions
Australia or New Zealand. Smithers & Disney in other parts of Australia appear unlikely.
() found them to be abundant in villages, Further spread is to be expected in South
around homesteads and in neighbouring Africa despite competition from related
pastures – a status confirmed by Heather & species …. In the last hundred years its
Robertson (). See also Barrett et al. range has more than doubled [to some
million sq km] and at present it occurs on
().
about a quarter of the earth’s surface ….
V
Cain & Galbraith () record the presence
of P. domesticus in the New Hebrides; how and
when the species arrived and its present status, Eurasian Tree Sparrow
are unknown. Passer montanus
Summary: Summers-Smith (, passim) Natural Range: Most of Eurasia (except S Iran,
summed up the results of House Sparrow the Middle East and India) S of the tundra
introductions worldwide and the future of and taiga zones, from W Europe eastwards
naturalised populations. to China and Japan, S to Malaysia and
Indonesia.
The outstanding thing about these intro- Naturalised Range: Europe: France (Corsica);
ductions has been their extraordinary suc- Italy (Sardinia); Malta. Asia: Borneo
cess. The main reason for this has been the (Brunei, Sabah, Sarawak); ?India; Lesser
lack of competition from native species. Sunda Is; Molucca Is; Pescadores Is.;
No bird of any other genus has exploited Philippine Is; ?Singapore; Sulawesi. North
and adapted man-made urban habitats to America: Canada; USA. Australasia:
anything like the extent of the House Australia. Atlantic Ocean: Canary Is.
Sparrow and thus there were no real com- Indian Ocean: ?Christmas I. Pacific Ocean:
petitors …. It is interesting that the House Mariana Is; Marshall Is; Federated States of
Sparrow appears to have been less success- Micronesia.
ful in other parts of the world [this was
written before the species’ major African F (C)
expansion]. Here is the one place where Ivanov & Summers-Smith () say that Tree
members of the genus Passer were already Sparrows colonised the island of Corsica
established …. In North and South
during the twentieth century, though whether
America the pattern of spread appears to
as natural immigrants or as ship-borne
have been very similar: first the cities and
stowaways cannot be determined.
larger towns were occupied and from
these the birds infiltrated to the villages
and populous farming areas. The main I (S)
factor responsible was most probably the According to Voous (), the Eurasian Tree
transportation of grain …. In North Sparrow on the island of Sardinia was intro-
America, the limit in the north is already duced by man; this is likely to have been by
the limit of cultivation … to the south it ship from Naples (J. D. Summers-Smith pers.
is probable that the bird will continue to comm. ), where the nominate subspecies
spread southwards in Central America. occurs in the city centre, during the twentieth
In South America … consolidation of century (Ivanov & Summers-Smith ).
that area of the sub-continent already This introduction is not referred to by either
occupied [and] a further extension of Baccetti et al. () or Bertolino ().
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Passeridae (Sparrows, Snowfinches and Allies)
M (Medway & Wells , Summers-Smith
Ivanov & Summers-Smith () say that ).
P. montanus colonised Malta during the twen-
tieth century, though whether naturally or I
through the intervention of man is uncertain. Raju & Price () reported a small isolated
population of Tree Sparrows, believed to be of
B (B; S; the race malaccensis (Himalayan foothills to
S) southeast Asia), in the Eastern Ghats in
Although Passer montanus is said by C. Vaurie Andra Pradesh. The origin of these birds is
(in Peters ) to have occurred on the island uncertain, but they may well represent an
of Borneo as early as the s, no specific introduction by man. Price () estimated
localities are mentioned. Gore () reported the population at under , and believed it
a small group in the port of Sandakan in was declining.
Sabah, where a breeding colony became
established in the docks area and from where L S I; M
the birds spread to other parts of the town. I
Smythies () recorded Tree Sparrows in C. Vaurie (in Peters ) says that Tree
Sarawak in , and Gore () found some Sparrows (malaccensis) have been successfully
on Labuan Island off Sabah in . Harrison introduced to the island of Ambon in the
() saw the species in Brunei in . Moluccas and Lombok in the Lesser Sunda
These birds probably arrived as stowaways on Islands; on the latter, Summers-Smith ()
ships from Singapore and/or Hong Kong says they may be natural immigrants from
Bali. Dickinson () confirms that the
subspecies is malaccensis.
P I
According to Horikawa () and Hachisuka
& Udagawa (), Tree Sparrows from
Formosa (Taiwan) were released on the
Pescadores Island in the Formosa Strait
between Taiwan and mainland China by a
Chinese named Rosuirin in about . The
form in the Pescadores, where Tree Sparrows
are established on the islands of Yü-weng Tao,
P’eng-hu Yao, Pa Chao Hsü and Ta Hsü, is
said by Peters () to be dilutus (Iran and
Pakistan to Mongolia). The form native to
Taiwan is, however, saturatus (Dickinson
).
P I
Between and Tree Sparrows were
recorded in Manila on the island of Luzon
and in Cebu City on Cebu by Whitehead
(), who believed they had been imported
from China before about . Delacour &
Mayr () found them to be well estab-
lished and common in many settled localities
on both islands. According to Parkes (),
Eurasian Tree Sparrow the subspecies on Luzon is saturatus and was
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 220
Naturalised Birds of the World
imported from Japan or Taiwan and that on city limits, where they re-established
Cebu is malaccensis and came from the Malay themselves in Tower Grove Park and the
Peninsula. Du Pont () said that the latter Missouri Botanical (Shaw’s) Garden. Here
had also occurred on the island of Negros. they remained until the s when encroach-
Clement et al. () say that now all inhab- ment by man and P. domesticus compelled
ited islands have been colonised. Dickinson them to move again, this time to several
() confirms that the form occurring in suburban districts including parts of St
the southern Philippines is malaccensis and Charles and St Louis Counties and to Creve
that in the north saturatus. See also Ivanov & Coeur Lake, from where they subsequently
Summers-Smith . spread km westwards to Washington on the
Missouri River.
S By the early twentieth century Tree
Although Robinson & Chasen () suggest Sparrows had crossed the Mississippi River
that Tree Sparrows may have been introduced into western Illinois, and by they
to Singapore after its settlement by the East occurred in Madison, Jersey, Calhoun,
India Company in , Ward () believed St Clair, Jersey and Monroe Counties. In
that the species might have already been they first appeared in Fulton County,
established in the region prior to European Kentucky, km southeast of St Louis. As in
colonisation, having spread southeastwards the case of the House Sparrow they are
down the Malay Peninsula, perhaps on coastal believed to have travelled on the paddleboats
trading vessels, in the sixteenth and seven- that plied the Mississippi River.
teenth centuries. It is today a common and During the late s, Tree Sparrows
ubiquitous resident (Seng ). increased their range in Illinois, and after the
Second World War began to occur more
S frequently outside an km radius of St Louis.
Tree Sparrows (of the race malaccensis) (Peters In the s the centre of the population grad-
) have been introduced to Sulawesi, ually moved from Horseshoe Lake, which they
where Stresemann () said they were had colonised in –, to Grand Marias
then restricted to the southern peninsula: State Park, East St Louis. By the end of the
since then they have become established in decade, when they occurred mainly in east-
numerous localities (Escott & Holmes ). central Missouri and western Illinois, Tree
Dickinson () confirms that the form in Sparrows were dispersing slowly to the north
Sulawesi is malaccensis. and northeast.
Between and Tree Sparrows
U S; C extended their range north from St Louis
For much of the history of the Eurasian Tree km up the Mississippi River to Quincy and
Sparrow in the United States I am indebted to south to Modoc, and km northeast up the
Flieg (). Illinois to Cass County, Virginia; by the end
In Carl Daenzer released pairs of of the decade they were established along the
Tree Sparrows of the nominate form (Merrill Illinois for km between Hardin and
), which had been imported from Ger- Beardstown, and eastwards to Sangamon
many by a bird-dealer named Kleinschmidt, County. Although on the Missouri River they
in Layfayette Park in southern St Louis, had still spread no further west than Washing-
Missouri. The birds soon became established, ton, some places from which they had dis-
apparently because the presence of breweries appeared had been recolonised. Almost
started by German immigrants provided an a century after its introduction, the Tree
abundant supply of grain. In the larger Sparrow’s expansion of range was still closely
and more aggressive alien, the House Sparrow associated with major river systems.
Passer domesticus, arrived in St Louis, and Between the s and s the Tree Spar-
forced Tree Sparrows to disperse outside the row spread into several western midwestern
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 221
Passeridae (Sparrows, Snowfinches and Allies)
states, including Iowa in , Minnesota in Rusden on behalf of the Victoria Acclimatisa-
and Wisconsin, Indiana and Michigan tion Society (see Lever ), were liberated in
in the s (Lang , Svingen ). the Melbourne Botanic Gardens and in the
The AOU (: ) described the Partridge Stockade (prison), and in the same
Eurasian Tree Sparrow’s distribution in North year a further were freed in the St Kilda
America as ‘… east central Missouri and west- district of Melbourne; in another
ern Illinois, with stragglers reported in south- (including some malaccensis from Java) were
ern Manitoba, southern Ontario [Canada], released at St Kilda and Ballarat, a few more
Minnesota, Wisconsin, southeastern Iowa … possibly in , and in . In the
Indiana … and western Kentucky …’. Victoria Acclimatisation Society announced
Flieg () found that the Tree Sparrows’ that the species was ‘thoroughly established’.
expansion of range had followed a well- Some sent later from Melbourne to Sydney,
defined pattern; when flocks disperse in spring New South Wales, soon became settled, but
the birds scatter and settle over a wide area, others despatched to Tasmania apparently
those occurring in the most densely populated disappeared (Ryan ).
localities spreading furthest to find enough By the turn of the twentieth century Tree
space for each breeding pair. The relatively Sparrows had spread south from Sydney
low-density populations in urban areas and in to Junee in New South Wales, and by the
southern Missouri required little if any more outbreak of the First World War they were
space for breeding than for overwintering. fairly common around Wangaratta in Victoria
The preferred habitat of Eurasian Tree (km northeast of Melbourne) and in most
Sparrows in North America is agricultural of the townships in the Riverina in New South
land, rich in food, nesting sites, shelter and Wales (Hobbs ). By the early s, Tree
roosting places. In autumn and winter the Sparrows had spread km north of Junee
birds form flocks several hundred strong, and km northeast from Melbourne.
from which in spring mated pairs disperse to Although as late as the mid-s they were
breed. The species’ distribution in North still most abundant around Melbourne, by
America is discontinuous because of an absence the late s they were starting to disperse
of unbroken suitable habitat. along the Melbourne to Sydney railway (Tarr
St Louis & Barlow () found that the ). In the second half of the following
introduced populations in the United States decade they became established in several new
were less variable genetically than the ances- localities in New South Wales and in some
tral German stock, presumably a result of the towns in northern Victoria.
founding event. The smaller body size of Pizzey () recorded Tree Sparrows as
North American P. montanus in comparison established from Melbourne and towns of
to German birds may be either a result of central and northeastern Victoria to southern
interspecific interactions or of flight habits, or New South Wales, northeastwards to Sydney,
a combination of both. It could also be a con- Newcastle and the Hunter River Valley.
sequence of the founder effect (E. F. J. Garcia In Victoria, they occurred as far west as
pers. comm. ). Significant disparity in bill Dimboola (km northwest of Melbourne)
morphology between North American and and in New South Wales km west of
German birds may reflect differences in diet Sydney. Summers-Smith () recorded
between the two populations. North Ameri- them as far north as Wellington in New South
can birds seem to be just as variable morpho- Wales. Chapman () reported the eradica-
logically as German ones, despite their lower tion in of a breeding colony of
genetic variation (St Louis & Barlow ). Tree Sparrows in Darwin in the Northern
Territory, which had probably been
A introduced accidentally from southeast Asia.
In between and Tree Sparrows (P. The Tree Sparrow in Australia has not been
m. saturatus), imported from China by G. W. as successful a colonist as the House Sparrow,
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 222
Naturalised Birds of the World
and its populations seldom approach those of Spanish Sparrow
the latter. The habitat preferences of the two Passer hispaniolensis
species vary sharply interspecifically from one
part of their range to another. The species’ Natural Range: SW Europe, N Africa, W Asia
range in Australia remains largely unchanged Minor and the Balkans; Levant, Cyprus
(Barrett et al. ). and E Turkey to S Kazakhstan, Xinjiang
and Afghanistan. Some winter in NE
Impact: Tree Sparrows in Australia are spread- Africa and SW Asia.
ing much more slowly than House Sparrows, Naturalised Range: Asia: Kuwait. Atlantic
and are probably suffering from interspecific Ocean: Cape Verde Is; ?Canary Is.
competition with their larger and more
aggressive congeners; in general, domesticus is K
closely associated with man, while montanus is A small colony of this species has bred
more usually found in suburban and rural annually at the Mohammed Al-Ajmi Farm at
areas. The interaction of both species with Abdali, and occasionally at other places, since
native birds is uncertain. before (Gregory ).
In suburban localities both species are
significant pests of horticultural crops: in C I
rural districts both compete for food with Spanish Sparrows arrived in the Canaries
domestic poultry and eat large quantities of (possibly as ship-borne stowaways) in the
growing and stored grain (Frith ). early nineteenth century. From to
they were restricted to Fuerteventura and
C I Lanzarote, from where they spread to Gran
In , Tree Sparrows were found to be Canaria before ; they arrived on Tenerife
breeding on Gran Canaria (Ivanov & Sum- between and – perhaps as a
mers-Smith ). These birds may have been deliberate introduction around (Lack &
natural immigrants from Iberia (E. F. J. Garcia Southern ). By the early twentieth
pers. comm. ) or perhaps arrived by century they were abundant in Santa Cruz
human agency (Trujillo Ramirez ). on La Palma, and by had spread to
Gomera (Cullen et al. ). They occur
C I today on all the islands except La Graciosa
Barrett et al. () refer to a record of this (Martí & del Moral ). Martí & del Moral
species on Christmas Island. imply natural colonisation of the
archipelago.
Mariana and Marshall Islands;
Federated States of Micronesia Impact: On some islands in the Canaries
Tree Sparrows, probably of the form saturatus Spanish Sparrows have driven the indigenous
(Summers-Smith ), introduced to the Rock Sparrow Petronia p. petronia from
Mariana Islands were reported by Ralph & settled areas. They are also a pest of growing
Sakai () to be common on Saipan and crops, but are regarded by the human inhabit-
Rota and uncommon on Guam. Pratt et al. ants as a culinary delicacy.
(: ) said they were ‘Introduced (proba-
bly [by the Japanese] in the s) to the C V I
Mariana Is. (common on Guam; uncommon Spanish Sparrows were first recorded in the
Saipan, Tinian, Rota) and Kwajalein (Mar- Cape Verde Islands (São Nicolau and São
shall Is.) … and after to Yap [Federated Thiago) in . By they had apparently
States of Micronesia]’. Clements () spread from here to Brava, Fogo, Boa Vista
records them as common but local in most and Maio (Fea –; Alexander ).
urban localities. They may have arrived naturally but possibly
by ship. They are now established on all the
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 223
Ploceidae (Weavers and allies)
inhabited islands except perhaps Santa Luzia and Costa et al. () believed that their
(Hazevoet ). principal limiting factor is the extent of culti-
vation of this crop; they point out, however,
that large-scale rice cultivation occurs in the
Ribatejo Valley to the north, where the species
could expand its range.
PLOCEIDAE Village Weavers are recorded by Vowles &
(WEAVERS AND ALLIES) Vowles () as breeding in the Arade River
valley in the Algarve in extreme southern
Village Weaver Portugal.
Ploceus cucullatus Costa et al. () and Langley () list
P. cucullatus as an uncommon but increasing
Natural Range: Africa S of about oN apart breeding species in Portugal.
from E Ethiopia, E Somalia, N Angola,
Namibia, W Botswana and W South W I
Africa. Exactly when Village Weavers of the
Naturalised Range: Europe: ?France; ?Ger- nominate subspecies were introduced to
many; ?Italy; ?Spain; Portugal. North Hispaniola is uncertain, but they may have
America: West Indies. South America: been imported as cage-birds by Spanish
?Venezuela. Atlantic Ocean: ?Canary Is.; slavers from West Africa at any time after .
?Cape Verde Is. Indian Ocean: Mascarene Is. According to the historian Moreau de Saint-
Méry (Description de la Partie Française de
F; G; S Saint-Dominique, –. Vol I: ; Vol II:
Breeding attempts by Village Weavers in
France have been recorded at Lake Saclay near
Paris by Le Maréchal () and elsewhere
(and in Germany) by Pezzo & Morellini
(), and also in Spain, where breeding has
occurred in the Llobregat delta, southwest of
Barcelona (J. Clavell in Martí & del Moral
, Guerrero et al. ), but the species’
establishment is unconfirmed (Lahti ).
I
Breeding by Village Weavers has been
attempted in Trentino in northern Italy (Frap-
porti ), and occurred in in Bonifaca
di Maccarese west of Rome (Biondi et al.
). Pezzo & Morellini () reported a
breeding attempt at Montepulciano Lake in
Sienna in central Italy, where they suggest the
species may be becoming established.
P
In three male Village Weavers were seen
in the Barroca Marsh east of Lisbon, where
breeding was strongly suspected (Leitão &
Costa ), and in the following year a small
colony of five nests was discovered; in this area
the species is currently confined to rice-fields, Village Weaver
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Naturalised Birds of the World
: quoted by Wetmore & Swales ), material (Fitzwater , Barré & Benito-
some had previously been imported from Espinal , Raffaele et al. ).
Senegal and elsewhere in West Africa to the
town of Cap Française in Haiti, where Fitzwa- V
ter () said a large colony had become In recent years Village Weavers have been
established in near Tron Caiman. found breeding near Lake Maracaibo, km
In a small population of Weavers was south of the Dominican Republic and
discovered at Cul-de-Sac in Haiti, and by ,km east southeast of Martinique (R. Re-
about the species had become a local stall pers. comm. to Lahti ). Whether
resident in various parts of Haiti, especially the species is established in Venezuela is
near Port d’Estere; a few years later a small unknown.
breeding colony was found north of Trouin
(Wetmore & Lincoln ). The species C I
remained at low densities and maintained its Singing males were recorded on Tenerife in
restricted distribution on Haiti (Lahti ) and but the species is probably not
until the early s, when the pop- established there (J. Clavell in Martí & del
ulation increased dramatically and the birds Moral ).
began to spread east into the Dominican
Republic. C V I
Although P. cucullatus has occurred on Bannerman & Bannerman () say that
Martinique in the Lesser Antilles since before Village Weavers of the nominate subspecies
, breeding was not confirmed until were introduced to Praia on São Thiago
(Pinchon & Benito-Espinal ), and a few before , but later apparently died out. A
years later the species was well established breeding attempt on São Vicente in by a
around Prêcheur (Barré & Benito-Espinal small number of birds (<) was recorded by
). Hazevoet (), but reproduction was not
Bond (: ) described the range of the confirmed.
Village Weaver as ’… in Haiti in particular
the Cul-de-Sac plain, including Port-au- M I
Prince. Has in recent years become In about Village Weavers from South
widespread in Hispaniola … and [on] Saona Africa (P. c. spilonotus) were released at Cap
Island’ off the southeast coast of the Domini- Malheureux on Mauritius, from where they
can Republic. Raffaele et al. (), who say dispersed rather slowly (Carié ). By
the species was introduced during the early the s they were found to be increasing
colonial era and was first recorded on Haiti in (Newton ), and they are now very widely
, say it is now widespread and common distributed below about m (Cheke ),
on Hispaniola and Saona Island. On Mar- especially in the lowlands, but do not
tinique, where the same authors say it was occur in forests, tree plantations or
introduced in the s, they recorded it as on most off-lying islets (Hawkins & Safford in
locally very common in the north of the prep.).
island. The AOU () adds Catalina Island Although not appearing in the literature
(near Saona) to the species’ range in before Guérin (–), some Village
the West Indies. Lahti () considered Weavers are known to have escaped from a
that the population on Hispaniola is cage on a vessel loading sugar cane at Bois
declining. Rouge on Réunion, a plantation owned by
Adrien Bellier (Albany , A. Barau pers.
Impact: The population explosion on Haiti comm. to Cheke ). This could only have
in the s resulted in massive depredations occurred during the brief period when there
of the rice crop of up to % and many was a jetty there around (A. Barau pers.
trees were killed by defoliation for nesting comm. to Cheke ). Staub () and Barré
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 225
Ploceidae (Weavers and allies)
& Barau () recorded them as common in Lesser Masked Weaver
lowland areas. Today they occur in the low- Ploceus intermedius
lands in coastal regions, inland savannas and
sugar cane plantations, locally ascending to Natural Range: Sub-Saharan Africa from S
higher elevations such as Plaine des Cafres, Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia to N Angola
but absent from forests and montane heath and Mozambique.
(Barré et al. , Hawkins & Safford in Naturalised Range: Asia: Japan; UAE.
prep.). See also Simberloff (), Moulton et
al. and Jones (). J
This species is listed by the OSJ () as a
Impact: By the s on Mauritius (Benedict resident breeder in Chiba, east of Tokyo, in
) and the early s on Réunion (Lahti central Honshu, where it frequents open
), Village Weavers had become a serious woodland, cultivated fields, and parks.
agricultural pest, especially of seed crops.
Barré & Barau () regarded the species as U A E
the worst avian pest on Mauritius. A breeding colony of around (in )
The disappearance from Mauritius shortly Lesser Masked Weavers has been established in
after of the Yellow-crowned or Cape Al Jazeerah Park, Sharjah, following a mass
Canary Serinus canicollis could have been due release in about (Richardson ). Jen-
at least in part to competition from Village nings () confirms breeding near Dubai.
Weavers (C. Jones ).
Peters () suggested that Village
Weavers of the nominate subspecies probably
occurred on São Tomé in the Gulf of Streaked Weaver
Guinea as a result of human intervention, and Ploceus manyar
Christy & Clarke () said that P.c.nigriceps
(Angola, Zambia, Namibia, Botswana and Natural Range: Pakistan to Thailand and S
Zimbabwe) had probably been introduced Vietnam. Also Sri Lanka, Java, Bali and
quite recently. Dickinson (), however, Bawean.
lists only one weaver, the endemic Giant Naturalised Range: Asia: Bahrain; ?Saudi
Weaver P. grandis on São Tomé. Arabia; ?UAE.
B
‘Present in small flocks all year round in a
Golden-backed Weaver reedbed at Janabiyah where they must breed’
Ploceus jacksoni (Hirschfeld & King : ).
Natural Range: SE Sudan, W and S Kenya, S A; U A
Uganda, and N and C Tanzania. E
Naturalised Range: Asia: UAE. Jennings () records breeding by this
species in Saudi Arabia (Riyadh) and in the
U A E United Arab Emirates (Dubai and Abu
This species was first recorded at Khalidiya Dhabi).
Spit in Abu Dhabi in about and in the
following year at Zabeel Fish Ponds, Dubai. It
has since bred annually at these two sites,
where the populations number up to pairs Red Fody
and around individuals respectively (Anon Foudia madagascariensis
, Jennings ).
Natural Range: Madagascar, and satellite
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Naturalised Birds of the World
islands of Nosy Be, Île Sainte Marie and By the s ‘red linnets’ were abundant
Juan de Nova. on St Helena, and flocks of over were
Naturalised Range: Asia: Bahrain. Atlantic frequently seen at a time when wheat was
Ocean: St Helena I. Indian Ocean: Agaléga being widely cultivated (Melliss ). The
Is; Chagos Archipelago; Comoros Is; ?Îles population had become markedly reduced by
Glorieuses; Mascarene Is; Seychelles Is. the early twentieth century, partly due to the
capture and sale of birds as pets (Rowlands et
B al. ). The numbers had recovered some-
Red Fodies, believed to be descended from what by the middle s (Van Bruggen ),
released cage-birds, have been recorded since and since the late s have gradually
around in Manama, Bahrain, where the increased (Rowlands et al. ). St Helena
population now numbers some pairs and the Chagos Archipelago are the only
(Anon , Jennings ). islands on which Red Fodies occur outside the
Malagasy region (Hawkins & Safford in
S H I prep.). See also McCulloch ().
The reference to a flock of ‘canaries’ from
Madagascar in by Gosse () may have Impact: Haydock () reported Red Fodies
referred to this species, as may another to ‘rose to be an agricultural pest on St Helena.
linnets’ in by Forbes (). Baker (),
however, says that the species had been intro- C A
duced not long after his visit. It is believed Red Fodies were first reported on Diego
that, as in the case of Geopelia striata, Red Garcia in (Finsch ), when they were
Fodies were imported to St Helena on French said to be abundant. Bourne () found
ships homeward bound from Mauritius them on Île du Coin and Perhos Banhos in
(Rowlands et al. ). , and Hutson () said they were well
established on Diego Garcia but scarce on
Perhos Banhos and Salomon, and that a few
occurred on Île Grande Barbe. Chagos (and St
Helena) are the only islands outside the Mala-
gasy region on which F. madagascariensis is
established (Hawkins & Safford in prep.).
C I
Red Fodies were first seen on Mohéli in
and Mayotte in (Milne-Edwards &
Oustalet ), from where they dispersed to
Grande Comore and Anjouan probably after
. Benson () believed that they could
have arrived as natural colonists from Mada-
gascar. Today they occur over most of all four
islands (but not above ,m on Anjouan)
apart from in closed forest, and on
satellite islets of Mohéli and Mayotte
(Hawkins & Safford in prep.). See also Sin-
clair & Langrand ().
Î G
Benson et al. () suggested that Red Fodies
may have arrived in the Îles Glorieuses as
Red Fody natural colonists from Madagascar rather than
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Ploceidae (Weavers and allies)
as an introduction, where Probst et al. () of native forest in the s, may be con-
and Hawkins & Safford (in prep.) record tributing to the decline of the endemic
them on Grande Glorieuse. Rodrigues Fody F. flavicans (Moreau ),
classified as Vulnerable by the World
M I Conservation Union.
According to de Querhoënt (; quoted by
Cheke ), Red Fodies were already abun- S I
dant on the island of Mauritius, where Red Fodies were introduced to Mahé around
Moreau () said they had been established or before (Newton ), although it has
from before , having presumably been been suggested that they may have colonised
imported as cage-birds on slaving vessels, per- the Seychelles naturally before (see
haps in the s (Cheke ). Simberloff Skerrett et al. ). From Mahé they spread
() and Moulton et al. () say that the naturally (or were introduced) to Praslin
date of introduction was . before (probably in ), Frégate before
Although it is possible that F. madagas- , Cousin between and the late s,
cariensis may have been introduced to and Cousine in (Crook ). Today,
Réunion as early as the s (Cheke ), Red Fodies are abundant and widespread,
the earliest reference to the species on especially in settled areas, on all but the small-
the island seems to be by Maillard (). est granitic islands, but less ubiquitous on
Simberloff () and Moulton et al. () coralline islands such as Bird, Denis, Platte,
say the species was introduced in . Rémire, D’Arros and St Joseph (Skerrett et al.
Red Fodies were first recorded on Ro- , Hawkins & Safford in prep.). It is said
drigues in (the date given for their arrival that they were originally released by a farmer
by Simberloff ) by Bertuchi (), where on the land of a disputatious neighbour as an
Cheke () believed they may have arrived act of retribution.
– years earlier (i.e. c.–), while Moreau () and Penny () say the
Moreau () and Showler () suggest an Red Fody has been introduced to, or has
introduction after . colonised naturally from other islands, most
Today, Red Fodies are widely distributed in of the cultivated Amirantes, where it was first
a variety of habitats (Jones ) on all three recorded on Desroches in , and the Far-
islands (on Réunion up to ,m) and on quhar Group. Prŷs-Jones et al. () observed
numerous offshore islets such as Flat Island, the release of – Red Fodies on Assump-
Mauritius (Hawkins & Safford in prep.). tion Island in , and Roberts () saw
According to Long (), this species may – there in . In , C. J. Feare (pers.
have been introduced to the Cargados Carajos comm. ) found this species on Cerf, Provi-
islands or have colonised them naturally from dence and St Pierre in the Providence Group.
Madagascar. Guého & Staub () recorded the
relatively recent introduction of F. madagas-
Impact: As early as the s de Querhoënt cariensis to the Agalégas, where it now occurs
() was referring to damage to crops caused on Île du Nord and Île du Sud (Cheke &
by F. madagascariensis on Mauritius. Lawley , Hawkins & Safford in prep.).
Carié () and Newton () could find
no evidence of competition between Red Impact: On some islands F. madagascariensis
Fodies and the endemic Mauritius Fody F. has largely displaced an earlier introduction,
rubra, classified as Critically Endangered by the Common Waxbill Estrilda astrild (Penny
the World Conservation Union. However, ). Crook (), however, considered that
Temple et al. () believed that there could competition with the rare Seychelles Fody F.
be some seasonal rivalry for food. sechellarum had played no part in the contrac-
On Rodrigues, competition from Red tion in range of this endemic species, since
Fodies, coupled with widespread destruction each occupies a separate ecological niche.
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Competition between Red Fodies and the also were observed in Rio Piedras, San Juan.
introduced Red-crested Cardinal Paroaria Moreno () believed the source of these
coronata has resulted in the elimination of the birds was Senegal (E. f. franciscanus).
latter species on the Agalégas (Guého & Staub Raffaele et al. (: ) say of this species
). that it was:
Introduced to Puerto Rico probably in
the s, it is uncommon locally from
Northern Red Bishop San Juan to Arecibo. The species is rare
(Orange Bishop) elsewhere in the lowlands. First recorded
on Martinique in , Orange Bishop
Euplectes franciscanus now breeds there and on Guadeloupe. It
(Formerly considered as conspecific with E. is uncommon and local on both islands,
orix, the Southern Red Bishop, but now though flocks of – birds are
regarded as a separate species: AOU , sometimes observed. The species was
Dickinson ). recently reported for the first time from
Jamaica and St Croix in the Virgin
Natural Range: From Senegal to Ethiopia, Islands. Introduction of this species in the
West Indies was likely the result of pet
Uganda, Somalia and NW Kenya.
birds escaping or being released.
Naturalised Range: Europe: ?Portugal. North
America: ?USA; West Indies.
Impact: Raffaele () said that on Puerto
P Rico E. franciscanus causes some damage to
Individuals of this species were seen by Leitão rice seedlings.
& Costa () in and at Barroca
Marsh and at Zambujal, Sado Estuary, and a
few are seen throughout the year at Barrinha
de Esmoriz, where Costa et al. () believed Yellow-crowned Bishop
that breeding had probably occurred. (Golden Bishop)
Euplectes afer
U S
Johnston & Garrett () say that this Natural Range: Senegal to Sudan, Ethiopia,
species is frequently seen in rank and weedy Uganda, and Kenya south to Tanzania,
areas of the Los Angeles basin in southern Zaire, Angola, Zambia, and South
California, and has been documented as Africa.
breeding along the Los Angeles River in Los Naturalised Range: Europe: ?Italy; Portugal;
Angeles County in (Garrett unpublished Spain. Asia: ?Japan. North America: West
data). Indies.
W I I
In Barré & Benito-Espinal () saw a Biondi et al. () recorded probable breed-
group of four males at Carère on the island of ing of this species in in Vasche di
Martinique, where they believed the species Maccarese on the coast west of Rome.
was established and spreading in the vicinity
of Duclos. Bon-Saint-Côme () reported a P; S
flock of about near Lareinty and several pairs In the early s Yellow-crowned Bishops
at Gaigneron. were found to be breeding at Barroca Marsh,
Raffaele & Kepler () say that this east of Lisbon (Leitão ), where the species
species (under the name E. orix) was first is now established and is expanding its
noted on Puerto Rico in , when six birds range in a habitat of rice-paddies with
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Estrildidae (Waxbills, Grass Finches, Munias and Allies)
ditches bordered by thick vegetation (Costa ESTRILDIDAE
et al. ). E. afer has also been recorded at (WAXBILLS, GRASS FINCHES,
Barrinha de Esmoriz (Jão Loureiro pers.
comm. to Costa et al. ); in the Mondego MUNIAS AND ALLIES)
Valley (C. Pachec pers. comm. to Costa et al.
); and in the Algarve in the Arade River Red-cheeked Cordon-bleu
valley, where breeding was reported by Vowles Uraeginthus bengalus
& Vowles () in the Vilamoura area
(Ministro et al. ), and in the rice-paddies Natural Range: Senegal to Ethiopia, Uganda
at Lagoa where it also probably breeds (Costa and Kenya, S through Tanzania to S Zaire
et al. ). and N Zambia.
According to Langley (), this species Naturalised Range: Atlantic Ocean: ?Canary
(probably an immigrant from Portugal) is Is. Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
becoming established in Spain. A population
of – pairs is established in the rice fields C I
and reedbeds of the lower Guadalquivir valley, This species is recorded frequently in
Sevilla, and probable breeding is reported Fuerteventura, where a pair bred successfully
from northern Huelva province and the Miño in (J. Clavell in Martí & del Moral
estuary in Pontevedra (Martí and del Moral ).
). Flocks of up to have been reported
from the island of Mallorca, where the H I
species has bred and may also be becoming In some Red-cheeked Cordon-bleus were
established. released or escaped on Oahu (Donaghho
), where between and were counted
J at Diamond Head in – (Pyle ).
Brazil () says that this species has bred in Zeillemaker & Scott () recorded them as
the wild in Chiba, Kanagawa and Hyogo rare and local in dry lowland areas on Oahu,
Prefectures; whether it is established is where Pyle () considered them to be
uncertain. apparently established and breeding. Subse-
quently, Red-cheeked Cordon-bleus were
W I released on the northern slopes of Hualalai on
Yellow-crowned Bishops (said by Moreno Hawaii (Berger (), where Scott et al.
() to be of the nominate subspecies, () found them in very low densities below
which occurs throughout much of sub-Saha- ,m on the Puu Waawa Ranch. Pratt et al.
ran Africa) were first observed on Puerto Rico, () said the species was established on Puu
in Cartagena Lagoon, in (Raffaele & Waawa and possibly in the Kapiolani Park
Kepler ). on Oahu. Pratt () and the AOU
Raffaele et al. (: ) say of this species () record Red-cheeked Cordon-bleus as
that it was: occurring in very small numbers locally only
in the Puanahulu area on Hawaii.
Recently introduced, it is uncommon and
very local on Puerto Rico in marshes
around San Juan, at Cartagena Lagoon
and east of Ponce and introduced to Blue-breasted Cordon-bleu
Jamaica at Caymanas Pond and near (Blue Waxbill)
Hellshire sewage ponds … It was first
reported from Puerto Rico in the s Uraeginthus angolensis
and from Jamaica in . Both introduc- Natural Range: Zaire, Angola, Zambia, Zim-
tions likely resulted from the escaping or
babwe, Botswana, Malawi, E and S Tanz-
release of caged pets.
ania; Transvaal and Natal, South Africa.
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 230
Naturalised Birds of the World
S
The earliest regular reports of the Orange-
cheeked Waxbill in Spain date from ,
when birds were observed at the mouth of the
River Mijares north of Valencia on the
Mediterranean coast. Since then the popula-
tion has increased, and it now breeds in citrus
orchards at Onda and in marshes at Almenara
in Castellón Province, where it lives in dense
riverine vegetation. A population of –
pairs is established in the lower Guadalquivir
valley, Sevilla, and breeding has also been
reported from Málaga province (Martí and
del Moral ).The population probably
originated in escaped or released cage-birds,
but seems to be increasing without further
outside reinforcement (Castany & López
, Langley ).
J
Red-cheeked Cordon Bleu The OSJ () says that this species occurs as
a resident breeder in clear-cut areas in forests
Naturalised Range: Atlantic Ocean: ?Principe and in grasslands around Tokyo, Honshu.
I.; ?São Tomé I. Africa: Zanzibar.
W I
P I.; S T I. Orange-cheeked Waxbills were first reported
Snow () and Peters () record the on Puerto Rico by Gundlach (), when
introduction in the first half of the twentieth they were uncommon and restricted to the
century of the nominate subspecies of U. western coast from Añasco to Cabo Rojo. The
angolensis (southwestern Zaire, northern birds are likely to have come as pets from
Angola and northwestern Zambia) to these Angola (where the subspecies is E. m.
Portuguese islands in the Gulf of Guinea, melpoda) on Puerto Rican slave ships between
where their present status is unknown. and . On arrival at the port of
Mayagüez some probably escaped or were re-
Zanzibar leased and became established (Moreno ).
Clement et al. () say that U. angolensis has As late as the s, however, the birds were
also been ‘introduced’ (translocated?) to confined to southwestern Puerto Rico (Dan-
Zanzibar. forth ). Further introductions in the s
and s reinforced the population, which in
the s spread throughout the island’s
coastal plain (Pérez-Rivera , Raffaele
Orange-cheeked Waxbill , Moreno ), Raffaele et al. ).
Estrilda melpoda There are also recent records from Guade-
loupe and Martinique (Raffaele et al. ).
Natural Range: From Gambia to Zaire, N An- See also AOU .
gola, NE Zambia, N Cameroon and Chad.
Naturalised Range: Europe: Spain. Asia: Japan. B
North America: West Indies. Atlantic Escaped or released Orange-cheeked Waxbills
Ocean: Bermuda. Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian were first observed in Bermuda, in marshes in
Is. Devonshire and Paget Parishes, in (AOU
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 231
Estrildidae (Waxbills, Grass Finches, Munias and Allies)
Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
H I
In about some Red-tailed Lavender Wax-
bills escaped from captivity or were released
on Oahu, where they became established in
the Kapiolani Park/Diamond Head area, and
by – had increased to between and
(Berger ).
Zeillemaker & Scott () described the
species as local and uncommon in dry low-
Orange-cheeked Waxbill land residential and community parkland on
Oahu, where Pyle () confirmed it was
). Breeding was confirmed in (AOU apparently established and breeding. Ashman
), and by the middle of the decade the & Pyle () reported that in the previous
birds had spread eastwards to Tucker’s Town year some were found to be established on a
and St George’s (D. B. Wingate pers. comm. small section of the Puu Waawa Ranch on
, ). Raine () lists the species as a Hawaii, where Scott et al. () found them
rare resident. only on the northern slopes of Hualalai, and
said they were uncommon below ,m in
H I dry woodlands and savannas. Pratt et al.
In late December Orange-cheeked () said the species was established in the
Waxbills (almost certainly escaped pets) were Puu Waawa area on Hawaii, and probably at
seen along the Na Laau trail on the Ewa Diamond Head on Oahu, but added that
slope of Diamond Head on Oahu. Between since it had been declining in that area.
and more than were observed Clement et al. () said it was unlikely to
annually, and the population appeared to be survive in the Hawaiian Islands, and Pratt
increasing (Blake , Pyle , Berger () listed it as surviving only on Hawaii,
). Zeillemaker & Scott () described where the AOU () said it was becoming
the species as local and uncommon in dry increasingly common on the Kona coast.
lowland residential and community parklands
on Oahu.
Pratt et al. () said the species was
generally rare and local on Hawaii (in the Puu Common Waxbill
Waawa area) and in scattered localities on Estrilda astrild
Oahu (Diamond Head, Kapiolani Park and
Kaneohe). Pratt (), who refers to other Natural Range: From Sierra Leone, Guinea,
introductions on Hawaii and Maui, listed the and Liberia eastwards to Sudan and
species as no longer occurring on Hawaii by Ethiopia and southwards to South Africa.
, while the AOU () says that Orange- Naturalised Range: Europe: ?Italy; Portugal;
cheeked Waxbills occur in small numbers only Spain. North America:? West Indies. South
on Oahu, with recent sight reports from Maui. America: Brazil. Atlantic Ocean: Ascension
I; Bermuda; Canary Is; Cape Verde Is;
?Principe I; São Tomé I; St Helena I. Indian
Ocean: Amsterdam I.; Juan de Nova I.;
Red-tailed Lavender Waxbill Mascarene Is; Seychelles Is. Pacific Ocean:
Estrilda caerulescens Hawaiian Is; ?New Caledonia; Society Is.
Natural Range: Senegal to Central African I
Republic. Biondi et al. () record the breeding of
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 232
Naturalised Birds of the World
Common Waxbills at Vassche di Maccarese colonies) or possibly, due to its links with Por-
west of Rome in , but whether the species tugal, Brazil (De Lope et al. ).
is established is unknown.
S
P Common Waxbills spread over the border
For the history of the Common Waxbill in from Portugal into Spain in (Guerrero et
Portugal I am mainly indebted to Reino & al. ). By they were distributed
Silva (a, b). mainly along the Guadiana River where they
In about birds, believed to be were first recorded breeding in Extremadura
descended from some that had escaped from in . First breeding was reported in
an aviary, were reported around Lagóa de Andalucía in , in Galicia (where they
Óbidos on the west coast of Portugal (Xavier have been recorded since at least : R.
), from where they later spread along the Costas pers. comm. to Reino & Silva a)
Tagus, Sado and Mondego valleys. Successful in and during the early s in both
breeding was first recorded in . Another Catalonia and Valencia. The two latter east
introduction appears to have occurred in the coast populations are thought to derive from
Algarve in southern Portugal before . subsequent introductions and not from those
After the species spread into many of Portuguese origin (Martí & del Moral
other parts of Portugal, and the valleys of the ). A small population has inhabited the
Tagus and Sado were fully occupied. There Albufera marshlands in Mallorca since .
was a corresponding expansion of range in The Spanish Atlas (Martí & del Moral
the Algarve. Central coastal Portugal was ) reveals an expanding population of the
almost continuously occupied, and the species order of , to , pairs. The largest
became locally established further north. numbers inhabit the valleys of the Guadiana
In the second half of the s Common and its tributaries in Extremadura, the Gali-
Waxbills were recorded for the first time in the cian coastlands and valleys, and the Costa del
Guadiana valley (Guerrero et al. ), and Sol and Guadalquivir valley in Andalucía.
had become nearly continuously established Smaller populations are reported from around
along the northwestern coast. Barcelona and Valencia. Breeding has been
In the early s, Estrilda astrild spread reported to date from provinces.
into Alentejo, with further records in the
valley of the Guadiana and on the southwest W I
coast, where its distribution was almost Blake () lists the Common Waxbill as an
continuous. In northwestern Portugal the introduction to Puerto Rico, probably after
coast had become fully occupied and there about . Although it is not mentioned by
were increasing records inland (Campinho et Raffaele et al. () the AOU () says it is
al. ). Since then the species has colonised established on the island. R. J. Safford (pers.
the Lima and Homem valleys in the Peneda- comm. ) lists the species as also
Gerês Mountains. It is now locally common introduced to the island of Trinidad.
along the entire coast from the Minho River
in the northwest south to the eastern Algarve, B
but in the east it is less continuously distrib- According to Mitchell () and Sick (),
uted. It is common and widespread in the Common Waxbills may have been first intro-
south (Costa et al. ), but is local and duced by slaving vessels early in the reign
scarce in the north, occurring principally (–) of Emperor Dom Pedro I. Sick
along the Minho, Lima, Cávado, Ave and () says they were definitely in Brazil
Douro valleys. before , and that they continued to
The source of the Portuguese population arrive on vessels from West Africa until at least
may have been Guinea-Bissau and/or the .
Cape Verde Islands (former Portuguese Sick () records that in about
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 233
Estrildidae (Waxbills, Grass Finches, Munias and Allies)
Common Waxbills were established in Lins de is still recorded on the island (Martí & del
Vasconcelos and that in they were not Moral ).
uncommon in Santa Teresa (Guanabara); they
now occur also on islands in Guanabara Bay, C V I
as well as in various localities in Rio de Janeiro Bannerman () says that in a ship
and in Niterói and Petrópolis. Sick () lists carrying a consignment of Common Waxbills
the following places and earliest known dates from Angola (where the form is E. a. jagoensis)
of arrival: Vitória, Espírito Santo (after ); to Europe was wrecked on the island of São
Salvador, Bahia (after ); Recife, Pernam- Vincente, where several hundred birds
buco and Manaus, Amazonas (); Brasília, escaped. A century later, Bannerman & Ban-
Federal District (); Campo Grande, Mato nerman () found them to be abundant on
Grosso and Minas Gerais (); Nova Lima São Vincente and Sãnto Antão, where some
(); Belo Horizonte (); Londrina, had been present in . They now survive
Paraná (); Florianópolis, Santa Caterina only on Santiago, where they are widespread
(–); Blumenau (–); Porto Alegre, and locally abundant in cultivated and
Rio Grande do Sul (before ); and irrigated fields and valleys (Hazevoet ).
Belém, Pará (). The species has also been
introduced to Ilha Trinidade. Impact: Bannerman & Bannerman ()
Clement et al. () say that today E. record damage caused by Common Waxbills
astrild occurs locally in seven main areas, to tomatoes in the Cape Verdes.
where Sick () records it only in the vicin-
ity of some cities. Within Brazil, it has been P I; S T I
widely transported by human agency. See also Common Waxbills are said to have been
Souza (). introduced by man to both São Tomé and
Principe in the Gulf of Guinea, where Peters
A I () says they occurred only on the former.
Common Waxbills were introduced to Although Bourne (, ) states that the
Ascension Island by British Royal Marines race present is jagoensis (western Angola and
guarding Napoleon Bonaparte in . Stone- the Cape Verde Islands), Dickinson ()
house () estimated the population at indicates the presence of an endemic form.
–. Their present status is unknown.
S H I
B The date of introduction of the Common
In (AOU ) Common Waxbills that Waxbill to St Helena is not recorded, but is
had been released or escaped from captivity believed by Rowlands et al. () to have
became established on St Luke’s farm in been during the governorship of J. Skottowe
Southampton Parish, where by the end of the (–). The earliest reference to the species
decade there was a population of about appears to be the presence of birds imported
–. A change in husbandry from grass to from South Africa by at least (Beatson
vegetables caused them to decline, and Raine ), when it was described by Barnes (:
() lists them as rare. ) as being ‘as numerous as sparrows in
England’.
C I Widespread trapping of birds for sale to
Perez () and Trujillo Ramirez () passing ships helped to control, and even
record the introduction of Common Waxbills reduce, the population (Melliss ), and by
to Gran Canaria in or before , where the s/s flocks numbered no more
large populations, probably descended from than – (Basilewsky ). By flocks
escaped cage-birds, are established. Birds were had increased to between and (Row-
also present in the s in Tenerife but are lands et al. ), but declined again in ,
not yet established there, although the species perhaps as a result of eating contaminated
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 234
Naturalised Birds of the World
grain (Loveridge ). By , however, ). Today, the species is widely distributed
flocks of or more were to be seen, when on Mauritius and Rodrigues, and on some
the species was the most abundant bird of the offlying islets (Bell et al. , Jones ,
arid zone; elsewhere it occurs principally in Hawkins & Safford in prep.), particularly in
grassland and on the fringes of flax planta- open woodland and cultivated areas at all
tions, but is virtually ubiquitous (Rowlands et elevations (Showler ). On Réunion it
al. ). The form present is the nominate occurs in non-forested localities (including
one (southern Botswana and much of South heathland) throughout the island up to
Africa: Haydock ). The species’ presence ,m (Barré et al. , Showler ). The
on St Helena is confirmed by McCulloch form occurring on Mauritius and Réunion is
(). probably the nominate one (R. J. Safford pers.
Lockwood et al. () noticed a tendency comm. ).
towards morphological overdispersion among
Common Waxbills (and other finches) on St Impact: According to Cheke (), the
Helena, and hypothesised that this pattern of introduced Red Avadavat Amandava aman-
overdispersion may be due to increased dava became rare on Mauritius after the
species richness in this group: out of arrival of E. astrild, presumably due to
passerine species introduced to St Helena are interspecific competition. In the late
finches. eighteenth century the Common Waxbill was
said to be an agricultural pest on Mauritius.
A I
Roux & Martinez () record the introduc- S I
tion of Common Waxbills from Réunion in As early as Common Waxbills were said
the Mascarenes to La Roche Godon Station to be very common on the island of Mahé, to
on Amsterdam in the Southern Indian which they may have been introduced as pets
Ocean, where by – the population had from Africa by the first settlers some years
increased to around –. In – E. previously (Newton ). They have since
astrild occurred over some ha in the north- been largely displaced by the arrival in of
east sector and had been reported up to .km another seed-eating exotic, the Red Fody
from the station and up to m above sea Foudia madagascariensis, coupled with a
level, and the population was said to be still decline in the cultivation of seed crops and by
increasing. the drainage of pastures for plantations
(Crook ). Common Waxbills are now
J N I locally common only in marshy grasslands
Bertrand () and Hawkins & Safford (in along the west coast of Mahé and on
prep.) say that E. astrild has been successfully the grassy plateau of La Digue (Hawkins
introduced to Juan de Nova off the west coast & Safford in prep.), but also occur on
of Madagascar. Alphonse in the Amirantes (Skerrett et al.
). In the late nineteenth century
M I they were also present on Desroches and
J. Desjardins (quoted by Oustalet ) perhaps elsewhere.
described a Common Waxbill on Mauritius, Another version of the species’ introduc-
where although Vinson () suggested it tion to the islands (quoted by Skerrett et
had been introduced in about , Staub al. ) is that it coincided with the
() believed the species was not introduced freedom granted to slaves in ; planters
until around . At an apparently un- subsequently found it hard to recruit labour
recorded date, claimed to be by because former slaves were growing their own
Simberloff () and Moulton et al. (), rice on La Digue, and one former slave owner
E. astrild was introduced to Réunion, and deliberately introduced the birds there to
perhaps in about to Rodrigues (Newton destroy the rice.
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Estrildidae (Waxbills, Grass Finches, Munias and Allies)
H I on Oahu, Hawaii. Although both islands are
In , Ord () identified between and similar in size, distance from the equator,
Common Waxbills on Oahu, where Pratt and number of introduced passeriformes, a
() gives the date of arrival as before marked disparity was found in rates of intro-
and Shehata et al. () as in the early s. duction success – % for Oahu and only
Pratt et al. () said that E. astrild was % for Tahiti. Possible explanations for this
locally common in the Pearl Harbor and disparity include unfavourable environmental
Kahuku area and appeared to be spreading. conditions, differences in the timing of the
The species’ presence on Oahu is confirmed introductions, differences in the taxonomic
by the AOU (). diversity between the various introduced
For research by Lockwood et al. () on species, and differences in habitat diversity
ecomorphological analysis see below under between Tahiti and Oahu. In spite of different
Society Islands. rates of introduction success, Lockwood et al.
() found the same pattern of morphologi-
Impact: In their study area in the Lyon cal overdispersion on both islands. This
Arboretum in Honolulu, Shehata et al. () pattern is consistent with the hypothesis that
found only a .% prevalence of malarial interspecific competition has influenced the
infection among Common Waxbills. assembly of these communities.
N C
Mayr () records the introduction of E.
astrild to New Caledonia, where Delacour Black-rumped Waxbill
() found large numbers in gardens and on Estrilda troglodytes
cultivated land. The species’ survival was con-
firmed by Holyoak & Thibault (), but its Natural Range: From Senegal to W Ethiopia,
present status has not been determined. Uganda and W Kenya.
Naturalised Range: Europe: ?Gibraltar; ?Portu-
S I gal; Spain. Asia: Japan. North America:
Common Waxbills were introduced to Tahiti West Indies. Atlantic Ocean: Canary Is.
between and (Guild ). They Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
became common in coastal localities, espe-
cially around Pamatai and Punaauia, but less G
common in inland valleys (Holyoak ), Small parties of Black-rumped Waxbills were
where they have been partially displaced by recorded almost annually in Gibraltar from
the also introduced Red-browed Finch to (Cortes et al. , E. F. J. Garcia
Neochmia temporalis. More were released on pers. comm. ) but there have been only
Tahiti by Eastham Guild in (Guild ). two records of single birds subsequently. The
Pratt et al. () record Common Waxbills birds are believed to have been wanderers
as common on Tahiti, where the AOU () from Spain.
confirms their survival. They may also occur
in coastal Moorea. P
Common Waxbills in the Society Islands Black-rumped Waxbills have been reported at
live in unwooded and grassy habitats, gardens, Ponte de Lima, in the Coimbra area, and in a
thick vegetation in plantations, thickets and number of places in the Algarve, where Costa
the ecotone of coastal coconut groves; in the et al. () consider that hybridisation may
hills they occur up to m (Holyoak ). occur with the also introduced Common
Lockwood et al. () carried out an Waxbill E. astrild.
ecomorphological analysis of the introduced
passeriformes on Tahiti and tested for S
community patterns reported for congeners Breeding birds have been widely reported
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Naturalised Birds of the World
from Andalucía, especially since , from out-competing the less aggressive and less
Málaga and Córdoba provinces and especially prolific native Black-faced Grassquit Tiaris
in Sevilla province, where several hundred bicolor (Barré & Benito-Espinal ).
pairs occur along the Guadalquivir valley
(Martí & del Moral ). There is also a C I
population, estimated at some pairs, in A population is becoming established in Ten-
coastal Catalonia. erife and the species is also breeds on Gran
Canaria (De la Puente & Lorenzo ).
J
The OSJ () lists this species a breeding H I
resident along rivers and in marshes around Black-rumped Waxbills were released or
Tokyo on Honshu. escaped on Oahu around . They became
established and slowly increased in the
W I Kapiolani Park–Diamond Head region
Raffaele & Kepler () noted the Black- (Berger ). Zeillemaker & Scott ()
rumped Waxbill in Rio Piedras and Carolina recorded them as local and uncommon in dry
on Puerto Rico in . Raffaele et al. (: lowland residential and community parkland,
) say that ‘This is a widespread, but where Pyle () listed them as apparently
uncommon exotic on Puerto Rico. An established and breeding.
escapee, probably in the s, it occurs Pratt et al. (: ) say that the above
spottily along the entire coastal plain’. The population has since died out, and that ‘All
AOU () and Hinze () confirm the birds of this species reported elsewhere on
species’ presence on the island. Oahu have … turned out to be misidentified
Barré & Benito-Espinal () reported Common Waxbills. A report of … nine
that Black-rumped Waxbills had been Black-rumped Waxbills in N. Kohala,
established since at least the late s on Hawaii, may also be erroneous; neither
Basse-Terre and Grande-Terre, Guadeloupe. species has been reported on Hawaii since’.
On both islands they exist sympatrically with Nevertheless, Pratt () lists E. troglodytes as
the also introduced Red Avadavat Amandava still present on Hawaii, while the AOU ()
amandava; the greater abundance of says it survives in small numbers on both
troglodytes compared to amandava on Hawaii and Oahu.
Basse-Terre and vice versa on Grande-Terre
may be a result of interspecific competition
and/or the more recent arrival of troglodytes on
Grande-Terre from Basse-Terre. Raffaele et Red Avadavat
al. (: ) say that the Black-rumped Amandava amandava
Waxbill was ‘First observed on Guadeloupe in
, it is now locally common and has been Natural Range: Pakistan, India, S Nepal,
found breeding’. Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, S Vietnam,
According to Raffaele et al. (: ), Java, Bali, C Lesser Sunda Is. and S Yunnan.
E. troglodytes ‘… was recently introduced on Naturalised Range: Europe: Italy; Portugal;
Martinique where it is presumably uncom- Spain. Asia: Bahrain; China (Hong Kong);
mon and local. There are recent records from ?Israel; Japan; ?Philippines; Saudi Arabia;
St Thomas and the Virgin Islands …’. Singapore; Sumatra; UAE. Africa: Egypt.
Moreno () believed that the origin of North America: West Indies. Atlantic
the Puerto Rico (and presumably other West Ocean: ?Canary Is. Indian Ocean: Masca-
Indian) populations was Senegal or Mali. rene Is. Pacific Ocean: Fiji Is; Hawaiian Is.
Impact: On Guadeloupe, Black-rumped Wax- I
bills (and other alien Estrildidae) may be Since , Red Avadavats have become
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Estrildidae (Waxbills, Grass Finches, Munias and Allies)
established in a number of discrete sub- are also records, including at least occasional
populations in Italy (see map in Baccetti et al. nesting, from Toledo and the east coast.
: ), including Treviso (Mezzavilla & Habitats occupied include wetlands where
Battistella ), the valley of the Laguna di reed Phragmites sp. and reedmace Typha sp.
Venezia (Baccetti et al. ), central Tuscany predominate, meadowland, irrigated crops,
(Massaciuccoli, Lucca, Fucecchio, Pistola and and rush Juncus sp. and sedge Carex sp.
elsewhere) (Sposimo & Tellini ), Lazio (Cramp et al. –, De Lope ). The
and Molise, Laghi Pontini (Norante ), Spanish Atlas (Martí & del Moral )
Puhlio (Siponto, Foggia) (Baccetti ), suggested a minimum population of
Sicily (Palermo) (Gatto ) and Marche pairs, with indications of a considerable
(Geronzi ). Between and breeding recent decline in the core population in
pairs out of a population of individuals Extremadura, which may be attributable
occur along the River Sile near Treviso (Cramp to destruction of riverside habitats. Other
et al. –, De Lope ). See also Biondi Spanish populations seem to be increasing
et al. . and spreading and it is probable that several
thousand individuals are present in Spain.
P
Although not mentioned by Cramp et al. Impact: According to De Lope (), none
(–) or De Lope (), Red Avadavats of the Iberian populations of A. amandava
seem to have become established in two areas appear to compete with native species that
of Portugal – in the Eastern Alentejo, along might inhibit further dispersal.
the Guadiana River in the Elvas/Campo
Major region close to the Spanish border B
(Costa et al. ), near where the species was ‘First observed in . This species has been
first observed in Iberia (Equipos del CMCC present since in a reed bed at Janabiyah,
), and at the Barroca Marsh east of where they almost certainly breed. … small
Lisbon (Leitão & Costa ). The species has groups have been seen in sorghum fields at
also been recorded at Barrinha de Esmoriz Muharraq and Bahrain island’ (Hirschfeld &
(Jão Loureiro pers. comm. to Costa et al. King ). Jennings () records breeding
), the Sado valley, Baixo Alentejo (Costa in Manama.
et al. ) and in the Algarve where it is
regularly recorded around Faro, Silves and C (H K)
Portimão (Vowles & Vowles ). Costa et Webster () reported that flocks of up to
al. () believed that the maximum number Red Avadavats were regularly seen on the Mai
of birds at Barroca Marsh was – in Po marshes and at Long Valley, where breed-
and at least in the Elvas area in . At ing was suspected. They could, however, be
Barrinha de Esmoriz the species occurs in
small numbers only in winter (Jão Loureiro
pers. comm. to Costa et al. ).
S
Red Avadavats were first recorded in Spain, in
Arganda near Madrid, in (Equipos del
CMCC , De Lope ). Since the
main centre of the Spanish population has
been Extremadura, along km of the Tajo
and Guadiana rivers (De Lope ). Other
populations occur in Andalucía, especially
along the Guadalquivir river in Sevilla
province and along the Costa del Sol. There Red Avadavet
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Naturalised Birds of the World
natural immigrants from the Chinese main- fledglings seen. … heard singing at Ramah in
land. See also Viney et al. . , and … at Zabeel, Dubai, in ’
(Richardson ), where its presence is
I confirmed by Jennings ().
According to Clement et al. (), Red Ava-
davats have been introduced to Eilat in south- E
ern Israel; their current status there is unknown. Although Red Avadavats were established in
the delta region between and at least
J they eventually died out. Safriel ()
Red Avadavats that had escaped from captiv- reported their reappearance southwest of
ity became established in the wild in the Ismâ’ilı̃ ya on the Suez Canal. Clement et al.
Gihu, Aiti, Tokyo, Saitama and Tiba prefec- () say they occur in the northern Nile
tures on Honshu in the s (Kaburaki valley and the Nile delta.
), from where they spread to Kyushu and
Shikoku. According to Brazil () the prin- W I
cipal sites were at Oi-koen and Tamagawa Raffaele & Kepler () first reported Red
near Tokyo, and south of Kanto, where flocks Avadavats in San Juan and Dorado, Puerto
up to strong were reported. Today they Rico, in , where Raffaele et al. () say
are widespread in Honshu (mainly Tokyo, they were probably introduced in the
Osaka and Hyogo: OSJ ) and Kyushu, late s and where the species is locally
principally in reedbeds, marshes, estuaries and common in the lowlands. According to
along rivers. Breeding has been recorded from Moreno (), the race occurring on Puerto
Yamagata-ken south to Kagoshima-ken, and Rico is the nominate one from Pakistan, India
Shikoku and Okinawa (Brazil ). and Nepal.
Introduced to, and recorded for the
P first time on Guadeloupe (Pointe-à-Pitre,
Delacour & Mayr () and Du Pont () Grande Terre) in and on Martinique
say that escaped Red Avadavats became (Baie de Fort-de-France) in , Red Avada-
established around Manila, on Luzon. Their vats soon became established on the latter
present status is uncertain. from Le Lamentin southwards to Rivière-
Salée and the Usine Petit Bourg. On
S A Guadeloupe they have colonised most of
Clement et al. () say that A. amandava has Grande Terre and much of Basse Terre, and
also been introduced to Riyadh in Saudi are now common on both Guadeloupe and
Arabia, where its presence is confirmed by Martinique (Pinchon & Benito-Espinal ,
Jennings (). Barré & Benito-Espinal , Raffaele et al.
).
S According to Raffaele et al. (), a flock of
The AOU () lists A. amandava as Red Avadavats was observed in the Dominican
introduced to and established in Singapore. Republic in .
S Impact: On Guadeloupe, Red Avadavats
Delacour () says that Red Avadavats have may compete advantageously with the less
been introduced to Sumatra; according to aggressive and less prolific native Black-faced
Peters () the form is A. a. punicea which Grassquit Tiaris bicolor. (See also under
occurs on Java, so a natural arrival must be a Black-rumped Waxbill).
possibility.
C I
U A E Although Red Avadavats have been recorded
‘Reported nesting in Sharjah in , with as breeding in Tenerife (Martín & Lorenzo
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 239
Estrildidae (Waxbills, Grass Finches, Munias and Allies)
) the species has yet to become estab- Pearl Harbor area, Oahu; occasionally seen on
lished there. the windward side. Reported in North
Kohala District, Hawaii, and in on
M I Kauai, but not known to be established as yet
Red Avadavats were first recorded on Mauri- on those islands’. Pratt () lists the species
tius in the middle of the eighteenth century, as also occurring on Maui. The AOU ()
but had died out by around (Cheke says that Red Avadavats have now become
). Although there appear to be no established on both Hawaii and Kauai.
documented introductions of A. amandava to
Réunion (Cheke ), Simberloff () and
Moulton et al. () quote Barré & Barau
() as claiming that the introduction Red-browed Finch
occurred in . The species is still found on Neochmia temporalis
Réunion, but is not common (Cheke ,
Moulton & Sanderson , R. J. Safford Natural Range: E to SC Australia (including
pers. comm. ). the Cape York Peninsula) and Kangaroo I.
Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Marquesas
F I Is; Society Is.
Red Avadavats are believed to have been
introduced to Fiji before , where they M I; S
became established in Suva on Viti Levu. I
Pernetta & Watling () recorded them as Table gives details of the introduction
common in suitable habitats on the main of Red-browed Finches of the nominate
islands. Watling (: ) found the species subspecies (Australia apart from the Cape York
to be ‘… naturalised on Viti Levu and Vanua Peninsula) to the Marquesas and Society
Levu [where] it is common. … The subspecies Islands. Pratt et al. () recorded the species
is probably A. a. flavidiventris [Yunnan, as common on Tahiti, Moorea, Nukuhiva,
Burma, Thailand, and the Lesser Sunda Is- Uakuka and possibly Hivao.
lands]’. Pratt et al. (: ) say it is ‘common Red-browed Finches in the Society Islands
to abundant on Viti Levu and Vanua Levu’. and Marquesas frequent lawns, thickets, and
shrubs – especially in groves of Casuarina
Impact: Although Mercer () said that Red trees – and woodland borders. On Nukuhiva
Avadavats in Fiji cause damage to rice they are found up to m and to m on
seedlings, Watling () found that although
Jungle Rice Echinochloa colenum is eaten,
cultivated varieties were seldom consumed.
H I
It is believed that Red Avadavats were
imported to Oahu as pets in the first decade of
the twentieth century. Escaped birds became
established near Pearl Harbor, where Caum
() reported them as uncommon. Thirty
years later Ord () estimated the popula-
tion at around . The Hawaiian Audubon
Society () recorded a small population on
the Waipio Peninsula in Pearl Harbor. Berger
(: ) said the species ‘has now begun to
increase its range on Oahu’. Pratt et al. (:
) say it was ‘common but very local in the Red-browed Finch
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 240
Naturalised Birds of the World
Introductions of the Red-browed Finch Neochmia temporalis to the Marquesas and
Society Islands, before –.
Island Date of Introduction Status
Tahiti Before Very common in early s
Moorea First seen Widespread and abundant in s
Mohotani First seen —
Nukuhiva First seen Said to be common in
Uahuka Seen near Hane in – —
Uapou ? Present in small numbers in –
Hivaoa To Atuona in Common in –
Tahuata Apparently not recorded until ?
Source: Holyoak & Thibault ().
Tahiti. Although in the Marquesas they are common with increased elevation and is rare
mainly confined to the coast, on Tahiti they over m’. The AOU (: ) records the
are more often found up to six kilometres species as ‘common in coastal lowlands, but
inland. rare in hill country’ on Puerto Rico. Moreno
() assigned Puerto Rico birds to the
nominate subspecies.
Bronze Mannikin Impact: On Puerto Rico, Bronze Mannikins
Lonchura cucullata are said by Gundlach () and Raffaele
() to cause significant damage in rice
Natural Range: From Senegal to Ethiopia, S to paddies.
E Angola and E South Africa.
Naturalised Range: North America: West Indies. Vagrants: Bronze Mannikins on Anjouan,
Mayotte, Grande Comore, and Mohéli in the
W I Comoros Islands (Benson ), and on
Bronze Mannikins may have been imported, Fernando Póo in the Gulf of Guinea
probably as cage-birds, from West Africa to (Fry ), are likely to be natural immigrants
Puerto Rico on Spanish slave-ships at any time from east and west Africa respectively rather
between (or even earlier) and (Cory than introductions by man.
). They were reported to be widespread
and abundant throughout coastal Puerto Rico
in (Gundlach ), and were said
by Bowdish () to be locally common Indian Silverbill
elsewhere. By the late s they were com- (White-throated Munia)
mon in the coastal lowlands, especially in the Lonchura malabarica
southwest around Cabo Rojo, where flocks
numbering several hundred were recorded Natural Range: C and NE Saudi Arabia, N
(Wetmore ). Bond () said they were Oman and SE Iran to India and Sri Lanka.
particularly common in San Juan, and had Naturalised Range: Europe: France. Asia:
spread to Vieques Island. Raffaele et al. (: Bahrain. North America: West Indies.
) said that the Bronze Mannikin is ‘A Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
common resident on Puerto Rico, probably
introduced during the early colonial era. A There has been some confusion over the
small flock was reported in the late s from correct identity of this species. Several
St Croix in the Virgin Islands. It is less authors, e.g. Scott et al. (), Lever (),
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Estrildidae (Waxbills, Grass Finches, Munias and Allies)
Pratt et al. (), Raffaele et al. () and the during . This species later was found at
AOU (), say that its natural range Pohakuloa; flocks totalling ‘hundreds of birds’
includes Africa. It is, however, the African were seen in North Kohala (Mahukona) and
Silverbill L. cantans that occurs in both Africa South Kohala (Waikoloa) during . …
and Asia. Moreno () points out that L. During , some Silverbills were found
malabarica is distinct from L. cantans. … below Ulupalakua, Maui [Walters ]
… and several were seen on Lanai [Hirai ]
F during ’. The species was subsequently
Langley () records the establishment of reported from Kahoolawe (Conant ),
this species in the Var estuary at St Laurent Oahu (Conant ), Molokai (), Molo-
near Nice, where the species has been present kini (), Oahu () and Kauai ().
since . He saw a flock of outside Nice Pratt et al. (: ) said that Indian
airport, and estimated the total population at Silverbills from Hawaii had ‘spread to
over . Kahoolawe, Lanai, Maui (Makena area),
Molokai, Oahu (dry se end), and Kauai
B (Poipu). Abundant in N and S Kohala and N
‘Apparently first recorded in and a nest Kona districts, Hawaii. Recent arrival on n.
was found at Jurdab in February . It now islands, status unknown’. Pratt () lists the
seems to be well-established in semi-desert species as occurring on all the main islands.
areas in northwestern Bahrain, notably around The AOU () says it is established on
Hamad Town where parties of juveniles have Hawaii, Maui, Lanai and Molokai, with sight
been seen. It is a common cagebird imported reports from Kauai, Oahu and Kahoolawe.
from the Indian subcontinent. … There
seems to be a westward colonisation of Indian
Silverbills through central Arabia which
might also be a result of wild birds spreading. Scaly-breasted Munia
The species has even been recorded in Israel in Lonchura punctulata
recent years’ (Hirschfield & King : ).
Indian Silverbills that appeared in the s Natural Range: N Pakistan, India, Nepal, Sri
and established a small population between Lanka, Bhutan, Assam, Bangladesh,
Elat and the Sea of Galilee in southern Israel Burma, Thailand, S China, Taiwan,
(Mendelssohn ) are likely to be natural Hainan, Indochina, Philippines, S Malay
immigrants from Saudi Arabia. Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lesser
Sunda Is, W Kalimantan, Sulawesi.
W I Naturalised Range: Asia: Japan; ?Saudi Arabia;
‘Introduced to Puerto Rico, probably in the Singapore; ?UAE. North America: West In-
s, it is common in metropolitan San dies. Australasia: Australia. Indian Ocean:
Juan, occurring locally west to Dorado. It is Mascarene Is. Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is;
abundant on the southwestern coast. There Federated States of Micronesia (Republic
are recent records from the Virgin Islands (St of Palau).
Croix)’ (Raffaele et al. (: ). The species
was first recorded on Puerto Rico in by J
Raffaele & Kepler (). Scaly-breasted Munias – probably escaped or
released pets – were first recorded on Okinawa
H I in the Ryukyu Islands in the early s,
In , Indian Silverbills were imported though nesting was not reported until .
as cage birds to the island of Hawaii, where The species is now a well-established breeding
they were first observed in the wild in bird at more than localities (Brazil ,
(Berger b). Berger (: –) ‘found ). The OSJ () lists the race as topela
a large population on … Kohala Mountain (southeastern Burma to Hainan).
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Naturalised Birds of the World
S A; U A Impact: On Guadeloupe, Puerto Rico and in
E the Dominican Republic, Scaly-breasted
Jennings () lists breeding by this species Munias are a pest of sorghum and rice crops;
in Dubai and Abu Dhabi (UAE) and in on Guadeloupe, experimental rice cultivation
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. has in some places suffered over % depre-
dation, and it seems likely that widespread
S damage could be caused to cereal crops (Barré
Although Ward () considered that Scaly- & Benito-Espinal ).
breasted Munias, which are abundant in Competition with Scaly-breasted Munias
gardens in Singapore, are descended from (and other introduced Estrildidae) may be
escaped or released pets, they could equally having a negative impact on the less-prolific
well be natural colonists from the southern and less-aggressive native Black-faced
Malay Peninsula. Grassquit Tiaris bicolor on Guadeloupe.
W I A
According to Raffaele et al. (: ), Scaly- Scaly-breasted Munias first appeared in Aus-
breasted Munias have been: tralia along the banks of the Brisbane River in
southern Queensland in , having possibly
Introduced to Cuba, Jamaica, the Domi-
escaped or been released from captivity
nican Republic, Puerto Rico and Guade-
around (Tarr ). From Brisbane they
loupe. Introduced to Puerto Rico in the
spread km northwest to Esk by –,
s [where first recorded in by
Raffaele & Kepler ()], it is common km north to Noosaville by , and sub-
from Ceiba to Vega Baja and occurs less sequently km south through Eucalyptus
frequently throughout the island, though forests to the cane fields and swampy grass-
primarily in the lowlands. First recorded lands of the Tweed, Richmond and Clarence
in the Dominican Republic in and Rivers of northern New South Wales.
from St Croix, Virgin Islands, in the In and , Scaly-breasted Munias
s, these were likely both range expan- that had escaped from aviaries became
sions from Puerto Rico. Its present status established around Townsville, Ingham and
in the Virgin Islands is unknown, while in Rockhampton in northern and central
the Dominican Republic, it is locally Queensland. In the latter year they appeared
common. The species was first observed in Innisfail and Mackay, and by had
[on Basse Terre] on Guadeloupe in spread km north to Cairns and Cook-
[Barré & Benito-Espinal ()] where it town. They first appeared in Atherton in
now breeds and is locally common. Nut- , and were said to be one of the most
meg Mannikin [=Scaly-breasted Munia] common birds in the coastal towns of northern
is decidedly uncommon and local on Queensland (Lavery & Hopkins ).
Cuba in the vicinity of Guantánamo Scaly-breasted Munias were first observed
where it is known to breed. Flocks of up in Sydney, New South Wales, in . Frith
to birds were recently reported on Ja- () found them to be fairly common
maica where the bird’s range is expanding
locally but said they had not yet penetrated
and includes Rio Cobre, St Catherine,
the inhospitable sandstone scrub and Eucalyp-
Windsor and the west end [of the island].
tus forests to the north, leading to the
The species is uncommon and local on
Martinique where it was first recorded apparently suitable habitats of the Hunter and
around . other rivers. They were first recorded inland at
Mudgee by Kurtz (), who also reported
Moreno () identified the birds on them to be well dispersed on the Cumberland
Puerto Rico (and presumably on other Plain, and as present in several localities in
islands) as the nominate subspecies (Pakistan, northern, central and southern coastal regions.
India, Nepal and Sri Lanka). In South Australia, Watmough () found
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Estrildidae (Waxbills, Grass Finches, Munias and Allies)
small groups of birds at Felixstow and Paradise Barau (), and Moulton et al. () claim
in and respectively. the date was . On Réunion, the species
Scaly-breasted Munias in Australia in- occurs mostly in coastal regions and in
creased and spread rapidly, in some places suitable bush or grassland habitats inland
becoming very abundant. Slater () (Hawkins & Safford in prep.).
described their range as stretching from Scaly-breasted Munias on Mauritius (and
Sydney to Cooktown in northern Queens- presumably on Réunion) show characteristics
land; Pizzey () said they were then locally of L. p. nisoria, subundulata, or fretensis (R. J.
common and in some places abundant Safford pers. comm. ). See also Sinclair
coastally from Moruya, km south of & Langrand ().
Sydney in southern New South Wales,
,km northwards to Cooktown, and H I
km inland from Brisbane. Clement et al. Scaly-breasted Munias of the form topela
(: ) say they are ‘now well established (Burma, Thailand, China, Taiwan, Hainan
and occur almost continuously along east and Indonesia) were imported to the island of
coast from Sydney to Cooktown …’. Hawaii in (Caum ). According to
The form established in Australia was Berger (: ):
identified by Peters () as L. p. topela
(Burma, Thailand, China, Taiwan, Hainan The species seems to be highly erratic, in-
and Indochina). dicated by its seasonal and annual distri-
bution: it is present in large numbers in
Impact: The Scaly-breasted Munia’s establish- certain areas during one year and scarce or
ment in Australia has sometimes been even absent in others. … I have found [it]
assumed to have been at the expense of the from sea level to at least , feet
native Chestnut-breasted Mannikin L. casta- [,m] and in dry regions where the
neothorax and other indigenous Estrildidae rainfall averages inches [cm] or less
(Pizzey ). However, Frith () points annually … [and] in extremely wet areas.
out that to some extent the various species
occupy different habitats. He attributes the See also Richardson & Bowles () and
alien’s success to an exploitation of a wider Scott et al. ().
range of habitats that include both urban and Today, Ricebirds (as the species is some-
rural localities; a more catholic diet; and a times known in the islands) are common and
year-round breeding season that includes widespread in a broad range of habitats,
multiple broods and larger clutches of eggs. including residential areas, agricultural land
and pastures, forest and woodland borders,
M I lowlands and thick bush, in both wet and dry
The Scaly-breasted Munia was first certainly localities from sea level to ,m, on all the
recorded on Mauritius by J. Desjardins in main islands, where it is the most abundant
(Oustalet ), although as Cheke and widely distributed finch (Pratt et al. ,
() points out de Querhöent () refers AOU ).
to the presence of a bird that could have been
this species. Today, L. punctulata occurs Impact: Caum () and Munro ()
throughout the island, including fragmented reported Scaly-breasted Munias as serious
forest and off-lying islets (Jones ; pests in rice paddies and in sorghum fields in
Hawkins & Safford in prep.). Hawaii. Since these crops have been replaced
On Réunion, Scaly-breasted Munias were by sugar cane and pineapples, Berger ()
well established when listed by Maillard was able to say they were no longer an agricul-
(). Although the date of introduction is tural nuisance. They are, however, among
unknown (Cheke ; Hawkins & Safford in those species that are known to spread intro-
prep.), Simberloff (), quoting Barré & duced grasses, herbs and shrubs (Stone ).
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Federated States of Micronesia P
(Republic of Palau) Vowles & Vowles () have recorded this
Ralph & Sakai () reported L. punctulata species as breeding in the Arade River valley in
to have become established and common on the western Algarve, and João Loureiro (pers.
Yap Island, and Marshall () found the comm. to Costa et al. ) reported probable
species on Babelthuap Island, where he breeding at Barrinha de Esmoriz. Black-
believed it had been recently introduced. headed Munias also occur at Barroca Marsh,
Although Pratt et al. (: ) recorded it as east of Lisbon (Leitão & Costa ).
‘formerly present at Palau (Koror): last seen in
s’, a decade later Ripley () saw a flock S
on that island. Peters () identified the Breeding birds were reported in in
subspecies as cabanisi, which is endemic to the Girona and in in Barcelona (J. Clavell in
Philippines, so a natural arrival on Palau can- Martí & del Moral ).
not be discounted. See also Clements ().
J
Kaburaki (, ) said that Black-headed
Munias of the race atricapilla (India to
Javan Munia Yunnan) were introduced to Japan ‘before the
Lonchura leucogastroides Restoration’ (i.e. prior to ), and that they
were established in the vicinity of Tokyo until
Natural Range: S Sumatra, Java, Bali, and at least the late s. The OSJ () recorded
Lombok. breeding on Honshu northwest of Osaka, at
Naturalised Range: Asia: Singapore; ?Sumatra. Niigata and Tokyo. M. A. Brazil (pers. comm.
) believed they had also been breeding
S since on Okinawa in the Ryukyu Islands,
C. J. Hails (pers. comm. ) said that this where flocks of up to birds now occur in
species is the most abundant munia on Singa- several localities. The species is also well estab-
pore Island, where it was apparently first intro- lished in Honshu, and has been recorded
duced in and is now widely distributed, north to Niigata-ken; it has also probably
mainly in wooded gardens, scrubland, wood- bred on Kyushu (Brazil , , Clement
land clearings and along the banks of reservoirs. et al. ). The OSJ () claims it is
monotypic (but see Dickinson ).
S
Clement et al. () suggest that this species M I
may have been introduced to Sumatra. According to Ripley (), Black-headed
Munias have been successfully introduced to
the island of Halmahera, where Peters ()
identified the race present as jagori (Philip-
Black-headed Munia pines, Borneo, Sulawesi, Muna, Butung).
Lonchura malacca
W I
Natural Range: From India and Sri Lanka to Raffaele et al. (: –) record that the
Indochina and SW Yunnan and Taiwan. Black-headed Munia was
Also the Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra
and the Philippines. Introduced to Puerto Rico [first recorded
Naturalised Range: Europe: ?Portugal; ?Spain. by Raffaele & Kepler () in ] prob-
Asia: Japan; Moluccas Is. North America: ably in the s, it is uncommon around
West Indies. Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is; the entire coast. First recorded from His-
Mariana Is; Federated States of Micronesia paniola and Martinique in the s and
(Republic of Palau). Cuba and Jamaica in the early s, the
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Estrildidae (Waxbills, Grass Finches, Munias and Allies)
species was already present in relatively the West Loch area, where they frequented
large numbers when discovered on each mainly kiawe or mesquite Prosopis chilensis
of these islands. It is now locally common thickets and open grassland between sugar-
on Cuba in the southern Havana Province cane plantations. Elsewhere they are found on
and at a number of localities along the golf courses, grassy roadside verges and weedy
south coast of Hispaniola where it fre- headlands of cane fields.
quents agricultural areas. It is uncommon In Berger () found Black-headed
and very local on Jamaica (Caymanas and Munias of the nominate subspecies (southern
on the north coast near Priory and St India and Sri Lanka) in Honolulu. The
Ann) and Martinique.
Hawaiian Audubon Society () reported
While the populations on Puerto Rico, that the species’ stronghold appeared to be the
Jamaica, and Martinique are probably derived grassy lowlands of the Waipio Peninsula in
from escaped or released pets, those on Cuba Pearl Harbor, from where it seemed to be
and Hispaniola may have resulted from slowly spreading inland; by the birds had
natural dispersal (Raffaele et al. ). The been observed km north of Pearl Harbor,
AOU () records the species as only occur- and also at Laie on the north coast of Oahu –
ring on Puerto Rico. Moreno () assigned the latter almost certainly resulting from a
the birds on Puerto Rico primarily to the separate introduction. Zeillemaker & Scott
nominate subspecies (southern India and Sri () described L. malacca as local and
Lanka), with a single specimen of L. m. uncommon in dry lowland agricultural land
atricapilla (India to Yunnan). and pastures only on Oahu.
In , Black-headed Munias were found
Impact: Black-headed Munias in the Carib- by Pratt () to be well established on
bean are a potential pest to various grain crops Kauai, where in the following year between
(Raffaele et al. () and in rice fields. and were counted near Poipu Beach.
Pratt et al. (: ) say of the species that
H I it was ‘Abundant on Oahu (Pearl Harbor and
Black-headed Munias were imported to Oahu central valley but spreading), common but
as cagebirds between and , probably local on Kauai (Koloa area). Reported from
from Calcutta, India, where the form is Hawaii (Honaunau) but not known to be es-
atricapilla. They were first recorded as breed- tablished’. Pratt () says that in it oc-
ing in the wild, near West Loch in Pearl curred on Oahu and Kauai. The AOU ()
Harbor, in (Udvardy ). Ord () says it may possibly also be found on Hawaii.
estimated the population at between and
, and in around were counted in Impact: Were Black-headed Munias to
increase in numbers and become widely estab-
lished in the Hawaiian Islands, they could
become a serious agricultural pest.
M I
Ralph & Sakai () reported that L. m.
ferruginosa has also been successfully
introduced to the island of Guam, where it
was abundant. Pratt et al. () confirm the
species’ establishment on Guam.
Federated States of Micronesia
(Republic of Palau)
Ripley () discovered Black-headed Munias
Black-headed Munia of the endemic Javan form ferruginosa to be
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Naturalised Birds of the World
established on the islands of Babelthuap () said that Chestnut-breasted Mannikins
and Koror, and suggested the possibility of a had been established for several decades on
hybrid population. Ralph & Saki () Eiao and Hatutaa in the Marquesas.
found they were then still abundant on
Babelthuap, where Pratt et al. (: ) said N C
they were ‘well established at Palau (Koror Chestnut-breasted Mannikins of the nomi-
complex, s. Babelthuap …)’. nate subspecies have been introduced from
northern Australia to New Caledonia, where
they became common in gardens and on
cultivated land (Delacour , Pizzey ).
White-cowled Mannikin
Lonchura hunsteini
Natural Range: Endemic to New Ireland and Java Sparrow
New Hanover, Bismarck Archipelago. Lonchura oryzivora
Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Federated
States of Micronesia (Republic of Palau). Natural Range: Java and Bali.
Naturalised Range: Asia: ?Burma; China
F S M (including Hong Kong); India; Indonesia;
(R P) Japan; East Malaysia; West Malaysia;
According to Pratt et al. (: ) this Philippines; Singapore; South Vietnam; Sri
species was ‘Introduced (s) to Pohnpei, Lanka; Taiwan; Thailand. Africa: Tanzania
where abundant in the northern and (including Zanzibar and Pemba Is). North
eastern parts of the island’. Dickinson () America: West Indies. Atlantic Ocean: St
confirms its presence on Pohnpei. Helena I. Indian Ocean: Christmas Is;
?Cocos (Keeling) Is. Pacific Ocean: Fiji Is;
Impact: Pratt et al. () say that the White- Hawaiian Is.
cowled Mannikin, which is usually seen in
huge flocks, is a major agricultural pest. B
Java Sparrows became established in the wild
in Tenasserim before (Blandford )
and Arakan before (Hopwood ).
Chestnut-breasted Mannikin Their descendants may possibly survive in
Lonchura castaneothorax Tenasserim and in western Burma (Clements
et al. ).
Natural Range: New Guinea, and from NW
to coastal E Australia. C ( H K)
Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Marquesas Since Java Sparrows are known to have been
Is; New Caledonia; Society Is. imported to Japan from China from at least
the seventeenth century, their introduction to
M I; S the latter must have been at an early date; they
I have for many years been naturalised in vari-
Table gives details of introductions of the ous parts of (mainly coastal) southern China,
Chestnut-breasted Mannikin to the Marque- where Swinhoe () saw them at Amoy
sas and Society Islands. (Xiamen) in southern Fukien Province.
Pratt et al. (: ) reported L. casta- Others were recorded in as far north as
neothorax as ‘Introduced to the Society Islands Shanghai, and in in the south near Shan-
(Bora Bora, Raiatea, Moorea, Tahiti) in the tou in northern Guangdong. La Touche (,
s and now common. Also in the Marque- ) found L. oryzivora in scattered localities
sas (Hivaoa, Tahuata, Mohotani)’. Thibault along the Kiangsu coast north of Shanghai,
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 247
Estrildidae (Waxbills, Grass Finches, Munias and Allies)
and in the south in Fukien, Shantou and established (Dickinson ). Keffer ()
Guangdong. Clement et al. () list it as says they are also to be found on Kangean
ranging in eastern China from Kiangsu south Island north of Lombok, and according
to Kwangsi and Hong Kong. to Dickinson () they may occur as an
In Hong Kong, where they are still a introduced species on Sumbawa Island.
favourite cage bird, Java Sparrows seem first to According to Keffer (), Java Sparrows
have been reported in the wild by Swinhoe are also established in Kepulauan Riau, south
(). Nowadays, small numbers are seen of Singapore.
almost annually. See also Viney et al. . Many years ago Java Sparrows were intro-
duced to (or possibly colonised naturally)
I Sumatra, where their present status is
Java Sparrows became established in the wild uncertain. Keffer () lists them as also
at Madras before and in Calcutta by occurring on Billiton Island off Sumatra.
(Law ), where according to Clement et al.
() they still survive. J
During the period of the Tokugawa Shōgu-
I nate (–), Java Sparrows, imported
Java Sparrows seem to have been first reported from China, were widely kept as pets in
on Sulawesi, on the southern peninsula and Japan. Kuroda () quotes a description of
on the eastern end of the northern Minahassa L. oryzivora in the seventeenth century Honho
Peninsula, by Stresemann (); they still Shokkan (‘Handbook of Japanese Foods’), and
survive there. also states that in the Wakum Sho (‘Dictionary
According to King et al. (), Java Spar- of the Japanese Language’), published in the
rows have been introduced to the Moluccas following century, the species is referred to as
and Lesser Sunda Islands; on the latter, they a recent arrival from overseas. Although Brazil
have occurred on Lombok since at least (, pers. comm. ) says that flocks of
(Kuroda –), where they are still – Java Sparrows sometimes occur in
Introductions of the Chestnut-breasted Mannikin Lonchura
castaneothorax to the Marquesas and Society Islands, late th century–.
Island Date of Introduction Status
Tahiti Late th century Became widespread
Moorea Established before Became widespread
Tetiatroa Not found by Holyoak ()
Maiao ? Population of under in
Huahine ? Present in
Raiatea ? Present in
Tahaa ? Present in
Bora Bora Late th century Numerous –
Maupiti ? A few seen
Mopelia ? A few seen
Makatea ? Several dozen pairs
Nukuhiva First seen in ?
Uahuka First seen in ?
Uapou First seen in ?
Hivaoa Probably Next reported in (King )
Tahuata First seen in ?
Fatuiva Probably – Present in
Source : Holyoak & Thibault ().
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Naturalised Birds of the World
southern Honshu (and perhaps also on Oki- since the late nineteenth century (E. J. H.
nawa), they may not breed annually. Clement Berwick pers. comm. to Long ).
et al. () say they occur in Honshu and
southern Kyushu; in the former, Brazil () P
lists them as numerous but local and says that L. oryzivora has been established in the wild in
the main breeding populations occur near the Philippines since before (Kuroda
Tokyo and Osaka; the OSJ () adds Hyogo. –; Riley ). By the mid-s it
occurred around Manila on Luzon (Delacour
W M & Mayr ), and has since colonised many
On the Malay Peninsula, Java Sparrows were other Filipino islands, including Guimaras,
probably introduced to Kuala Lumpur before Mindanao, Panay, Samar, Cebu, Pan de
, and perhaps at the same time to George- Azucar, Calagnaan and Negrosi (Clement et
town on Penang Island and to Alor Star on al. ).
the mainland. By the late s they seem
to have been established locally in several S
localities on or near the west coast, including Java Sparrows were imported from Java to
Kangar (Perlis State), Alor Star (Kedah), Singapore Island in the s, where Ward
Georgetown (Penang Island), Ipoh (Perak), () believed that between about and
Kuala Lumpur (Selangor), Seremban (Negri they were fairly common in the wild
Sembilan) and Malacca (Medway & Wells (being described as the commonest bird on
). the island in the s), but that thereafter
In Kuala Lumpur the Java Sparrow is a they declined due to loss of habitat. Seng
largely urban species; before the Second () described them as rare and liable soon
World War it thrived on a diet of rice and to become extinct.
grain, but declined after the invasion of the
Japanese when these foods were in short S V
supply. After the cessation of hostilities it Since the s, Java Sparrows have been
staged something of a comeback – especially established in residential suburbs of Saigon,
in settled areas; only in the northern states of on the south coast in Nha Trang, and in Phan
Perlis and Kedah, however, do Java Sparrows Rang (Delacour & Jabouille , ).
live and breed in open country, paddy fields, Wildash () found the species to be widely
scrub, and grassland; elsewhere they are found distributed throughout the country, to which
solely in settled areas, where the population is large numbers continue to be imported as
probably augmented by the recruitment of pets.
escaped pets (Medway & Wells ).
S L
E M Since before , Java Sparrows have
Java Sparrows have probably occurred in the occurred in the wild in Colombo, where the
wild in Borneo (principally in the north) since population is constantly reinforced by
before . They are said to have been escaped cage birds. A few other small colonies
imported to Labuan Island, off the coast of exist elsewhere on the island (Henry ,
Sabah, by the Governor, the Hon. Hugh Low. Long ).
They were reported by Sharpe () in some
places to be abundant but had not yet spread T
to the mainland. They were also found on the Java Sparrows occurring in the wild in Taiwan
coast of Sabah at Tuaran and Kinabalu by are believed to be descended from birds
Gore (). released as an offering to the dead – a practice
known as hojo (Horikawa ) – reinforced
Impact: On Labuan Island, Java Sparrows by more recent escapes of this popular cage
have been damaging crops (in particular rice) bird.
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 249
Estrildidae (Waxbills, Grass Finches, Munias and Allies)
T S H I
At some date prior to , Java Sparrows were L. oryzivora was introduced to St Helena in or
introduced to Bangkok, where they became before , when it was already said by J. R.
established in the wild (Riley ; Long Foster to be ‘numerous’ (Hoare ). Brooke
), and where they still survive (Clement et et al. () incorrectly give the date of arrival
al. ). on St Helena as . F. Duncan (Anon. )
reported an increase in the population,
T ( Z perhaps as a result of protective legislation
P I) enacted in (Janisch ). By the s,
Vaughan () quotes Sir Richard Burton as Java Sparrows were said by Mellis () and
saying, in Zanzibar: City Island and Coast other authorities to be common and increas-
(), that Java Sparrows from Massachusetts ing, especially in the north but also in the
were imported to Zanzibar around . This interior when corn was ripening. By the early
seems unlikely, since the first record of the s the population had suffered a marked
species’ introduction to the United States decline (Haydock ), perhaps because of a
(where it has now died out) was not until reduced production of cereal crops (Lever
(Phillips ). ). By the late s the population had
L. oryzivora first appeared on the Tanzanian recovered, but in the early s the birds
mainland and on Pemba Island (possibly from around Jamestown again declined, this time
Zanzibar) probably in the s (Riley ) as a result of eating poisoned grain (Loveridge
and certainly before (Mackworth-Praed ). The species remained relatively scarce
& Grant –). The species is now well es- throughout the island between the early s
tablished in the Old Town on Zanzibar (pers. and mid-s.
obs. ) and on Pemba (Van Perlo ). Since the late s, Java Sparrows have
been common again around Jamestown, but
Impact: On Pemba Island, Java Sparrows are a are only seen occasionally on coastal cliffs
pest in rice fields (J. G. Williams, pers. comm. (Rowlands et al. ). In , Rowlands et
to Long ). al. (: –) found the species to be ‘…
locally very common with a patchy distribu-
W I tion. … abundant in Castle Gardens
Blake (), Bond (), and Raffaele & Ke- [Jamestown] … and in large groups, many
pler () recorded the Java Sparrow in the places’. It is found mainly in human settle-
wild in San Juan, Puerto Rico, in . ments at up to m above sea level. In
Raffaele () said it was well established Jamestown, , were counted in a single
there in the San Juan metropolitan area, and roost in (Rowlands et al. ). See also
was particularly abundant in the Old Town McCulloch ().
and the Isla Grande Reserve, but appeared to Lockwood et al. () investigated the
be declining. Raffaele et al. (: ) said morphological dispersion of the introduced
the species had been introduced terrestrial avifauna on St Helena, where they
… probably in the s or early s, it found that although introduced finches tend
is fairly common in the San Juan metro- towards morphological overdispersion not all
politan area [See also AOU ]. This passerines do so; they hypothesise that the
species was introduced to Jamaica around pattern of overdispersion found among
near Castleton and Thomasfield finches is a result of increased species richness.
where it was recorded until and then According to Forbes (), Java Sparrows
appeared to die out. There are recent were imported to St Helena from Batavia
reports from Jamaica, likely a new intro- (Java) and China.
duction.
Moreno () was unable to discover the Impact: Forbes (: ), quoted by Row-
origin of the birds introduced to Puerto Rico. lands et al. (), said that as early as ,
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Java Sparrows ‘… from their wonderful the turn of the century. It was not until ,
increase, are become a great annoyance to however, that the birds were reported in the
farmers’, and Martin (: ) reported that wild, in Honolulu, on Oahu. Breeding was
they were causing ‘… great destruction to first recorded in – on the slopes of
farmers’ crops’. Today, they also eat grain Diamond Head, Honolulu, where some birds
intended for domestic poultry. may have been released in (Throp ).
According to Rowlands et al. () Java ‘The increase in numbers and the range of
Sparrows on St Helena tend to dominate expansion since that time’, wrote Berger (:
other passerines with which they associate. ), ‘have been phenomenal’. By the
population had increased to more than ,
C I and within a further two years had spread into
L. oryzivora is believed to have first been in- the upper Manoa Valley. In the following
troduced to Christmas Island between year, the Hawaiian Audubon Society ()
and (Chasen ). By the s the birds reported that the birds had dispersed from
were fairly common in unsettled north coastal Kapiolani Park to Makiki and Kalihi, and
areas (Gibson-Hill ), and by the mid- Zeillemaker & Scott () listed the species,
s were seen in flocks of up to (Watson whose population had increased to , as
et al. , Van Tets & Van Tets ). local and rare in dry lowland residential and
The naturalised population is frequently community parkland on Oahu; by it was
reinforced by further escaped cage birds. apparently gaining a foothold on Hawaii.
According to Pratt et al. (: ), Java
C (K) I Sparrows were ‘abundant and spreading from
Holman () said that Java Sparrows were Honolulu area on Oahu; less numerous but
first imported to the Cocos Islands before . increasing on Keauhou–Kona area of Hawaii
Wood-Jones () reported them to be com- and on Kauai’. Pratt () lists the species as
mon, and in Gibson-Hill (a) found occurring in on Oahu, Hawaii, Maui and
the species to be abundant on Pulo Tikus Kauai. The AOU (: ) says that L.
(Direction) and to occur in lesser numbers on oryzivora was ‘now widespread on Oahu,
Pulo Luar (Horsburgh) and Pulo Selma common on the Kona coast of Hawaii, and in
(Home) Islands. Stokes et al. (), however, small numbers on Kauai and Maui’.
believed the birds have since died out. Shehata et al. () found Java Sparrows
to be one of only five introduced species to be
F I free of malarial infection in their study area in
Watling (: ) states that the Java Sparrow Honolulu.
was first collected in Fiji by the artist–natural-
ist William Belcher in … ‘[it] is restricted
to south-east Viti Levu, the Savusava area of
Vanua Levu and several pockets in Taveuni. It White-rumped Munia
is found only in [wet] agricultural and subur- Lonchura striata
ban habitats …. Within its restricted range, it
is a common bird, but for some reason Natural Range: India to E China and Taiwan.
has been unable to spread further’. This Naturalised Range: Asia: Japan.
distribution is confirmed by Pratt et al. ().
J
H I Since the s, flocks of up to individuals,
Phillips (: ) said that Java Sparrows descended from escaped or released cage-
were introduced to the Hawaiian Islands ‘at birds, have been observed in Okinawa, where
least or years ago, but apparently did not successful breeding has been recorded in at
prosper’; Caum () suggests the dates of least seven locations (Brazil , ).
introduction as around and again about
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Prunellidae (Accentors)
VIDUIDAE PRUNELLIDAE (ACCENTORS)
(INDIGOBIRDS AND ALLIES)
Dunnock
Prunella modularis
Pin-tailed Whydah
Vidua macroura Natural Range: Europe (including the British
Isles) eastwards to E Turkey, the Caucasus
Natural Range: From Senegal to Ethiopia and and N Iran. Winters S to N Africa and the
Cape Province, South Africa. Middle East.
Naturalised Range: North America: West Naturalised Range: Australasia: New Zealand.
Indies. Indian Ocean: ?Mascarene Is.
N Z
W I Between and a total of Dunnocks
Raffaele & Kepler () reported the first (then known as Hedge Sparrows) from
sighting of this species on Puerto Rico, at Río England (where the form is P. m. occidentalis)
Piedras, in . ‘Probably introduced in the was released by the Auckland Acclimatisation
s to Puerto Rico, Pin-tailed Whydah Society (see Lever ); the first nests were
occurs uncommonly and locally around the found in and the birds soon became
entire coast and, to a lesser extent, inland well established. More Dunnocks were acquired
into the mountains’ (Raffaele et al. : ). and released by other acclimatisation societies
Moreno () believed the birds were as follows: Canterbury ( between and
imported from Senegal. ); Otago ( between and );
In its native range, V. macroura is a brood Hawke’s Bay (an unknown number in );
parasite of other birds, principally waxbills and Wellington ( between and ).
of the genus Estrilda. On Puerto Rico, it The birds apparently flourished, spreading
presumably parasitises the also introduced E. rapidly and widely throughout New Zealand
melpoda and E. troglodytes. (Thomson ), although they had yet to
penetrate undisturbed bush and occurred
M I mainly in suburban gardens and shrubby
This species was apparently introduced to the groves up to m (Philpott ). Some
island of Réunion as a cage bird in about places, especially in Auckland and Northland,
(Crestey , Probst , Le Corre , R. were not colonised until the s (Heather &
J. Safford pers. comm. ). No information Robertson ).
on its present status and distribution appears Wodzicki (: ) found that Dunnocks
to be available. were ‘widely abundant and common, [on]
North, South, Stewart and Raoul [Ker-
madecs], Chatham and Auckland Islands’.
Kinsky () reported them to occur also on
Eastern Paradise Whydah Kapiti and other nearby offlying islands, and
Vidua paradisaea also on the Snares (by ), and Campbell Is-
land (probably before ). Falla et al. ()
Natural Range: From E Sudan to S Angola reported Dunnocks to be well established in a
and Natal. variety of habitats, including coastal man-
Naturalised Range: Asia: Japan. grove swamps, saltmarshes, parkland, gar-
dens, exotic forests, and subalpine scrub, up
J to ,m above sea level. They have since
The OSJ () lists V. paradisaea as a spread to most of New Zealand’s offshore
resident breeding species in rice-fields and islands, including Three Kings, Little Barrier,
reclaimed land around Tokyo on Honshu. Hen, Solander, Codfish, and the Antipodes.
Dunnocks now breed throughout New
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 252
Naturalised Birds of the World
Zealand, including the Chathams, Antipodes, most numerous in Newlands and Kenilworth
Auckland, and Campbell Islands, and are but occurred from Sea Point to Plumstead,
vagrants on the Snares and uncommon on Tokai, and Hout Bay (Siegfried ).
well-forested islands such as Little Barrier and Frauenknecht (), who said that the
Kapiti. Although in its native range P. modu- importation numbered birds, estimated
laris is partially migratory, there is no evidence the population, which is subject to marked
for long-distance movement in New Zealand fluctuations, at ,–,, and said it
(Heather & Robertson ). occurs from Kloof Nek to Tokai and from
Constantia Nek to Hout Bay; it has thus
Impact: Both Thomson () and Williams spread very little in the last half century.
() said that Dunnocks were the one Although there are other apparently suitable
introduced species in New Zealand that was habitats in the Western Cape, the species has
wholly beneficial. Their consumption of yet to venture beyond the Cape Peninsula.
injurious invertebrates such as flies and aphids Possible reasons for the birds’ failure to
(the purpose for which they were introduced; expand their range include predation by
Baker ) more than compensates for their introduced Grey Squirrels Sciurus carolinensis
occasional depredations of small fruits and (see Lever ) – it is believed that Squirrels
seeds. eradicated Chaffinches from the Cape Town
Public Gardens – and some climatic differ-
ences between the Cape Peninsula and the
Western Cape (Frauenknecht ).
FRINGILLIDAE (FINCHES N Z
AND HAWAIIAN HONEY- Between and Chaffinches from
England (F. c. gengleri) were imported to New
CREEPERS) Zealand by acclimatisation societies (see Lever
) as follows: Nelson (), Auckland (),
Chaffinch Canterbury (), Otago (), and Wellington
Fringilla coelebs (), and many more were brought in by
private individuals (Thomson , ),
Natural Range: From the British Isles making a total of well over birds.
eastwards to C Siberia, S to the Crimea, In Canterbury, Chaffinches soon became
Caucasus, Asia Minor, Levant, Turkey, established, especially in exotic pine planta-
Iraq, Iran and NW Africa. Also on the tions, but seldom in native woodlands or
Balearic Is., Corsica, Sardinia, Cyprus, above the treeline. In Otago, they became
Azores, Madeira and Canary Is. Winters S abundant around Dunedin, but later declined
to N Africa, SW Asia and the Middle East. through eating poisoned grain intended for
Naturalised Range: Africa: South Africa. Rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus (Thomson
Australasia: New Zealand. Pacific Ocean: ). Even after trapping replaced poisoning,
?Norfolk I. and other small passerines increased, the
Chaffinch remained relatively rare. Elsewhere
S A it spread only slowly, but by around was
The endemic British subspecies of the ‘common throughout both the islands, and
Chaffinch F. c. gengleri was introduced to the very abundant in some parts, especially from
Groote Schuur Estate by Cecil Rhodes in Taupo [central North Island] northwards’, to
. It has not spread far and remains con- the upper limit of the bush line at around
fined to gardens and exotic plantations (e.g. m (Thomson : ).
Cluster Pine Pinus pilaster and oak Quercus In , Chaffinches were freed on Stew-
sp.) on the lower slopes of Table Mountain on art Island, but all had disappeared by around
the northern Cape Peninsula. It became . They reappeared, probably as natural
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 253
Fringillidae (Finches and Hawaiian Honeycreepers)
colonists from the mainland, before , and morphometrically by barriers to gene flow,
spread to other offlying islands as follows: such as the Pyrenees Mountains between
Mayor and Kapiti before ; the Snares Iberia and southern Europe (Baker et al. ,
before ; Three Kings, Mokohinau, Baker ).
Little Barrier, Codfish, the Aucklands and
Campbell before ; and Macquarie and the Impact: Until about a bounty was
Chathams before (Williams , Kinsky provided for the destruction of Chaffinches in
); they bred on Three Kings, the such grain-growing areas as South Canterbury
Chathams, the Antipodes, Campbell and the (Thomson ). Although Chaffinches
Aucklands before (Williams ). sometimes cause limited damage to fruit crops
Wodzicki (: ) described Chaffinches (apricots, peaches, apples and nectarines) and
as ‘widely distributed and abundant, North, to newly sown cereals and brassicas (Dawson
South, Stewart, and Chatham, Campbell, & Bull , Heather & Robertson ),
Snares, Auckland, and Macquarie Islands’. their most significant impact may be to
Williams () referred to the Chaffinch as reduce the natural regeneration of some alien
perhaps the most widespread and common pines through their consumption of seeds.
bird in New Zealand, and Falla et al. () During the breeding season their main food is
considered it to be the country’s most abun- such injurious invertebrates as caterpillars,
dant finch; they found it wherever there are flies and aphids.
trees and shrubs up to ,m above sea level,
and said that it had penetrated into bush and N I
forests as no other finch had done, and that it Barrett et al. () list a record of the
also occurred in gardens, parks, orchards, Chaffinch on Norfolk Island. Whether the
farmland and both native and exotic wood- species is established is uncertain.
land.
Heather & Robertson () recorded
breeding on the Chathams, Snares, Auckland
and Campbell Islands, and said that vagrants Island Canary
had occurred on Lord Howe Island and the Serinus canaria
Kermadecs. Elsewhere Chaffinches are abun-
dant on both main and many offshore islands. Natural Range: Canary, Azores and Madeira Is.
Although some northern European Chaffinch Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian
populations migrate, there is no evidence of Is: Atlantic Ocean: Bermuda.
migration in New Zealand.
Descendant populations of Chaffinches in H I
New Zealand show very little genetic or mor- In Daniel Morrison purchased a pair of
phological differentiation (in marked contrast Island Canaries on Oahu, which he subse-
to the also introduced House Sparrow Passer quently transported to Sand Island in the
domesticus, Common Myna Acridotheres Midway group. In , young hatched in
tristis, and Eurasian Starling Sturnus vulgaris). Morrison’s aviary and were released later in
The pattern of variation in their populations the same year; Pratt et al. () erroneously
is haphazard and does not correspond with give the date of release as . Breeding in the
environmental variation, nor is it predicted by wild took place in December , and in the
the geographic proximity of subgroups. Thus first season some young were reared suc-
random drift is likely to be the primary cause cessfully. The birds soon became established,
for chance patterns of geographic variation, within a few generations reverting to their
which implies that genetic and morphological wild-type colouring (Bryan ). Their suc-
characteristics are now effectively neutral in cessful establishment on Sand Island has been
regard to selection. In contrast, European attributed to the absence of predators able to
populations are subdivided genetically or climb the trees in which the Canaries nest.
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Naturalised Birds of the World
Various authors, e.g. Fisher & Baldwin gas is recorded by Cheke & Lawley (). No
(), the Hawaiian Audubon Society (), other information is available.
Zeillemaker & Scott () and Pyle (),
confirmed the birds’ survival on Sand Island, M I
where a flock of was counted in . Hawkins & Safford (in prep.) say that Yellow-
Today, the species remains fairly common, al- fronted Canaries have been introduced to
beit in small numbers, in the Midway Group Mafia Island off the coast of Tanzania; their
(Pratt et al. , Clement et al. , Pratt present status there is unknown.
, AOU ).
M I
B Bernardin de St Pierre () was the first to
The AOU () states that S. canaria is refer to the Yellow-fronted Canary on Mauri-
established in Bermuda, where it died out tius, where Le Gentil de la Galaisière
between and (D. B. Wingate pers. (–) said that it had been imported to
comm. ). the Isle-de-France from South Africa during
the Seven Years’ War (–). Cheke ()
says that Le Gentil was on Mauritius in
– and , and that it is likely that the
Yellow-fronted Canary birds were on the island in .
Serinus mozambicus On Réunion, it seems probable that S.
mozambicus was introduced at or before the
Natural Range: Most of sub-Saharan Africa time it was imported to Mauritius (Pingré c.
apart from SW South Africa. , Maillard ).
Naturalised Range: North America: West In- The earliest reference to the Yellow-fronted
dies. Atlantic Ocean: ?Annobón I; ?São Canary on Rodrigues that Cheke () could
Tomé I. Indian Ocean: Agaléga Is; ?Mafia I; find was by Vinson (), who according to
Mascarene Is; Seychelles Is. Pacific Ocean: Showler () suggested a date of arrival
Hawaiian Is. around .
Staub () and Cheke () recorded
W I the species as very common on Mauritius and
Raffaele et al. (: ) say that the Yellow-
fronted Canary was ‘Introduced to Puerto
Rico around , this finch is very rare and
local along the north coast. Small numbers
were recorded from Vacia Talega, Punta
Mamaayes and Ramey, but there are no recent
records’.
A I; S T
I
According to Peters (), S. m. tando
(Gabon, Zaire, and Angola) has been
introduced to these two islands in the Gulf of
Guinea. In view of the subspecies present,
however, natural colonisation from the
mainland cannot be ignored. See also Christy
& Clarke .
A I
The introduction of this species to the Agalé- Yellow-fronted Canary
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 255
Fringillidae (Finches and Hawaiian Honeycreepers)
Réunion, and the latter found it to be Impact: S. mozambicus poses a potential
uncommon on Rodrigues. Hawkins & threat to the endemic avifauna of nearby
Safford (in prep.) say Yellow-fronted Canaries Aldabra Island which is so far free of alien
occur throughout Mauritius and Rodrigues, birds (Skerrett et al. ).
though they are only patchily distributed in
the uplands of the former and are absent from H I
neighbouring islets of both. On Rodrigues, Yellow-fronted Canaries were first reported on
Showler () found that they prefer drier Oahu, at Koko Head, in , where breeding
and more exposed localities, such as the was confirmed around . Zeillemaker &
coastal strip in areas planted with Casuarina Scott () recorded the birds as local and
equisetifolia, and inland on hillsides and open rare in residential and community parklands
wooded ridges with Casuarina and other on Oahu, where Berger (: ) said the
exotics such as Eucalyptus tereticornis, Tabe- species was ‘now a common resident in the
buia pallida and Terminalia arjuna. On Diamond Head–Kapiolani Park region of
Réunion, Hawkins & Safford (in prep.) Waikiki; it has also been seen at Kawela Bay’.
reported S. mozambicus mainly in the coastal Although S. mozambicus was probably
lowlands, and inland in open wooded locali- released on the Puu Waawaa Ranch on
ties up to ,m above sea level. The form Hawaii before , it was not until that
established on Mauritius and Réunion is the first birds were recorded in the wild. At
either mozambicus (east Africa and Zimbabwe first they remained restricted to the eastern,
to northern South Africa) or granti (southern southern and western slopes of Mauna Kea,
Mozambique) – probably the latter (R. J. from Puu Laau to Puu Kahinahina, between
Safford pers. comm. ). See also Jones , and ,m. At about the same time
() and Sinclair & Langrand (). some were also noted at Halepohaku
(,m), and between Puu Kole and Puu
Impact: As early as the late eighteenth Kaupakuhale and on Hualalai Mountain.
century, Le Gentil (–; quoted by Cheke By they had spread to the moist Ohia
) was referring to the Yellow-fronted Metrosideros collina forest at ,m on Stain-
Canary (and Yellow-crowned Canary) as ‘a back Highway (Berger ). Scott et al.
great destroyer’, and in a bounty was () found them to be associated with dry
offered for their destruction (Bernardin , woodland savannas with a light covering of
Le Gentil –, Ly-Tio-Fane , Cheke native and exotic trees, and Paton () sug-
). Although Clark () said that the gested that the birds’ range was expanding.
bounty was withdrawn in the s, when the Pratt et al. (: ) said the species was
cultivation of cereal crops declined, Mein- ‘established on Oahu (Kapiolani Park area)
ertzhagen () relates how on Mauritius and [western] Hawaii (most common near
farmers had to spend much of their time Puu Waa Waa)’ but added that flocks could
driving Canaries from their fields. appear anywhere on the island. This distribu-
tion is confirmed by Pratt () and the AOU
S I ().
In – Yellow-fronted Canaries of the
nominate subspecies (Kenya to Mozambique,
Zimbabwe and South Africa) were illegally
introduced to Assumption, where by the Yellow-crowned Canary
population was estimated to be between (Cape Canary)
and , at which it is believed to remain Serinus canicollis
today. Between and the species
also occurred on Desroches (and possibly Natural Range: Much of sub-Saharan Africa.
elsewhere in the Amirantes) but subsequently Naturalised Range: Indian Ocean: Mascarene
died out (Skerrett et al. ). Islands.
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Naturalised Birds of the World
M I probably introduced to St Helena in ,
It seems probable that S. canicollis was intro- and that this species is the only canary that
duced to Réunion, where Staub (), Barré ever became established on the island. Barnes
& Barau () and Cheke () reported it (: , quoted by Rowlands et al. ) said
was common, at about the same time (before that Yellow Canaries on St Helena were ‘as
) as S. mozambicus (Pingré c. , Mail- numerous as sparrows in England’. In spite of
lard ). The species occurs principally in the capture of many birds for sale to visiting
scrubland and cultivated areas from around ships until at least (Moreau ), S.
m to the lower limit of the Philippia heath flaviventris ‘is now abundant throughout the
at ,–,m. island, including arid areas with prickly pear
R. J. Safford (pers. comm. ) assigned Opuntia spp. … Small flocks are often found
Yellow-crowned Canaries on Mauritius along steep roadsides; larger flocks of over
(where the species is now extinct) to the occur in scrub and adjacent grassland, and
nominate subspecies (western South Africa) or where trees are interspersed through barren
thompsonae (eastern South Africa), so the like- ground’ (Rowlands et al. : ). See also
lihood is that those on Réunion are the same. McCulloch (). According to Hartog
See also Sinclair & Langrand (). (The (), the Yellow Canary is a dominant
subspecies thompsonae is not recognised by species on St Helena, being virtually ubiqui-
Dickinson (), who assigns all South tous wherever there is vegetation.
African birds to the nominate subspecies). For an hypothesis of morphological
overdispersion of finches on St Helena see
Impact: See under S. mozambicus. On under Java Sparrow Lonchura oryzivora (Lock-
Réunion, S. canicollis is also reported to be a wood et al. ).
pest of fruit and vegetable crops.
Impact: As long ago as , J. C. Melliss was
recording damage caused by S. flaviventris to
ripe peaches on St Helena.
Yellow Canary
Serinus flaviventris
Natural Range: From SW Angola and Bots- European Greenfinch
wana S through Namibia to Cape Province, Carduelis chloris
South Africa.
Naturalised Range: Atlantic Ocean: Ascension Natural Range: Much of the W Palaearctic E
I; St Helena I. to Tien Shan, but not the Arabian Penin-
sula.
A I Naturalised Range: South America: Argentina;
In the nineteenth century Yellow Can- Uruguay. Australasia: Australia; New
aries were introduced to Ascension Island Zealand. Atlantic Ocean: Azores Is. Pacific
(Stonehouse ), where Stonehouse () Ocean: Norfolk I.
estimated the population at a minimum of
– birds. (See also Brooke et al. and A
McCulloch ). Greenfinches are believed to have been
introduced to Argentina in about .
S H I Armani () reported them to be well estab-
From St Helena Consultations () and lished and abundant in between Mar de
Janisch (), Rowlands et al. () Ajo and Necochea, Mar del Plata, and by
concluded that canaries, subsequently the population had considerably increased in
identified as S. flaviventris by Cunningham Pinamar, Chapadmalal and Miramir.
(), Peters () and Hartog (), were Greenfinches have nested in Punta Inoio, Mar
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Fringillidae (Finches and Hawaiian Honeycreepers)
de Ajo, Pinamar, Villa Gessell, Mar del Plata South Wales had spread south and west to
and Neocochea, south to Reta and Tres Ar- Albury, on the Victorian border, and to
royos. Other localities in which Greenfinches Bathurst. In the late s, Tarr ()
became established include Villalonga, Ramar reported the species to be fairly common in
Hejia, General Villegas, Pehuajo, Azul, Coro- Sydney and Melbourne, and said that else-
nel Pringles and Bahía Blanca. According to where in Victoria it occurred also in Coler-
Navas (), Greenfinches were established aine, Daylesford, Geelong, Caramut, Ballarat
mainly in the region of Pinamar and Villa and Inglewood. By the following decade,
Gessell in the province of Buenos Aires, where Greenfinches had expanded their range west
they were relatively abundant and breeding. to Orange in New South Wales, and in South
See also Narosky & Yzurieta () and Australia were well established and common
Mazar Barnett & Pearman (). near Adelaide, in the Mount Lofty Ranges,
and south to Victor Harbour (Condon ).
U Greenfinches were first recorded in Tasma-
Greenfinches apparently first bred successfully nia, presumably as natural immigrants from
in the wild at Montevideo in (Cuello & Victoria, at Marrawah in the northwest in
Gerzenstein ). By , Armani () . Before some had dispersed to
found them to be abundant on the coast in Stanley and Robbins Islands, and in some
the departments of Canelones (especially at were seen in the southwest at Port Davey.
La Paloma) and Maldonado (especially at Before they had extended their range
Punta Ballena). Sick () indicates that they along the north coast as far east as Launceston
had been established in a limited area near the (Sharland ).
south coast since about . Armani ()
reported the presence of Greenfinches as far
north as Durazno, Sarandi Grande and Minas,
and west to Colonia.
Although Navas () says that the species
was introduced to Uruguay, in the absence of
corroborative evidence the possibility of
natural colonisation from Argentina cannot
be discounted. See also Narosky & Yzurieta
() and Azpiroz ().
A
It seems probable that Greenfinches (of the
British race harrisoni) were included among
the consignments of large numbers of song-
birds imported to Australia from England in
–. Of these, according to Ryan (),
Greenfinches were released near Mel-
bourne between and and by the
early s they were established near the
metropolis and around Port Phillip. In
– (perhaps earlier) seven pairs of
Greenfinches were liberated near Adelaide in
South Australia, and in the latter year others
were released at Maneroo and Bodalla south
of Sydney, New South Wales, where by
they were said to be established (Ryan ).
By around , Greenfinches in New European Goldfinch
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Naturalised Birds of the World
In Bass Strait, Greenfinches were observed were imported to New Zealand by the
on Flinders Island in , and McGarvie & Nelson, Auckland, Otago and Canterbury
Templeton () reported that flocks of over Acclimatisation Societies (see Lever ).
occurred annually on King Island. The birds soon became widely distributed in
Frith (: ) described the Greenfinch Canterbury (reaching the Mackenzie district
in Australia as ‘common around Adelaide and by about ) and rather less so in Auckland
the adjoining hills, but not elsewhere in South (Drummond , ). By about ,
Australia. It is well distributed throughout the Thomson () found Greenfinches to
southern half of Victoria but is only common be well established and abundant in settled
locally. It is present in small numbers in a few regions throughout both main islands.
places in New South Wales’. Pizzey () Greenfinches were first recorded on the
found Greenfinches to occur in New South Chatham Islands by about (Thomson
Wales in Sydney and discontinuously west- ), on Kapiti Island by Oliver (), and
wards to Orange and southwest to between on Little Barrier, Stewart, Auckland and
the ACT and Albury. In Victoria, they were Campbell Islands by Oliver (), while
widely but patchily distributed, especially on Kinsky () reported them as vagrants
the coast. In Tasmania they were present in on the Kermadecs and Snares. On offshore
the north, the east and in the centre, and on islands they were first recorded as breeding on
the west coast had been recorded south to the Chatham and Campbell Islands by
between the Henty River and Strahan; as in Williams ().
Victoria, they were most abundant on the Falla et al. () found Greenfinches to be
coast. They were common on King Island but widely but unevenly distributed on the main
less so on Flinders Island. In South Australia, New Zealand islands, where in some localities
Greenfinches occurred throughout much of they were locally abundant to around m,
the coastal southeast, and north to Adelaide but were generally not long-term colonists of
and the Mount Lofty Ranges. off-lying islands. Heather & Robertson ()
Clement et al. () and Barrett et al. recorded them as widespread and locally com-
() record C. chloris as resident and breed- mon on the mainland.
ing from southeastern South Australia Greenfinches in New Zealand prefer open
through Victoria to southeastern New South country, farmland, shelterbelts, the edges of
Wales, and in Tasmania, especially in the exotic pine plantations, orchards and gardens.
northwest. In autumn and winter flocks of over ,
In Australia, as in Eurasia, Greenfinches individuals have been recorded (Heather &
favour well-wooded farmland with an Robertson ).
abundance of shrubs, and have colonised Merilä et al. () studied the genetics of
permanent leys and gardens and parks with Greenfinch populations in New Zealand.
exotic European trees and shrubs. They have They found fewer alleles (.) per locus and
also become established on the coast in native fewer polymorphic loci (%) in introduced
tea-tree thickets but have not successfully populations than in native European popula-
invaded native Eucalyptus forest. tions (.; %), reflecting the narrow
geographical origin of the introduced popula-
Impact: Frith () considered that C. chloris tions. There was no evidence for serious
occupied a hitherto vacant niche in inbreeding or genetic drift, and introduced
principally man-modified habitats, where it populations were genetically less weakly
apparently does not come into conflict with differentiated than European ones. Similar
any native species. levels of genetic variation innative and intro-
duced populations are consistent with expec-
N Z tations, given the relatively large size (c. )
Between about and around of the founder stock and the rapid increase in
Greenfinches from England (C. c. harrisoni) the population soon after introduction.
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Reductions in levels of genetic variability in U S
birds appear to be inversely proportionate to Although Clement et al. () say that C.
the size of the founder stock and the speed carduelis was established on Long Island, New
of population growth immediately after York, the AOU () and Sibley () state
introduction. that no naturalised populations presently
occur in the United States.
Impact: Thomson () recorded Green-
finches as a pest of grain crops and of apricots, U
cherries, peaches and plums. Dawson & Bull Cuello & Gerzenstein () and Sick ()
() and Heather & Robertson () say record the establishment and breeding of
they also eat maize, oilseed rape and other Goldfinches in Montevideo and elsewhere in
brassicas, linseed, sunflowers, fodder radish, the department of Canelones in southern
peas and hops. However, the latter authors Uruguay. Armani () reported that C.
claim they are only a minor pest and rarely carduelis ranged from the departments of
cause serious damage. Maldonado and Lavalleja east of the capital
westwards to the department of Soriano, and
A I between and they regularly
Marler & Boatman () recorded the observed the species in the Lecoq Zoological
presence of Greenfinches on the island of Park, and also in the department of Colonia
Pico. Bannerman & Bannerman (), who and near Lago del Sauce.
say that the birds are believed to have been in- Lecoq, which covers a large area compris-
troduced from Portugal around , found ing tracts of open grassland interspersed with
small numbers only on Terceira and São thickets and clumps of trees, is little main-
Miguel. According to Peters (), the race in tained and seldom visited by man, and has
the Azores is C. c. aurantiiventris from south- always been the species’ stronghold in
ern Europe. Uruguay (Armani , Narosky & Yzurieta
, Azpiroz ).
N I Heather & Robertson () incorrectly
Barrett et al. () say that C. chloris has been say that Goldfinches have been introduced to
recorded on Norfolk Island, which Heather & Argentina – where a few vagrants from
Robertson () state has been colonised. Uruguay have been reported – but omit the
introduction to the latter.
A
European Goldfinch Table shows that between about and
Carduelis carduelis well over Goldfinches were intro-
duced to Australia. By the end of the
Natural Range: Much of the W Palaearctic, nineteenth century they were well established
from the British Isles eastwards to between in Victoria and common around Melbourne,
o and o E, north to between o and Geelong and Port Phillip. By they had
o N, and south to the Mediterranean, colonised the area between Winchester and
Israel, Iran, Afghanistan and Baluchi- Colac, had spread to Castlemaine by , and
stan. Winters south to N Africa and SW to Carraragarmungee and Genoa near the
Asia. New South Wales border by . By the s
Naturalised Range: North America: ?United most suitable habitat in the state had been
States. South America: Uruguay. Australa- colonised (Middleton ).
sia: Australia; New Zealand. Atlantic In New South Wales, Goldfinches had
Ocean: Azores Is; Bermuda; ?Cape Verde become settled around Sydney by , had
Is. Pacific Ocean: Lord Howe I; Macquarie reached Goulburn by , were established
I.; Norfolk I. and common in the ACT and at Boree before
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Naturalised Birds of the World
, and arrived in Canberra before . By . Since the late s, the species has
the outbreak of the Second World War, Gold- declined in Western Australia, probably
finches were well established in settlements through a combination of disease, shortage of
along the railway as far as Dubbo (Tarr ). food due to land reclamation, predation,
From northern New South Wales, Gold- trapping for the cagebird trade and attacks
finches spread over the border into southern from the native Singing Honeyeater Lichenos-
Queensland. They were first recorded at tomus virescens. By the late s Goldfinches
Stanthorpe in , at Brisbane in and probably survived only in Perth and Albany
around Hamilton by (Frith ). (Long ). The maps in Barrett et al. ()
Long () traced the history of Gold- reveal a very small number of sightings (but
finches in Western Australia, where they were no breeding) in the Perth area and none in
first released before and where a few Albany.
became established in the Perth suburb of Goldfinches are believed to have been
Graylands between and . By established on Tasmania since the early s.
small numbers occurred locally in some other By the turn of the twentieth century they were
suburbs of Perth. During the early- to mid- abundant around Hobart, Derwent Valley,
s the birds continued slowly to expand New Norfolk, Glenora and Macquarie Plains,
their range in and around Perth west of the and on the north coast near Latrobe and
Darling Scarp, and by the end of the decade Davenport (Frith ). They are still abun-
they occurred from Wanneroo and Upper dant today in the northwest (Barrett et al.
Swan south to beyond Armadale, Forrestdale ).
and Bibra Lake. Outside the Perth metropoli- Tarr () reported Goldfinches to be
tan area, Goldfinches were established on the widely distributed throughout both New
south coast at Albany from to at least South Wales (especially around Sydney) and
Introductions of the Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis to Australia, –.
Date Number Introduced to Introduced by Remarks
? ‘Several’ Hobart, Tasmania ? —
Part of a shipment Melbourne, Victoria
of songbirds and Sydney, New ? —
from England South Wales
? Melbourne, Victoria A dealer named Brown —
‘Several pairs’ Melbourne, Victoria — —
? ? A Mr Rushall —
? Adelaide, South Australia South Australia —
Acclimatisation
Society (A.S.)
Melbourne, Victoria Victoria A.S. Released
Kerang, Victoria and New Victoria A.S. Released
South Wales
Melbourne, Victoria Victoria A.S. Released
> Adelaide, South Australia South Australia A.S. Released
Various localities in New From New Zealand Released
South Wales
c. ? Hobart & Launceston, ? —
Tasmania
Adelaide, South Australia South Australia A.S. Released
during s
– ? Perth, Western Australia Western Australia A.S. Released
Source : Ryan ().
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Fringillidae (Finches and Hawaiian Honeycreepers)
Victoria. In South Australia they were estab- N Z
lished on the Adelaide Plains, from the Mount According to Thomson (), between
Lofty Ranges to Victor Harbour, on the south and well over Goldfinches were
Yorke Peninsula and on Kangaroo Island, released in New Zealand by the Nelson,
around Tantanoola, north to Clare, and Otago, Auckland, Canterbury and Welling-
eastwards to the border with Victoria. In ton Acclimatication Societies (see Lever ).
Queensland, Goldfinches were confined to Thomson (: ) recorded that ‘The birds
the Darling Downs and around Brisbane, and appear to have at once established themselves
in Western Australia to Perth. They were at all the centres [of release], and to have
common in much of Tasmania and occurred quickly spread. They are now extraordinarily
also on King and Flinders Islands in the Bass abundant in all parts of New Zealand’.
Strait. By around the turn of the twentieth
According to Frith (: ): century, Goldfinches had straggled to the
Antipodes, Snares, Auckland and Campbell
The Goldfinch … has spread throughout Islands (Drummond ), and by had
Victoria and south-east South Australia; it also been recorded on Chatham and the
… is now very common [in Tasmania]. In Kermadecs. Before around they were
New South Wales it has occupied all the established on Chatham and the Aucklands
southeastern part …. It is established in
(Thomson ), and by the end of the
south-east Queensland. In New South
following decade had also been noted on
Wales and Queensland it is more
Kapiti, Stewart, Three Kings, Mokohinau and
common on the cooler tablelands than
the coast, but is very numerous also in Little Barrier Islands (Oliver ).
some irrigated inland districts. In Wodzicki (: ) found Goldfinches
Western Australia it has limited to be ‘common, widely distributed, and
distribution in Perth … and near Albany. abundant, [on] North, South, Stewart, and
Chatham, Raoul [Kermadecs], Antipodes,
Barrett et al. () noted a national Snares and Auckland Islands’. Kinsky ()
decrease in the population of C. carduelis since confirmed Wodzicki’s distribution, and
the early s, although the distribution Williams () recorded breeding on
(other than in Western Australia) remained Chatham, Campbell, the Antipodes and
much the same. Snares, Goldfinches in New Zealand occur on
In Australia, as in Eurasia, the Goldfinch much of both the main islands to above the
favours open, rough and neglected fields, tree line at around ,m, but are relatively
roadside verges and weedy wasteland, and has uncommon in Westland. In winter, flocks of
colonised open pastures and creek banks. up to , frequent coastal saltings, espe-
It is also found in stands of poplars cially in the north, where they feed on glass-
Populus spp, pines Pinus spp. and jacarandas worts Salicornia spp. At other seasons they
Jacaranda filicifolia in urban areas. It has not inhabit open country, farmlands, orchards
successfully invaded native Eucalyptus forest. and gardens. They are said to be more
In autumn and winter the species is locally abundant in New Zealand than in Britain.
nomadic.
Impact: Oliver () reported that Goldfinches
Impact: In the east of their Australian range, can become a minor pest of grain crops and
Goldfinches are a minor pest of apricot buds, oilseed rape, and of strawberries, whose seeds
but also kill the larvae of apple moths. In they peck from ripening fruit. They help to
Australia, they appear to occupy a vacant spread the seeds of such weeds as Tree Lupins
niche of mainly man-made habitats. There Lupinus arboreus, thistles, redroot, storksbill
seems no indication as to why the Goldfinch and meadowgrass. In compensation, they also
has been a much more successful Australian kill such injurious invertebrates as aphids and
colonist than the Greenfinch. caterpillars (Heather & Robertson ).
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Naturalised Birds of the World
A I and young around the Melanesian Mission;
Goldfinches were first recorded in the Azores on Macquarie, the species was first reported
in , where they are believed to have in .
been imported from Madeira around
(Dickinson () does not indicate the Diet: For information on the diet of C. cardu-
presence of the Goldfinch on Madeira). They elis in its native and naturalised ranges see
were said to occur in small numbers on Ruelle ().
São Jorge, Faial, São Miquel, Terceira
and Pico (Marler & Boatman , Banner-
man , Bannerman & Bannerman ).
The form in the Azores is believed to be C. Red Siskin
c. parva (western Mediterranean and Canary Carduelis cucullata
Islands).
Natural Range: NE Colombia, N Venezuela,
B Guyana and Trinidad.
Although Goldfinches were widely intro- Naturalised Range: North America: West
duced to Bermuda as cagebirds from the early Indies.
nineteenth century, the principal source of the
present population is believed to have been the W I
release of large numbers of songbirds, Although Raffaele () said that the Red
including Goldfinches, from a disabled Siskin may have been originally introduced to
steamship off the port of St George’s around Puerto Rico as early as the late nineteenth
(Reid ). Within a decade, small century, he believed that the s is a
charms had become established throughout more likely date. In about , Juan Alberto
the island, and by the outbreak of the First Wirshing probably imported Red Siskins
World War the Goldfinch was said to be from Venezuela to his menagerie on Caja de
Bermuda’s fourth most abundant bird, and it Muertos Island off the coast of Ponce in
is today a common resident in the islands south-central Puerto Rico, from which some
(e.g. Wingate , AOU , Raine ). may have escaped or been deliberately
The race in Bermuda was identified by Austin released and dispersed to the mainland
() as C. c. parva (western Mediterranean, (Moreno ).
Azores, and Canary Islands). Raffaele et al. (: ) said that the
species is ‘… rare and local … between
C V I Coamo, Ponce, and Guayama. Illegal collec-
Bannerman & Bannerman () say that in tion threatens the population’. Raffaele ()
Goldfinches (probably parva) that had described the bird’s primary habitat as
been imported to Porto Praia on São Tiago semi-arid scrubland in south-central Puerto
were established and breeding there and in Rico, where Moreno () believed the
nearby Fazenda, where in the following year population may be spreading.
a small population had become established. Because of the species’ decline in South
None have been reported since , so America, where the AOU (: ) says it
these birds have probably died out (Hazevoet has been ‘recorded in the original range
). during the last years only in Colombia,
perhaps approaching extinction there’ due to
L H I; M over-collecting for the pet trade (Raffaele
I; N I ), the Puerto Rican population may be of
Barrett et al. () say that C. carduelis has considerable conservation significance. C. cu-
been recorded on Lord Howe, Norfolk and cullata is classified by the World Conservation
Macquarie Islands; on Norfolk, Smithers & Union as Endangered.
Disney () recorded the presence of adults
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Fringillidae (Finches and Hawaiian Honeycreepers)
Common Redpoll Harbour, and along parts of the west coast of
Carduelis flammea Auckland. Further south, the species was
more plentiful on the Volcanic Plateau, and
Natural Range: N Holarctic circumpolar bred above the bush line in the ranges and in
region; winters S to W and S Europe, C the south of North Island. Heather & Robert-
and E Asia, and NE USA. son () reported the Redpoll as common,
Naturalised Range: Australasia: New Zealand. especially in higher and drier regions of South
Pacific Ocean: Macquarie I. Island. It lives in farmland, orchards, tussock-
land, sand dunes, forest, subalpine scrub and
N Z herbfields, from sea level to ,m, and
Between and a total of around is commoner at higher elevations and less
Redpolls from England were imported to intensively settled districts. Some local move-
New Zealand by the Nelson, Canterbury, ment and flock formation occurs in winter.
Otago, Auckland and Wellington Acclimat- The race established in New Zealand is
isation Societies (see Lever ). The birds predominantly the British cabaret, with
became established and rapidly increased in perhaps some nominate flammea, which is a
New Zealand, where Thomson (: ) winter visitor to Britain (Wodzicki ,
wrote that although the species was ‘not Williams ).
commonly seen about the towns or in thickly
settled districts, [it] is abundant in both Impact: Until the middle of the last century,
islands, especially in open upland country at C. flammea was considered to be, as in its
moderate elevations’. Four years later, Thom- native range, a harmless, even beneficial
son () reported C. flammea as common in species, preying on turnip greenfly and other
high and open country from Foveaux pests (Thomson , Oliver ). In
Strait (between South and Stewart Islands) central Otago, however, Redpolls have
northwards to Auckland, being particularly latterly become a serious pest in orchards by
common in Southland, Otago and Canter-
bury in South Island, and between Welling-
ton and Taranaki on the west coast of North
Island. Philpott () reported Redpolls
above the tree line at altitudes up to m.
On offlying islands, Redpolls reached
Campbell and the Snares around ; Lord
Howe (where they have since disappeared)
in (Williams ); Kapiti and Stewart
before (Oliver ); and Three Kings,
the Chathams and the Aucklands prior to
(Oliver ).
Williams () and Wodzicki () de-
scribed Redpolls as widely distributed and
locally abundant on both the main islands
and on most of the above offlying islands, to
which Kinsky () added the Kermadecs.
Williams () reported breeding on the
Antipodes, Aucklands, Snares, Chatham and
Campbell Islands. Falla et al. () found
Redpolls to be abundant and well distributed
in South Island up to ,m; in the north of
North Island they were relatively scarce, but a
few nested in Northland around Parengarenga Common Redpoll
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Naturalised Birds of the World
pecking at blossom and fruit, especially those
of apricots (Long ), peaches and
strawberries, and they also spread the seeds of
such weeds as dock, redroot, sedges, grasses,
clovers, fat hen, brassicas, thistles and evening
primrose (Heather & Robertson ).
M I
Redpolls were first recorded on Macquarie
Island in (Kinsky ), and probable
breeding was reported by Williams ().
Breeding was confirmed by Barrett et al.
().
House Finch
Carpodacus mexicanus
Natural Range:W North America, from SW
Canada S to S Mexico. (The House Finch House Finch
appears to be spreading slowly eastwards,
and has been extensively translocated elevations, occurring in dry woodland,
by man to eastern North America. For savanna, urban areas, agricultural land,
details see Lever : –; also e.g. high-altitude ranchland, forest ecotones and
Cecil & Dinsmore , James and scrub. The species’ main limiting factor seems
Morneau et al. ). to be the availability of water (Scott et al.
Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is. ); according to Van Riper (), the
success of the House Finch on Hawaii
H I has been largely due to the expansion of
House Finches of the form C. m. frontalis ranching with its concomitant supply of
were introduced as cagebirds to the Hawaiian water.
Islands, probably from California, before
(possibly as early as ), where some soon Impact: House Finches in the Hawaiian
escaped or were freed and became established Islands help to spread the seeds of the
in the wild (Caum ). alien Banana Poka Passiflora mollisima
As early as the turn of the twentieth (Warshauer et al. ), and the native Fire
century, McGregor () reported House Tree Myrica faya (Cuddihy & Stone ) and
Finches to be extremely common on Maui, Naio Myoporum sandvicensis (Van Riper
and Munro () found them to be well ), and various other native and exotic
established on all of the main islands. shrubs.
Zeillemaker & Scott () described them as In Hawaii, the House Finch has become
abundant on Kauai and Hawaii, and common something of a pest to fruit and some
on Oahu, Molokai, Lanai and Maui. Pratt et vegetable crops – especially Papaya Carica
al. (), Clement et al. () and the AOU papaya (Berger ).
() refer to C. mexicanus as abundant on all In their study area at the Lyon Arboretum
the main islands and as occurring as vagrants in Honolulu, Shehata et al. () found no
on Nihoa. evidence of malarial infestation among House
The House Finch in the Hawaiian Islands Finches.
occupies a broad range of habitats and
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 265
Icteridae (New World Blackbirds)
ICTERIDAE while those seen on Dominica and Grenada
(NEW WORLD BLACKBIRDS) could be vagrants from Venezuela’. The AOU
() says that the Troupial is also established
Troupial on Mona Island, but has only been ‘reported’
Icterus icterus from St John.
Natural Range: N South America S to N I I
Argentina; also Aruba and Curacao Is. According to Sick (), Troupials of the
Naturalised Range: North America: West eastern Brazilian race jamacaii have been
Indies. South America: ?Isla de Itamaracá. present on Isla de Itamaracá north of Recife
since . In view of the proximity of the
W I Brazilian mainland a natural arrival cannot be
On Puerto Rico, Troupials were first reported discounted.
to be breeding in the wild at Quebradillas by
Gundlach (). Bowdish (), who found
them to be popular cagebirds on the island,
was told they had also become established in Spot-breasted Oriole
other localities. By the s birds of the Icterus pectoralis
nominate subspecies (eastern Colombia and
northwestern Venezuela) were also present on Natural Range: SW Mexico to NW Costa
Jamaica, St Thomas and neighbouring Water Rica.
Island. Allen (), who said that Troupials Naturalised Range: North America: USA.
were long-standing but uncommon local resi- Pacific Ocean: Isla del Coco.
dents on Puerto Rico, listed them as having
also occurred on St John, Antigua, Dominica U S
and Grenada. Allen (), Peters () and The Spot-breasted Oriole was one of the first
de Schauensee () state that the birds came exotic birds to breed in the wild in Miami,
from Curaçao, where the form is ridgwayi. Florida, where Brookfield & Griswold ()
Blake () listed Troupials as occurring on found escaped cagebirds nesting along the
St Thomas, Mona (off Puerto Rico), and also Miami River in . By it ranged north
on Jamaica, where Lack () said they had and south for more than km, and by
died out. had reached Hypoloxo Island in Broward
Bond (: ) describes the Troupial as County; the following year it had spread to
‘… established in Puerto Rico and St Thomas, West Palm Beach, km north of Miami
including Water Island; also reported from (Stevenson , ). King () reported
Jamaica, St John, Antigua, Dominica and that I. pectoralis was established in Palm
Grenada … Recently introduced on Mona. Beach, Broward and Dade Counties in south-
… [inhabits] semi-arid woodland and eastern Florida, and by the following decade
mangrove swamps, chiefly in southwestern the species occurred in Brevard County up to
Puerto Rico (e.g. Guánica State forest) … and km north of Miami and km south.
east and south coasts of St Thomas … numer- James () believed that the birds were
ous near Guánica’. declining, and P. W. Smith (pers. comm. to
Raffaele et al. (: –) say that James ) thought they might no longer
I. icterus in Puerto Rico ‘is common in the occur north of Palm Beach County, and that
southwest but uncommon throughout the the populations in West Palm Beach, Fort
rest of the island. … also occurs in the Virgin Lauderdale and Miami were decreasing. The
Islands … on the south and east coast of St AOU () says that Spotted-breasted
Thomas, on Water Island and on St John …. Orioles are established in Palm Beach,
Birds observed on Antigua may be immi- Broward and Dade Counties, and occasion-
grants from the Virgin Islands or escaped pets, ally occur north to Brevard County.
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:36 PM Page 266
Naturalised Birds of the World
naturally northwards through much of the
Caribbean to the Bahamas, central Florida
and southern Georgia (Raffaele et al. ,
AOU ).
Naturalised Range: North America: West
Indies: South America: Chile.
W I
Although most of the West Indies has been
colonised naturally, the AOU () suggests
it was possibly introduced to Vieques (off
Puerto Rico) before and probably to
Barbados, where Raffaele et al. () say it
was first seen in .
C
Shiny Cowbirds were first recorded in central
Chile before . Between and
large numbers were imported as cagebirds and
by – sizeable flocks had become estab-
lished near Machalí. By the late s, they
ranged from Coquimbo Province south to
Malleco Province (Friedman , Hellmayr
). By the mid-s, the species was
numerous from Copiapó in Atacamá Province
Spot-breasted Oriole south to Aisén Province, i.e. between oS
and about oS. Today M. bonariensis is estab-
According to Sibley (), I. pectoralis is lished virtually continuously from Atacamá to
found principally in mature trees in suburban Chiloë and at Chile Chico, Aysen, and is very
localities, where it feeds largely on fruits and common in the mediterranean habitats of
nectar. Peters () identified the subspecies central Chile (Vuilleumier ). It seems
as the nominate pectoralis (eastern Oaxaca to almost certain that the population is derived
central Chiapas, Mexico). from escaped or released pets rather than from
natural immigrants from Argentina, to whom
I C the Andes would have proved an insuperable
According to the AOU (), the Spot- barrier (Hellmayr ). Shiny Cowbirds
breasted Oriole has ‘apparently’ been occur in a variety of habitats: open fields,
introduced to and is established on the Costa farmland, pastures, forest edges, scrub,
Rican Isla del Coco, km off the coast of gardens and urban parks, from sea-level to
Central America. No other information seems ,m (Jaramillo et al. ). The subspecies
available. established in Chile is the nominate
bonariensis from central South America
(Peters ).
Shiny Cowbird Impact: Because the Shiny Cowbird is a brood
Molothrus bonariensis parasite of other birds Vuilleumier ()
considered that it plays an important ecologi-
Natural Range: Originally from E Panama S cal role in Chile, where Johnson (–)
to C South America. Since , as a result recorded parasitised nests of the following na-
of habitat modification, has spread tive species, in descending order of frequency:
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:37 PM Page 267
Icteridae (New World Blackbirds)
Common Diuca Finch Diuca diuca, Yellow- island of Kauai in by Dora R. Isenberg,
winged Blackbird Chrysomus thilius, Rufous- and also on Oahu (Caum ). Three years
collared Sparrow Zenotrichia capensis, later others were liberated on Niihau and
Long-tailed Meadowlark Sturnella loyca, Maui, but they became established only
Black-winged Ground Dove Metriopelia on Kauai, where Zeillemaker & Scott ()
melanoptera, Fire-eyed Diucon Xolmis pyrope, described them as common in fields and
Spectacled Tyrant Hymenops perspicillatus and cultivated land. Berger (: ) said they
the alien House Sparrow Passer domesticus. were ‘fairly common but highly localized,
being found near Kekaha, Lihue, Kapaa, and
Kilauea’. Pratt et al. () said they were
common in lowland fields throughout the
Western Meadowlark island. Pratt () and the AOU ()
Sturnella neglecta confirm the species’ presence on Kauai.
Natural Range: SW Canada and W USA; Impact: The disappearance from Kauai of the
winters S to NW Mexico. also introduced Skylark Alauda arvensis has
Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is. been attributed to competition from the
subsequently introduced larger and ecologi-
H I cally similar Western Meadowlark.
Western Meadowlarks were released on the
Shiny Cowbird
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:37 PM Page 268
Naturalised Birds of the World
Carib Grackle Lever ) released over Yellowhammers
Quiscalus lugubris in New Zealand. Williams adds that in
and a further were freed in Canter-
Natural Range: From N Venezuela, the Gui- bury, and in more on Stewart Island
anas, and NE Brazil N through the Lesser where they apparently disappeared.
Antilles in the West Indies to Montserrat. Thomson (: ) records that Yel-
Naturalised Range: North America: West lowhammers ‘quickly spread all over New
Indies. Zealand, and today are common from
Foveaux Strait [between Stewart and South
W I Islands] to the extreme north of the North
According to Peters (), the Barbados race Island’, becoming established wherever grass
fortirostris was introduced between and and grain seeds were available.
to Barbuda, Antigua and possibly St On offlying islands, Yellowhammers were
Kitts. Blake () indicates an introduction recorded on the Chathams in , on Raoul
also to St Martin. On Antigua, where in the Kermadecs (c. ), and Three Kings,
Danforth () recorded Carib Grackles as Mokohinau, Little Barrier, Kapiti, Codfish,
introduced and locally common, Holland & Campbell and the Aucklands before
Williams () found them to be abundant. (Oliver ). Williams () reported breed-
Bond (: ) described Q. lugubris as ing only on Raoul and the Chatham Islands.
‘introduced on Barbuda, Antigua, St Kitts, Wodzicki () and Kinsky ()
and possibly St Martin’, and as occurring only described E. citrinella as widespread and
in settled localities. The AOU () confirms common on both main islands, and on
the species’ establishment on St Martin but Stewart, Raoul and the Chathams, and as a
says it has died out on St Kitts, whereas straggler to some other islands. Falla et al.
Raffaele et al. (), who say it is a common () found the species to occur widely on
resident on most of the Lesser Antilles from North and South Islands in a variety of
Grenada to Anguilla, list it as surviving on St habitats from beaches, saltings and marshes to
Kitts and as also occurring on St Barthélemy. alpine tussock grass at ,m; the birds bred
regularly on the Chatham Islands and
occasionally on Raoul, and had been recorded
on even more remote subantarctic islands.
EMBERIZIDAE Heather & Robertson () said that they
remained uncommon on the Chathams,
(BUNTINGS, AMERICAN and described the mainland population as
SPARROWS AND ALLIES) widespread and locally common.
Yellowhammer Impact: Thomson (: ) said that Yel-
Emberiza citrinella lowhammers were ‘destroyed wholesale as
noxious pests in all grain-growing areas’, and
Natural Range: From the British Isles east- Oliver () claimed that they were one of
wards through Europe to E European the most destructive introductions to New
Russia and Lake Baikal. Winters south to Zealand. Williams () said that complaints
N Africa, SW and WC Asia, and Mongolia. of their depredations had become less
Naturalised Range: Australasia: New Zealand. common, and Heather & Robertson ()
Pacific Ocean: ?Lord Howe I; ?Macquarie I. regarded them as a colourful addition to New
Zealand’s avifauna.
N Z
According to Thomson (), between L H I
and the Nelson, Auckland, Canterbury Yellowhammers were first recorded on Lord
and Otago Acclimatisation Societies (see Howe Island around (Oliver ); as
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:37 PM Page 269
Emberizidae (Buntings, American Sparrows and Allies)
they are not mentioned by Barrett et al. () appearance was, however, somewhat erratic;
they have presumably since died out. at one time they considerably increased in
Otago and then, unaccountably, rapidly
M I declined (Thomson ).
Barrett et al. () record the presence of E. Williams () and Oliver () said that
citrinella on Macquarie Island, where the E. cirlus had a rather restricted distribution
species’ status is being assessed. and was nowhere common; it occurred at
Tauranga, Hawke’s Bay, Manawatu,
Wairarapa, Hutt Valley, Wellington, Canter-
bury and Otago, and on Southland’s Resolu-
Cirl Bunting tion Island. Kinsky () confirmed the
Emberiza cirlus species’ presence in the above localities and in
Nelson, Marlborough and North Westland,
Natural Range: NW Africa, W and S Europe and perhaps in Taranaki. Falla et al. ()
to W and N Asia Minor. found Cirl Buntings to be widespread in open
Naturalised Range: Australasia: New Zealand. country but rather rare, except in the lime-
stone country east of the Southern Alps in the
N Z north and east (e.g. near Oamaru in Otago) of
Although Thomson (, ) was able to South Island, and in the southern half of
trace only three documented introductions of North Island. Heather & Robertson ()
Cirl Buntings to New Zealand – seven by the said that Cirl Buntings, which, with a total
Otago Acclimatisation Society in , that population of only ,–,, are the rarest
were unsuccessfully released on Stewart Island of New Zealand’s introduced birds, occur in
in , and four by the Wellington Society in open country from Northland to southern
or – it is likely that others were im- Otago, mainly in drier pastoral country inter-
ported at around the same time. spersed with trees or hedgerows or in rough
The birds liberated in Otago on South grassland with patches of gorse, briar, and
Island and in Wellington on North Island matagouri, east of the Main Divide from Gis-
quickly became established and spread. From borne to Otago and near Nelson: they are
the latter they had reached Taranaki by , locally common in Marlborough and central
where flocks were apparently common along Otago. In winter, there is some local or
the coast at Hawera and elsewhere. Their nomadic movement into maritime grassland
Cirl Bunting
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Naturalised Birds of the World
and saltmarshes and flock formation, cultivated and wooded island of Basse Terre,
especially in Tasman Bay in northern South and why on Grande Terre and Martinique
Island. populations are localized and fairly small.
Grassland Yellow Finch Saffron Finch
Sicalis luteola Sicalis flaveola
Natural Range: From S Mexico to C and S C Natural Range: From N South America S to N
South America. Argentina.
Naturalised Range: North America: West Naturalised Range: North America: West
Indies. Indies. South America: Panama. Pacific
Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
W I
Pinchon () says that Grassland Yellow W I
Finches, according to Peters () of the Saffron Finches are believed to have been
nominate subspecies (Colombia, Venezuela, introduced to Jamaica by the Revd J. M.
Guyana and Brazil), were introduced to Shakespeare in about (Allen , de
Barbados in about , where Bond () Schauensee ). Lack () reported them
found them to be abundant on the windward to be widespread in lowland cultivated regions
side in . with short grass and scattered trees, particu-
From Barbados, S. luteola colonised natu- larly near human settlement, but said they
rally the Grenadines, Mustique and southern were absent from native forest. The population
St Lucia, and by had arrived in is probably regularly reinforced by recruit-
Martinique (Pinchon & Benito-Espinal ment from escaped cagebirds. Raffaele et al.
). Guth () saw the species on both () record the species as widely distributed
Grande Terre and Basse Terre, Guadeloupe, in and common in gardens, roadside verges and
and Bond () was told it had arrived grassland on Jamaica.
on St Vincent in that year. (Raffaele et al. Saffron Finches were introduced to Puerto
() give the dates of arrival in Martinique Rico in about (Raffaele & Kepler ),
and Guadeloupe as and respec- where Raffaele et al. () and the AOU
tively). Between and , Barré & () say they are fairly common but local in
Benito-Espinal () saw Grassland Yellow gardens in and around San Juan, Río Piedras
Finches on Marie Galante off Guadeloupe, and Dorado.
and Bond () was informed of their arrival
on Antigua in . Raffaele et al. (: ) P
described the species as ‘An uncommon and In a pair of Saffron Finches – probably
local resident on Antigua, Guadeloupe, escaped pets from a ship passing through the
Martinique, St Lucia, Barbados, St Vincent canal – were observed at Gatún near the
and Grenada and a vagrant in the Grenadines Caribbean coast (Scholes ). By the late
(Mustique)’. See also AOU (). s the species was locally common in
Barré & Benito-Espinal () found that urban areas and parks along the Caribbean
on Guadeloupe, Martinique and Marie littoral of Panama from Gatún Dam to Gatún
Galante, Grassland Yellow Finches inhabit and Coco Solo (Long , AOU , pers.
open country, large meadows in dry areas and obs. ).
dense bushes, but enter tangled thickets only
to roost. Their absence from small enclosures H I
between sugar-cane fields may explain their Saffron Finches, presumably escaped or
failure to colonise fully the intensively released cagebirds, became established on
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:37 PM Page 271
Emberizidae (Buntings, American Sparrows and Allies)
Oahu before and on Hawaii in was likely to spread north and south of
(Berger ). They occurred on the former in Hualalai and onto the drier slopes of Mauna
Kapiolani Park, and on the latter in the area Kea and Mauna Loa on Hawaii, and possibly
between Kona and Kamuela. Zeillemaker & to windward Hawaii and to Maui.
Scott () listed them as local and rare in
residential and community parklands, on
Oahu only. A. J. Berger (pers. comm. )
said there were ‘several small populations in Common Diuca Finch
widely scattered locations on Oahu … also at Diuca diuca
several locations on Hawaii … birds seen
in one day at the Puuwaawa Ranch’. Pratt et Natural Range: Chile and Argentina.
al. () recorded the species as common in Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Easter I.
Kona and Kohalo on Hawaii and noted that it
possibly survived in Kapiolani Park on Oahu E I
but might now be dying out. Pratt () and In , Common Diuca Finches were intro-
the AOU () listed Saffron Finches as duced to Easter Island, where they still survive
occurring on both islands – in small numbers in spite of predation by also introduced
on Oahu and along the North Kona coast of Chimango Caracaras Milvago chimango
Hawaii. Scott et al. () found Saffron (Johnson et al. , Jaramillo et al. ).
Finches on Hawaii in dry mesic lowlying According to Holyoak & Thibault (), the
localities interspersed with trees; the highest race present is believed to be crassirostris
densities occurred in exotic tree habitats (northern Chile and Argentina).
although most of the population was in Ohia
Metrosideras collina/polymorpha woodland.
The same authors predicted that S. flaveola
Yellow-faced Grassquit
Tiaris olivaceus
Natural Range: From E Mexico S to Colombia
and Venezuela; also Cuba, Jamaica, Cay-
man Is. and Puerto Rico.
Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
H I
Yellow-faced Grassquits, presumably escaped
or released pets, were first seen at Pacific Pal-
isades on Oahu in , where they were de-
scribed by Zeillemaker & Scott () as local
and uncommon on agricultural land and pas-
tures. A. J. Berger (pers. comm. ), Pratt et
al. (), Pratt () and the AOU ()
indicate that a small population continues to
survive in the Koolau Mountains on Oahu.
Bahamas
The Yellow-faced Grassquit was introduced to
New Providence in the Bahamas in with
the Cuban Grassquit T. canorus, but has since
died out.
Saffron Finch
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:37 PM Page 272
Naturalised Birds of the World
Cuban Grassquit Hawaiian Islands is rather confused. Although
Tiaris canorus Peterson () said the birds were widely dis-
tributed on Oahu and local on Kauai and
Natural Range: Endemic to Cuba. Maui, Richardson & Bowles () found
Naturalised Range: North America: West none on Kauai in . Some were noted on
Indies. Maui and Molokai in and in also
on Kauai (Blake ). Red-crested Cardinals
W I were described by Berger () as common
This species, which is a popular cagebird, in parts of Hawaii and in drier regions of lee-
was ‘Introduced to New Providence in the ward Oahu. The Hawaiian Audubon Society
Bahamas in where it is fairly common () said they occurred in low-lying dry
throughout the island’ (Raffaele et al. : bush country, thickets and settled areas on all
). the larger main islands, although they were
uncommon on Oahu where, however, they
were believed to be spreading. Zeillemaker &
Scott () described them as local and
Red-crested Cardinal uncommon on Kauai and Molokai, common
Paroaria coronata on Oahu, and local and rare on Maui, in
introduced woodland and scrub and in
Natural Range: E Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay residential and community parkland. A. J.
and Argentina. Berger (pers. comm. ) said the species was
Naturalised Range: Asia: Japan. North Amer- then very common throughout lowland
ica: ?USA; ?West Indies. Pacific Ocean: Oahu, and uncommon on Kauai and Maui.
Hawaiian Is. More recently, Pratt et al. (: )
recorded the Red-crested Cardinal as
J ‘introduced … in . Now common and
The OSJ () lists this species as a breeding widespread on Oahu, less common and
resident in central Honshu (Saitama, Tokyo).
U S
Roberts & Wolfendon (), the AOU
(), and Sibley () say that although
this species occurs in southern Florida, no
permanent wild population has yet become
established. James () lists it as occurring in
Broward, Dade and Orange Counties.
W I
Although the AOU () states that the Red-
crested Cardinal has been ‘Introduced and
established in … Puerto Rico (Dorado)’,
Raffaele et al. () make no mention of this
introduction.
H I
Between and , Red-crested Cardinals
from Brazil were released on Oahu by
William McInerny and on Kauai by Dora R.
Isenberg (Caum ).
Thereafter, the species’ history in the Red-crested Cardinal
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:37 PM Page 273
Cardinalidae (Cardinal, Grosbeaks, Saltators and Allies)
localised on Kauai, Lanai, Molokai and Maui the introduction of the House Sparrow
(Lahaina area). Reports from Hawaii have not [Passer domesticus]. It remained common,
been confirmed’. Pratt () and the AOU however, in rural areas up until the
() confirm this distribution. s, when the loss of the cedar [Juniperus
bermudiana] forest, the introduction of the
Kiskadee [Pitangus sulphuratus] and establish-
ment of the Starling [Sturnus vulgaris], and
Yellow-billed Cardinal the increase of urbanization, all contributed
Paroaria capitata to a drastic reduction of its numbers’. Accord-
ing to Raine () it remains a common
Natural Range: SE Bolivia, S Brazil, Paraguay resident in woodland, ponds, gardens,
and N Argentina. swamps, mangroves, and marshes.
Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
H I
H I Northern Cardinals imported from California
According to Pratt et al. () and Pratt were released on Oahu by William McInerny
(), Yellow-billed Cardinals were intro- in and , on Kauai by Dora R.
duced to the island of Hawaii around Isenberg in , and at around the same time
(the AOU () says in ). Here they are at Hilo on Hawaii (Caum ), By the late
established in dry scrub along the Kona coast s they had become well established on all
between Kawaihae Bay and Honaunau, being three islands, and had spread from Kauai to
most common at Honokohau. The AOU Niihau, where prior to they were said to
() says that although the population is be abundant. They first appeared on Maui in
small it is currently spreading. , on Molokai in and on Lanai in
(Munro ).
CARDINALIDAE
(CARDINAL, GROSBEAKS,
SALTATORS AND ALLIES)
Northern Cardinal
Cardinalis cardinalis
Natural Range: The E USA S to Georgia,
Florida, SE Texas and Louisiana; Mexico,
Guatemala, and Belize.
Naturalised Range: Atlantic Ocean: Bermuda.
Pacific Ocean: Hawaiian Is.
B
According to Bartram (), Northern Car-
dinals of the nominate subspecies (eastern
USA) were probably introduced to Bermuda
from Virginia as pets by early settlers around
. ‘Formerly abundant throughout the
island’, wrote Wingate (: –), ‘it was
rapidly displaced from the built-up areas by Northern Cardinal
naturalised 10_11.5 JM 21/10/05 8:37 PM Page 274
Naturalised Birds of the World
According to Peterson (), Northern Crimson-backed Tanagers were established in
Cardinals were then well established in the Punaauia and Paéa areas. According to
lowland and residential localities on most of Pratt et al. (), the species was settled but
the larger islands, where Berger () said they uncommon on the west coast, where Thibault
occurred in both hydric and xeric regions to an & Rives () recorded it to be confined to
altitude of around ,m. Zeillemaker & gardens and plantations.
Scott () and Scott et al. () described
the species as common in both exotic and
native woodland and scrub, and Pratt et al.
() said it was a common vagrant Red-legged Honeycreeper
on Nihoa. The AOU () confirms this Cyanerpes cyaneus
distribution.
Natural Range: From Mexico S through W
Impact: In Hawaii, C. cardinalis breeds Colombia, C Bolivia, W Ecuador and
throughout the year, enabling it to raise more Venezuela to the Guianas, Brazil, and NE
broods than in its natural range. It multiplied Peru. Also Trinidad and Tobago Is.
rapidly after its introduction, and was soon Naturalised Range: North America: West
reported to be damaging fruit crops. Indies.
Although in urban localities it lives
sympatrically with the also introduced W I
Red-crested Cardinal Paroaria coronata, there Although de Schauensee () suggests that
seems to be little interspecific competition this species’ presence on Cuba is a result of
(Fisher ). human intervention, Bond () indicated it
to be a native of the island. Raffaele et al.
(: ) say it is ‘A rather rare and local
resident on Cuba, mainly found in the Sierra
del Rosario, Sierra de la Güira, Pinar del Río
THRAUPIDAE (TANAGERS) and Sierra Maestra, but also occurs as
scattered populations in Zapata Swamp and
Crimson-backed Tanager Havana. Formerly more widespread, may
Ramphocelus dimidiatus have been introduced to Cuba’. The AOU
(), who claim it is only ‘possibly
Natural Range: Panama, N Colombia and established’ on the island, say that reports are
Venezuela. probably based on escaped pets. Cuba is not
Naturalised Range: Pacific Ocean: Society Is. included in the natural range of the
Red-legged Honeycreeper by Dickinson
S I (). Garrido (), who believed the
Guild () said that he had imported this species was first introduced to Cuba from
species to Tahiti – in about , according Mexico between and , identified the
to Holyoak and Thibault (), who said subspecies as C. c. carneipes from eastern and
that a decade earlier small numbers of southern Mexico.
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM
Naturalised birds that have had a negative impact on native birds included in the World Conservation Union Red List of Threatened Animals.
Alien Species Native Species Country Impact IUCN Category
Chukar Partridge Hawaiian Goose Hawaiian Is. Competition Vulnerable
Alectoris chukar Branta sandvicensis for browse
Common Pheasant [New Zealand Quail New Zealand Infections Extinct c. ]
Phasianus colchicus Coturnix novaezeelandiae
Muscovy Duck Meller’s Duck Madagascar Hybridisation Lower Risk –
Cairina moschata Anas melleri and Mauritius near threatened
and Mallard
Anas platyrhynchos
21/10/05
Mallard Hawaiian Duck Hawaiian Is. Hybridisation Vulnerable
Anas platyrhynchos Anas wyvilliana
Ruddy Duck White-headed Duck Spain Hybridisation Vulnerable
Oxyura jamaicensis Oxyura leucocephala
8:44 PM
Cattle Egret Seychelles Magpie Robin Seychelles Is. Chick and egg Critically Endangered
Bubulcus ibis Copsychus sechellarum predation
Weka Magenta Petrel Chatham I. Predation Critically Endangered
Gallirallus australis Pterodroma magentae
Extinct –]
Page 275
Weka [Red-fronted Parakeet Macquarie I. Predation
Gallirallus australis Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae erythrotis
Weka [Buff-banded Rail Macquarie I. Predation Extinct ]
Gallirallus australis Gallirallus philippensis macquariensis
Crimson Rosella Norfolk Island Parakeet Norfolk I. Competition Critically Endangered
Platycercus elegans Cyanoramphus cookii
Rose-ringed Parakeet Mauritius Parakeet Mauritius Competition Critically Endangered
Psittacula krameri Psittacula echo
Barn Owl Seychelles Scops Owl Seychelles Is. Competition Critically Endangered
Tyto alba Otus insularis
Barn Owl Seychelles Kestrel Seychelles Is. Competition Vulnerable
Tyto alba Falco araea
House Crow Pink Pigeon Mauritius Predation Critically Endangered
Corvus splendens Nesoenas mayeri
House Crow Mauritius Kestrel Mauritius Predation Endangered
Corvus splendens Falco punctatus
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM
(cont.):
Alien Species Native Species Country Impact IUCN Category
Blackbird [Island Thrush Norfolk I. Competition Extinct (after
Turdus merula Turdus p. poliocephalus )]
Red-whiskered Bulbul Olivaceous Bulbul Réunion & Competition Vulnerable
Pycnonotus jocosus Hypsipetes b. borbonicus/H. b. olivaceus Mauritius for food
Red-whiskered Bulbul Mauritius Cuckoo-shrike Mauritius Competition Vulnerable
Pycnonotus jocosus Coracina typica for food
Red-whiskered Bulbul Mauritius Kestrel Mauritius Competition Endangered
Pycnonotus jocosus Falco punctatus
21/10/05
Red-whiskered Bulbul Pink Pigeon Mauritius Competition Critically Endangered
Pycnonotus jocosus Nesoenas mayeri
Red-vented Bulbul Tahitian Monarch Tahiti Aggression Critically Endangered
Pycnonotus cafer Pomarea n. nigra
8:44 PM
Common Myna St Helena Plover St Helena Competition/ Endangered
Acridotheres tristis Charadrius sanctaehelenae predation
Common Myna Mauritius Parakeet Mauritius Competition Critically Endangered
Acridotheres tristis Psittacula echo
Page 276
Common Myna Mauritius Kestrel Mauritius Competition for Endangered
Acridotheres tristis Falco punctatus food and harassment
Common Myna Seychelles Magpie Robin Seychelles Competition Critically Endangered
Acridotheres tristis Copsychus sechellarum
Common Myna Long-billed Reed Warbler Tahiti Nest robbing Vulnerable
Acridotheres tristis Acrocephalus c. caffer
Common Myna Tahitian Monarch Tahiti Nest robbing Critically Endangered
Acridotheres tristis Pomarea nigra
Red Fody Mauritius Fody Mauritius Competition Critically Endangered
Foudia madagascariensis Foudia rubra
Red Fody Rodrigues Fody Rodrigues Competition Vulnerable
Foudia madagascariensis Foudia flavicans
Black Drongo Rota Bridled White-eye Rota I. Predation Critically Endangered
Dicrurus macrocercus Zosterops rotensis
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM
Birds whose status as naturalised species is uncertain, or about which little is known.
Name Natural Range Possible Naturalised Range Date of Arrival Source(s)
Rufous-vented Chachalaca N South America West Indies (Bequia & Union, ? late th c. by Europeans Delacour & Amadon
Ortalis ruficauda Grenadines) or Carib Indians
Crested Bobwhite C & S America West Indies (Mustique) ? before AOU
Colinus cristatus
Rock Partridge Alps to Balkans; Ukraine (former USSR) Yanusevich
Alectoris graeca Italy & Sicily
Red-necked Francolin E, S, SW Africa Madagascar, Mascarenes, . Before Meinertzhagen ;
Francolinus afer Philippines, Ascension I. . c. Peters
21/10/05
Chinese Francolin NE India to Mascarenes (Réunion); . c. by the French . Sonnerat
Francolinus pintadeanus SE China Philippines (Luzon) ? . Du Pont
Daurian Partridge E C Asia to C China Philippines (Luzon) Before Du Pont
Perdix dauurica [sic]
Green Jungle Fowl Java to Sumba & Cocos (Keeling) Is Before Barrett et al.
8:44 PM
Gallus varius Alor
Madagascar Partridge Madagascar Mascarenes (Réunion) c. by the French Sonnerat
Margaroperdix
madagarensis [sic]
Page 277
Blue-breasted (King) Quail India & Indonesia Marianas (Guam) C. c. lineata from Strophlet
Coturnix chinensis to E & C Australia Philippines before
Jungle Bush Quail India & Sri Lanka Mascarenes (Réunion) c. Vinson
Perdicula asiatica
Painted Bush Quail India Mascarenes (Réunion) Before Desjardins
Perdicula erythrorhyncha
Greater White-fronted Goose Holarctic UK; Germany; Netherlands ? before Lensink ;
Anser albifrons Blair et al.
Black-bellied Whistling Duck SE Texas to Balearic Is. Before when pair Marti &
Dendrocygna autumnalis N Argentina (Mallorca) with ducklings seen del Moral
Wood Duck W & E North England s Lever , ,
Aix sponsa America Germany c. – Gebhardt
Italy ? Biondi et al.
Kerguelen Pintail Kerguelen & Amsterdam I. (by had spread Segonzac
Anas eatoni Crozet Is. to St Paul I.)
Spot-billed Duck India to China Oman ? since Blair et al.
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM
(cont.):
Name Natural Range Possible Naturalised Range Date of Arrival Source(s)
Anas poecilorhyncha
Marbled Duck Spain to C Asia France; Oman Since (Oman) Blair et al.
Marmaronetta angustirostris
Common Pochard W Europe to C Asia Andorra Before Blair et al.
Aythya ferina
Northern Bald Ibis W Morocco; Syria; SW Spain E F J Garcia pers.
Geronticus eremita Turkey comm.
21/10/05
Common Moorhen Sub-Saharan Africa St Helena c. Mackworth-Praed &
Gallinula chloropus Grant
meridionalis
Gough Island Moorhen Gough I. Tristan da Cunha Early s Wace & Holdgate
Gallinula nesiotis comeri
8:44 PM
Little Crake Europe to NW Kuwait Before Gregory
Porzana parva China
Spotted Crake W Europe to Kuwait Before Gregory
Page 278
Porzana porzana C Asia
Water Rail Much of Palaearctic Kuwait Before Gregory
Rallus aquaticus
Madagascar Buttonquail Madagascar Mascarenes (Réunion) Before Watson et al.
Turnix nigricollis Îles Glorieuses Before Penny
Speckled Pigeon Sub-Saharan Canary Is. Since Martí & del Moral
Columba guinea Africa
Namaqua Dove Sub-Saharan Kuwait Before Gregory
Oena capensis Africa
Red Turtle Dove Tibet & India to Singapore C J Hailes pers. comm.
Streptopelia tranquebarica Philippines
Brown Parrot Sub-Saharan Africa South Africa (Cape Province) ? Forshaw
Poicephalus meyeri
Blue-naped Parrot Philippines S to Mantanani Besar & Si-Amil Is Before Forshaw
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM
(cont.):
Name Natural Range Possible Naturalised Range Date of Arrival Source(s)
Tanygnathus lucionensis Sula Is. (Malaysia)
Great-billed Parrot Molucca & Lesser Philippines (Balut) Before Hachisuka
Tanygnathus Sunda Is.
megalorhynchos
Orange-chinned Parakeet S Mexico to USA (Florida) Owre
Brotogeris jugularis N South America
Rosy-faced Lovebird Angola to South USA (Arizona) Before Kaufman
21/10/05
Agapornis roseicollis Africa
Dusky-headed Parakeet Colombia to USA (Florida) Before Troops & Dilley
Aratinga weddelli Bolivia
Red-lored Parrot Mexico to Brazil USA (Florida, California) Before Sibley
8:44 PM
Amazona autumnalis
Blue-fronted Parrot Bolivia to Uruguay USA (Florida, California) Before Sibley
Amazona aestiva
Mealy Parrot Mexico to Brazil USA (Florida, California) Before Sibley
Page 279
Amazona farinosa
White-fronted Parrot Mexico to Costa USA (Florida, California) Before Sibley
Amazona albifrons Rica West Indies (Puerto Rico) Before AOU
Yellow-lored Parrot Mexico to Belize USA (Florida) Before Sibley
Amazona xantholora
Thick-billed Parrot Mexico USA (Arizona) ? s AOU
Rhynchopsitta
pachyrhyncha
Red-breasted Parakeet India to Hainan; Borneo Before Smythies
Psittacula alexandri many Indonesian Penang Before King et al.
islands Singapore Before Seng
Japan Before OSJ
Plum-headed Parakeet India, Sri Lanka South Africa s Lever
Psittacula cyanocephala
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM
(cont.):
Name Natural Range Possible Naturalised Range Date of Arrival Source(s)
Dunn’s Lark Mauritania to Sudan; Kuwait Before Gregory
Eremalauda dunni Syria to W Arabia
Varied Tit E Asia to Japan Hawaiian Is c. Phillips
Parus varius
White-cheeked Bulbul W Asia to India UAE, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Before Richardson ;
Pycnonotus leucogenys Bahrain, Oman Jennings
Savi’s Warbler Europe to Kuwait Before Gregory
21/10/05
Locustella luscinioides Kazakhstan;
N Africa
Graceful Warbler NE Africa & Arabia Kuwait Before Gregory
Prinia gracilis to Bangladesh
8:44 PM
Moustached Warbler S Europe to Kuwait Before Gregory
Acrocephalus melanopogon Afghanistan
Eurasian Reed Warbler Europe & NW Kuwait Before Gregory
Acrocephalus scirpaceus Africa to Kazakhstan
Page 280
Great Reed Warbler Europe to Xinjiang Kuwait Before Gregory
Acrocephalus arundinaceus
Olivaceous Warbler S Europe to Kuwait Before Gregory
Iduna pallida Xinjiang; NW Africa;
Niger to Sudan
Greater Blue-eared Glossy Sub-Saharan Africa Canary Is Before J. Martin & T. Clarke
Starling pers. comm.
Lamprotornis chalybaeus Spain (Valencia) Before Murgui
Purple Glossy Starling Senegal & Mali to Canary Is Before J. Martin & T. Clarke
Lamprotornis purpureus Nigeria; Cameroon pers. comm.
to E Africa
Long-tailed Glossy Starling Senegal to Sudan Spain (Valencia) Before Murgui
Lamprotornis caudatus
Brahminy Starling Afghanistan to UAE Before Jennings
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM
(cont.):
Name Natural Range Possible Naturalised Range Date of Arrival Source(s)
Sturnus pagodarum Bangladesh
Asian Pied Starling India to Yunnan UAE Before Jennings
Sturnus contra
Oriental White-eye Afghanistan to USA (California) Early s AOU ; Small
Zosterops palpebrosus China
Rufous Scrub Robin Europe, N Africa, Kuwait Before Gregory
Cercotrichas galactotes Senegal to Somalia; Middle East
21/10/05
Green Avadavat India Pakistan (Lahore) c. Ripley
Amandava formosa
Zebra Finch Australia & Nauru I., Before Pearson
Taeniopygia guttata Lesser Sunda Is Papua New Guinea; Tuamotu Is.
8:44 PM
Portugal Before Clement et al.
Baya Weaver Pakistan to Yunnan Saudi Arabia Before Jennings
Ploceus phillipinus & Malay Peninsula
Southern Red Bishop Sub-Saharan Africa Spain (Extremadura; Before Martí & del Moral
Page 281
Euplectes orix Sevilla; Almería)
Canary Is. (Tenerife)
White-headed Munia Malaysia, Sumatra, Japan (Okinawa & Honshu) Before OSJ
Lonchura maja Java, Bali, Thailand
African Silverbill Senegal to Ethiopia, Portugal Before Costa et al.
Lonchura cantans & Arabia
Red-billed Quelea Sub-Saharan Africa Spain (Ebro delta; Before Martí & del Moral
Quelea quelea Doñana)
Cut-throat Sub-Saharan Africa Portugal Before Costa et al.
Amadina fasciata
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM
Continents and oceanic islands on which alien birds are naturalised (A), and faunal regions that are the origin of naturalised birds (B).
(A) (B)
EU AS AF NA SA AU AO IO PO PA AF OR NE NT AU
Chilean Tinamou
Nothoprocta perdicaria
Ostrich
Struthio camelus
Plain Chachalaca
Ortalis vetula
21/10/05
Helmeted Guineafowl
Numida meleagris
Mountain Quail
Oreortyx pictus
Californian Quail
8:44 PM
Callipepla californica
Gambel’s Quail
C. gambelii
Northern Bobwhite
Page 282
Colinus virginianus
Wild Turkey
Meleagris gallopavo
Himalayan Snowcock
Tetraogallus himalayensis
Chukar Partridge
Alectoris chukar
Barbary Partridge
A. barbara
Red-legged Partridge
A. rufa
Black Francolin
Francolinus francolinus
Grey Francolin
F. pondicerianus
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM
(cont.):
(A) (B)
EU AS AF NA SA AU AO IO PO PA AF OR NE NT AU
Erckel’s Francolin
F. erckelli
Grey Partridge
Perdix perdix
Common Quail
Coturnix coturnix
Blue-breasted Quail
C. chinensis
21/10/05
Japanese Quail
C. japonica
Brown Quail
C. ypsilophora
8:44 PM
Jungle Bush Quail
Perdicula aviatica
Chinese Bamboo Partridge
Bambusicola thoracicus
Page 283
Red Jungle Fowl
Gallus gallus
Kalij Pheasant
Lophura leucomelanos
Silver Pheasant
L. nycthemera
Reeves’s Pheasant
Syrmaticus reevesii
Common Pheasant
Phasianus colchicus
Green Pheasant
P. versicolor
Golden Pheasant
Chrysolophus pictus
Lady Amherst’s Pheasant
C. amherstiae
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM
(cont.):
(A) (B)
EU AS AF NA SA AU AO IO PO PA AF OR NE NT AU
Indian Peafowl
Pavo cristatus
Bar-headed Goose
Anser indicus
Snow Goose
A. caerulescens
Swan Goose
21/10/05
A. cygnoides
Barnacle Goose
A. leucopsis
Canada Goose
Branta canadensis
8:44 PM
Black Swan
Cygnus atratus
Mute Swan
C. olor
Page 284
Egyptian Goose
Alopochen aegyptiaca
Ruddy Shelduck
Tadorna ferruginea
Muscovy Duck
Cairina moschata
Mandarin Duck
Aix galericulata
Mallard
Anas platyrhynchos
Meller’s Duck
A. melleri
Northern Shoveler
A. clypeata
Red-crested Pochard
Netta rufina
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM
(cont.):
(A) (B)
EU AS AF NA SA AU AO IO PO PA AF OR NE NT AU
Ruddy Duck
Oxyura jamaicensis
Greater Flamingo
Phoenicopterus ruber
Chilean Flamingo
P. chilensis
Sacred Ibis
Threskiornis aethiopicus
21/10/05
Black-crowned Night Heron
Nycticorax nycticorax
Cattle Egret
Bubulcus ibis
8:44 PM
Turkey Vulture
Cathartes aura
Chimango Caracara
Milvago chimango
Page 285
Western Marsh Harrier
Circus aeruginosus
Weka
Gallirallus australis
Purple Swamphen
Porphyrio porphyrio
Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse
Pterocles exustus
Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon)
Columba livia
Eurasian Collared Dove
Streptopelia decaocto
Barbary Dove (Ringed Turtle Dove)
S. risoria
Madagascar Turtle Dove
S. picturata
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM
(cont.):
(A) (B)
EU AS AF NA SA AU AO IO PO PA AF OR NE NT AU
Spotted-necked Dove (Spotted Dove)
S. chinensis
Laughing Dove
S. senegalensis
Island Collared Dove
S. bitorquata
Zebra Dove
21/10/05
Geopelia striata
Common Ground Dove
Columbina passerina
Emerald Dove
Chalcophaps indica
8:44 PM
Caribbean Dove
Leptotila jamaicensis
Mourning Dove
Zenaida macroura
Page 286
Galah
Eolophus roseicapilla
Little Corella
Cacatua sanguinea
Tanimbar Corella
C. goffini
Yellow-crested Cockatoo
C. sulphurea
Sulphur-crested Cockatoo
C. galerita
Kuhl’s Lorikeet
Vini kuhlii
Red Shining Parrot
Prosopeia tabuensis
Crimson Rosella
Platycercus elegans
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM
(cont.):
(A) (B)
EU AS AF NA SA AU AO IO PO PA AF OR NE NT AU
Eastern Rosella
P. eximius
Budgerigar
Melopsittacus undulatus
Eclectus Parrot
Eclectus roratus
Rose-ringed Parakeet (Ring-necked Parakeet)
21/10/05
Psittacula krameri
Alexandrine Parakeet
P. eupatria
Grey-headed Lovebird
Agapornis canus
8:44 PM
Fischer’s Lovebird
A. fischeri
Yellow-collared Lovebird
A. personatus
Page 287
Blue-and-Yellow Macaw
Ara araruana
Chestnut-fronted Macaw
A. severus
Blue-crowned Parakeet
Aratinga acuticaudata
Mitred Parakeet
A. mitrata
Green Parakeet
A. holochlora
Red-masked Parakeet
A. erythrogenys
Orange-fronted Parakeet
A. canicularis
Brown-throated Parakeet
A. pertinax
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM
(cont.):
(A) (B)
EU AS AF NA SA AU AO IO PO PA AF OR NE NT AU
Nanday Parakeet (Black-hooded Parakeet)
Nandayus nenday
Monk Parakeet
Myiopsitta monachus
Green-rumped Parrotlet
Forpus passerinus
Canary-winged Parakeet (White-winged
21/10/05
Parakeet)
Brotogeris versicolurus
Yellow-chevroned Parakeet
B. chiriri
Hispaniolan Parrot
8:44 PM
Amazona ventralis
Red-crowned Parrot (Green-cheeked
Parrot)
A. viridigenalis
Page 288
Lilac-crowned Parrot
A. finschi
Yellow-headed Parrot
A. oratrix
Yellow-crowned Parrot
Amazona ochrocephala
Orange-winged Parrot
A. amazonica
Smooth-billed Ani
Crotophaga ani
Barn Owl
Tyto alba
Great Horned Owl
Bubo virginianus
Little Owl
Athene noctua
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM
(cont.): (A) (B)
EU AS AF NA SA AU AO IO PO PA AF OR NE NT AU
Marianas Swiftlet
Aerodramus bartschi
Laughing Kookaburra
Dacelo novaeguineae
Great Kiskadee
Pitangus sulphuratus
Noisy Miner
Manorina melanocephala
21/10/05
Australian Magpie
Gymnorhina tibicen
Black Drongo
Dicrurus macrocercus
8:44 PM
Tufted Jay
Cyanocorax dickeyi
House Crow
Corvus splendens
Page 289
Rook
C. frugilegus
American Crow
C. brachyrhynchos
Eurasian Jackdaw
C. monedula
Common Magpie
Pica pica
Eurasian Skylark
Alauda arvensis
Red-whiskered Bulbul
Pyconotus jocosus
Red-vented Bulbul
P. cafer
Sooty-headed Bulbul
P. aurigaster
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM
(cont.):
(A) (B)
EU AS AF NA SA AU AO IO PO PA AF OR NE NT AU
Yellow-vented Bulbul
P. goiavier
Japanese Bush Warbler
Cettia diphone
Melodious Laughing Thrush
Garrulax canorus
Greater Necklaced Laughing Thrush
21/10/05
G. pectoralis
Grey-sided Laughing Thrush
G. caerulatus
Masked Laughing Thrush
G. perspicillatus
8:44 PM
Red-billed Leiothrix
Leiothrix lutea
Japanese White-eye
Zosterops japonicus
Page 290
Silver-eye
Z. lateralis
Christmas Island White-eye
Z. natalis
Northern Mockingbird
Mimus polyglottos
Tropical Mockingbird
M. gilvus
Hill Myna
Gracula religiosa
Crested Myna
Acridotheres cristatellus
Jungle Myna
A. fuscus
White-vented Myna
A. javanicus
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM
(cont.):
(A) (B)
EU AS AF NA SA AU AO IO PO PA AF OR NE NT AU
Black-winged Myna
A. melanopterus
Pale-bellied Myna
A. cinereus
Bank Myna
A. gingianus
Common Myna
A. tristis
21/10/05
European Starling
Sturnus vulgaris
Asian Pied Starling
S. contra
8:44 PM
Eurasian Blackbird
Turdus merula
Song Thrush
T. philomelos
Page 291
Island Thrush
T. poliocephalus
White-rumped Shama
Copsychus malabaricus
House Sparrow
Passer domesticus
Eurasian Tree Sparrow
P. montanus
Spanish Sparrow
P. hispaniolensis
Village Weaver
Ploceus cucullatus
Golden-backed Weaver
P. jacksoni
Lesser Masked Weaver
P. intermedius
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM
(cont.):
(A) (B)
EU AS AF NA SA AU AO IO PO PA AF OR NE NT AU
Streaked Weaver
P. manyar
Red Fody
Foudia madagascariensis
Northern Red Bishop
Euplectes franciscanus
Yellow-crowned Bishop
21/10/05
E. afer
Red-cheeked Cordon-bleu
Uraeginthus bengalus
Blue-breasted Cordon-bleu (Blue Waxbill)
U. angolensis
8:44 PM
Orange-cheeked Waxbill
Estrilda melpoda
Red-tailed Lavender Waxbill
E. caerulescens
Page 292
Common Waxbill
E. astrild
Black-rumped Waxbill
E. troglodytes
Red Avadavat
Amandava amandava
Red-browed Finch
Neochmia temporalis
Bronze Mannikin
Lonchura cucullata
Indian Silverbill (White-throated Munia)
L. malabarica
Scaly-breasted Munia
L. punctulata
Javan Munia
L. leucogastroides
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM
(cont.):
(A) (B)
EU AS AF NA SA AU AO IO PO PA AF OR NE NT AU
Black-headed Munia
L. malacca
White-cowled Mannikin
L. hunsteini
Chestnut-breasted Mannikin
L. castaneothorax
Java Sparrow
L. oryzivora
21/10/05
White-rumped Munia
L. striata
Pin-tailed Whydah
Vidua macroura
8:44 PM
Eastern Paradise Whydah
V. paradisaea
Dunnock
Prunella modularis
Page 293
Chaffinch
Fringilla coelebs
Island Canary
Serinus canaria
Yellow-fronted Canary
S. mozambicus
Yellow-crowned Canary (Cape Canary)
S. canicollis
Yellow Canary
S. flaviventris
European Greenfinch
Carduelis chloris
European Goldfinch
C. carduelis
Red Siskin
C. cucullata
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM
(cont.):
(A) (B)
EU AS AF NA SA AU AO IO PO PA AF OR NE NT AU
Common Redpoll
C. flammea
House Finch
Carpodacus mexicanus
Troupial
Icterus icterus
Spot-breasted Oriole
21/10/05
I. pectoralis
Shiny Cowbird
Molothrus bonariensis
Western Meadowlark
Sturnella neglecta
8:44 PM
Carib Grackle
Quiscalus lugubris
Yellowhammer
Emberiza citrinella
Page 294
Cirl Bunting
E. cirlus
Grassland Yellow Finch
Sicalis luteola
Saffron Finch
S. flaveola
Common Diuca Finch
Diuca diuca
Yellow-faced Grassquit
Tiaris olivaceous
Cuban Grassquit
T. canorus
Red-crested Cardinal
Paroaria coronata
Yellow-billed Cardinal
P. capitata
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM
(cont.):
(A) (B)
21/10/05
EU AS AF NA SA AU AO IO PO PA AF OR NE NT AU
Northern Cardinal
Cardinalis cardinalis
Crimson-backed Tanager
8:44 PM
Ramphocelus dimidiatus
Red-legged Honeycreeper
Cyanerpes cyaneus
Key.
Page 295
Continents and Oceanic Islands
EU = Europe. AS = Asia. AF = Africa. NA = North America. SA = South America. AU = Australasia. AO = Atlantic Ocean. IO = Indian Ocean. PO = Pacific Ocean.
Faunal Regions
PA = Palearctic. AF = Afrotropical. OR = Oriental. NE = Nearctic. NT = Neotropical. AU = Australiasian.
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM 21/10/05 8:44 PM Page 296
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Index
Accipitridae Aratinga acuticaudata
Acridotheres cinereus canicularis
cristatellus erythrogenys
Acridotheres fuscus holochlora
gingianus mitrata
javanicus pertinax
melanopterus Ardeidae
tristis arvensis, Alauda
acuticaudata, Aratinga asiatica, Perdicula
aegyptiaca, Alopochen astrild, Estrilda
Aerodramus bartschi Athene noctua
aeruginosus, Circus atratus, Cygnus
aethiopicus, Threskiornis aura, Cathartes
afer, Euplectes aurigaster, Pycnonotus
Agapornis canus australis, Gallirallus
fischeri Avadavat, Red
personatus Bambusicola thoracicus
Aix galericulata barbara, Alectoris
Alauda arvensis bartschi, Aerodramus
Alaudidae bengalus, Uraeginthus
alba, Tyto Bishop, Northern Red
Alcedinidae Yellow-crowned
Alectoris barbara bitorquata, Streptopelia
chukar Blackbird, Eurasian
rufa Bobwhite, Northern
Alopochen aegyptiaca bonariensis, Molothrus
Amandava amandava brachyrhynchos, Corvus
Amazona amazonica Branta canadensis
finschi leucopsis
ochrocephala Brotogeris chiriri
oratrix versicolurus
ventralis Bubo virginianus
viridigenalis Bubulcus ibis
amazonica, Amazona Budgerigar
amherstiae, Chrysolophus Bulbul, Red-vented
Anas clypeata Red-whiskered
melleri Sooty-headed
platyrhynchos Yellow-vented
Anatidae Bunting, Cirl
angolensis, Uraeginthus Cacatua galerita
ani, Crotophaga goffini
Ani, Smooth-billed sanguinea
Anser caerulescens sulphurea
cygnoides caerulatus, Garrulax
indicus caerulescens, Anser
Apodidae Estrilda
Ara ararauna cafer, Pycnonotus
severus Cairina moschata
ararauna, Ara californica, Callipepla
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM 21/10/05 8:45 PM Page 348
Naturalised Birds of the World
Callipepla californica Copsychus malabaricus
gambelii Cordon-bleu, Blue-breasted
camelus, Struthio Red-cheeked
canadensis, Branta Corella, Little
canaria, Serinus Tanimbar
Canary, Island coronata, Paroaria
Yellow Corvidae
Yellow-crowned Corvus brachyrhynchos
Yellow-fronted frugilegus
canicollis, Serinus monedula
canicularis, Aratinga splendens
canorus, Garrulax Coturnix chinensis
Tiaris coturnix
canus, Agapornis japonica
capitata, Paroaria ypsilophora
Caracara, Chimango Cowbird, Shiny
Cardinal, Northern Cracidae
Red-crested Cracticidae
Yellow-billed cristatellus, Acridotheres
Cardinalidae cristatus, Pavo
Cardinalis cardinalis Crotophaga ani
Carduelis carduelis Crow, American
chloris House
cucullata Cuculidae
flammea cucullata, Carduelis
Carpodacus mexicanus Lonchura
castaneothorax, Lonchura cucullatus, Ploceus
Cathartes aura Cyanerpes cyaneus
Cathartidae cyaneus, Cyanerpes
Cettia diphone Cyanocorax dickeyi
Chachalaca, Plain cygnoides, Anser
Chaffinch Cygnus atratus
Chalcophaps indica olor
chilensis, Phoenicopterus Dacelo novaeguineae
chimango, Milvago decaocto, Streptopelia
chinensis, Coturnix dickeyi, Cyanocorax
Streptopelia Dicruridae
chiriri, Brotogeris Dicrurus macrocercus
chloris, Carduelis dimidiatus, Ramphocelus
Chrysolophus amherstiae diphone, Cettia
pictus Diuca diuca
chukar, Alectoris domesticus, Passer
cinereus, Acridotheres Dove, Barbary
Circus aeruginosus Caribbean
cirlus, Emberiza Common Ground
citrinella, Emberiza Emerald
clypeata, Anas Eurasian Collared
Cockatoo, Sulphur-crested Island Collared
Yellow-crested Laughing
coelebs, Fringilla Madagascar Turtle
colchicus, Phasianus Mourning
Colinus virginianus Rock
Columba livia Spotted-necked
Columbidae Zebra
Columbina passerina Drongo, Black
contra, Sturnus Duck, Mandarin
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM 21/10/05 8:45 PM Page 349
Index
Meller’s gallopavo, Meleagris
Muscovy Gallus gallus
Ruddy gambelii, Callipepla
Dunnock Garrulax caerulatus
Eclectus roratus canorus
Egret, Cattle pectoralis
elegans, Platycercus perspicillatus
Emberiza cirlus Geopelia striata
citrinella gilvus, Mimus
Emberizidae gingianus, Acridotheres
Eolophus roseicapilla goffini, Cacatua
erckelii, Francolinus goiavier, Pycnonotus
erythrogenys, Aratinga Goldfinch, European
Estrilda astrild Goose, Bar-headed
caerulescens Barnacle
melpoda Canada
troglodytes Egyptian
Estrildidae Snow
eupatria, Psittacula Swan
Euplectes afer Grackle, Carib
franciscanus Gracula religiosa
eximius, Platycercus Grassquit, Cuban
exustus, Pterocles Yellow-faced
Falconidae Greenfinch, European
ferruginea, Tadorna Guineafowl, Helmeted
Finch, Common Diuca Gymnorhina tibicen
Grassland Yellow Harrier, Western Marsh
House Heron, Black-crowned Night
Red-browed himalayensis, Tetraogallus
Saffron hispaniolensis, Passer
finschi, Amazona holochlora, Aratinga
fischeri, Agapornis Honeycreeper, Red-legged
Flamingo, Chilean hunsteini, Lonchura
Greater ibis, Bubulcus
flammea, Carduelis Ibis, Sacred
flaveola, Sicalis Icteridae
flaviventris, Serinus Icterus icterus
Fody, Red pectoralis
Forpus passerinus indica, Chalcophaps
Foudia madagascariensis indicus, Anser
Fowl, Red Jungle intermedius, Ploceus
franciscanus, Euplectes Jackdaw, Eurasian
Francolin, Black jacksoni, Ploceus
Erckel’s jamaicensis, Leptotila
Grey Oxyura
Francolinus erckelii japonica, Coturnix
francolinus japonicus, Zosterops
pondicerianus javanicus, Acridotheres
Fringilla coelebs Jay, Tufted
Fringillidae jocosus, Pycnonotus
frugilegus, Corvus Kiskadee, Great
fuscus, Acridotheres Kookaburra, Laughing
Galah krameri, Psittacula
galericulata, Aix kuhlii, Vini
galerita, Cacatua lateralis, Zosterops
Gallirallus australis Leiothrix, Red-billed
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM 21/10/05 8:45 PM Page 350
Naturalised Birds of the World
Leiothrix lutea Miner, Noisy
Leptotila jamaicensis mitrata, Aratinga
leucogastroides, Lonchura Mockingbird, Northern
leucomelanos, Lophura Tropical
leucopsis, Branta modularis, Prunella
livia, Columba Molothrus bonariensis
Lonchura castaneothorax monachus, Myiopsitta
Lonchura cucullata monedula, Corvus
hunsteini montanus, Passer
leucogastroides moschata, Cairina
malabarica mozambicus, Serinus
malacca Munia, Black-headed
oryzivora Javan
punctulata Scaly-breasted
triata White-rumped
Lophura leucomelanos Muscicapidae
nycthemera Myiopsitta monachus
Lorikeet, Kuhl’s Myna, Bank
Lovebird, Fischer’s Black-winged
Grey-headed Common
Yellow-collared Crested
lugubris, Quiscalus Hill
lutea, Leiothrix Jungle
luteola, Sicalis White-vented
Macaw, Blue-and-Yellow Myna, Pale-bellied
Chestnut-fronted Nandayus nenday
macrocercus, Dicrurus natalis, Zosterops
macroura, Vidua neglecta, Sturnella
Zenaida nenday, Nandayus
madagascariensis, Foudia Neochmia temporalis
Magpie, Australian Netta rufina
Common noctua, Athene
malabarica, Lonchura Nothoprocta perdicaria
malabaricus, Copsychus novaeguineae, Dacelo
malacca, Lonchura Numida meleagris
Mallard Numididae
Mannikin, Bronze nycthemera, Lophura
Chestnut-breasted Nycticorax nycticorax
White-cowled ochrocephala, Amazona
Manorina melanocephala Odontophoridae
manyar, Ploceus olivaceus, Tiaris
Meadowlark, Western olor, Cygnus
melanocephala, Manorina oratrix, Amazona
melanopterus, Acridotheres Oreortyx pictus
meleagris, Numida Oriole, Spot-breasted
Meleagris gallopavo Ortalis vetula
Meliphagidae oryzivora, Lonchura
melleri, Anas Ostrich
Melopsittacus undulatus Owl, Barn
melpoda, Estrilda Great Horned
merula, Turdus Little
mexicanus, Carpodacus Oxyura jamaicensis
Milvago chimango paradisaea, Vidua
Mimidae Parakeet, Alexandrine
Mimus gilvus Blue-crowned
polyglottos Brown-throated
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM 21/10/05 8:45 PM Page 351
Index
Canary-winged pictus, Oreortyx
Green Pitangus sulphuratus
Mitred Platycercus elegans
Monk eximius
Nanday platyrhynchos, Anas
Orange-fronted Ploceidae
Red-masked Ploceus cucullatus
Rose-ringed intermedius
Yellow-chevroned jacksoni
Paroaria capitata manyar
coronata Pochard, Red-crested
Parrot, Eclectus poliocephalus, Turdus
Hispaniolan polyglottos, Mimus
Lilac-crowned pondicerianus, Francolinus
Orange-winged Porphyrio porphyrio
Red Shining Prosopeia tabuensis
Red-crowned Prunella modularis
Yellow-crowned Prunellidae
Yellow-headed Psittacidae
Parrotlet, Green-rumped Psittacula eupatria
Partridge, Barbary krameri
Chinese Bamboo Pterocles exustus
Chukar Pteroclididae
Grey punctulata, Lonchura
Red-legged Pycnonotidae
Passer domesticus Pycnonotus aurigaster
hispaniolensis cafer
montanus goiavier
Passeridae jocosus
passerina, Columbina Quail, Blue-breasted
passerinus, Forpus Brown
Pavo cristatus California
Peafowl, Indian Common
pectoralis, Garrulax Gambel’s
Icterus Japanese
perdicaria, Nothoprocta Jungle Bush
Perdicula asiatica Mountain
Perdix perdix Quiscalus lugubris
perspicillatus, Garrulax Rallidae
Phasianidae Ramphocelus dimidiatus
Phasianus colchicus Redpoll, Common
versicolor reevesii, Syrmaticus
Pheasant, Common religiosa, Gracula
Golden risoria, Streptopelia
Green Rook
Kalij roratus, Eclectus
Lady Amherst’s roseicapilla, Eolophus
Reeves’s Rosella, Crimson
Silver Eastern
philomelos, Turdus ruber, Phoenicopterus
Phoenicopteridae rufa, Alectoris
Phoenicopterus chilensis rufina, Netta
Phoenicopterus ruber Sandgrouse, Chestnut-bellied
Pica pica sanguinea, Cacatua
picturata, Streptopelia senegalensis, Streptopelia
pictus, Chrysolophus Serinus canaria
Birds End matter 10_11.5.JM 21/10/05 8:45 PM Page 352
Naturalised Birds of the World
canicollis Melodious Laughing
flaviventris Song
mozambicus Tiaris canorus
Shama, White-rumped olivaceus
Shelduck, Ruddy tibicen, Gymnorhina
Shoveler, Northern Timaliidae
Sicalis flaveola Tinamidae
luteola Tinamou, Chilean
Silver-eye tristis, Acridotheres
Silverbill, Indian troglodytes, Estrilda
Siskin, Red Troupial
Skylark, Eurasian Turdidae
Snowcock, Himalayan Turdus merula
Sparrow, Eurasian Tree philomelos
House poliocephalus
Java Turkey, Wild
Spanish Tyrannidae
splendens, Corvus Tyto alba
Starling, Asian Pied Tytonidae
European undulatus, Melopsittacus
Streptopelia bitorquata Uraeginthus angolensis
chinensis bengalus
decaocto ventralis, Amazona
picturata versicolor, Phasianus
risoria versicolurus, Brotogeris
senegalensis vetula, Ortalis
striata, Geopelia Vidua macroura
Lonchura paradisaea
Strigidae Viduidae
Struthio camelus Vini kuhlii
Struthionidae virginianus, Bubo
Sturnella neglecta Colinus
Sturnidae viridigenalis, Amazona
Sturnus contra vulgaris, Sturnus
vulgaris Vulture, Turkey
sulphuratus, Pitangus Warbler, Japanese Bush
sulphurea, Cacatua Waxbill, Black-rumped
Swamphen, Purple Common
Swan, Black Orange-cheeked
Mute Red-tailed Lavender
Swiftlet, Marianas Weaver, Golden-backed
Sylviidae Lesser Masked
Syrmaticus reevesii Streaked
tabuensis, Prosopeia Village
Tadorna ferruginea Weka
Tanager, Crimson-backed White-eye, Christmas Island
temporalis, Neochmia Japanese
Tetraogallus himalayensis Whydah, Eastern Paradise
thoracicus, Bambusicola Pin-tailed
Thraupidae Yellowhammer
Threskiornis aethiopicus ypsilophora, Coturnix
Threskiornithidae Zenaida macroura
Thrush, Greater Necklaced Laughing Zosteropidae
Grey-sided Laughing Zosterops japonicus
Island lateralis
Masked Laughing natalis
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