The learning of

trumpet, cornet and flugelhorn

A reasoned method

by

J.A. Monfort

put on-line : end of 2014

last updating : 15 / 02 / 2016

Preliminary remarks

The author of this method is not a professional : he is neither a teacher, nor a performer or a
« virtuoso », « master »,... . Simple private individual, self-taught person, amateur and
passionate musician, he began to practice relatively late (at about 13-14 yo).

A « slight » habit with piano also allowed him to be aware of the differences between melodic
instruments and harmonic instruments. The piano, as well as other keyboard instruments
(organ, hapsichord, etc), are nearly the only instruments allowing « sticking » chords on (one
say « a piano amounts to an entire orchestra » ?) : these harmonic forms endow them an
musical enrichment which is important to know : the user of a melodic instrument
(woodwind, non stringed, etc) can found advantageous the practice, in parallel, of such an
instrument.

The informations incorporated in this method result from personal reflections accumuled
since several years. These reflections have thus been cleaned up, and this was made easier by
the profile of the the author (statistician as well as economist), and allowed the
implementation of an methodic mind concerning the approach and the use of this instrument.

This method constitutes thus a synthesis of several other methods (cf appendix 4,
bibliography in fine), of the listening of the great performers (even outside the brass players)
and of a personal practice, sometimes unfortunately interrupted, of this magnificent
instrument.

Every basis of knowledge necessary for the carrying out have, in this way, been
systematically listed and matured :

(a) their respective role has been « isolatedly » analysed and tested ;

(b) interactions between these elements have been studied : combinations,

simultaneities, precedences, accumulations, impossibilities.
With this method, one could set up a table crossing :

(a) the possibilies (« technical characteristics » or « functionalities ») of the

instrument : sound pipe (or resounder), kind of emitted sounds, accessible range, mechanical
or acoustic distinctive featuress (mouthpieces, cylinders and valves, slides, chord clefs, water
clefs, mutes) ;

(b) the possible « tasks » for the instrumentalist, taking into account his
characteristics : source of energy (muscles), vector of energy (air), vibrating reed (exciter).

A maximum of rationality has thus been looked for in this following offered method.

On can observe that, generally speaking, it seems impossible to advocate a unique teaching
method, or only one way of work. It is much less possible to « forecast » the feasible level of
succes according to personal efforts and objectives in time : this depends upon individual
characteristics which take place in the playing of an instrumentalist. A good knowledge of
techniques and of art, as well as individual abilities, are not always sufficient for reaching a
desirable level.

Indeed, a diligent work, involving all individual abilities and exploring every dimension of
the instrument, does not necessarily lead to « valuable » or of « professional » level results,
nor of a « virtuosity » level, etc. One may like creating something without being « good » for
that (as well as one may be valuable for something without liking doing it).

Join the author : jean-alain.monfort@laposte.net

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 0. Plan of the method
This method deals with the following questions.

Chapter 1. Foreword and prerequisites

Chapter 2. Anatomy and physiology

Chapter 3. Breathing : a fundamental prerequisite

Chapter 4. The warming-up of the muscles

Chapter 5. Training and techniques

Chapter 6. Helps to learning

Chapter 7. Protocole of execution of the exercises

Chapter 8. The exercises

Chapter 9. Faults of execution : possible causes and solutions

Chapter 10. Musical creation and instrumental performance

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The following appendices are to be developed

Appendix 0. Some informations on the trumpet / cornaline

Appendix 1. Mouthpieces

Appendix 2. Abbreviated harmonic notations

Appendix 3. English-french lexicon and used abbreviations

Appendix 4. Selected bibliography

Appendix 5. Basic exercises

Appendix 6. Circular breathing

Appendix 7. Exercises on fingering

Appendix 8. Synthesis on the production of the sound

Appendix 9. Use of the piccolo trumpet

Appendix 10. Reflections on the psychological aspects linked to performance

Appendix 11. Glossary of technical terms or specific expressions

Appendix 12. Protocols and routines

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1. Foreword and prerequisites

As every musical instrument, trumpet is a demanding instrument, requiring a good
physical fitness, but also a lot of patience, concentration and efforts.

Nevertheless, this instrument offers great satisfactions, when playing as a soloist as well as
playing with « accompaniment » (group of friends, orchestras, jazz bands, choir, etc). The
performance of numerous compositions, more or less known, is enough rapidly accessible.
Thus, it may be possible to play (eg within the 3 first years of learning) works such as the
following ones :

(a) baroque and classical : « Suite in D major n° HWV 341 » or « Sarabande » by

Georges Frederic Haendel ; « Trumpet’s march of Aida » by Giuseppe Verdi, « The old castle
château » (Picture at an exhibition, second picture) by Modeste Moussorgsky ;

(b) folk (folklore) or pop (popular). In the beginning, these works were generallys
anonymous. Afterwards, they have often been appropriated by several composers : « Dear old
Stockholm » (Sweden), « Amazing Grace » by John Newton ; « The carnival of Venice »
(Autriche) ;

(c) latino (Latin america) : « Desafinado », « One note samba » or « The girl from
Ipanema » by Antonio Carlos Jobim ;

(d) jazz : « When the saints go marchin’in» (negro spiritual, next gospel), « Killer
Joe » (cf performance bay Quincy Jones) or « I remember Clifford » by Benny Golson ;
« How high the moon » by Morgan Lewis ; « Harlem nocturne » by Earle Hagen ; « Mack the
knife » by Kurt Weill ; « Nature boy » by Eden Ahbez ;

(e) generics or themes (movies music or broadcasting series), eg : « Cavatina » by

Michel Legrand (movie « the cave se rebiffe ») ; « Cavatina » by Stanley Myers (movie « The
deer hunter ») ; part for trumpet (movie « the marginal » from Ennio Morricone) ; « Les cinq
dernières minutes (The last five minutes) » (TV series) ; « Midnight cowboy » (theme from
the movie) ; part for trumpet in « Ma quando arrivano the ragazze » by Riz Ortolani (movie
from Mario Pupi) ; parts for trumpet (in particular « muted ») performed by Miles Davis in
various movies ;

(f) variety show or miscellanous, eg : « A trumpeter’s lullaby » or « Serenata »

(notably performed by Maurice André) by Leroy Anderson ; « Julia » form The Beatles ; «
the petit jardin (The little garden) » by Jacques Dutronc ; « My way » by Claude François ;
« Ballad for a trumpet » by Nini Rosso, « the Madrague » by Georges Bourgeois, etc.

It is also possible to « adapt » works intended to other instruments (brass, woodwinds or

strings), by realizing possible transpositions (case of a Bb trumpet). This tendency seems to
develop among greats performers. Nevertheless, this possibility meets some obvious limits :

5
 (a) differences, sometimes rhedibitory ones, between ranges : eg pieces for piano or
violin are almoste unplayable with a trumpet (even with a piccolo) ; even if playables, these
pieces may be of a inadequate musicality ;

(b) the control of long breathing outs : thus, the « Moto perpetuo » by Niccolo
Paganini belongs to the instrument feats of the genre (cf performances by Sergei Nakarjakov
or by Wynton Marsalis) (cf § 3.2.5. and appendix 6, on circular breathing) ;

(c) nimbleness (velocity) : the inertia of trumpet playing, or classical difficulties in

fingering, forbid the performing of some parts.

The « scale » of musical genres which are accessible with a trumpet is yet, all the same, very
wide, as far as the range of the works matches the range of the instrument, and their
nimbleness is not hindered by the (biological) inertia of the performer or by the (mechanical)
inertia of the instrument.

One can then undertake its strudy with pleasure, either by playing alone, either with an
« accompanied » manner : indeed, it is possible to develop musical accompaniments (§ 9.)
that can be handled on a HI-FI system when playing simultaneously. This arouses and
handtain the motivation. Moreover, this tends to favor progress at two levels : skill and
mastery of the instrument (synchronization with the various elements coming into play),
mastering of the coordination (synchronization with the accompaniment equipment, the band
or the orchestra : rhythms, sound volumes, counterpoints, etc).

Afterwards, with growing experience, it will be possible to play for an audience of close
relatives or friends, neighbours, colleagues), or again to play with other instrumentalists
(group, orchestra).

1.1. Preliminary immodesty

The reading of methods for trumpet is always instructive : one can draw inside what seems
useful for developping and improving one’s own « playing ». Various methods are
recognized and efficient (cf appendix 4, selected bibliography).

This trumpet method was, first, devoted to ... its own author. It is the result, indeed, of its own
practice of the instrument, and it also get back various aspects of that practice which cause
problems to him, and still continue ..., in every « dimensions » of the instrumental practice :
articulations (tonguing and fingering), getting one’s breath back (breathing), large intervals
(flexibility), velocity (coordination and anticipation), extreme registers, etc.

Nevertheless, it seemed useful to offer it to whose are playing this instrument, at least as
exchange of experiments. It assembles, indeed, appropriate informations for various
individual « profiles » : personal characteristics or abilities. It also attempts a setup of the
necessary synthesis of knowledgs (and of understanding) when learning to play with this
instrument.

6
1.2. Work surface

Training oneself for playing trumpet implies first organizing the training. Several points
have to be considered :

(a) first the space. An adapted working place allows one to concentrate quietly upon
the difficulties to solve. It should preferably be « isolated » : music room, gymnase, nature
(park, country), various buildings (chapel, church), etc. It must, moreover, be easily
accessible (cf distances, limitations of access), and allow a sufficiently frequent use.

Un room in a housing (house or appartment) produces an enough violent « sound return »,

which can be harmful to hearing itself. Some instrumentalists carry out a sound isulation of
the room (prevention of neighbour confusions). Others use specific mutes, which muffle
sufficiently the sound ; some models allow, moreover, recording on personal micro-computer
(eg the Silent brass by Yamaha). Nevertheless, a playing with a mute is generally more tiring
than a « normal » playing without mute : it requires more breath and implies some endurance
(holding of notes) ;

(b) then time. A serious practice makes it necessary to « take one’s time », ie to make
it a rule reserve time slots (preferably daily ones). According to individual circumstances, that
avalaible time may vary a lot.

Moreover, according to personal equation and mentionned constraints, the daily frequency of
playing (warming-up, training or performance) have an influence on its optimality. A
balance must be done between :

(1) « playign a short time, but more often » (strategy rather for beginners, because it
takes care of the lips of the embouchure),

(2) « playing for a long time, but less often » (strategy rather for skilled individuals,
because it favors, and also necessitates, endurance).

The optimum is not easy to determine, as one has to take into account of the essential and
irreducible constraint of the rest : incompressible periods of rest are necessary, as well
between pieces performed during a « session » as between sessions themselves.

The general daily diagram (eg from 8 am to 8 pm) endows the following form :

playing1 (duration 1) - break1 (duration2) - playing2 (duration3) - break2 (duration4) - ... -

playing n (duration n) - break n (duration n+1)

This diagram must not be considered as imposde nor rigid : the durations (work or break) and
the number n of playings (warming-ups, technical exercises, excerpts of pieces) are to be
determined in an adapted manner (age, availability, state of health, etc). When a personal
diagram is determined, that is to say it is sufficiently convenient at a given time, it should be
followed with a maximum faithfulness as it seems to produce good results and lead to
significant progresses.

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Som authors recommend an activity with a minimum daily duration (eg 40 mn), in order to
maintain the last achieved level of performance. But this is only an objective, and may not
suit every student : it does not take into account the progressive « inurement » (which allows
more playing), and it can also be restrictive for an advanced student.

An empirical rule, which seems to prove itself, consists in making it a rule durations of pause
(rests) as long as durations of playing (activity), whatever the total duration of the score
(exercise, concert piece) to be performed. One can even observe that a « rest » lasting a day
(or even more) allows a « recovery », which can have the effect of improving the emitting of
the notes (attacks) as well as their correctness (level) and their tone (cf § 2.8.1. infra) ;

(c) also, objectives. It is valuable to impose oneself (realistic) objectives and to

have the will of being linked to them. As one goes along work experience and insurance, it
will be possible to raise the level of difficulties.

Nevertheless, one must never approach too much its own instant limits : indeed, that fault
leads to various « accidents » (tiredness, postural traumas, problems with lips). The
« backlashes » may sometimes be more detrimental. On then must try spotting that « limiting
activity area » and stay on this side of that area.

The individual work surface must then be adapted to one’s possibilities : starting with
« modest » objectives, then develop each kind of difficulty, seems beneficial ;

(d) the patience. The results of the efforts (the « returns on investment ») will not be
immediate. Thus, the minimum times of rest indicated, which are imperative, tend to slow
down them. At the beginning of the instrumental practice, these results are necessarily slow to
get, then modest : this is normal. An important quality then is tenacity and perseverance ;

(e) permanently get into mind each performance before realizing it. A mean
consists in getting used to (mentally) doing hearing the desired sound before producing it : in
other words, anticipating the expected sound product is a beneficial attitude, which
contributes also to increase self-confidence in playing. By exemple, the (mental) anticipation
of the appearance of a given note (pitch, level) should favor a more reliable attack of that note
(anticipated mentalisation).

Indeed, in everyday life, the activity consisting in participate to a conversation implies

anticipating a context and ideas suggested by this last. It is the same for learning or
improvising with an instrument.

Conversely, playing is comparable to reciting : the performance of a piece for trumpet

presuppose its whole knowledge and cannot allows hesitation.

Between these two situations, the « reading » of a score, as well as that of writtent text,
requires developping reflexes for linking together the tasks (reading, performance) between
present and immediate futur ;

(f) look for musicality inside performance (whatever the piece, even a simple scale
or arpeggio). It is suitable to put oneself (toujours mentally) instead of an audience : the
produced sound must be the one which one himself would hope hearing (eg during a concert).

8
One must then be demanding, and take a very critical sense ... with respect to oneself. Third
parties (teachers, friends) may such a way give sometimes very precious advices.

1.3. Prerequisites

As a wind instrument, a trumpet (or little « trunk ») will be briefly described. The name of
cornaline, made up of the word corne and the name Aline, would « sound » much better.
Other « objects » have besides the same name : a mineral, from one part, and a fruit (the one
of the dogwood), from the other part.

1.3.1. The physical properties of the instrument, as well mechanical as acoustical, will not be
detailed (cf appendix 0, some informations about the trumpet).

The choice of a trumpet is certainly important, but the choice of a mouthpiece is much more
important. One can correctly learn playing with a poor instrument : indeed, all the qualities of
the instrumentalist « make », above all, the sound (cf Julius Kosleck : « with a good
mouthpiece it is possible to play one a badly constructed instrument ; with a badly
proportioned mouthpiece, it is impossible to produce a good tone or play with any degree of
certainty »).

Conversely, the characteristics of a mouthpiece influence the playing. They can, in particular,
facilitate this playing. We sketch some general technical surveys on these subjects (cf
appendix 1, mouthpieces).

1.3.2. The instrumentalist will be supposed familiar with the music theory and musical
writing. This thus implies some habituation with the music in general. Indeed, the music
theory and the notation system are prerequisites pertaining to other courses or methods.

It often happens that instrumental methods, adressed in particular to young players, contain at
the same time (a) what pertain to writing and musical conventions and (b) what pertain to
technics and instrumental performance. This is generally the result of practical
considerations : advantages of a teaching method paralleling these two courses, etc.

But this educational process loses its advantage when the basis of the music (music theory,
harmony or counterpoint) are yet acquired. Moreover, one must not mix the kinds, and the
three activities of « language », « technics » and « expression » are really distincts :

(a) the language (or the « rules » of the music theory) is nearly identical for every
instruments : wind, strings, drums. There are some differences liked to their particular nature :
stringed instruments (pizzicati, glissandi, tremoli), sticked strings (« mecanichal » pedals),
rhythm section, etc. But the « kernel » of this language is the same ;

(b) nevertheless, most of the technical rules reported here for the trumpet are valid
only for it, or for equivalent brass instruments : their technical mastery (eg working on
breathing, tongue, fingering) require specific actions. These rules may be (widely enough)
transposed to same kind of brass instruments (ie with mouthpiece and valves, rotary valves,
or keys and holes) : eg french horn, trombone, euphonium, helicon, saxhorn, tuba, ophicleide.
But some of them don not apply to some other wind instruments, notably the subfamily of
wood wind instruments (instruments with simple or double reeds : saxophone, oboe, clarinet,
bassoon, etc) ;

9
 (c) the mastering of the stylistic expression (tone, shades) is also a source of
difference with respect to instruments belonging to different families.

Thus, most instruments have in comon an increase if « tension » that is necessary in order to
produce a sound ranging from low notes to high ones : indeed, when the sound « goes up »,
the increase in the frequency of the sound (exciter) is parallel to a stronger tension (labial
reed, artificial reeds, strings, leather instruments).

Likewise, in the « classical » pieces, the vibrato is (as a rule) forbidden for a trumpet, whereas
it is nearly the usual thing for a violin.

Furthermore, the scores for winds are generally « adjusted » on the respiratory aptitudes of
the instrumentalists (thus with the rhythm of the human breathing), in order to produce the
specific expression of the instrument. This is less true for the (pinched or striked) strings,
even though the breathing of a violin player or of a pianist play an important role in the
progress of his playing.

Finally, the story of the Music shows that its genesis comes, at the same time, from natural
elements (vocal cords, hand beatings) and from artificial elements (hitted wooden pipes,
blowing in horns, etc). But, the technical evolution of these elements, as well as their practice
and the associated stylistics, have, to a large extent, diverged.

Moreover, one can underline that :

(a) the learning of music theory does not present any particular difficulty : it requires
memory and a bit of logic. That is why its knowledge, which is not difficult to acquire, is here
pre-supposed ;

(b) the musicale writing contains somtimes, for a wind instrument, specific precisions,
concerning the mode of performing (technics for obtaining and returning musical sounds).
This is notably the case for the times of inhalation (times for breathings, indicated by
commas above the staff), for the way of performing various ornaments (mordant, grace notes,
trills, vibrato, portamento, glissando) or special effects (jazz : growls, mutes and other effests,
halway down valves, bell in water, etc) ;

(c) an even light knowledge of the theory of harmony is often worthwhile : indeed, (1)
it facilitate the musical understanding in general, (2) it certains more the performance of
arpeggios with the instrument, (3) it facilitate the coordination with other instruments and (4)
it leads toward the techniques of improvising (« cadenzas » of baroque concertos, solos in
playing jazz, various musical inventiveness, etc). The melodic and harmonic notations used
here are indicated or reminded further (cf appendix 2, abbreviated harmonic notations) ;

1.3.3. Considering the above, this method contains only « starts of exercises » (§ 7) : these
are models of short « melodic » lines classified by kind of difficulty. Contrary to numerous
methods, one assesses unuseful the « filling » of pages with exercises detailed in every parts
being to play : ie scales (major, minor, pentatonic, etc), registers (low, medium, high, hyper-
high), various kinds of arppegios (basis and their reversals), etc. Indeed :

10
 (a) these written paddings have an advantage in familiarise, visually, the player
(notably young students) with the scales written with treble key (G2), then with the practice of
the corresponding fingering. But that abundance of « systematic » scores is tedious, and is
harmful : the attention to be carried toward real technical difficulties associated to the
practice of the instrument risk then to be « flooded » in the waves of the scores ;

(b) moreover, if, during the performance of some exercises (scales, arppegios, up or
down, with reversals, etc), the visualisation of the written scores is very formative (it favors
their reading « in real time » and arouses skills for anticipating), it is also very useful to
perform these exercises by mental abstraction (associated with the practice of performance
and of fingering), that is without score under the eyes ;

(c) to sum up, one can (1) firstly, work with a favorite scale (eg an « easy » scale :
C1, F2 or G2), then (2) secondly (ie once the technique mastered with the favorite scale),
work the same difficulties with each of the other scales, in turn. In other words, one can
postpone (temporarily) the performance of the other scales and arppegios as long as a
technical difficulty has not been solved with the favorite scale. It is the same for each
suggested exercise.

After eliminating the previous « paddings », some methods contain, finally, few useful pages
for a technical training. As a consequence, the « heart » of these methods (approach,
progressive solving and combining of difficulties) ie reduced to a limited number of
educational elements. Some of them, rather old (ending XIXth-beginning XXth), thus contain
few « exploitable material » (useful technical informations) and are, in the end, very
disapppointing.

1.3.4. Appendix 3 includes an english-french lexicon and used abbreviations. This

terminology may help the reading of written manuals in french language. One can notice
some curiosities : thus, the Anglo-Saxon people call « mouthpiece » (or sometimes « chops »)
what French people call « embouchure », and the french word « embouchure » (physical part
of the instrument) is translated in english by « mouthpiece ».

11
 *
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2. Anatomy and physiology

This chapter is central for the learning of the instrument.

Play of a instrument tel qu’une trumpet consists in associating closely an biological organism
and a physical material, then an « alive » and malleable element to an « inert » and hard
element. Inescapably, the adequation of the first to the second must pass by an adaptation of
the first element (forming of the embouchure) (cf infra).

2.1. Posture of the body

2.1.1. The whole body must help performing, and not hamper it : it is then necessary to
check, at least at the beginnning of the learning, the position of the different parts of the body.

(a) standing up (eg when playing solo). One recommend maintaining the body quite
droit and vertical, then bringing the instrument toward the face with the left hand. According
to individual morphology (dentition and embouchure), the trumpet can be more or less tilted
in order to get a maximum ease for performing : the air must « pass » naturally ;

Position of the instrument according to the morphology of the features and of the jaws

orthognaty prognaty retrognaty

(b) sitting position (eg orchestra). It is important not to cross the legs and hold in
place the back, as straight as possible (thus not too much sink in the seat), in order to allow
and secure an easy breathing ;

(c) in both cases, the elbows and forearm must be placed symmetrically on each side
of the body, conforming to an angle about 45° (angle between the floor and the plane formed
by the 3 following points : shoulder, elbow, wrist). A balance must here be done between (1)
the hampering of the breathing when the arms are too close together from the trunk, and
(2) the tiredness of the arms when the arms are too horizontal. The instrument must, as a
rule, be hold vertically (cylinders located in an imaginary vertical plane in front of the
instrumentalist) : nevertheless, it may sometimes, according to the performer’s morphology
(right wrist and right hand), be slightly tilted toward the right or toward the left.

2.1.2. Periods of intense or prolonged activity (training or performance) may lead to various
problems : pain in the back, in the arms, in the ribs, in the neck, in the abdomen, as well as in
the lips or teeth. These problems entail, in particular, muscular stiffness (eg aches felt in the

12
cheeks). Besides the consequence of a too important activity (duration, efforts), they may
result, as the case may be (the following situations may accumulate), from :

(a) a faulty posture (back, arms) ;

(b) an inadequate technique of breathing (abdomen, throat) ;

(c) a lack of training, or a playing aiming at overcoming new difficulties (divers) ;

(d) the crushing of the middle embouchure with the mouthpiece (excessive pressure
on the mouth) (lips).

2.1.3. An easier performance implies also an adapted clothing dress. This dress must be
« confortable » and must not hamper the performer (breathing, moves of the arms) : it must
then be baggy enough (nevertheless, cf eg Sergei Nakarijakov). Also, it must not upset him
(heat, cold) : as most wind instruments, the trumpet is a very « physical » instrument which
implementation requires a certain muscular effort (from the bottom to the top : abdominal
belt, intercostal muscles, larynx, tongue and lips), which contributes, after warming-up, to
increase the temperature of the body.

2.1.4. A « left-handed » should get used to play (then to work his fingering) with the right
hand. The difficulty is comparable to that of the left hand of a right-handed person playing
piano. It does not exist besides (almost) no trumpet for left-handed person (supplied at usual
prices).

Moreover, trying to play with the left hand with an usual trumpet prevents, as a rule, the
activation of the valve slides (necessary above all when playing in the low register), which are
located on the left side of the instrument.

A sometimes recommended practice consists in training oneself, from time to time, by

activating the valves with the non usual hand (left hand if the usual hand is the right one).

One can notice that, in the case of a brass instrument with « reversed » rolling-up (eg
flugelhorn), a right-handed person must « passer » the right hand above the tube of the
instrument. Likewise, a horn player must activate the rotary valves of the french horn with the
fingers of the left hand, and this in any case.

2.1.5. One will pay a particular attention to the forth finger of the usual hand (right or left
one) (ring finger), which activates the valve n° 3. Indeed, this finger is the one which
« articulates » less than its neighbourings. There is so a « natural » (ou physiological)
heterogeneity in the ease of the mouvement, which makes unequal the action of the used
fingers : 2 (index finger, on valve 1), 3 (middle finger, on valve 2) and 4 (third or ring finger,
on valve 3). This last is, in a way, « enclosed » and « hampered » in its movement.

As for the piano, one can activate this articulation by particularly well-keeping the concerned
fingerings (cf infra), and prepare this work as follows (warming-up) :

(a) put the active hand face down on a table ;

13
 (b) lift the forth finger (ring finger) as high as possible (but without forcing), then
lower it in a rest position ;

(c) repeat many times (a) and (b) at a given speed ;

(d) next, progressively accelerate the tempo.

2.2. Important remark

The holding of the trumpet implies 3 « supports » :

(a) the left hand, which must enclose the cylinders in order to get a good holding of
the instrument, but without contraction ;

(b) the right hand, which thumb and little finger support also more or less the
instrument (the one under the start of the tube, the other in the hook or in the retaining ring) ;

(c) the median and inner embouchures, located behind and against the mouthpiece,
which fit the shape represented by its front rim (and, secondarily the basin).

According to the difficulty of the piece to be performed, and in particular, the « heaviness » of
the fingering (forks, bascules), these 3 points may have a tendancy to move. Indeed :

(a) on one hand (upstream), the supply of air stream coming from the lungs
contributes, as well as the move of the lips, to make the instrument moves ;

(b) on the other hand, the ends of the median fingers (second, middle and third), which
activate the buttons of the valves, are « disruptive » elements because they transmit vertical
more or less fast moves to the instrument, and these moves may have an effect on the lips.

A too fast or strong move of the mouthpiece risk to hamper the performance (failure). But, the
lips must not, in any case, be « too » much pressed against the mouthpiece in order to try
helping to stabilize the set.

The only one solution, notably for preserving the best possible reliability (or safety) in the
attack of the notes, lies then in the three following actions :

(a) a firm holding of the trumpet : that holding commes mainly from the left hand.
One can surround the cylinders with the help of a thick « handkerchief », or of a leather
« glove » (anti-corrosion protect-valves), so as to weaken the pressure on the fingers (notably,
the index finger) of that hand (risk of numbness) ;

(b) a possible push (towards the left) of the palm of the right hand against the
cylinders, as far as this does not hamper the activation of the valves (because the palm
contains the muscles and the nerves which allow activation of the phalanxes) ;

(c) and, above all, the reinforcement of the embouchure (development of its
muscles) (cf infra) which contributes, finally, to a better stability of the instrument.

14
2.3. The embouchure and its parts

The embouchure denotes the set of the muscles, nerves, capillary vessels and skin which
surround and include the round muscle of the mouth (lips). Thus :

(a) the lips contain interlaced muscles. The set of the labial and peri-labial musculation
consists of : the orbicular muscle of the mouth, the compressor of the lips, the depressor
muscles of the ends of the mouth, the depressor muscles of the lower lip, the mental muscles,
the levator muscles of the alae nasi and of the upper lip (superficial muscles, deep-seated
muscles), the levator muscles of the ends of the mouth, the levator muscles of the upper lip
and the depressor muscles of the nasal septum ;

(b) the cheeks consist of the masseter muscles, the risorius muscles, of the buccinator
muscles (cf in french buccin = marine whelk and also antique wind instrument) and the
zygomatic muscles (big zygomatics, little zygomatics).

The labial and peri-labial muscles work towards various directions (cf diagram below).

Embouchure and face

Yet, the work of these muscles is fundamental for the instrumentation : it should then be
highly progressive and well controlled. One may also consider the « embouchure » as a set
of muscles, covered with the dermis, irrigated by the blood and activated by different
nerves.

The working of the embouchure (muscle-building, mobility and vibration) during the playing
has the effect (a) to modify the « shape » of its surface in various places and (b) to support the
contact with the instrument (mouthpiece). As a consequence, during the dynamics of the
performance, the deformations of the embouchure will interfere with the fixednes of the
instrument : the embouchure plays the role of a biological zone in touch with the
mouthpiece or reinforcing this contact.

A major objective of the instrumental practice consists then in training the various muscles
of the embouchure, as well as one trains the specific muscles of a given sport activity.

15
When seeing a performance, one can observe the way following which the whole embouchure
of the performer deforms under the the action of his muscles : according to the performet or to
the difficulty of the piece to be interpreted, these moves are sometimes tiny, sometimes more
visible.

One can decompose the embouchure in 3 parts (represented in light grey in the chart below) :
the « inner embouchure », the « median embouchure » and the « outer embouchure ».

The three embouchures

2.3.1. The median embouchure, or middle embouchure, refers to the zone of the
mouthpiece which is on contact with the face, ie between the mouthpiece and the lips (or even
a neighbouring part, according to the thickness of the lips).

It is a supporting zone, a « cushion », on which the mouthpiece leans. This support has the
sole purpose of air tightness : the objective is to prevent the air stream from flewing by the
lateral cracks (corners), in order to guarantee its whole power by concentrating the air flow
inside the bowl of the mouthpiece.

One must absolutely not crush that part of the embouchure (this crushing is often
instinctive among beginners) : indeed, this cushion must always have a good rush of blood
in order to be operational. A lack of rush of blood, or restricted rush, in this area, entails
serious consequences :

(a) first, anoxia of the nerves and of the muscles (ie insufficient oxygen due to weak
breathing), thus a lack of reaction (supleness and flexibilite of the lips) ;

(b) this then induces a lack of vibration of the lips which, itself, entails a reduction of
sound or a smothered sound ;

(c) finally, one observes two other important faults : reduction of the accessible range
and fall of endurance.

The median embouchure is a zone of the face which is, at the same time, very small and very
frail. One must permanently handle it carefully (this notably for beginners) and avoid any
abuse towards it : excessive pressure, overwork (lengthy or too « strong » exercises), bad
position (body, head, fingers, instrument), etc.

16
The choice of a mouthpiece depends, notably, upon two parameters (diameter and thickness
of the rim), which exert an influence on the pressure and oxygenation of the lips (cf §§ 1.2.1.
and appendix 1, mouthpieces). Yet, the thickness of the rim has an influence on the median
embouchure at two levels : as the thickness of the rim increases, the pressure on the median
embouchure reduces (ceteris paribus) and the risks of leaks of air flewing by the corners are
lesser, but the moves of the lips (flexibility) are more hampered by increased rubbings
between the lips and the rim.

A good flexibility implies an almost null pressure of the mouthpiece upon the lips : an
interesting exercise consists in trying to get hight tones by pinching the lips, but without
crushing it under the mouthpiece (« no pressure » method).

One must notice that, without these precautions, the median embouchure would be
« trapped », being enclosed between the set of teeth (dental « wall ») and the mouthpiece, all
these zones being hard, or even agressive (according to the individual morphology) : this is
the reason why the holding, conscious and permanent, of its integrity, of its freedom of
manoeuvre and its supleness are a efficiency factor in playing trumpet (tone, flexibility). This
cushion must always be sufficiently thick for being operational. The physiological movements
can then be realised in accordance with their natural course : blood  nerve  muscle 
pressure.

2.3.2. The inner embouchure refers to the part of the lips located inside the previous median
zone : it includes the vibratory zone of the lips which surrounds orifice for the exit of air :
this zone will be called oral opening (OO). It is via the OO that the air passes, going from
« biological element » (the mouth) toward the « physical element » (the instrument).

That « unconstrained » zone (or « free zone »), with respect to the instrument, is then
mainly situated behind the basin of the mouthpiece.

The inner embouchure is a « zone of vibration » of the lips (« buzz » comes from the
onomatopoeia « bzz ») : it is a « double labial reed », that is a biological vibrating reed
(exciter of the acousticians).

The labial muscle is then, at the same time, a muscle and a vibrating reed.

Each vibration produced with the inner embouchure initializes a sound wave which develops
inside the mouthpiece, the plug and the tube of the instrument, until the bell and beyond.

Although various studies on this matter do not always agree together, one can limit himself to
a simple interpretation of the mechanism (cf diagram below). This last follows the course of
the « physiological » air stream before the OO, then the « physical » course of the air stream
located after the OO (ie inside the instrument) (« horizontal » air stream) :

(a) closed lips (vertical compression from one toward the other) the air flow coming
from the inner air stream (lungs) comes under pressure inside the mouth, then behind the
lips : this zone will be called oral cavity (OC) ;

(b) the increasing pressure succeeds in forcing the aperture of the OO, zone with
lesser strenght. That simple fact provoque a sudden leak of the air (from the back to the

17
front), through the OO and toward the outside, then inside the basin (then in the throat and the
backbore) of the mouthpiece. This leak then creates a first shock wave ;

(c) symmetrically, after the aperture of the OO, the inner pressure of the mouth
reduces. Because of the permanent action of the muscles with the aim of close the OO
(vertical compression of the lips), this ends up provocating a stopping of the emission of air
through the OO. This stop leads a fall of pressure inside the bowl, ie the end of the first
shock wave. The innere embouchure and the OO play in this way a « simple » role of
vibrating reed ;

(d) under the action of the muscular compression (abdominal and intercostal muscles),
the lungs empty and the internal pressure of the OC increases again : the previous mechanism
{(b),(c)} starts again. As a consequence, the sequence of such mechanisms handtain the
production of shock waves, thus the frequency (height) and duration of the sound.

Depending on wether the action exerted by the instrumentalist towards different variables
(level of inner pressure, morphology and plasticity of labial muscles), the cycle {(b),(c)}
executes more or less quickly, and this determines the frequency of the beats impulsed to the
air :

(a) the relaxation of the muscles of the throat (aperture of the pharynx), the falling of
the tongue and the relaxation of the labial muscles, lead to a fall of the inner pressure, and
then slow down the previous process : this provocates a fall of emitted frequencies, that is a
production of tones going toward low pitched notes ;

(b) conversely, an increased tension of the preceeding muscles and the ascent of the
tongue increase the internal pressure, and accelerate the previous process : this increase of the
emitted frequencies imply a production of tones toward high-pitched notes.

The vibration of the lips is then :

(a) « controlled » (at both biological « ends ») : on one hand, by the inner pressure of
the lungs and the OC, on the other hand, by the degree of aperture of the OO ;

18
 (b) « modulated » (at an « intermediate » level) by the aperture of the throat
(pharynx) upstream and by the height of the tongue under the palate (cf infra). These
parameters determine the shape and the volume of the OC.

The following diagram clarify the way the movement of the lips influences the emitting of
the sound (high ou low pitched) as these are more or less pressed together (and not against the
mouthpiece !). If one supposes a sufficient pressure of the air inside the biological air stream
(compression of the abdominal and intercostal muscles) :

(a) positionning the lips as in a resting position (middle position, diagram 1) gives a
vibration with generally « middle-pitched » notes (eg between E1 and A2) ;

(b) « rolling up » of the lips toward the inside of the mouth (compressed position,
diagram 2), together with a vertical compression and a sufficient horizontal muscular holding
(avoid « smile » too much), favors the emitting of hight-pitched notes (eg over A2) ;

(c) conversely, « unrolling » of the lips toward the outside of the mouth (relaxed
position, diagram 3), together with a vertical decompression and a same muscular horizontal
holding, helps the emitting of notes in the low register (eg below E1).

In this last case, an extreme relaxation even allows to « leave » the normal range of the
trumpet toward ultre-low register (ie under the lower limit of F1#). Indeed, coupled with
opening the larynx and lowering the tongue, this relaxation allows :

(a) the reaching of F1 (by use of the slides of the valves 1 or 3) ;

(b) the emitting of pedal notes, which are not « musical » notes (ie pleasant to hear)
(cf infra).

2.3.3. The outer embouchure refers to the rest of the embouchure, thas is handly the whole
of the other muscles of the face, and handly the corners of the lips.

That reinforcing zone helps, also, for emitting the sound. It is important because the (left and
right) corners of the lips must be activated and worked in order to support the action of the
inner embouchure and of the exhaled air (cf following diagram). Moreover, it may happen
that a sustained training cause « aches » (slight pains) of the outer embouchure, because these
muscles are not usually as trained as those of the other embouchures.

19
 Main part of the outer embouchure (peri-labial zone)
(arrows indicate the direction of the muscular compressions)

2.3.4. During the learning, it is necessary to mentally « separate » what is a matter for each
of these areas of the face, that is to succeed in identifying these parts of the whole
embouchure as well as the role of each of them. Faced to experience, one observes that (other
things being equal) :

(a) hard and firm corners are opposed to a soft OO, which must remain « fleshy »
(vibration) ;

(b) the horizontal compression of the corners (mouth put forward, like a « kiss »)
makes easier the descent toward low-pitched notes (low frequencies) ;

(c) the vertical compression of the corners (mouth put backward, with a moderate
« smile ») makes easier the ascent toward high-pitched notes (high frequencies).

2.4. The air supply

Every expulsion of air through the mouth is necessarily preceded by an entrance.

2.4.1. Entrancewise, the breathing in is caused by lowering an important muscle, which is

often « forgotten » : the diaphragm. This last contributes to inflate the abdomen, as far as the
filling of the lungs happens « from the bottom ».

Very often, this cette inspiration is produced in a sudden way, in order to inhale very quickly
an amount of air at moments (sometimes very short) separating the production of two
successive notes.

2.4.2. When going out, the moving of the air inside the body and inside the instrument defines
the notion of air stream (gaseous environment). This move is mainly due to the pressure of
the abdominal belt (meaning here : abdominal and intercostal muscles). This carrier of
compressed air is the fondamentale source of energy which initiate the sound : a well
controlled air supply, or air flow, together with a sufficient quantity, allows the production of
musical sounds.

20
By sound musical, one generally means a sound which combines the accuracy of the
emitted note (good height of the sound, or exact frequency) and its sound quality (that
which makes the musical interest and the specificity of the instrument). Concerning the
« cornaline », one can remark that :

(a) a musical note may not be right, because of the acoustic wrongness of the
instrument (cf infra) ;

(b) conversely, a right note may not be musical (eg when forcing the trumpet with
the playing of the lips).

Thus, air is a gas which compression originates the sound. That compression results from
the energy emitted by the rib cage and the abdomen by activating (contracting) the abdominal
and inter-costal muscles : these contractions may be slow or fast (ie « abrupt ») (speed), weak
or strong (power).

As soon as the pre-warming-up (breathing exercises) and the warming-up (cf infra), one must
use this air fully. One has to think at the same time to the inspiration and to the expiration :
a « good » inhalation (inspiration) must lead to a « good » exhalation (expiration) (cf diagram
below).

The lungs, the intercostal muscles and the diaphagm

(cf http://www.anatomie-humaine.com/Espace-intercostal.html?id_document=128)
(cf http://www.anatomie-humaine.com/Le-diaphragme.html)

21
2.4.3. A comparaison with a toy balloon (toy made of latex) is eloquent :

(a) inflation of balloon : this necessitates an initial effort (or energy). The air is kept
prisoner by keeping closed the cylindrical tip of the balloon (stretching of its ends). The
rubbery elasticity of the balloon then induces forces pressuring the air (directed towards the
inside of the balloon) ;

(b) by slightly relaxing the end of the tip, the balloon deflates : this results from its
inner pressure. That inner pressure, resulting from the air and the closing of the tip, then
entails the vibration of this last : it is the buzz. By letting varying the stretching of the ends,
the pressure (thus the speed of expulsion of the air) vary : this allows augmenting (hight
notes) or reducing (low notes) the emitted frequencies.

The bag of the balloon corresponds to the abdominal muscles (intercostal as well as
abdominal ones), the inside of the bag corresponds to the lungs (and, to a certain degree, to
the OC) and the tip corresponds to the lips.

2.4.4. The sound quality, the endurance, the range and the flexibility of the performer
depend on the way this air flow is managed, as well as input flow or output flow. In short, the
management of this air flow and an absolute sound control are the fondamental
activities of the instrumentalist.

22
 Movement of the air flow
Volumes of air are represented in red (internal and external « air columns »)

In order to expire the air, the volume of air inside the lungs (filling) must be sufficient.

It is nevertheless unnecessary to fill the lungs excessively : this distends the intercostal
muscles too much, and restricts their elasticity, thus their reactivity for creating a sufficient
compression. Indeed, too much inhalation of air leads to an exaggerated extension of the
muscles and tendons of the abdominal and intercostal zones, which makes it more difficult
breathing out, and also the reactivity during the playing.

A stronger muscular strain (measured eg as kg / cm) makes more difficult the expulsion of
the air, thus tends to limit the speed of expiration (eg as cm3 / s) ; on the contrary, a weaker
tension tends to augment that expulsion. The fonction f linking up these two variables T and
V is thus, as a rule, of a decreasing shape, ie :

V = f (T-),

where the sign - indicates a negative derivative of V with respect to T.

It should then exist an intermediate « zone » (couple tension - speed) which allows playing in
sufficiently confortable conditions. That zone may vary greatly from an individual to another.

In some cases, a sequence of inspirations and expirations can help the relaxation during the
playing, but its excess can also provoke sensations of falling asleep or even vertigo.
Elsewhere, for lack of in time inhalation, a « lack of air » can provoke a kind of suffocation
(sudden getting one’s breath back) detrimental (to the performer as well as to the
performance). On then must avoid this type of situation (blockings, anoxia).

It is sufficient to inhale enough air in order to realize the necessary expiration effort. One
estimates sometimes that the effort necessary for getting a forced expiration, ie a sufficient
compression, is similar to the one consisting of cough : indeed, this (sudden) effort contracts
the abdominal and intercostal muscles from a way comparable to an exhalation inside the
instrument.

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In order to train oneself in realizing these efforts with the aim of forming the sound, one can
practice :

(a) various apnoea exercises (cf § 3.2.) ;

(b) various sudden expirations of the air (HU), as during a coughing fit : these last
result from abrupt compressions of the concerned muscles (abdominal and intercostal ones).
Until possible opposite indications, the suggested exercises may be started with this kind of
« attack » of the sound.

The exercises with tied notes or with tonguing are useful for checking the flow of air : indeed,
if the air stream is interrupted, the sound weakens or stops. The interruption of the air flow is
generally due to one, or many, among the following factors : insufficient inspiration
(according to the length of the phrase), insufficient support of the abdominal belt (abdominal
and intercostal muscles), too small opening of the throat (pharynx) and a position of the
tongue too high, OO badly hold in place towards its closing (vertical compression of the lips
between themselves).

Remark. A good inspiration and a good expiration need a sufficient aperture of the throat
(pharynx). One distinguishes various muscles in the « back » of the throat :

(a) in the peripharyngeal space : the digastric muscles, the stylo-hyoidian muscles, the
stylo-pharyngians muscles, the stylo-glosses muscles, the petro-pharyngian muscles, the
pterygoidian muscles (lateral muscles and median muscles) ;

(b) inside the rhinopharynx and the oropharynx : the constrictor muscles of the
pharynx (upper and middle muscles), the muscles of the soft palate (tensor and elevator
muscles), the palato-pharyngian muscles, the amygdalo-glosse muscles, the palato-glosse
muscles and the uvular muscles.

A sufficient aperture of the pharynx helps, moreover, getting a full and clear sound.

As the management of the air must be contreled at the beginning, it must afterwards become
automatic and natural, as during an ordinary conversation. The trumpet player must then train
his breathing (cf § 3.2.).

The air flow leads to the production of the notes via the vibrations of the OO, and this
vibration increases all the long of the pipe (plug and gimlet of the trumpet). The sounds
simply come from putting in vibration the air stream at the OO level : there is thus a coupling
of an exciter (the OO) and of a resonator (the « cornaline »). This is an exemple of
resonance phenomenon (or « entry in resonance »).

2.5. The work of the tongue

The muscles inside the mouth play a particular role. One can list several of them : mylo-
hyoidian muscles, genio-hyoidian muscles, genio-glosse muscles, longitudinal muscles
(below the tongue), hyo-glosse muscles, transverse muscles of the tongue, longitudinal
muscle (above the tongue).

24
2.5.1. The muscles linked to the utilization of the tongue are to « help » the production of the
sound. The tongue does create the sound. Indeed, the tongue is an intermediate tool which
controls the flow of air by restricting more or less the sound flow. It simply changes the
direction of the initial sound production. Thus, the lingual muscles are used :

(a) from one part, for the (lingual) articulation, ie for the production of the notes ;

(b) from an other part, as important tools for developping the flexibility and extending
the range : the position of the tongue inside the OC makes its volume and shapee vary, which
helps getting a given height of the sound.

The training and the mastering of the tongue then constitute factors for progress (cf diagram
below). As the tongue is used to modify the shape and the volume of the oral cavity (cf
diagrams of § 2.5.2.), one must practice such a way. By exemple, in the exercises for
extending the register (toward the low pitched notes or toward the high pitched ones) (cf § 8.),
one can say (or spell) the vowels which determine the relations « oral cavity  tongue » :
these vowels favor too the access to the low (A, O), median (E) or high (I, U) registers.

Circuit of breathed out air flow, lingual-palatal passage and entry into vibration

2.5.2. The two kinds of movements of the tongue

The tongue can move inside the OC according to two main ways :

(a) the tongue goes up and down : this « vertical » direction of the movement makes
easier the variations inside the range, ie the production of the high tones (tongue near the
palate, syllables TI, DI, KI, etc) or of the low tones (tongue at the bottom of the OC, syllables
TA, DA or KA). One can check this fact by simply playing C2 and G2 alternately, and by
linking these notes (attacks by pronouncing TI or DI) ;

(b) the tongue moves back or forward : this « horizontal » direction of the
movement, which tally with the usual « tonguing », makes easier the velocity. One can check
this point by playing quickly, and alternately, C2 and E2, in a tied manner : this case
combines, in fact, the two situations (a) and (b).

Play of the tongue during the expulsion of the air (variations of the sub-palatal volume)

25
During the warming-up, one must then keep an eye on the work of the tongue, and its relation
with the air stream, in order to produce a note. One can practice the attack of a unique note
with a forced air stream HU (thus without moving the tongue), or by coughing in order to
form GU’s : the aim is first to produce the note only with the air stream, and to use a
minimum move of the tongue for getting a clean attack and a pleasant sonority (« full » or
« round » tones) (cf supra).

2.5.3 .The three « tonguing » modes

In the past, the teachers asked for « doing as if » one was expelling a pip of fruit with the tip
of the tongue. This processs is still sometimes used during the training (control of the
« tonguing » : accuracy, regularity, marcato forte, etc). But that way produces a too « sharp »
sound : the OO is first closed by the end of the tongue, then it releases the air brutally. That
practice leads not only to a hard-hitting emission, but also to a move of the tongue with
excessive amplitude (from before to back), detrimental to velocity.

The emitting of a less hard-hitting sound, « without tonguing », improves the technics of
tonguing. A common practice consists in emitting a sound so that the air flow, when
passing between the tongue and the palate, is « modulated » as follows :

(a) positioning the end of the tongue against the back of the incisors of the lower jaw
(cf above diagram) : this forms an arched tongue (concavity), which favors an access toward
the upper register (whith, in particular, the help of a contraction of the pharynx) ;

(b) positioning the end of the tongue toward the top of the palate, against the back of
the upper incisors : the tongue, being thus arched in the opposite shape (convexity), favors a
fall toward the lower register (by, in particular, relaxing the muscles of the throat).

One usually distinguishes 3 types of tonguing, sometimes compared to the action of a valve.
The various comments pointed out by a composer on a score may still complicate the
technique : accentuations (staccato, etc), variations of tempo (accelerando, etc), variations of
sound volume (de ppp = pianissimo à fff = fortissimo), etc.

The following indications are to be performed within the framework of the exercises.

2.5.3.1. Simple tonguing

It consists in emitting the sound of a note by « articulating » a particular syllable (elementary

phoneme) : generally, TU (or TE). The chosen syllable can be used whatever the rhythmical
type : binary (2/4, 4/4, etc) or ternary (3/4, 6/8, etc).

Other syllables may nevertheless be used :

26
 (a) according to the « hardness » of the required attack, or required by the score :
TU (ou TE) is harder than DU (or DE), which itself is harder than GU (or GUE), as the
tongue « hits » the palate from the front to the back ;

(b) according to the register (low, medium or high) : eg TA, DA or GA make easier
the descent toward low tones (wider aperture of the pharynx), TI, DI or GUI facilitate the rise
toward high tones (by closing more the pharynx). The tongue is then located higher with
regard to the palate.

Before or during the performance of a piece, it can be useful to choose the syllable which will
make easier the style of attack as well as the variation of range.

A difficulty, sometimes neglected or gone unnoticed, consists in mainaining an

« homogenous » sound as output, whatever the tonguing, whatever the hardness and
whatever the register : same « output » (or same outside « impression ») for the attack, same
sound quality. The exercises following that direction are very distrustful : in fact, these
attempts are very difficult to accomplish.

2.5.3.2. Double tonguing

When the tempo of a performance is quick (presto or prestissimo), the previous simple attack
meets some limits : this may be checked by trying to play with TU TU TU TU of the 4/4
sixteenths with a tempo over 120 for a quarter note.

The kind and the action of tonguing must then be adapted.

After experimentation, it appears that emitting the syllables TU and KU alterntively (eg TU
KU TU KU, etc) was giving good results. The tongue then play its role of « valve » in the
above mentionned two places of the OC : at the front of the palate or at the back of the teeth
(upward or downward, acording to the range) for TU, in the middle of the palate, between the
molars, for KU.

The couples of chosen syllables are generally used for binary rhythms (2/4, 4/4, etc) : thus, in
4/4, one performs sixteenths with sequences made of (TU KU TU KU). Nevertheless, for
ternary rhythm (eg 3/4), it is possible to perform the 6 quavers with sequences such that (TU
KU TU KU TU KU), while emphasizing the strong beat as well as the weak beats.

As previously, one can chose other combinations :

(a) according to the « hardness » of the attack : TU KU TU KU or TU PU TU PU

are combinations harder that DU GU DU GU ;

(b) according to the register : eg TA KA TA KA (ou DA GA DA GA) make easier

the descent toward low notes, and TI KI TI KI (ou DI GUI DI GUI) make easier the ascent
toward high notes.

The main difficulty of this type of tonguing consists in perform a perfect equality of the
sound production in every scenarios : indeed, TU is, for physiological and physical reasons,

27
a harder attack than KU (ditto for the other syllables). In order to realize a clock playing, and
a sound production well « constant », one process consists in :

(a) trying to « reinforce » the weak attacks (KU, KA, KI, or PU, or GU, GA, GUI)
by playing (more en more quickly) identical sequences : eg (KU KU KU KU), or (KI KI KI
KI), etc ;

(b) completing this strategy and training oneself in « weakening » the strong attacks
(play the TU as gently as possible).

2.5.3.3. Triple tonguing

This tonguing cumulates the previous difficulties. It applies, generally speaking, to ternary
rhythm (3/4, 6/8, etc) as well as triplets of notes.

The emission of the syllables TU, TU and KU alternately (eg TU TU KU, TU TU KU, etc) is
advocated, with severall variants yet pointed out, such that DU DU GU or DI DI GUI, or
again TA TA KA or TI TI KI. The making of a perfect equality of the sound emission is, still,
important.

An other difficulty is the risk of « clash » or of delaying the emission between the initial TU
and TU as the tempo increases : usually, with a sustained tempo, one can pronounce 2
successive TU but not 3 TU. Often, nevertheless, the pieces of trumpets need the performance
of triplets gathering a same note (eg G2 G2 G2 or C2 C2 C2), and this late is easier than that
of triplets which notes are varying (eg G2 A2 G2 or C2 B2 C2).

During a performance of a succession of triplets, an alternative to this kind of attack consist in

emitting alternated syllables such that (TU KU TU) (KU TU KU), etc. This process prevents
clashing between TU and TU, and may also improve the performance of hard as well as weak
syllables.

2.5.3.4. Some « curiosities »

« Special » rhythms such that 5/4, or 5/8, or 7/4, etc, can be performed by drawing inspiration
from the above, taking into account the required tempo, which may be quick or slow : for
instance « Take five » (key signature 5/4), by Paul Desmond is quick enough and requires
different syllables, whereas the symphonic poem « The isle of the dead » (signature 5/8) by
Serge Rachmaninoff is more slow and only once syllable suffices (eg GUA or GUE).

2.6.Technical studies and scales : fingers and fingering

This kind of exercise must, first, insure a good use of the fingers. The control of the
fingering in every tonality demands some skillfullness : one suggests various fingering
exercises (cf appendix 7, exercises on fingering).

2.6.1. Valves technique

By design itself, the inner mechanism of the group « sleeve valve and valves » of a trumpet
has the goal getting (by half-tones) every « intermediate » note between the « on open »
notes.

28
2.6.1.1. The on open notes are those « basic notes » of the trumpet, and they are produced
without lowering the valves. For a standard C trumpet, these notes are C1 and its harmonics :
G2, C2, E2, G3, B3b, C3 (which is generally called high C).

Now, one can also notice that :

(a) the wider interval between on open notes is a fifth (C1-G2), located toward the low
register ;

(b) the other intervals between on open notes are less wide : forth (G2-C2), major third
(C2-E2), minor third (E2-G3), forth (G3-C3), major third (C3-E3), etc.

2.6.1.2. In practice, the logics of a valve system associated to a sound pipe takes into account
the following data :

(a) the height of the sound of an on open note, produced by the tube, decreases
(« continuously ») when that pipe grows longer (cf principle of the trombone). In other words,
the frequency of a sound tube decreases with the increase of its length ;

(b) the construction of a divertion of a given lenght (valve slide and its base),
connected to the pipe, gives the same result, but the decrease is « stagely » : in other words, it
is constant, and the difference of height depends upon the length of the divertion. One can, in
the same way, make other divertions of this kind, each one being associated to a stage of a
given decrease.

2.6.1.3. One then looked for carrying out every chromatic intermediates (ie by 1/2-tone) going
down from an on open note (these levels are sometimes also called partials). If the spectrum
(Fourier transform) of a given signal has equidistant peaks and (integer) multiples of a given
frequency, that frequency is called « fondamental », and the other equidistant peaks are its
« harmonics », whereas the residual peaks are sometimes called its « partials ».

The technical difficulty consists in ascertain (1) a number of valves, (2) the length of the
associated valve slides as well as (3) an activation of the combinations of the valve buttons
which allow playing every intermediate of the previous fifth C1-G2, by lowering the pitch
from G2 towards C1.

The solving of that technical difficulty led, following various experimentations (XVIIIth-
XIXth centuries), to hold nothing but 3 valves (only) (system invented by Etienne François
Périnet, 1839).

For a tube of « standard » length (150 cm), and schematizing the acoustical reasonings, it was
possible to associate to each valve a divertion with the help of a slide which length is
determined (par iterations or according to the formulas of acoustics) as follows :

(a) a first valve lowers each on open note (thus the previous G2) of a half-tone when
its associated slide is 6 % of the total length of the pipe (ie 9 cm). This is the role of the
second valve of the modern trumpet ;

29
 (b) an other valve lowers, in the same isolated way, an on open note of one tone with a
slide which length is 18 cm (ie 12 % total length of the pipe). This is the role of the first
valve of the trumpet ;

(c) the third valve lowers, in the same isolated way, an on open note of one ton and
helf when its slide is 18 % of the total length (ie 27 cm). This is the role of the third valve of
the trumpet actuelle.

These 3 valves then allow 8 combinations, of which 7 (namely 0, 2, 1, 12, 23, 13, 123, that is
0, 2, 1, 3, 23, 13, 123) are sufficient for performing every chromatic note between C1 and G2.

The same principle is applicable to the other on open notes (C2, E2, G3, B3b, C3) : their case
is besides simpler to treat, because they need less combinations of valves.

Finally, one can reach such a way (at best) the note F1# going down from C2.

2.6.1.4. The acoustical wrongness of the trumpet affects, by construction (ie because of the
principle of the slide system itself), its whole range. One must, indeed notice that the trumpet
is, strictly speaking, « wrong » inside all its registers (cf the wrongness of the trumpet).

By definition of a « cent », 1 tone = 200 cents (cf appendix 9, on the use of the piccolo
trumpet), but common human ear cannot detect a difference which height is under 10 cents
(ie 1 / 20th of a tone, or 1 / 10th of a half-tone).

Taking into account these mesurement units, one observes that the incorrect notes of a
standard trumpet are in general approximatively, and without any correction (lips or
slides) (cf § 2.6.2. on the standard fingering) :

(a) differences less than 10 cents : A1 (+8 cents), C1# (+7 cents), G2 (+9 cents), A2
(+8 cents), C2 (+7 cents), D1# (-10 cents), G2 (+9 cents), A3 (+8 cents), C3 (+7 cents) ;

(b) differences of 10 cents or more (thus perceptible by the human ear) : E1 (+11
cents), D1 (-14 cents), D2 (-14 cents).

The notes belonging to the first register (low pitches ranging between F1# and E1b) are thus
notably more « out of tune » (heights, intervals) than those of the upper registers. A minimal
training must allow succeeding in playing « correctly ». Indeed, the correction of the previous
faults is possible (cf fingering and activation of the slides) :

(a) working with the lips. This allows, to a certain extent, lowering by around 1/2
tone a too high note (cf exercises). By definition, this work of the lips, as well as a lesser
brething, allow thus the making of « partials » (cf exercises) : a partiel is then her considered
as a diverted note (high) with respect to a « normal » note (itself height centered). To perform
a partial, the instrumentalist can then use his lips (flexibility) and his breathing (pressure
inside the OC).

On the contrary, the lips scarcely allow raising (some cents) a too low note : indeed, there is a
« click effect » (or « ratchet effect ») upwards, which provokes a sudden change from a pitch
to the immediate upper harmonic sound (with the same fingering).

30
In any case, such a slight shift of the sound height may correct the pitch, but also may be
harmful with respect to its quality : we have yet noticed that a sound may be musical
without being right (ie at the right height = wrong note), and it may be right without being
musical ;

(b) lengthening of the valve slides : the more often, the slide 3 (or « trigger » as the
case may be : flugelhorn, etc), and sometimes (according to the model of trumpet) the slide 1.
Thus, one suggests generally, playing the C1# (+7 cents) by lengthening the slide 3 by 1,7 cm
(that is strongly enough).

One can also, if necessary, combine the slides 3 and 1 : the concerned notes are obtained with
a lesser lengthning of each of them. Moreover, the piece to be performed being memorized,
one can take notice of it, and can avoid handling too often the slides : one only needs, as
possible, to determine the position juste before the phrasing which is the more distorted by the
wrongness of the instrument, then to secure it during the performance of these passages, and
finally return the slides to their shorter position.

The above is especially important during a rather slow phrase, whose notes are « long notes »
and the operation of lengthening the slides is practicable, than during a fast phrase, where this
operation is risky (and even impossible).

In practice, it is simpler to « wedge » the cornaline by successive trials in order to locate the
extentions of the slides allowing an as right as possible performance of the notes, without the
help of the lips (preferably) : then one has to memorize these extensions once for all (for a
given instrument).

It is possible, by combining the work of the lips and the valve slides (1 or 3 according to the
model of cornaline), reach the note F1 (ie the F located just below the range of the cornaline).

As a consequence, when purchasing a trumpet, it is highly advised to check its accuracy.

Some means are among the following ones :

(a) play the basic scale upwards and tie C1, D1, E1, F1 and G2 (accuracy of the low
seconds, major and minor ones). Some instruments (eg the SML Paris TP600) sometimes
exhibit a G2 which is too low (it suffices to play the fifth C1-G2 and notice it) : a correction is
possible thanks to the alternate fingering 13 (which corrects the height) (cf § 2.6.4. on the
alternate fingering) ;

(b) play the scale downwards and tie C1, B1, A1, G1 (accuracy of the very low
seconds, major and minor ones) ;

(c) play chromatically, going up and down, the tied scale from C1 to G2 (accuracy of
the minor seconds) ;

(d) play chromatically, going up and down, the tied scale from C1 to F1# = G1b
(accuracy of the minor seconds).

(e) play slowly E2 alternatively on open (0) and with 12 or 3 (as for a tremolo) ; the
same for C2 on open (0) and with 23. More generally, play any note and alternate (quickly
enough) its standard fingering with its possible alternating fingering, as pointed out above ;

31
 (b) play any « ordinary » note and its octave (higher or lower) : the interval must
« sound » accurately. Try also the pedal notes, or alternating ordinary notes and pedal notes ;

If the instrument if faulty, some notes will notably stay out « correct scales » or it will even be
impossible to correct precisely their height (with the help of the lips or of the valve chords).

Moreover, and according to one’s avalaible budget, it is better choosing an instrument which
produces notes slightly over the right pitch, rather than the contrary : indeed, it is in any case
possible lowering the notes either, as a general way, with the chord slide, or, in a particular
way, with the valve slides. So, if a C trumpet is too height in pitch (eg sounds like C#, after
the warming-up with the instrument), the chord slide allows correcting this fault ; as the
proportionnalities of the valve slides may be modified and bend more the faulty notes, the
lengthening of these slides may, if any, correct also the problem. On the contrary, a too low
trumpet may always be too low, even after correction, and requires instead transposing the
pieces to be performed.

In practice, many instruments (notably for study), even low priced ones, often have an enough
satisfying quality, and can be used without great difficulty. They allow too practicing the
indicated correction efforts, which has also its own utility. One then has to concentrate on the
quality of manufacturing : geometry of the pipe, of the bell, of the cylinders and valves, of
the slides. Moreover, one may check the fitting of the various tubes making up the trumpet
(diameter, depth, « uncoupling ») : indeed, as the mouthpiece or a tube is not in a continuous
contact inside the tube, this « flaw » introduces additional perturbations of the air flow (cf
diagram below).

2.6.2. Usual or normal fingering

The « normal » fingering, or « standard » fingering, as well as the « normal »range, of the
trumpet are reminded in the diagram below, with our chosen numbering of the notes : the
« normal » range (or usual ambit) of the trumpet extends from F# (denoted F1#) below the
staff to high C (denoted C3) over the staff. This range allows the more « pleasant » sounds.

Our numbering differs from :

(a) the notation based on the standard 88 keys piano (7 octaves 1/4 : the C1 of the
trumpet corresponds to the C4 of the piano) ;

32
 (b) the « universal » notation (eg used by acousticians), based on the sound
frequencies (eg A2 = 440 Hz).

Notation and usual fingering

In order to perform a « natural » fingering, without hesitation, one has to take the time for
moving from a step of conscience to a step of automatic reflex : as for many activities, the
learning must begin with slow moves, then continue with faster moves (passage thoughts -
reflexes).

A (physical) metronome is very useful. Nevertheless, one will be able to go without it by also
developing a mental metronome, or « inner » metronome (sense of durations as well as of
rhythms).

2.6.3. The fingers must not be (too) elevated above the top of the valves (valve buttons) : this
delays the ability to react of the fingering. At every time during the playing, it is then
preferable to hold in place the tip of the fingers and the valves buttons. Moreover :

(a) one must search for precise move of the fingers, whatever the tempo (fast or
slow). The performance of the fingering must be « relaxed », without excessive move of the
fingers. At the same time, one must be physically relaxed : a tension of the arm, of the hand or
of the fingers adds, in the long run, some tiredness. Of course, the « mecanichal » constraints
must be litghtened : faultless geometry of the cylinders and valves, enough lubrication of the
valves, springs in good condition.

(b) in a general manner, the valves must be either down, or up, without
intermediate position. For avoiding some failures (jingle between notes, failed notes, badly
centered notes) due to the delay of activation, it is advisable to quickly lower the valves
before performing each « tongued » note. Besides the fingers themselves, the rise of the
valves is commanded by the elasticity of their spring, by the manufacturing quality of the

33
instrument (appropriateness of the cylinder and of the valves, plastic wedges well positionned
and in good condition), as well as the care given to the lubrication. The choice of the lubricant
(and above all of its viscosity) matters too.

Nevertheless, it may happen (eg in jazz) that the valves are lowered, at a quarter or half
length, during a generally short enough moment, in order to produce special effects : muffling
the sound, continuous (increased or lowered) sound, as a « knocking », etc. It is generally
necessary to breath harder for realizing these effects.

The positioning of the right hand with respect to the instrument may cause discussion :

(a) many instrumentalists put the fifth finger (little finger) of the right hand inside the
hook (or retaining ring) of the instrument, the first finger being « wedged » near the first
spacer (located after the mouthpiece) ;

(b) others prefer (permanently, or temporarily, according to the difficulty) keep a

freedom of movement at the right hand, the little finger being positioned above the hook and
the thumb on the side of the first cylinder.

The argument for the second choice is attached to the risk of using the hook for moving
closer, instinctively and excessively, the mouthpiece towards the mouth, thus squashing in the
embouchure in a harmful way for the lips. Nevertheless, this drawback seems to concern the
beginners, which embouchure is not yet well trained (musculature). The trained artists have,
in principle, and by « hypothesis », an enough strong embouchure (muscular « hardness » and
thickness) for being able to counterbalance the pressure exerted by the mouthpiece upon the
lips, pressure which must in any case remain minimal.

2.6.4. « Atypical » fingering

Some notes can be played with a alternative fingering : eg use of the combination l3 of the
valves for G, or of the single valve 3 for E and A (cf diagram below). This is besides useful
for performing some kinds of exercises : notably, flexibility of the lips without tubular moves.

2.6.4.1. The description of the technics of the valves (cf § 2.6.1.3.) and the knowledge of
standard fingering (cf § 2.6.2.) show that some combinations of keys (called non standard
fingering) « overlap » the « usual » combinations (standard fingering) (cf diagram below).
Some notes can be reached with various fingerings : thus, B3b has 3 ones (the normal
fingering 1, the false harmonic 0 and the descent 123 from E3).

By « cheating » somewhat, one has yet noticed that F1 can also be reached (with the fingering
123, by relaxing much the lips and lengthening enough the valve slides 1 or 3) : this exercise
is nevertheless quite delicate as the sonority may be spoiled such a way (« hollow » or
« dull » sound).

34
 Alternative fingerings

In principle, the alternative fingering is not used (« non standard » fingering).

Nevertheless, it may be useful in some situations, eg :

(a) for correcting some faulty notes (heights) (old instruments, output of
manufacturing) : thus, a too low G2 can sometimes (case of the SML Paris TP 600) be
advantageousely executed with 13 (instead of 0) ;

(b) for realizing fast melodic lines that usual fingering does not allows realizing
(without risk) ;

(c) for performing tremolos. A tremolo is a (very) fast succession of standard and
alternatif fingerings producing the « same » note : so is a sequence of E2 alternating 0 and 3.

Indeed, the fingering to be applied must be as « light » as possible : this is the case when
only one valve is lowered. Thus :

(a) the performance of a trill alternating 1 and 23 (« bascule ») for alternating F1 and
E1b cannot take advantage of this possibility (lack of substitution fingering). A trill requiring

35
a « fork » (toggling of 13 and 2 for performing sequences of D1 and F1#) is a priori excluded,
as being unrealizable (and moreover never used in trumpet works) ;

(b) on the contrary, a trill requiring the alternation of 12 and 23 (bascule) for the notes
A2 and G2# can be advantageously performed with 3 and 23 : indeed, only the key 2 is to be
activated. Moreover, the trumpet is less « wrong » in this register than in the lower register ;
given the velocity of the line and the limits of the ear acoustic abilities (discrimination from
over 10 cents), a « median » listener should not detect differences (cf § 2.6.5.).

On can then distinguish 3 kinds of difficulties : slight fingering (no, or only one, valve
lowered), half-light (or half-heavy) fingering (2 valves simultaneously lowered) and heavy
fingering (three valves lowered). This distinction depends, nevertheless, on the tempo of the
piece to be performed, as well as on the linking of the valve activations : thus, 123 (C1#)
alternated with 23 (D1#) is a link between a heavy and a half-heavy, fingering, but is easy to
perform (one valve to be activated), even in a « presto » tempo ; conversely, a fast trill formed
with 1 and 2 (eg B2b alternated with B2) may seem delicate to perform.

2.6.4.2. The evocated risk is that of too sudden movings of the instrument resulting from
the effort necessitated to perform some fingerings : previous bascules or « forks ». The
holding of the instrument with the help of the left hand can, indeed, be insufficient because
one also wants it to keep suppleness in order to avoid a painful contraction. As a consequence,
the moves may lead two major drawbacks :

(a) lack of airtightness of the labial corners ;

(b) too sudden shift of the mouthpiece with respect to the lips (pitching effect), and
then production of unexpected notes, or « out of tune notes » (this notion is here distinguished
from that of « wrong note » : ie bad reading of a score).

Finally :

(a) when performing « tied » notes, the flexibility of the lips plays the major role
(linked with the breathing) ;

(b) when performing a non tied notes (staccato attack, etc), one must pay much
attention for performing a perfect coordination of air stream (breathing), the tongue, the
OO and the fingers. The corresponding exercises will then be started very slowly (awareness
of the mechanism and concentration), next performed faster and faster, in order to still control
this coordination.

2.7. Mouth and mouthpiece

This point is crucial and implies the choice of the more appropriate mouthpiece (cf
appendix 1, mouthpieces).

A consequence of the warming-up or of the training lies in a better adequation between the
mouth and the mouthpiece : the shape of the lips must « marry », to some extent, that of the
mouthpiece. In other words, the morphology of the mouth should become, in time, the
« opposite » geometry (the negative) of the mouthpiece. This consequence is advantageous,
because thus the exhaled air does not leak between the outer embouchure and the outside

36
(airtightness of the corners), which helps, in particular, to increase the concentration of the
air stream inside the mouthpiece, and also the flexibility of the lips.

2.7.1. Positioning the mouthpiece upward or downward (cf diagram)

There is no definitive rule concerning this positioning :

(a) J.B. Arban advocated a 1/3-2/3 position, ie a « downward » mouthpiece. This

position tends to send the air stream upward inside the basin of the mouthpiece («
Arban positioning ») : this favors emitting a « narrowed » air flow between the lower lip and
the top of the bowl. It seems to be the case for instrumentalists whose lower lip is fuller than
the upper ;

(b) conversely, a 2/3-1/3 position favors emitting an air flow, which is now
« narrowed » between the upper lip and the bottom of the bowl (eg position which can be
observed with Romain Leleu). The horn players also direct their instrument downward. It
seems to be linked to instrumentalists whose upper lip is « overhanging » with regard to the
lower lip (cf references to the « beak » of the trumpet players).

Both « extreme » previous positions make easier a vibration with high frequencies, then an
access toward the high register. Indeed, they lead to respectively position the lower (upper) lip
very near from the top (bottom) of the basin, the other lip playing a role of « support » (in any
event very light), which induces an tight air flow ;

(c) the median (ou central) position 1/2-1/2 may nevertheless be prefered, at least as an
initial position.

37
Indeed, (1) it is the power of the rib cage and of the abdomen whichs allow controlling the
compression of the air, and (2) it is the muscular power of the embouchure which allows
the control of the lips (aperture and closing of the OO : the famous labial « pliers »). As a
consequence, it is the couple « embouchure, compression » which controls the vibration,
then the emitted frequencies, and so the height of the sound. The position of the tongue and
the aperture of the pharynx finally contribute to make easier and reinforce the scanning (or
the course) along the range of the instrument.

With this position, the access to the upper register can be favored by moving forward the lips
(inner embouchure) inside the basin (without touching its bottom, to avoid the risk of
breaking the vibration) ; this depends also on the depth of the mouthpiece.

In order to find an optimal position, one can begin with a 1/2-1/2 positioning, then, after
various trials, vary slightly and progressively, in order to get the satisfactory results :
accuracy, sonority, airtightness, flexibility. One then must not neglect the role of everyone
morphology in the choice of that position :

(a) regularity of the dental wall in its 3 dimensions (height, width and depth), inter-
dental spaces, wearing of a dental device, etc ;

(b) shape of the lips : more or less thin, more or less bended, thicknew more or less
shared out in width, etc ;

(c) labial muscular mass (lower or upper) : the « lower » lip is often thicker than the
« upper », which may explain a preference for a 1/3-2/3 position.

It is generally advised not to modify the adopted positioning when playing (performance),
by exemple inside the same phrase, in particular if one has to play fast lines or to access to the
upper register. One can generally, besides the usual technique, « compensate » this constraint
by raising or lowering (very) slightly the head (then the OO), or by sending the air toward the
top or toward the bottom of the mouthpiece (pivot technique), which contributes to move the
instrument from top to bottom (that is an other kind of the above evocated pitching).

On the contrary, this modification of the position is possible (without great risk) between two
phrases separated with a pause (rest, etc), even short ; this may also be preferable when one
phrase is in the low register and the following one in the hight register (or the converse).

2.7.2. Positioning the mouthpiece in width (cf diagram)

It is advised to put the mouthpiece in the middle of the lips. This is « natural » because of the
approximate symetry of the lips with respect to a vertical plane from the back to the front of
the head.

38
It may nevertheless happen that some players (eg Melissa Venema) put their instrument
laterally. This may result from a « defective » jaw or dental conformation, which often is
temporary (wery young persons, dental device). In such cases, the working of the embouchure
will develop with the time, according to the correction of this conformation.

2.7.3. Positioning the mouthpiece in depth

It is important to put into conformity the « surface » of the mouth (inner and median
embouchures) with the « surface » of the mouthpiece (rim and bowl), without nevertheless
let the lips touch the bottom of the bowl (risk of stopping the vibration). This objective must
be combined with two rather conflicting objectives :

(a) a minimal pressure of the mouthpiece on this part of the embouchure (middle
embouchure) ;

(b) no loss (leaks) of air outside (outer embouchure), meaning a correct airtightness,
which implies to well concentrate the air flow toward the throat of the mouthpiece.

The only one general guide is then getting (a) the greater ease in emitting the sound and (b) a
maximum of « convenience » in the relation (very fine contact) between the lips and the
mouthpiece.

2.8. The emitting of the sound

As well as the management of the air and the work of the tongue, the emitting of the sound is
an important technique. One can emit many kinds of sounds, with or without mouthpiece.

2.8.1. The vibration (« buzz » or « buzzing »)

The lips are (complex) muscles which can also vibrate (cf § 2.3.2.).

On can produce a vibration of the lips (or buzz) by emitting the air et 3 levels :

(a) « internal » or « deep » vibration, or flutter tongue : obtained by pronouncing

GRRR with the bottom of the throat. This process produces a damped vibration as it must
cross the whole CB ;

39
 (b) « middle » vibration : obtained by pronouncing BRRR with the middle of the BC.
In this case, the vibration is more striked ;

(c) « external » vibration : obtained by pronouncing PRRR at the level of the lips. It is
generally this third kind of vibration which is practised, because it gives more impulse from
the lips, then more power to the emitted sound.

Indeed, in every case, the lips must be able to vibrate. For putting the lips into vibration,
one can do the following :

(a) without mouthpiece : move closer the upper and lower lips until they are in firm
contact between them (vertical compression), then blow sufficiently to expel the air which is
under pressure inside the mouth. By compressing more or less one lip against the other, one
can vary the height of the sound ;

(b) with the « slightly » kept mouthpiece : use the thumb and the index finger of the
left hand (without pressing the hand toward the lips). Then proceed as in (a) ;

(c) with the partial instrument : insert the mouthpiece inside the plug of the tube, and
then lengthen the tube more or less, from the shorter (lowering of the valve 2 and taking off
its own slide) to the longer (lowering of the valve 3 and extraction of its own slide).

(d) with the complete instrument : proceed as in (c), the slides remaining at their
normal place. Nevertheless, the vibration here changes its nature as, from one part, the tube
transmits its resonance to the lips and, from the other part, the set composed of the
mouthpiece and the instrument becomes an « obstacle » for the moving of the air (acoustic
impedance). The acoustic and musical result is radically changed : therefore, this case cannot
be considered as a true « buzzing ».

In each of these situations, one must impulse a maximum of air inside the mouthpiece,
without leak by the corners and without closing the OO, in order to produce a ensured
sound, centered (right level) or « full » (timbre, or tone quality, instrument-specific, without
distortion).

Production of the vibration through oral opening (OO)

On may keep an eye on the OO and the corners with the help of a mirror : these areas must be
firm and crushed together.

40
In order to develop the labial muscles whithout the instrument, one can train to :

(a) « roll up » the lips (towards the inside) ;

(b) « unroll » the lips (towards the outside) ;

(c) « pinch » the lips, more or less strongly, one against the other.

Besides this muscular development, the interest of this kind of exercises, as well as others
mentioned in this method, lies in its feasibleness in space and in time : indeed, one can
perform these exercises everywhere and at any moment.

Moreover, in case of temporary impossibility to play (one day, or even much more), the return
toward the instrument is often successfull. One could say that « one day without playing
allows oneself to realize a progress ; two days without playing allow other people to realize
the progress ; three days without playing allow everybody to realize this progress ». In other
words, a « long » enough relaxation of the embouchure gives back to it its mobility and its
sound efficiency. The time for recovering may nevertheless vary according to
circumstances (length, intensity or strongness of the playing, ill-treatment of the lips, etc), the
state of health, the age.

The buzz does not give the normal sonority of the trumpet : it is but an exercise which
aim is to make the lips vibrating and to develop the inner embouchure. Its use is to aim at
control and amplify the vibration of the lips, that is to train and reinforce this part of the
embouchure.

Some authors recommend sometimes performing a buzz, without mouthpiece, during a

(minimum) daily duration of 4 mn.

Then the (vertical and horizontal) compression of the corners must be practised : indeed,
a good compression of the corners gives a good strength to the embouchure. The corners of
the mouth, as well as the OO, must be « conscious ». By varying the compression at the level
of the OO, the air can pass with a sufficient speed, which prevents every weakening, or even
every occlusion, of the OO. If the OO closes, the air cannot pass, which causes a stopping of
the sound (common mistake when playing in the hight register).

A very simple test allows checking the labial suppleness. It consists in suddenly taking off
the mouthpiece while continuing blowing : the lips then carry on with vibrating during a
(short) moment.

2.8.2. The tools for emitting the sound

The usual musical performance (with the instrument) does not use the « buzz », because this
last produces, indeed, an unpleasant sound. The normal playing with a trumpet implies a
relatively open OO, less « closed » than for producing a buzz.

For going up along the registers (eg from medium toward high), one can activate 3
biological variables (neglecting here the physical parameters such that the characteristics of
the mouthpiece or the impedance of the instrument) :

41
 (a) the upstream air flow. The compression of the abdominal and intercostal muscles
determine the pressure, then the speed, of the expelled air from the lungs inside the CB, then
trough the OO. These variables are the first which intervene for going up toward the higher
register : the stronger the inner compression, the easier the sound goes upwards. It is then
important not to hesitate to « breath » ;

(b) the position of the tongue inside the mouth. The curvature of the tongue and the
palatal-lingual volume help also climbing up along the range (§ 2.5.) : the more the tongue
goes upward and gets closer to the palate (diminution of the CB volume), the more the air
flow is tightened and the more the rising along the range is made easier. One must, at same
time, feel a certain narrowing of the throat ;

(c) the variations (size, shape and tension) of the OO end the array of the first tools
allowing a rise in the register. The aperture of the mouth must then be reduced in order to play
in the higher register.

These 3 physiological variables must be activated in a well controlled way. The previous
awareness of the mechanisms of the muscles of the face, as well as the vigilance which must
go with it, have to be permanently maintained : during a warming-up as well as during a
musical performance.

Let us note F the height (frequency) of the sound, P the air pressure inside the lungs (resulting
from the muscular tensions of the abdomen A and of the intercostal muscles C), G the
aperture of the throat - pharynx, H the height of the tongue under the palate and O the OO (eg
its factitious « surface »), one can write a simplified model of the physiological aspects of
the production of the sound in height :

F = g (P+ , G+ , H+ , O−),

where the sign + indicates that a positive variation of a right-handed variable X entails a
positive variation of F (positive derivative), and the signe − that positive variation of X
entrails a negative variation of F (negative derivative), taking into account the equation :

P = h (A+ , C+),

the interpretation being the same (the « inner » pressure depends on the contraction of the
muscles).

Fonctions g and h depend on the instrumentalist, and characterize his « personal equation » :
ability for compressing the lungs, for opening the glottis, for provokating the rise of the
tongue, etc. They reflect then his level of training and of (technical) talent.

One can write same kinds of equations for defining a model for the physiological aspects of
the sound production in intensity : the frequency F is then replaced by the intensity I, also
called (sound) volume or dynamics.

Finally, the compression of the corners is the one of the foundations of the efficiency of
the embouchure (outer one). The pressure of the left arm, the instrument and the mouthpiece
put on the relatively small area situated on the lips and around them, suggest developping

42
methodically these zones and the corresponding muscles ; this in order to be able to support
situations of training or performance requiring an extended exposition to such difficulties.

Except the case of circular breathing (cf § 3.2.5. below), it is not recommended to inflate the
cheeks during the playing (Dizzy Gillespie does). This move entails a « relaxation » of some
muscles of the outer embouchure, which tends (ceteris paribus) to separate the corners
between them : whence a risk of air leaking and a less control of its pressure.

2.8.3. Labial exercises

Training the lips may, again, be practiced everywhere and at any time. The exercises are very
simple :

(a) maintening a pencil. Hold this one inside the OO (as with a recorder flute) and
compress it between the lips (vertical compression) so that it stays in an horizontal position ;
then move the lips so that the front end of the pencil goes up and down. One can, if need be,
replace the pencil with a more heavy object ;

(b) plucking-contraction. Pinch the lips one against the other : this reciprocal
support produces an occlusion of the OO (vertical compression of the upper lip downward,
and of the lower lip upward). Then contract the corners, one against the other : closer
horizontal move of the right corner toward the left, and of left corner toward the right. Repeat
this exercise several times, and speed up the tempo ;

(c) contraction-plucking. Proceed in reverse order : contraction of the corners (closer

move between them), then pinch the lips. Repeat this exercise several times, and speed up the
tempo ;

(d) rolling up - unrolling (cf § 2.3.2. supra).

In general, the final shape of the mouth will be different : the first one (exercise (b)) products
a result with a rather « thinner » mouth, whereas the second (exercise (c)) a rather « thicker »
mouth.

2.9. Synthesis : the formation of the sound

The breathed in air comes from an action of the diaphragm (moving downward) (cf breath
control : how and when breathing). The sound produced by the trumpet comes then from a
shifting of the air, firt breathed in, toward the outside of the body.

The breathing in is made by letting the air pass through the corners of the lips : the outer
embouchure then works at these moments (space of the corners), but it must go back to its
previous position as soon as the breathing out starts. As a rule, one must not move the
mouthpiece with respect to median and inner embouchures (cf nevertheless infra).

Often, in practice, the breathing in occurs between two « phrases ». It may be very fast :
according to the tempo, the moment when it is made, the need for reconstituting the stock of
air, etc. In some cases, it is possible to breath often enough : it is then not necessary to absorb
much air, and this allows a stronger or better controlled compression. In other cases, the
phrase being quite long, one must absorb more air without stretching excessively the rib cage.

43
The expelled air moves in four steps related to four areas (3 anatomical and 1 physical) :

2.9.1. the zone of the trunk, which contains (a) the lungs and (b) the abdominal and
intercostal muscles. These muscles allow compressing the lungs and control the pressure
(thus the speed) of the emission of the air up to the level of the mouth ;

2.9.2. the oral zone (OC), which contains (a) the volume of air inside the mouth (between the
tongue and the palate) and (b) the tongue itself ;

2.9.3. the bio-physical boundary, which consist of (a) the teeth and (b) the lips (including the
OO). This zone is essential for producing the sound : indeed, it is the vibration of air between
the lips and the OO (inner embouchure) which is the origin of the sound (exciter) ;

2.9.4. the zone outside the body, ie inside the instrument itself. The maintaining (or
deportement) of the body and the holding of the trumpet take place solely to favor the
emitting of the sound. The air, when passing by the container composed of the mouthpiece
(rim, bowl, throat and backbore), will be amplified by the trumpet, which simply plays a role
of sound pipe (resounder).

The following diagram displays only the biological area. One distinguishes the structure
(components) and the functionning (interactions) of the previous elements. It also clarifies
(a) the origin of the muscular energy which activates the air at different stages, (b) the
direction of the air flow (inhalation, exhalation, deformation) and (c) the modifications
resulting from the working (impulse, modulation, vibration).

*
* *

3. The breathing : a fundamental prerequisite

For a wind instrument, air is the fundamental element for its functioning. During the
strained expiration required by the emitting of air, the abdominal muscles and the intercostal
muscles contract : this way makes then possible controlling the emitted quantity of air, that is
its speed (ie volume / time unit) and its pressure (ie force / volume).

44
3.1. Breathing and pre-warming-up

That phase of the preparation aims to reach :

(a) a physical control in holding (1) the levels of inspiration and expiration connected
to performance, and (2) the overall homeostatic function (that is the capacity of a any system,
open or closed, for maintaining its equilibrium in functioning despite external constraints) ;

(b) a certain harmony between the air flow to supply and the (physiological and
psychological) activities connected to the instrumentation.

It is then necessary to work about the air flow before working with the instrument itself : this
is the aim of the pre-warming-up. This last must immediately precede the warming-up : in
case of important gap between warming-up and practice or performance, it seems preferable
to start again the exercises on « air supply + concentration », even from a lightened way.

These preparatory exercises of breathing have also the advantage to generate a sensation of
calm and concentration. This put the instrumentalist into a frame of mind convenient for
working (training or performance). One has only to avoid the general anoxia, which may
sometimes drag feelings of falling asleep or of vertigo.

3.2. Exercises of breathing

These exercises usually precede a warming-up : practice of the buzz or first daily contact with
the instrument. One can imagine severall types of exercises according to one’s suitability.
Most exercices must contribute to train the useful muscles : (a) diaphragm in connection with
the inspiration, (b) intercostal and abdominal ones for expiration.

These exercises may be realised in a synchronous way with various rhythms in musical
performance (ie those of a score). One will call « beat », or « duration », a time unit around
one second : this duration may vary. The following exercises are similar to those of the choir
members or other wind instrumentalists (brass instruments, woodwind). It is important to
keep an open pharynx.

The following exemple limits to a 4 beats score (of course, other rhythms are possibles : 3
beats, etc). The rhythms, durations, frequencies, etc, may, moreover outre, be modulated ad
libitum.

3.2.1. Concentration and preparation (relaxation) : slow beats (eg 2 s)

(a) inspiration during 4 beats, then expiration during 4 beats (to be repeated) ;

(b) inspiration during 4 beats, then expiration during 8 beats (to be repeated) ;

(c) inspiration during 8 beats, then expiration during 4 beats (to be repeated).

3.2.2. Control of the lung capacity : optimization of the movements, faster beats (eg 1 s)

(a) inspiration during 4 beats, stopping the breath during 4 beats, then expiration
during 4 beats (to be repeated) ;

45
 (b) inspiration during 4 beats, stopping the breath during 4 beats, then expiration
during 8 beats (to be repeated) ;

(c) inspiration during 4 beats, stopping the breath during 8 beats, then expiration
during 8 beats (to be repeated) ;

(d) inspiration during 8 beats, stopping the breath during 8 beats, then expiration
during 8 beats (to be repeated).

3.2.3. Controlling the flows and the serenity

(a) inspiration during 4 beats, then expiration during 8 beats (to be repeated) ;

(b) inspiration during 2 beats, then expiration during 8 beats (to be repeated) ;

(c) inspiration during 1 beat, then expiration during 8 beats (to be repeated).

Start again {(a),(b),(c)} with an expiration during 16 beats (to be repeated).

3.2.4. Managing the breathing during performance

With the instrument, the breathing, as well as the fingering, must not hamper the good
progress of the performance : absence of hesitation, avoid to be short of breath, etc. In both
these cases, it may be useful to define « marks » on the score (if these last are not indicated or
the score is not known by heart) : these marks point out the instants for getting back one’s
breath or the moment where one must use a given fingering.

A « breathing » is (sometimes) generally pointed out with a dedicated symbol : it is a

comma located above the staff, at the place where one can or must get his breath back
(breathing comma).

In the absence of indication, one can apply the following processes (and annotate the score in
accordance with them) :

(a) if the score to be played has rests (pauses, etc), the solution is simple : it is
sufficient to « adapt » one’s playing (inhalation) to these times of rest. The quantity of
breathed in air depends on the duration of the rest as well as of the length of the next phrase
(anticipation) ;

(b) if the score to be played is more « dense » (eg quavers or semi-quavers wen the
tempo is 120 for a forth note), two possibilities are opened. Either, thanks to the previous
exercises, one is able to « last » the course : this depends on the length of the passage to be
performed (a poorly trained player may hold out during 15 s to 30 s without having to breath
again). Or, one can try to « shorten » slightly (ie according to a less possible perceptible
way) the notes located just before the main (or semi-main) beat of a bar and to inspire
quickly during this shortcut : in this way, with a 4/4 or C tempo, the firts beat is the main one
(then one may shorten the previous note), the third beat is semi-strong (shorten the 2th note).
In the same way, one can still take advantage the existence of possible symbols such as

46
crescendo (inspiration « before ») or decrescendo (inspiration « after »), or still pizzicato or
marcato (inspiration « between ») and act according to the same way ;

(c) other situations, much more « demanding », require possible circular breathing (cf
§ 3.2.5. below).

For a wind instrument, which production is linked to the air and to the breathing, the
composers often take into account this biological constraint : the genre or the style of their
compositions then match with the « human breathing » by means of adapted phrases.

3.2.5. The « circular » breathing

The previous « standard » way of breathing does not allow a playing without interruption.
Nevertheless, it leads to the best results in terms of confidence in playing (risks) and of sound
production (quality).

There exists an other way of « breathing », called circular breathing (cf appendix 6) : the
aim of this technique is avoiding breathing through the corners (inhalation through the nose),
while ensuring an exhalation of the air through the OO (thanks to a stocking of this air inside
the BC).

47
 *
* *

4. Warming-up

As for sport, the warming-up considered her consists in get various muscles to work : these
muscles are devoted to the specific playing with instruments having a mouthpiece :
diaphragmatic muscle, abdominal muscle, inter-costal muscle, pharynx, tongue and
embouchure (lips).

The importance of a regular warming-up must be underlined. This warming-up may

precede a daily training as well as an performance in real life. It aims at leading the performer
towards a satisfactory level of fulfilment (ie without detectable faults) and to reach a fullness
of playing. It must be adapted to every instrumentalist (age, experience, health state).

4.1. The objectives

The « warming-up » consists in particular in a physiological work of the various muscles of

the embouchure.

From a less apparent way, it has also for consequence to adapt the lips (inner and median
embouchures) to the mouthpiece (cf the shape of the lips of trumpet players) : it is the lips
which go towards the mouthpiece, and not the converse. This contact (or « cushion »)
between the lips and the mouthpiece is fondamental : on one hand, it corresponds to a « soft »
part located between the teeth and the mouthpiece (which are hard parts) ; on the other hand,
its surface is very small and its contents (skin, nerves, muscles, capillary vessels) very frail.

As a consequence, one never has to crush the mouthpiece upon the lips. This mistake
prevents from oxygenation of the labial muscles and of the corresponding nerves, and then
quickly impair the performances : its entails in particular a loss of flexibility and of endurance
(« stamina »). It may even lead to serious physical damages of the lips (torn muscle, burst).

Various trials show that it is possible to perform high notes (eg above G3) without pressure on
the lips (« no pressure method », cf supra), by simply applying the mouthpiece on a well
adapted cushion (the lips). This applying may become a(n) (always limited) pressure only in
order to avoid a leakage of air between the median embouchure and the corners : this
necessity must disappear as the training and the musculation of the embouchure develop.

On must be reminiscent of the 3 tools which allow going up in the range :

(a) the flow of air (origin : lungs, intercostal and abdominal muscles) which must
create an inner compression, necessary and sufficient ;

(b) the OC (more or less open pharynx, tongue more or less nearby the palate), which
shape widened or narrowed favors or restreint the passage of the air : given the flow, when the
passage is narrowing, the air flow becomes tighter ;

(c) the OO (inside of the labial cushion), which is a vibratory muscle.

48
It is then useless (and harmful) to misuse the lips with an excessive pressure of the
mouthpiece for trying going up in the high notes. It just exists an important « counterweight »
to this risk : it is the strengthening of the median and inner embouchures, that is the
strengthening of the power of the underlying muscles. These lasts then allow a better
resistance against every possible increase of the pressure.

4.2. Warming-up : reasons and effects

The first aim of the warming-up is preparing the muscles used during the performance in
order to reach a maximum control. As well as a sportsman checks his breathing and makes
his muscles work before a training or an event, likewise an instrumentalist must make the
muscles of the abdomen, of the throat, of the tongue and of the embouchure work. Thus,
the temperature of these muscles increases and they can attain an appropriate functioning
level, ie a suitable level of efficiency. Conversely, the general efficiency (in partitular the
« mechanical » one) of the organs allowing a good playing will be low, and even will reduce,
in the case one tries dodge this phase of warming-up : when trying to play a sustained piece,
at once and without warming-up, one observes that it is difficult, and even impossible, to last
easily.

Moreover, it is useful to begin a warming-up (as well as a training) with an appropriate frame
of mind : the relaxation favors the concentration et, conversely, the concentration leads to
relax (on the emotional level). The exercises for monitoring the breathing are then very
appropriate prerequisites (cf §§ 3.1. and 3.2.).

4.2.1. As soo as the beginning of the learning of instrumental playing, one must built a good
understanding of the techniques and of the physiology connected to a warming-up. The
reasons and the techniques of a warming-up then concern the muscles to be activated and the
ways for performing the exercises.

The warming-up has also the aim of helping the performer. Thus, regarding a preparation, the
self-confidence may follow :

(a) in part, the awareness of the interest of a warming-up : to reach a valuable level ;

(b) in part, a methodical and efficient warming-up.

4.2.2. In every situations (warming-ups, but also real-life exercises or performance), the
musicality must be looked for.

Thus, every exercise, even elementary, must be performed with a maximum of complete
musical sense : energy (sound volume), speed and rhythm, sensitivity (tenderness, poetry).

Often, instructions concerning nuances are mentioned on the score by its composer. They
must then be generally followed :

(a) tempo : check the regularity, except for an accelerando or a ralentendo ;

(b) volume or dynamique : respect the sound intensity (entre ppp and fff ), except for
a decrescendo or a crescendo ;

49
 (c) attack of the notes : more or less « incisive », from legato (softer form) to staccato
or marcato (more forceful forms) ;

(d) retenues : climaxes, breathing ;

(e) performance of « phrasings » : respect the rendering of a melody (highlighting),

etc.

4.2.3. Frequency of the warming-ups. Playing severall times a day implies, a priori,
practice, at each time, of the breathing exercises preceding these warming-ups. One can
nevertheless practice a normal warming-up before a first daily work (exercise or piece), then
more light warming-ups before each of the other resumptions : this depends upon the
instrumentalist (inurement), the number of resumption, or the duration or the difficulty of
the warming-ups. The performance which follow each warming-up (exercise or master works)
must have a sufficient technical quality and a musical rendering.

The practice of the warming-up exercises entail the respect of the following constraints :

(a) avoiding the overwork of the muscles during the warming-up. It is procribed
tighting or working the muscles (including the tongue) with an excessive way, in terms of
range, duration or strengh : the tiredness will come to the rendez-vous. An excessive tension
of the facial muscles tends to hamper every musical performance after a warming-up. By
contrast, sufficient times for relaxing restore overwhelmingly (or even increase) capacities
which were reduced during the effort ;

(b) being aware of the physiological aspects during the performance : dynamics
(functioning of the lungs, of the tongue, of the embouchure - without facial « contraction » -,
of the fingers), and also statics (posture, position of the hands or arms, etc) ;

(c) good use of the muscles, and their regularity : this leads, as a rule, to positive
results. Conversely, every ill-treatment is harmful and slows down or even compromises the
progress.

50
 *
* *

5. « Training » and technical improvement

The pre-warming-up (breathing) (§ 3.) and the warming-up (§ 4.) are ordinarily followed by
the training itself. This last requires much patience and will be useful as far it is regular,
methodical and rigourous.

This stet of the preparation plays also a major role : neglecting it may lead to a situation of
failure. A good playing with the instrument implies, not only developping the knowledge
techniques, but also training oneself : buikding of the muscles and of the vibrator (lippal
reed), solving of specific difficulties (management of the air, muscle building of the
embouchures, activation of the fingering, of the tonguing, global coordination).

5.1. How to practice ?

After a phase of warming-up, an instrumentalist works, in general, on the following subjects :

(a) technical exercises : treat first one difficulty alone (scales, arpeggios, tricky
fingerings, kinds of sound attacks, flexibility of the lips, etc), then combine two difficulties
(flexibility + wide intervals, velocity + arpeggios) and then more (coordination of breathing +
OC + range, coordination of breathing + tongue + fingering, etc) ;

(b) interpreting musical works : either alone (solos « a capella »), or among a group
(classical or variety orchestra, jazz band, brass band) ;

(c) self-criticism : it is necessary to reach becoming one’s own critic, and also one’s
best critic. Registering various sequences of self playing, then listening them with a minimum
standing back (the same day, or later), allow identifying and qualifying the tricky individual
problems. One then must correct these problems ;

(d) creativity : realization of phrases according to the moment inspiration, or still

personal compositions ;

(e) improvization : whereas the « free » cadences of classical music are often pre-
written by the performer, variations around a given theme are often « invented » in jazz.

As for the other phases of the formation of an instrumentalist, the training must consist of :

(a) precise objectives. The elementary objectives (eg work of the tongue, fingering,
velocity, flexibility and wide intervals) must then combine together in order to form more
elaborate objectives (eg coordination between tonguing and fingering, or also fast linkings
between fingerings, etc) ;

(b) method and rigour. This entails notably a scheduling of the « tasks » : thus, one
never work velocity before getting an accurate tonguing, a precise fingering and a good
coordination between them (except perhaps for wholly connected phrases). Likewise, the
developpement of a « watch-making playing » (regularity and equality between the notes or

51
tones) give much charm to the instrument ; the movements ad libitum have also their interest
but are more formative in terms of musicality and stylistics than in terms of pure technics.
Finally, the developping of a without complacency self-criticism helps correcting various
faults ;

(c) sufficient motivation : thus, the training can be brightened up with pleasant pieces.
The resulting motivation follows generally the progress of technicality, and conversely. Yet,
these progresses are not necessarily fast (above all in the beginning), and this may, by
contrast, demotivate. Then one has great advantage in alternating technics and pleasure.

The training should always go together with a control of the following technical points :

(a) mental concentration : detachment from the external world, greater possible
abstraction when playing (listen oneself playing) ;

(b) control of the breathing and conscience of its physiology : speeds, powers,
rhythms, resumptions ;

(c) control of the sonority : precision (exact attacks, ie without delay nor
« parasitic noises »), accuracy (« centered » notes in height), fullness (notes conveying with
fidelity the sonority of the instrument and highlighting it, according to its type), sound volume
(no breathlessness, nor shrilling or « strained » or vulgar, sound) ;

(d) control of the rhythms (rhythmical studies) : with the use of a metronome
(equipment) and developping of a mental metronome. One must not postpone the practice of
atypical rhythms : eg en 5/4 (cf « Take five ») or en 5/8 (cf « The ile of the dead ») ;

(e) extension en range (3 registers + pedal) : with an approach by the weak ambits,
then extending gradually ;

(f) flexibility of the embouchure. In particular, the work (strengthening of the

musculature) of the median (support of the mouthpiece) and inner (vibrations of the lips)
embouchures must usually be followed by an improvement of the flexibility of the lips
(performance of intervals or arpeggios with growing amplitudes, with a faster tempo, etc) ;

(g) articulations of every kind : the control of the tongue and the control of the
fingering may be the object of a specific work (cf appendix 7, exercises on fingering) ;

(h) multiple tonguing : binary, ternary or atypical ones ;

(i) fidelity to written pieces and musicality : perform well the articulation (legato,
piccato, marcato, etc) or the instrumental peculiarities (vibrato, mordants, appogiatures, etc),
add if any annotations on the scores, follow the indicated expressions or feelings with fidelity
(dynamics : amabile, ralentendo, maestoso, pesante, espressivo, etc). Developping a personal
style is not forbidden ... ;

(j) general coordination of the know-how (synthesis 1) : skillfullness when playing

solo, where « everything must function » ;

52
 (k) synchronism (synthesis 2) : skillfullness when playing within an ensemble (band,
orchestre), inside which not only the individual playings must be optimal, but also the overall
coordination.

Thus, it is important to remain concentrated during a rehearsal (eg at a weekly rhythm), as

well as during a public performance. This proves separate training (or practice) and
performance : the training prepares technically the instrumentalist to face an a public.
Nevertheless, the psychological aspects are to be taken into account as soon as the beginning
of the learning (cf appendix 10, reflections on the psychological aspects linked to
performance).

A regular practice helps building the concentration and the endurance (stamina), as well as
developping technical and musical abilities. Playing trumpet may become a kind of « second
habit », a kind of natural or spontaneous activity.

5.2. Bases of a good routine

The main idea is a maximum use of the means and abilities of the instrument, or even to
« stretch the instrument to its own limits » : for that, it is necessary to vary as far as
possible the various kinds of difficulties. For instance, during the exercises (cf § 7), the
playing may be performed by taking into account several basic criterions :

(a) range : play first inside the median register, then toward the low register, and
toward the high register. It is suggested to begin always with the central note of the « usual »
range, which covers every steps from F1# to C3 (26 half-tones) : that is, from a theoretical
viewpoint, with the note B2b, or instead, in practice, with G2, A2 or even F2. This habit
helps, incidentally, acquiring the « absolute pitch », that is recognizing a note which is played
by a third party ; moreover, it favors a better reliability (or safety) in the attack of the notes
(anticipating their height warrants their performance) ;

(b) tempo : play first very slowly (lentissimo), then, the quality of playing being
ensured with that speed, play faster and faster (up to prestissimo : eg fourth note = 160). All
the action variables must be controlled and command the playing : inner air flow, throat and
tongue, OO, lips, valves and fingering ;

(c) sound volume (or intensity, or dynamics) : play first very softly (ppp), then more
en more loudly (up to fff). Try to play fff with few air stream and, conversely, ppp with much
flow. Playing by attacking the notes as softly as possible is enough formative : this allows
spotting how far it is possible to « save forces » (optimal management of the air) in order to
get yet a soft but satisfactory tone ;

(d) technics 1 (scales and tonguing) : play the scales « legato » (1 initial tonguing),
then scales « with tongue » (the tonguing being first soft, then more en more emphasized
(marcato, staccato) ;

(e) technics 2 (arppegios and tonguing) : play the intervals and the arppegios first
legato (1 initial tonguing), then with tongue (the tonguing being first soft, then more en more
emphasized (marcato, staccato)

53
 (f) expression 1 : play the phrases without vibrato, then with vibrato, trills, mordents,
appoggiaturas, etc ;

(g) expression 2 : play by destorting the sound, play with growl (GRRR with the
throat) or with trembling (TRRR with the tongue), play with various mutes (or simply with
the hand closing slightly the bell, or with a possible cloth), play by attacking the notes « from
below », or even « from above » (eg by trying to perform 1/4 of tones as does Ibrahim
Maalouf, but without his fourth cylinder-valve), play with a valve between its two limiting
positions, play with the bell brushing against a bowl of water, etc.

54
 *
* *

6. Helps to learning
6.1. The practice of a sport (eg jogging or swimming), or also that of singing (choir or
individual) or of an other instrument (eg other wind instrument), requires sometimes also
some control of the breathing and contributes to a faster progress.

6.2. As yet mentioned, a mirror (with various positionings) and a metronome (regularity,
rhythms) may have a great usefulness.

6.3. Each exercise, or each piece, may be registered during a performance.

By attentively listening the recordings, one is able to self-criticize and consider the quality of
the produced sounds, of the articulation between notes, etc. That method allows spotting the
faults, which then often appear to be evident. It is absolutely necessary to try correcting
these faults of performance.

6.4. One can use a microphone connected on to a micro-computer and install a recording
software. The operating system Microsoft Windows has a utility for recording (nevertheless,
the saved files have the proprietary format wma). Other softwares for sound processing
(Audacity, etc) have a fonctionality consisting in recording and saving the file with current
free formats (notably mp3 or ogg Vorbis).

55
 *
* *

7. Protocols of performing
The suggested exercises are, at the beginning, generally easy to perform : one can play in the
median register, with a short phrasing, a low speed and legato. The increase in difficulty has
the aim of deviating from this « middle », and particularly (a) to shape (develop the muscles
of) the overall embouchure, (b) to manage the breathing and getting one’s air breath back and
(c) to become used to various fingerings and scales.

7.1. Basic distinctions

7.1.1. One main process of this method is the passage from a « well-thought-out attitude »
toward a « reflex attitude » :

(a) during the reflection, one analyses the why and the how of each of the technical
processes to be followed : this takes time (often an « incompressible » time), but this is
beneficial in the long run ;

(b) during a reflex, one automatically associates a technique or an exercise with the
expected result : it is the moment of the action, which requires efficiency and does not let
time for reflection.

7.1.2. In order to perform these exercises from an efficient way, one has also to make a basic
distinction between :

(a) the objectives. These objectives may concern the increase of range (widening of
the extreme notes : low-pitched and high-pitched), the increase of stamina (holding of notes,
or « kept notes »), the increase of the velocity (complete coordination : breathing, tongue, OO,
fingers), the increase of flexibility in emitting wide intervals. In reality, these objectives
combine in a more or less complex way : eg speed in the high register, flexibility between
extreme registers, etc ;

(b) the means or tools. Following the order of the emitted air flow, these are : the
abdominal and costal contractions, the breathing and the air flow, the aperture of the throat
(larynx), the positioning and the activation of the tongue inside the OC, the aperture of the
OO, the mobility of the embouchures, the positioning and the direction of the mouthpiece.
Can be added to these tools the handling of the valves and of the valves slides ;

(c) the constraints : among those yet evocated, one must recall the existence of
necessary precedences. One cannot realize some « tasls » before others (prematuration) ;

(d) the waits : these will obviously depend on the frequency of the trainings, but also
of the constancy in following them (attention or vigilance, concentration, wish of progress,
etc).

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7.2. The three registers

7.2.1. The suggested exercises (§ 8.) are centered on a first working register : the median
register of the trumpet (eg octave from E1 up to E2). One must then play these exercises in
the low register (from F#1 to D1) and in the higher register (from F2 to C3).

7.2.2. Playing often in the lower register may lead to some difficulty in going up in the high-
pitched notes, and conversely. This is why it is necessary to work in every registers. One
suggests, in particular during the warming-ups, beginning with the median register, from
which it will be easier to move toward the other registers. Her too, a well trained (fortified)
embouchure must allow surpassing the difficulties.

The practice of every register pertains to the previous methods and techniques.

7.2.3. Inside a fourth register, or very shrill register, the performance presents some risks
(technical faults, but also damages and other traumas).

In fact, not much works requite a playing above C3, and this is true in every genre : classical
(except may be baroque style), jazz, variety shows, folk, etc. Thus, the D3b (E3b for a Bb
trumpet) of the first movement of the concerto in Eb by Joseph Haydn is an exception. In
jazz, the superacutes (twofold C = C4, etc) are, most of the time, executed solely for shining
or producing sound effects : their musicality is sometimes doubtful.

The timbre of an ordinary trumpet (Bb or C) is less aesthetical in this high part of its register,
and other brass instruments are good replacements for it : notably, the piccolo trumpet over
C2. Nevertheless, this last instrument is less easy to play than a normal trumpet : it requires in
particular working the attack of the notes (which is nevertheless renowned reliable compared
to the ordinary trumpet) and also the sonority (because the centering of the notes at the good
height is challenging) (cf appendix 9, use of the piccolo trumpet).

Other trumpets (in A, C, D or Eb) allow various facilities. Thus, the concerto in Bb by Haydn
above mentionned may be played with a Eb trumpet (the fingering is then « simply » the one
of the C scale, thus with an intact clef).

7.2.4. At the other extremity of the ambit, one can get a pleasant rendering (sonority,
musicality) in the low register (eg below C2) with the help of more adapted instruments
relative to this register, which are also substitutes of the trumpet : flugelhorn, euphonium,
tuba, etc. The instrumental technique is similar to that of the ordinary trumpet, with some
adaptations : size and shapes of the mouthpieces, management of the breathing, etc.

7.2.5. In these situations (§§ 7.2.3. and 7.2.4.), one generally has to adapt hilself to almost -
« inescapable » changes of mouthpieces : the spherical one of the trumpet ate generally
relaced by conical mouthpiexes (cornet, flugelhorn). It is not before having got a sufficient
strength of the embouchure that one can use different kinds of mouthpieces (precedence
constraint).

It is then preferable well mastering the standard scale F1#-C3, which yet needs overcoming
good difficulties ...

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7.3. Miscellanous subjects

(a) wet lips vs dry lips. Severall instrumentalists dampen their lips before playing : the
aim is to make the air flow watertight at each corner, and also to make easier the move of the
lips (eg closing / aperture of the OO) against the rim of the mouthpiece (reduction of the
friction forces), and then to increase the flexibility during a performance. The choice of a
mouthpiece with a thinner or more convex rim allows (to a certain extent) avoiding to have to
dampen the lips. Actually, the practice of the dampen lips is not a real drawback : it is indeed
often useful (eg for changing more easily the register) ;

(b) pivotage, or pivoting, the head from top to bottom (or conversely). It is sometimes
useful to exert a more or less sudden move of pivot of the head (thus of the instrument), in
order to facilitate some manoeuvres : notably, quick performance rapide of wide intervals
(fifth, sixth, seventh or octave, or even more), or easier access more towards the high-pitched
notes. As a general rule (case of a mouthpiece placed 1/2-1/2) : one lowers the head, thus the
mouthpiece which stands together it, in order to go up in frequencies (high register), and one
goes back up the head in order to go down (low register). But this pivoting (or pitching) must
remain highly limited, because it contributes to exert an extra constraint on the lips and risks,
nevertheless, also, leading to performance faults ;

(c) moves of the mouthpiece. As well as pivotage, the moves of the mouthpiece
during a performance (eg vertically pass from 1/3-2/3 to 1/2-1/2) may disturb, above all
during an animated passage : the median embouchure may not have time for « recovering » its
shape, suppleness and flexibility. The trained instrumentalist, whose embouchure is powerful
(its muscles get bigger along with the training), may, on the contrary, modify this location (at
least moins between two musical phrases separated by a sufficient rest : « recovering » time) ;

(c) controlling the reliability (or the safety) of the attack. Various exercises allow
increasing the accuracy of the attack, notably those concerning « tonguing » and wide
intervals. A simple test may help controlling that reliability (or safety) : (1) attack an arbitrary
note with the instrument, (2) move apart the instrument from the mouth, (3) put on the
mouthpiece again then (4) attack the same note (or even a different one). The resulting notes
must be right and accurate with, at once : a good height (well « centered » notes) and a lack
of sound interferences (cracklings, retarded performance, etc).

(d) one offers (cf appendix 8) a synthesis on the production of the sound and of
playing with the instrument.

7.3. « Routines »

7.3.1. The suggested working diagram below is generally called « routine » because of its
repetitive nature. It is preferable realizing each exercise wholly and not stopping along the
way, except in case of tiredness. In practice, each instrumentalist must be able to create its
own working diagram, as appropriate as possible to his « personal equation » (demands,
constraints). The general approach is as follows.

One start by listing a set of processes as varied as possible :

(a) transposing : the suggested exercises (§ 8.) can be executed according to different
scales. It suffices to transpose (in writing or mentally) each of them in these scales, which

58
presents no difficulty. An side advantage of this approach is the following. The exercise is
first memorized in the scale of its writen form ; then it is again « performed from memory »
1/2 tone above (or below), then 1 tone above (or below), etc. The learning (not treated her) of
the « at sight » transposition may get benefits from this process. These processes apply as
well to scales as to arppegios or other standard melodic lines ;

(b) velocity / endurance : start by performing the melodic line presented according to
a given (fixed) tempo. This line is systematically writen with whole notes. Play then, with the
same tempo, the same line with half notes (1 whole = 2 halves), afterward with triplet of
quarter notes (1 whole = 2 triplets of quarters), then with quarter notes, quavers, triplets of
quavers, semi-quaver notes. This is equivalent to a variation of the rhythm or an increase of
the tempo. Here again, the training must pass from a step of reflection to a setp of reflex ;

(c) attack / insurance : play with an more en more « sharp » attack of the notes. Start
with linked notes (legatos) (except the beginnong of the first phrase), then attack with HU,
HA or HI (sudden expellings of air), then with GU, GA or GUI, with KU, KA or KI, with
BU, BA or BI, with DU, DA or DI, with PU, PA or PI and with TU, TA or TI. The syllable
PU has the advantage of facilitating somewhat the « setting on the mouth » of the trumpet
(mouth having a shape as for a kiss) ;

(d) lips flexibility : the lips flexibility refers to performing legatos, which force the
labial muscles to crush together or to relax vertically (ie from one lip toward the other). These
notes are generally based on a harmonic diagram (synchronism) but are executed
melodically, that is from a spaced out way (diachronism). A typical exemple is the one of
arpeggios (or « spread out » chords). The more the height of the intervals between notes is
large (second, third, fourth, fifth, etc), the more the difficulty is, and the more the muscle-
building can develop.

In order to well « isolate » the treatment of this difficulty with respect to others (fingering,
attack of notes, etc), one performs these intervals in a legato way (no tonguing, except the
first). Moreover plus, one must hold down a same combination of valves. One plays « on
open » (ie without use of valves), and legato, the « natural notes » (C1, G2, C2, E2, G3, C3)
or (C1, G2, C2, E2, G3, B3b, C3) ; next, by activating the valve 2, one plays the notes with a
gap of a semi-tone lower (B1, F2#, B2, F3#, B3) or (B1, F2#, B2, F3#, A3, B3) ; etc. When
going lower, one takes advantage of the alternative fingering (cf § 2.6.3.) : so, one plays the
notes (G1, D1, G2, B2, D2, G3) only with the combination 13 ;

(e) sound dynamic (volume) : play first pianissimo, then louder and louder. This
differs from the attack process (c). One may also try to suddenly attack the notes ppp, or
softly the notes fff ;

(f) changes of register : as indicated, the sketches of exercises are writen, unless
technical necessity, in the median register of the trumpet (C1 to E2). Il will be useful to
passer, as soon as possible, to other registers (low, high) and repeat the same kinds of
exercises. Even if the ambit of the low and of the high is narrower than the one of the medium
level, the adaptation of the exercises is straighforward.

7.3.2. An other factor of progress consists then in combining ad libitum the various
indicated processes. For example, among all the possible combinations, one may work those
which look the more « difficult ». Indeed, playing easy exercises (for himself) seems

59
insufficient. Conversely, it is more efficient, for progress, to perform exercises that look
difficults or less interesting to perform : they will be more en more easy to perform the
following day ... or later on.

Each instrumentalist can so create for himself a programme « à la carte », provided that he
draws as widely as possible among these processes, in order to treat every category of
difficulties : « all around » policy.

7.3.3. The usual « scales » do not belong to these exercises : major, minor (3 modes), by full
tones. Their learning and good performance are of course very important. Nevertheless, taking
into account the prerequisites on music theory, the performer can himself easily conceive and
performe this kind of exercises without any help of, as yet indicated, lengths of writen pages.
« Mentalizing » the scores of the exercises in different scales is, in itself, a beneficial
exercise.

7.3.4. For the same reasons, the usual arpeggios are not analyzed in a detailed way :
« harmonic arpeggios », diminished arpeggios, augmented arpeggios or full tones arpeggios.
The performance of the natural arpeggios, as successive thirds (C1, E1, G2, B2, D2, F2, A3,
C3) or as successive fourth (G1, C1, F2, B2b, E2b, A3b), allow a better « handling » or
« maturation » of the fingering as it leads to different automatic reflexes with respect to
those linked to the performance of the usual scales : thus, the firsts lead activating in a
systematic way the combinations 0, 12, 0, 2, 1, 1, 12, 0, the seconds the combinations 0, 1, 2,
0, 12.

7.3.5. The « pedal notes » are located below the normal ambitus of the instrument, that is
under F1# (or F1). They must be treatef separately, but are relatively easy to produce. As they
are not « musical », it seems better instead talking about « pedal sounds (or tones) ». For
favoring the emitting of these sounds, on must succeed in associating :

(a) a wide aperture of the pharynx (throat) ;

(b) a slow and regular breathing (mastering of the exhalation) ;

(c) a relaxing of the lips (« soft » lips) (mastering of the embouchure in one of its
extreme fonctions).

The fingering to be used is arbitrary : one can get these sounds on open as well as with
combination such that 12, 23, 13, 123, etc, of the valves. The simpler way consist in playing
on open (valves up).

During this work, one has to master the height of the pedal tones (centering) : one way
consists in playing a note of the standard low register (between F1# and C1), then in playing
the pedal located at a given interval (octave, third or fourth, etc) below. If a pedal sound
cannot be easily attained (this depends upon its height, on the instrument and ... on the
performer), one can try gropingly a fingering (different from 0) which could allow reaching
this pedal sound.

The interest of exercises on out of range sounds lies in (a) the (relative) relaxation of the labial
muscles, (b) the control of a slow exhalation, (c) the control of the height of the tones. There

60
is also advantages in alternating the emitting of pedal sounds with the emitting of standard
notes (flexibility).

7.3.6. Routines or not ?

Some artists believe that the « training » with « routines » is not a necessity : instead of
playing exercises, they prefer, after a reduced warming-up, playing directly the pieces for
brass instruments.

Indeed :

(a) these pieces generally combine various difficulties and then are an excellent
exercise for learning and training ;

(b) learning a piece requires, not only mastering these difficulties, but also set the
musicien in a closer situation with respect to the performance (concert, brass band, etc) ;

(c) finally, a musicien who is only training himself has not necessarily a repertoire to
offer. But it is more satisfactory to be able to present, as soon as the start of the learning, some
pieces (even very simple ones), to a public of close relatives or friends : that possibility is
rewarding, and the audience can play a role of critic which is not negligible.

Nevertheless, some difficulties are always to be overcome, and these must be

« approached » in a progressive and well-thought-out way. Indeed, even after a warming-up,
some technical obstacles cannot be overcome easily and be performed directly, and this
justifies the necessity of a minimal training.

Thus :

(a) playing in the high-pitched notes implies first going up progressively, as do the
vawes of a rising tide ;

(b) performing increasingly wider intervals involves augmenting that amplitude and
starting with smaller intervals (minor and major seconds, then minor and major thirds, then
minor and major fourth, etc) ;

(c) the velocity (coordination between breathing, tongue and fingering) implies a
progressive and initially slow approach, etc.

As a consequence, the combination of these difficulties can be mastered only by training on a

basis of routines : thus, performing of successive quick fifths in the high register is highly
chanllenging and implies, at least, a good preliminary warming-up as well as a training during
many hours, or even many days.

7.4. Some hints

7.4.1. When warming-up, it is advisable to advance as far as possible inside each exercise,
but the performance must remain « confortable » : banish every excessive tension or
muscular tiredness. Sometimes, aches may be felt (in particular in the cheeks and the muscles

61
of the jaws) : this is generally considered as normal because this muscular work is unusual,
mainly for beginners.

7.4.2. Unless particular mention, play these exercises (a) with regularity (duration of the
notes, same periods between notes) and (b) with evenness (same tone between notes). A
fonctioning analogous to that of a « clock » (rhythm, sonority and timbre, volume) is a
security for quality. As often, if one can do the more, one can do the less as well : (a) it is
always possible to replace a strict rhythm by a more relaxed one (this kind of rhythm exists in
every genre of musics) ; (b) on the other hand, the converse is more difficult without a
training implying rigor.

7.4.3. It is useful to use, as often as possible :

(a) a mirror in order to check the evenness of the (horizontal) plucking of the corners
and avoid the stretching-widening of the lips (which thins and weaken this part of the
embouchure) ;

(b) a metronome (material equipmenbt) for controling the evenness of the

performance. This metronome must become a « mendal metronome » provided that one can
built (for himself) an « inner clock ».

A simple test consists in (1) selecting a melody which tempo is well rhythmic, preferably
slow (eg the « Bolero » by Maurice Ravel), (2) playing then at the same time than its source
(radio, record, personal computer), (3) then continuing playing during an provokated
interruption of the melody (ask a third party to lower completely the sound), (4) finally restore
the sound. No gap must be perceptible ...

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 *
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8. The basic exercises

The suggested scores contain various basic exercises. When clicking on each of them, one
follows a link toward a (downloadable) MIDI file : this allows, at the same time, reading the
score and listening the corresponding sound.

Appendix 5 (basic exercises) details the content of these scores, as well as some suggestions
related to their performing in the best conditions : finality of the exercise, technique, advices,
etc.

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 *
* *

9. Defaults of performing : identification and search for causes

Whatever the « intrinsic » skillfullness of a performer, faults of performance appear often,
even among the most experienced. It is then necessary to (a) spot these faults and (b) identify
their causes. One will never completely eliminate these faults, above all if the performer tries
(too soon) exceeding (too quickly) or overdoing his limits : one must not cut corners.

One suppose that the instrumentalist is in perfect physical and mental conditions, and that the
instrument is in good working order : faultless geometry, cleanliness of the mouthpiece, of the
tube and of the slides, lubrication of the cylinders, greasing of the slides, etc.

9.1. The faults

From the point of vue of the teacher (teaching method for constructing the sound) as well as
the one of the « auditoire » (receipt of the finished product), the noticed faults generally
concern well-known questions, yet often mentionned :

(a) the attack of the notes (without or with tonguing) : gaps of production,
background noises (cracklings) ;

(b) the mistakes when performing a score (faulty notes), generally due to a bad
reading of the score (forgetting of the key signature, of an alteration, etc) ;

(c) unwanted notes (« wrong notes »), particularly in the extreme registers (low and
high pitches) or during a kept up performance of large intervals ;

(d) the breathing (too short or insufficient), particularly when « getting the breath
back » following a long enough melodical phrase ;

(e) the sonority : « hollow » sound (muffled sound, sound without fullness) or which
height (centering) is questionable ;

(f) the fingering : special difficulties (« fourk » between 13 and 2 ; « balances »

between 1 and 23, and between 12 and 23), (more or less long) linkings of the notes
(phrasing) and anticipation in moving the fingers ;

(g) the coordination between tonguing and fingering.

These elements must be permanently controlled.

9.2. The causes

These depend too of a limited number of factors, which still are the same :

(a) « technical » facteurs : insufficiently open throat, bad breathing (getting the breath
back badly managed or anticipated), bad lingual work (positioning, activation of the tongue),

64
insufficient aperture (or even occlusion) of the OO, excessive compression of the mouthpiece.
One can add the muscular tiredness : lips (round muscle) and other muscles forming the
embouchure, tongue (too intensively repeated tonguings) ;

(b) biological factors : damage of the tongue, damage of the oral zone (teeth, lips),
respiratory tiredness (intercostal muscles), insufficient air supply (lack of « breathing »),
heavy digestion, etc. An ENT disease (should it be only a « sore throat » or a « stinging throat
») or a pneumological pain (bronchitis) may drastically limit the playing ;

(c) psychological factors : stress or anxiety, before, during, or even after the
performance (eg during a competition). One may attempt an analysis of these drawbacks and
suggest some reflections on the psychological aspects linked to performance (appendix
10).

9.3. The parries

9.3.1. Technical parry

There is no miracle. This kind of faults, common enough among beginners, will be reduced
only with the training and following the advices of the teachers. The aim of a method of
learning is limiting the technical faults, but it cannot be a substitute to an educational
« supervision ».

The stopgaps of the technical faults are then :

(a) mastering of the breathing : intensity (or amplitude), rhythms (cf infra : breathing
and pre-warming-up, warming-up, training) ;

(b) practicing exercises on warming-up, which concern the air flow, the tongue, the
embouchure (inner, median and outer) and notably the OO, the « contact » with the
mouthpiece (positioning, pressure, morphological appropriateness), the fingering, etc.

All the applied exercises must contribute to limiting these drawbacks, in particular :
maintained sounds, increasing variations (from « weak » to « great ») of the intervals between
notes, wide intervals.

9.3.2. State of health

A good breathing generally comes from a satisfactory (food, sporty) lifestyle. In particular,
see to the oral and dental hygiene and keep an eye on the « physical » and « physiological »
state of the mouth (mouth ulcers, etc).

An « agressive » feeding (acids, alcohols, spices) may have an influence on the lips
(suppleness, stamina) and limite their performances. Various substances (tobacco, ingestion
of fats) take the breath away and limit too the potentials (hiccup, etc). A heavy digestion, a
nauseous state, may annihilate the intended efforts for a correct playing.

Winter may bring various inconveniences : cold (sneezes), bronchitis (cough), dryness of the
lips (use a lip balm).

65
Spring too involves some troubles : allergies (sneezes, whimperings).

9.3.3. Anxiety

This situation depends notably on the personal emotivity, but it may often be reduced to a
simple apprehension. Nevertheless, that apprehension will never disappear entirely. One can
besides take advantage of this observation : firstly, with the awareness of its existence (which
is less stressing than its ignorance due to an insufficient analysis), then by a (mental and
great) concentration on the performance itself (and this diverts, or « evacuates », a part of
the emotion).

Thus :

(a) appropriate techniques allow, to a certain extent, reducing anxiety : a sufficient

preparation (breathing, warming-up, technical exercises), as well as « checking » one’s
performance real life, contribute deeply to reduce that anxiety (better self-assurance). Some
recommend applying yoga exercises.

In every case, the training is the basis of the quality of a prestation : an insufficient
preparation, an early performance, are generally which causes d’anxiety. But these
« technical » factors are manageables ;

(b) even sometimes, the anxiety can be connected to a context : personal problem
irrelevant to the musical activity itself, a temporarily altered health (digestion, seasonal
disease, etc), or simplly stakes connected to the performance (playing alone entails less
nervous tension than playing in front of friends, and this is in turn less stressing thant playing
in front of an audience, in particular a board of examiners, an instrumental competition or a
recruitment test) ;

(c) the anxiety may also happen after, or be increased by, the occurrence of an
occasional problem : sneeze, cough, cramp, anoxia (ie insufficient breathing), etc ;

(d) the apprehension of the occurrence of a « major risk » during the

performance is obviously the highest point (height) of the anguish. Quel may be this risk ? it
seems unanimously that it concerns the famous « out of tune note(s) ». What are the stakes ?
According to the context (playing alone, kind of audience, level of difficulty, etc), the
« judges » (oneself, audience, examiners) will be more or less inclined to forgive a failure.
The wrong note may be very obvious as well very light (and sometimes go unnoticed : less
neat attack of the sound, slight alteration of the quality of the sound, slight weakening of its
volume). One must then not « get confused » when this problem occurs, and continue
performing by maintaining the level of concentration and the regularity of playing : a good
and clever « making good » the fault often leads the indulgence (related to the whole quality
of the playing), or even the ignorance of the fact.

The masteriing of the concentration, as well as a mental preparation to the performance,

can help overcome this stress (think to the post-operative relief). This requires, at least at first,
to be alone. That isolation is made easier if one has access to a rehearsal room.

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 *
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10. Musical creation and instrumental performance

10.1. The modern (digital) techniques allow :

(a) a serious and rigourous training : with the help of recordings, one can check the
quality of his own playing (performance) ;

(b) a context of playing comparable to the real life one : this context allows,
moreover, feeling less stress and better concentrate on the technique.

10.2. Severall tools are freely offered on Internet : musical editing softwares, scores or files
formatted MIDI (« purists » may ignore this paragraph).

10.2.1. The MIDI standard (musical instrument digital interface) allows transferring and the
portability of musical contents in digital form (MIDI sequencer).

A MIDI file is generally very light, and represents, in adigital form, an « image of a musical
score », which is more or less complex (simple melodic lige, orchestral excerpt). The number
of managed « voices » is equal to 16 (or even more). That norm then allows, to a certain
extent, « representing » an orchestral score involving at least 16 « instruments ». An
instrumental line (or « voice ») reduces then to 3 main variables :

(a) the tone quality (of the instrument), which is its acoustic specificity and explains
its artistic specificity ;

(b) the height (frequency) of the (digital) sound ;

(c) the duration of this last.

The limits of that standard rely notably to the quality of the sound : the resulting tone quality
of each instrument is digital, then fairly poor (improvements are expected : sampling of real
instruments or voices). Moreover, it is not always possible or easy to carry out, with the
avalaible softwares, some nuances : piano or forte, crescendo or decrescendo, vibrato.

Nevertheless, this standard ia widely sufficient for training.

10.2.2. Various score editing softwares also manage the MIDI standard. Some are free (or
commercial, with a free, but limited, version) : NotePad from Finale Music, MuseScore,
NoteWorthy Composer, Cakewalk express (old), LilyPond (descriptor of score with a
programming language, then not wysiwyg), Linux multimedia studio, Magix music maker,
etc. Other softwares are commercial : Pizzicato, Sibelius, etc.

These softwares allow not only creating scores for several voices (ordinary instruments of an
orchestra, voices of a choir), but also importing and exporting MIDI files :

67
 (a) the importation has the effect of transcribing the MIDI informations into editable
scores, which can then be modified according to the purposes. So, one can separate the
trumpet part (or any melody of interest : other instrument, song, etc) and the accompaniment
part (which is the set of the other « voices » of the overall score). The sheet part of the
trumpet may, if any, be transposed (eg Bb or D trumpets) before being printed as an usual
score ;

(b) the exportation allows creating MIDI data files : the accompaniment part,
extracted from the overall score, can be « exported » as a « lighted » MIDI file, and this last
may be transformed as an usual sound file (eg native WAV or sampled as MP3, OGG-
VORBIS, etc). This possibility is particularly interesting when playing while simulating an
accompaniment with other instruments (or even with a standard orchestra), although this
accompaniment is only « digital » ; it contributes also to improve one’s personal discipline
(rhythm, coordination, etc).

In particular, Finale NotePad (favoured by the author) includes (in its portable 2011 version
or its 2012 version) many voices (thais is timbres, then instruments). This software is easy to
be handled, and allows making progresses in comfortable conditions. This software helped
writing the exercises putting them in MIDI format.

Finally, the various previous softwares also allow listening writen parts, then making easier
the decoding of complex scores (rhythms, interweavings).

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