132 PART 1 DC Circuits

VTh and resistance RTh . To do so, suppose the two circuits in Fig. 4.23
are equivalent. Two circuits are said to be equivalent if they have the
same voltage-current relation at their terminals. Let us find out what will
make the two circuits in Fig. 4.23 equivalent. If the terminals a-b are
made open-circuited (by removing the load), no current flows, so that
the open-circuit voltage across the terminals a-b in Fig. 4.23(a) must be
equal to the voltage source VTh in Fig. 4.23(b), since the two circuits are
equivalent. Thus VTh is the open-circuit voltage across the terminals as
shown in Fig. 4.24(a); that is,
VTh = voc (4.6)

a a
+ Linear circuit with
Linear R in
all independent
two-terminal voc
sources set equal
circuit −
b to zero b
V Th = voc RTh = R in

(a) (b)

Figure 4.24 Finding VTh and RTh .

Again, with the load disconnected and terminals a-b open-circuited,

we turn off all independent sources. The input resistance (or equivalent
resistance) of the dead circuit at the terminals a-b in Fig. 4.23(a) must
io
a be equal to RTh in Fig. 4.23(b) because the two circuits are equivalent.
Circuit with Thus, RTh is the input resistance at the terminals when the independent
all independent +
− vo sources are turned off, as shown in Fig. 4.24(b); that is,
sources set equal
to zero RTh = Rin (4.7)
b
vo
RTh = To apply this idea in finding the Thevenin resistance RTh , we need
io
to consider two cases.
(a)
C A S E 1 If the network has no dependent sources, we turn off all in-
a dependent sources. RTh is the input resistance of the network looking
Circuit with
+ between terminals a and b, as shown in Fig. 4.24(b).
all independent
vo io
sources set equal
to zero − C A S E 2 If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all inde-
pendent sources. As with superposition, dependent sources are not to be
b
vo turned off because they are controlled by circuit variables. We apply a
RTh =
io voltage source vo at terminals a and b and determine the resulting cur-
(b)
rent io . Then RTh = vo / io , as shown in Fig. 4.25(a). Alternatively, we
may insert a current source io at terminals a-b as shown in Fig. 4.25(b)
Figure 4.25 Finding RTh when circuit and find the terminal voltage vo . Again RTh = vo /io . Either of the two
has dependent sources. approaches will give the same result. In either approach we may assume
any value of vo and io . For example, we may use vo = 1 V or io = 1 A,
or even use unspecified values of vo or io .
Later we will see that an alternative way of finding
RTh is RTh = v oc /isc .
It often occurs that RTh takes a negative value. In this case, the
negative resistance (v = −iR) implies that the circuit is supplying power.

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 CHAPTER 4 Circuit Theorems 133

This is possible in a circuit with dependent sources; Example 4.10 will

illustrate this.
a
Thevenin’s theorem is very important in circuit analysis. It helps
IL
simplify a circuit. A large circuit may be replaced by a single independent
Linear
voltage source and a single resistor. This replacement technique is a circuit
RL
powerful tool in circuit design.
As mentioned earlier, a linear circuit with a variable load can be re-
b
placed by the Thevenin equivalent, exclusive of the load. The equivalent
network behaves the same way externally as the original circuit. Con- (a)
sider a linear circuit terminated by a load RL , as shown in Fig. 4.26(a). R Th
The current IL through the load and the voltage VL across the load are a
easily determined once the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit at the load’s IL
terminals is obtained, as shown in Fig. 4.26(b). From Fig. 4.26(b), we VTh + RL
−
obtain
VTh
IL = (4.8a)
RTh + RL b
(b)
RL
V L = RL IL = VTh (4.8b)
RTh + RL Figure 4.26 A circuit with a load:
(a) original circuit, (b) Thevenin
Note from Fig. 4.26(b) that the Thevenin equivalent is a simple voltage equivalent.
divider, yielding VL by mere inspection.

E X A M P L E 4 . 8
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Fig. 4.27, to 4Ω 1Ω a
the left of the terminals a-b. Then find the current through RL = 6, 16,
and 36 !.
32 V +
− 12 Ω 2A RL
Solution:
We find RTh by turning off the 32-V voltage source (replacing it with b
a short circuit) and the 2-A current source (replacing it with an open
circuit). The circuit becomes what is shown in Fig. 4.28(a). Thus, Figure 4.27 For Example 4.8.
4 × 12
RTh = 4 " 12 + 1 = +1=4!
16

4Ω 1Ω 4Ω VTh 1Ω

+
R Th +
12 Ω 32 V − i1 12 Ω i2 2A VTh
−

(a) (b)

Figure 4.28 For Example 4.8: (a) finding RTh , (b) finding VTh .

To find VTh , consider the circuit in Fig. 4.28(b). Applying mesh

analysis to the two loops, we obtain
−32 + 4i1 + 12(i1 − i2 ) = 0, i2 = −2 A

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134 PART 1 DC Circuits

Solving for i1 , we get i1 = 0.5 A. Thus,

VTh = 12(i1 − i2 ) = 12(0.5 + 2.0) = 30 V
Alternatively, it is even easier to use nodal analysis. We ignore the 1-!
resistor since no current flows through it. At the top node, KCL gives
32 − VTh VTh
+2=
4 12
or
96 − 3VTh + 24 = VTh $⇒ VTh = 30 V
as obtained before. We could also use source transformation to find VTh .
The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.29. The current
through RL is
4Ω a
iL VTh 30
IL = =
RTh + RL 4 + RL
30 V + RL
−
When RL = 6,
30
b IL = =3A
10
Figure 4.29 The Thevenin When RL = 16,
equivalent circuit for Example 4.8.
30
IL = = 1.5 A
20
When RL = 36,
30
IL = = 0.75 A
40

PRACTICE PROBLEM 4.8

Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the equivalent circuit to the left of the
terminals in the circuit in Fig. 4.30. Then find i.

6Ω 6Ω a
i
12 V + 2A 4Ω 1Ω
−

Figure 4.30 For Practice Prob. 4.8.

Answer: VTh = 6 V, RTh = 3 !, i = 1.5 A.

E X A M P L E 4 . 9
Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Fig. 4.31.

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 CHAPTER 4 Circuit Theorems 135

Solution: 2vx

This circuit contains a dependent source, unlike the circuit in the previ- − +
ous example. To find RTh , we set the independent source equal to zero
2Ω 2Ω
but leave the dependent source alone. Because of the presence of the
a
dependent source, however, we excite the network with a voltage source +
vo connected to the terminals as indicated in Fig. 4.32(a). We may set 5A 4Ω vx 6Ω
vo = 1 V to ease calculation, since the circuit is linear. Our goal is to find −
the current io through the terminals, and then obtain RTh = 1/ io . (Al- b
ternatively, we may insert a 1-A current source, find the corresponding
voltage vo , and obtain RTh = vo /1.) Figure 4.31 For Example 4.9.

2vx 2vx
− + − +

i1 i3

2Ω 2Ω a 2Ω 2Ω
a
io +
+ +
4Ω vx 6Ω + vo = 1 V 5A 4Ω vx 6Ω voc
i2 i3 − i1 i2
− −
−
b
b
(a) (b)

Figure 4.32 Finding RTh and VTh for Example 4.9.

Applying mesh analysis to loop 1 in the circuit in Fig. 4.32(a) results

in
−2vx + 2(i1 − i2 ) = 0 or vx = i1 − i2
But −4i2 = vx = i1 − i2 ; hence,
i1 = −3i2 (4.9.1)

For loops 2 and 3, applying KVL produces

4i2 + 2(i2 − i1 ) + 6(i2 − i3 ) = 0 (4.9.2)
6(i3 − i2 ) + 2i3 + 1 = 0 (4.9.3)

Solving these equations gives

1
i3 = − A
6
But io = −i3 = 1/6 A. Hence,
1V
RTh = =6!
io
To get VTh , we find voc in the circuit of Fig. 4.32(b). Applying mesh
analysis, we get

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136 PART 1 DC Circuits

i1 = 5 (4.9.4)
− 2vx + 2(i3 − i2 ) = 0 $⇒ vx = i 3 − i 2 (4.9.5)
4(i2 − i1 ) + 2(i2 − i3 ) + 6i2 = 0
6Ω
a
or

20 V + 12i2 − 4i1 − 2i3 = 0 (4.9.6)

−

b But 4(i1 − i2 ) = vx . Solving these equations leads to i2 = 10/3. Hence,

Figure 4.33 The Thevenin VTh = voc = 6i2 = 20 V

equivalent of the circuit in
Fig. 4.31. The Thevenin equivalent is as shown in Fig. 4.33.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 4.9

5Ω Ix 3Ω Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig. 4.34 to the left
a of the terminals.
+ Answer: VTh = 5.33 V, RTh = 0.44 !.
6V − 1.5Ix 4Ω

Figure 4.34 For Practice Prob. 4.9.

E X A M P L E 4 . 1 0
a Determine the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Fig. 4.35(a).
ix
Solution:
2ix 4Ω 2Ω
Since the circuit in Fig. 4.35(a) has no independent sources, VTh = 0 V.
To find RTh , it is best to apply a current source io at the terminals as shown
b in Fig. 4.35(b). Applying nodal analysis gives
(a) vo
io + ix = 2ix + (4.10.1)
vo a 4
ix But
2ix 4Ω 2Ω io 0 − vo vo
ix = =− (4.10.2)
2 2
Substituting Eq. (4.10.2) into Eq. (4.10.1) yields
b
(b)
vo vo vo vo
i o = ix + =− + =− or vo = −4io
Figure 4.35 For Example 4.10. 4 2 4 4
Thus,
vo
RTh = = −4 !
io
The negative value of the resistance tells us that, according to the passive
sign convention, the circuit in Fig. 4.35(a) is supplying power. Of course,
the resistors in Fig. 4.35(a) cannot supply power (they absorb power); it

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