Social and Cultural Change

Functionalist theory
Social change refers to any significant alteration over
time in behavior patterns and cultural values and norms. Functionalist sociologists emphasize what maintains
By ―significant‖ alteration, sociologists mean changes society, not what changes it. Although functionalists may
yielding profound 
yielding profound  social
 social consequences. at first appear to have little to say about social change,
sociologist Talcott Parsons holds otherwise. Parsons
Social change refers to an alteration in the social order (1902 –1979),
 –1979), a leading functionalist, saw society in its
of a society. Social change may be driven by cultural, natural state as being stable and balanced. That is,
religious, economic, scientific or technological forces. society naturally moves toward a state of homeostasis.
homeostasis .
More generally, social change may include changes in To Parsons, significant social problems, such as union
nature, social institutions, social behaviours or social strikes, represent nothing but temporary rifts in the social
relations. order. According to his equilibrium theory,
theory, changes in
one aspect of society require adjustments in other
Social change in sociology the alteration within the aspects. When these adjustments do not occur,
social structure, characterized by changes in cultural equilibrium disappears, threatening social order.
symbols, rules of behaviour, social organizations, or Parsons' equilibrium theory incorporates the evolutionary
value systems. concept of continuing progress, but the predominant
theme is stability and balance.
How Change can occur? Critics argue that functionalists minimize the effects of
change because all aspects of society contribute in
While technology, population, environment factors, and some way to society's overall health. They also argue
racial inequality can prompt social change, only when that functionalists ignore the use of force by society's
members of a society organize into social movements powerful to maintain an illusion of stability and
does true social change occur. The phrase s o c i a l integration.
movements   refers to collective activities designed to
 refers
bring about or resist primary changes in an existing Conflict theory
society or group.
Wherever they occur, social movements can Conflict theorists maintain that, because a society's
dramatically shape the direction of society. When wealthy and powerful ensure the status quo in which
individuals and groups of people—
people —civil rights activists social practices and institutions favorable to them
and other visionaries, for instance—
instance —transcend traditional continue, change plays a vital role in remedying social
bounds, they may bring about major shifts in social inequalities and injustices.
policy and structures. Even when they prove initially  Although Karl Marx accepted the evolutionar y argument
unsuccessful, social movements do affect public opinion. that societies develop along a specific direction, he did
not agree that each successive stage presents an
Models of Social Change improvement over the previous stage. Marx noted that
history proceeds in stages in which the rich always
Evolutionary theory exploit the poor and weak as a class of people. Marx's
view of social change is proactive; it does not rely on
 According to evolutionary theory,
theory, society moves in people remaining passive in response to exploitation or
specific directions. Therefore, early social evolutionists other problems in material culture. Instead, it presents
saw society as progressing to higher and higher levels. tools for individuals wishing to take control and regain
 As a result, they concluded that their own cultural their freedom. Unlike functionalism and its emphasis on
attitudes and behaviors were more advanced than those stability, Marx holds that conflict is desirable and needed
of earlier societies. to initiate social change and rid society of inequality.
Identified as the ―father of sociology,‖ Auguste Comte
subscribed to social evolution. He saw human societies Causes of Social Change:
as progressing into using scientific methods. Likewise,
Emile Durkheim, one of the founders of functionalism, 1. Technological and Economic Changes: (Agriculture
saw societies as moving from simple to complex social advancement, industrialization)
structures. Herbert Spencer compared society to a living 2. Modernization: standardizing as towards modern tools
organism with interrelated parts moving toward a (Life Style, Technology)
common end. In short, Comte, Durkheim, and Spencer 3. Urbanization: Moving population from ruler areas to
proposed unilinear evolutionary theories,
theories, which urban (Cities) areas.
maintain that all societies pass through the same 4. Bureaucratization: Extreme emphasize on rules and
sequence of stages of evolution to reach the same regulation, impersonality.
destiny. 5. Conflict and Competition: War: due to religion, ethnic
Contemporary social evolutionists like Gerhard Lenski, tensions, competition for resources. Gender and
Jr., however, view social change as multilinear rather Women’s Movement: equal pay, property: Today; day
than unilinear. Multilinear evolutionary theory holds
theory holds care, occupational segregation.
that change can occur in several ways and does not 6. Political and Legal Power: Elected Official
inevitably lead in the same direction. Multilinear theorists (Government) & Unelected Officials (Corporative Force)
observe that human societies have evolved along 7. Ideology: Religious Belief, Political or Regional
differing lines. Conviction.
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8. Diffusion: Spreading the ones cultural to another from Anthropology. For instance, in diffusion theory, the
culture. form of something moves from one culture to another,
9. Acculturation: the process in which a minority is but not its meaning.
absorbed into the majority and entirely loses its Contact between cultures can also result in
distinctiveness. acculturation. Acculturation has different meanings, but
in this context refers to replacement of the traits of one
Social order It refers to a set of linked social structures, culture with those of another.
social institutions and social practices which conserve,
maintain and enforce "normal" ways of relating and
behaving.
 refers to an alteration in the social order of
Social chan ge 
a society. The base of social change is change in the thought
Social prog ress is the idea that societies can or do  process in humans. It may refer to the notion of  social
improve in terms of their social, political, and economic  progress or   sociocultural evolution , the philosophical idea that
structures.  society moves forward by dialectical or evolutionary means. It
may refer to a paradigmatic change in the socio-economic
 structure, for instance a shift away from feudalism and
S o c i o c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n  is an umbrella term for theories
towards capitalism. Accordingly it may also refer t o social
of cultural evolution and social evolution, describing how revolution , such as the Socialist revolution presented
cultures and societies have changed over time. in Marxism , or to other  social movements , such as Women's
 suffrage or the Civil rights movement . Social change may be
Goals of Social Change driven by cultural, religious, economic, scientific or
technological forces.
 More generally, social change may include changes
Resistance — action to defend or protect established
in nature , social institutions , social behaviours , or  social
everyday life from new, outside oppression and return relations.
things to normal.
 A society is considered more ―fr ee‖ the more that people [ edit 
 ] Prominent theories of social change
are safe from new oppression. Typically, groups that Change comes from two sources. One source is random or
have thrown off their oppressors or have achieved a unique factors such as climate, weather, or the presence of
certain level of privilege resist any change that might  specific groups of people. Another source is systematic
 factors. For example, successful development has the same
restrain their freedom. Resistance can therefore be quite
 general requirements, such as a stable and flexible
reactionary.  government, enough free and available resources, and a
diverse social organization of society. So, on the whole, social
Liberation(Empowerment) — action to overcome on- change is usually a combination of systematic factors along
[1]
going, traditional oppression and achieve the full with some random or unique factors .
measure of everyday rights and opportunities promised There are many theories of social change. Generally, a theory
of change should include elements such as structural aspects
in the social charter (―social\ justice‖). A society is more
of change (like population shifts), Processes and mechanisms
―just‖ the more that every person can obtain the of social change, and directions of change.
[2]

freedoms that others enjoy. Hegelian  : The classic Hegelian dialectic model of change is
based on the interaction of opposing forces. Starting from a
Democratization(Enfranchisement) — action to spread  point of momentary stasis, Thesis countered by Antithesis first
decision- making power broadly to everyone affected by  yields conflict, then it subsequently results in a new Synthesis.
those decisions. A society is more ―democratic‖ the more Marxist  : Marxism presents a dialectical and materialist
concept of history; Humankind's history is a fundamental
that people can influence and decide the important
 struggle between social classes.
issues that affect them without extraordinary effort (that Kuhnian  : The philosopher of science , Thomas Kuhn argues
is, through their daily routine). in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions with respect to
theCopernican Revolution that people are unlikely to jettison
Humane-ization— action to ensure that society will an unworkable paradigm, despite many indications that the
defend or protect the rights of everyone in society,  paradigm is not functioning properly, until a better paradigm
can be presented.
especially those who cannot do so on their own behalf
Heraclitan  : The Greek philosopher  Heraclitus used the
(such as those who are ignorant, powerless, sick, frail,
metaphor of a river to speak of change thus, "On those
mentally incompetent, young, or unborn). A society is  stepping into rivers staying the same other and other waters
more ―humane‖ or ―altruistic‖ the more that every person  flow" (DK22B12). What Heraclitus seems to be suggesting
is protected and supported through the routine, everyday here, later interpretations notwithstanding, is that, in order for
activities of others (including societal institutions). the river to remain the river, change must constantly be taking
 place. Thus one may think of the Heraclitan model as parallel
to that of a living organism, which, in order to remain alive,
Cultural Change
must constantly be changing. A cont emporary application of
this approach is shown in t he social change theory SEED-
The belief that culture is symbolically coded and can SCALE which builds off of the Complexity Theory subfield
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based". Fresco argues that the world is rich in natural the formation of new political parties as well as
resources and energy and that  —  with modern technology and
discussing the function of social movements in relation
 judicious efficiency  —  the needs of the global population can
be met with abundance, while at the same time removing the to agenda setting and influence on politics.
current limitations of what is deemed possible due to notions
[edit]Definition
of economic viability. Fresco's work in The Venus
 Project deals with physical reality and natural law rather than
economic abstractions. The Venus Project  s '  website says this: Charles Tilly defines social movements as a series of
"The Venus Project is neither Utopian nor Orwellian, nor contentious performances, displays and campaigns by
does it reflect the dreams of impractical idealists. Instead, it which ordinary people make collective claims on
 presents attainable goals requiring only the intelligent [1]
others. For Tilly, social movements are a major vehicle
application of what we already know." [3] [3]
[ edit 
 ]Some major current social changes for ordinary people's participation in public politics. He
One of the most obvious changes currently occurring is the argues that there are three major elements to a social
change in population distribution. In the recent decades, [1]
movement:
developing countries became a larger proportion of world
 population, increasing from 68% in 1950 to 82% in 2010,
while population of the developed countries has declined from 1. Campaigns: a sustained, organized public effort
32% of total world population in 1950 to 18% in 2010. China making collective claims of target authorities;
and India continue to be the largest countries, followed by the 2. Repertoire (repertoire of contention):
US as a distant third. However, population growth throughout
employment of combinations from among the
the world is slowing. Population growth among developed
countries has been slowing since the 1950s, and is now at following forms of political action: creation of
0.3% annual growth. Population growth among the less special-purpose associations and coalitions,
developed countries excluding the least developed has al so public meetings, solemn processions, vigils,
been slowing, since 1960, and is now at 1.3% annual growth.
rallies, demonstrations, petition drives,
 Population growth among the least developed countries has
not really slowed, and is the highest at 2.7% annual growth.[4] statements to and in public media, and
pamphleteering; and

Social movements are a type of group action. They are 3. WUNC displays: participants' concerted public
large informal groupings representation of worthiness, unity, numbers,
of individuals or organizations which focus on and commitments on the part of themselves
specific political or social issues. In other words, they and/or their constituencies.
carry out, resist or undo a social change. Sidney Tarrow defines a social movement as collective
challenges [to elites, authorities, other groups or cultural
Modern Western social movements became possible
codes] by people with common purposes and solidarity
through education (the wider dissemination of literature),
in sustained interactions with elites, opponents and
and increased mobility of labor due to
authorities. He specifically distinguishes social
the industrialization and urbanization of 19th century [4]
societies. It is sometimes argued that the freedom of movements from political parties and advocacy groups.

expression, education and relative economic [edit]History

independence prevalent in the modern Western
culture are responsible for the unprecedented number
and scope of various contemporary social movements.
However, others point out that many of the social
movements of the last hundred years grew up, like
the Mau Mauin Kenya, to oppose Western colonialism.
Either way, social movements have been and continued
to be closely connected with democratic political
systems. Occasionally, social movements have been
involved in democratizing nations, but more often they
have flourished after democratization. Over the past 200
years, they have become part of a popular and global
[1]
expression of dissent.

Modern movements often utilize technology and the

internet to mobilize people globally. Adapting to
communication trends is a common theme among  American Civil Rights Movem ent is one of the most
successful movements. Research is beginning to famous social movements of the 20th century.
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Third French Revolution (1848) in which he introduced pamphlets circulating in the 18th
[5]
the term "social movement" into scholarly discussions - century coffeehouses to newspapers and Internet, all
actually depicting in this way political movements fighting those tools became important factors in the growth of the
for the social rights understood aswelfare rights. social movements. Finally, the spread
of democracy and political rights like the freedom of
Tilly argues that the early growth of social movements
speech made the creation and functioning of social
was connected to broad economic and political changes
movements much easier.
including parliamentarization, market capitalization,
[1]
andproletarianization. Political movements that evolved [edit]Types of social movement
in late 18th century, like those connected to the French
Revolution and the Polish Constitution of May 3,
1791 are among the first documented social movements,
although Tilly notes that the British abolitionistmovement
has "some claim" to be the first social movement
(becoming one between the sugar boycott of 1791 and
the second great petition drive of 1806). The labor
movement andsocialist movement of the late 19th
century are seen as the prototypical social movements,
leading to the formation of communist and social
democratic parties and organisations. From
1815, Britain after victory in the Napoleonic
Wars entered a period of social upheaval. Similar
tendencies were seen in other countries as pressure for
reform continued, for example in Russia with
the Russian Revolution of 1905 and of 1917, resulting in
the collapse of the Czarist regime around the end of
the First World War .

In 1945, Britain after victory in the Second World Types of social movements.
[7]

War entered a period of radical reform and change. In

the post-war period, women's rights, gay Sociologists distinguish between several types of social
rights, peace, civil rights, anti-nuclear and environmental movement:
movements emerged, often dubbed the New Social
[6]
Movements They led, among other things, to the   Scope:
formation of green parties and organisations influenced reform movement - movements advocating


by the new left. Some find in the end of the 1990s the

changing some norms or laws. Examples of
emergence of a new global social movement, the anti-
globalization movement. Some social movement such a movement would include a trade
scholars posit that with the rapid pace of globalization, union with a goal of increasing workers rights,
the potential for the emergence of new type of social
a green movement advocating a set
movement is latent—they make the analogy to national
of ecological laws, or a movement supporting
movements of the past to describe what has been
termed a global citizens movement. introduction of a capital punishment or the right
to abortion. Some reform movements may aim
[edit]Key processes
for a change in custom and moral norms, such
Several key processes lie behind the history of social
movements. Urbanization led to larger settlements, as condemnation of pornography or proliferation
where people of similar goals could find each other, of some religion.
gather and organize. This facilitated social
 radical movement - movements dedicated to
interaction between scores of people, and it was in
changing value systems in a fundamental way.
urban areas that those early social movements first
appeared. Similarly, the process of industrialization Examples would include the American Civil
which gathered large masses of workers in the same Rights Movement which demanded full civil
region explains why many of those early social
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dwellers' movement Abahlali such as the working class, peasants, whites,

baseMjondolo which demands the full inclusion aristocrats, Protestants, men. They were usually
of shack dwellers into the life of cities. centered around some materialistic goals like
 Type of change: improving the standard of living or, for example,
 innovation movement - movements which want the political autonomy of the working class.
to introduce or change particular norms, values,  new movements - movements which became
etc. The singularitarianismmovement dominant from the second half of the 20th
advocating deliberate action to effect and century - like the feminist movement,pro-choice
ensure the safety of the technological movement, civil rights
singularity is an example of an innovation movement, environmental movement, free
movement. software movement, gay rights
 conservative movement - movements which movement, peace movement, anti-nuclear
want to preserve existing norms, values, etc. movement, alter-globalization movement, etc.
For example, the anti-technology 19th Sometimes they are known as new social
century Luddites movement or the modern movements. They are usually centered around
movement opposing the spread of issues that go beyond but are not separate from
the genetically modified food could be seen as class.
conservative movements in that they aimed to    Range:

fight specific technological changes.  global movements - social movements with

 
 Targets: global (transnational) objectives and goals.
 group-focus movements - focused on affecting Movements such as the first (where Marx and
groups or society in general, for example, Bakunin met), second, third and fourth
advocating the change of the political system. internationals, the World Social Forum,
Some of these groups transform into or join the Peoples' Global Action and the anarchist
a political party, but many remain outside the movement seek to change society at a global
reformist party political system. level.
 individual-focused movements - focused on  local movements - most of the social
[9]
affecting individuals. Most religious movements have a local scope. They are
movements would fall under this category. focused on local or regional objectives, such as
 Methods of work: protecting a specific natural area, lobbying for
 peaceful movements - various movements the lowering of tolls in a certain motorway, or
which use nonviolent means of protest as part preserving a building about to be demolished for
of a campaign of nonviolent resistance, also gentrification and turning it into a social center .
often called civil resistance. The American Civil [edit]Identification of supporters
Rights movement, Polish Solidarity movement
 A difficulty for scholarship of m ovements is that for most
or the nonviolent, civil disobedience-orientated of them, neither insiders to a movement nor outsiders
wing of the Indian independence apply consistent labels or even descriptive phrases.

movement would fall into this category.

[8] Unless there is a single leader who does that, or a
formal system of membership agreements, activists will
 violent movements - various movements which
typically use diverse labels and descriptive phrases that
resort to violence; they are usually armed and in require scholars to discern when they are referring to the
extreme cases can take a form of same or similar ideas, declare similar goals, adopt
similar programs of action, and use similar methods.
a paramilitary or terrorist organization.
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outsiders might consider supporters because they example, American Civil Rights movement grew on the
discredit the cause, or are even seen as reaction to black woman, Rosa Parks, riding in the
adversaries. whites-only section of the bus (although she was not
 Outsiders: Those not supporters who may tend to acting alone or spontaneously—typically activist leaders
either underestimate or overestimate the level or lay the groundwork behind the scenes of interventions
support or activity of elements of a movement, by designed to spark a movement). The Polish Solidarity
including or excluding those that insiders would movement, which eventually toppled the communist
exclude or include. regimes of Eastern Europe, developed after trade union
activist Anna Walentynowicz was fired from work. The
It is often outsiders rather than insiders that apply the
South African shack dwellers' movement Abahlali
identifying labels for a movement, which the insiders
baseMjondolo grew out of a road blockade in response
then may or may not adopt and use to self-identify. For
to the sudden selling off of a small piece of land
example, the label for the levellers political movement in
promised for housing to a developer. Such an event is
17th century England was applied to them by their
also described as a volcanic model  - a social movement
antagonists, as a term of disparagement. Yet admirers of
is often created after a large number of people realize
the movement and its aims later came to use the term,
that there are others sharing the same value and desire
and it is the term by which they are known to history.
for a particular social change.
Caution must always be exercised in any discussion of
One of the main difficulties facing the emerging social
amorphous phenomena such as movements to
movement is spreading the very knowledge that it exists.
distinguish between the views of insiders and outsiders,
Second is overcoming the free rider problem -
supporters and antagonists, each of whom may have
convincing people to join it, instead of following the
their own purposes and agendas in characterization or
mentality 'why should I trouble myself when others can
mischaracterization of it.
do it and I can just reap the benefits after their hard
[edit]Dynamics of social movements work'.

Many social movements are created around

some charismatic leader , i.e. one
possessing charismatic authority. After the social
movement is created, there are two likely phases of
recruitment. The first phase will gather the people deeply
interested in the primary goal and ideal of the
movement. The second phase, which will usually come
after the given movement had some successes and is
trendy; it would look good on a résumé. People who join
in this second phase will likely be the first to leave when
the movement suffers any setbacks and failures.

Eventually, the social crisis can be encouraged by

outside elements, like opposition from government or
[10]
Stages of social movements. other movements. However, many movements had
survived a failure crisis, being revived by some
Social movements are not eternal. They have a life
hardcore activists even after several decades.
cycle: they are created, they grow, they achieve
successes or failures and eventually, they dissolve and [edit]Social movement theories
cease to exist.
Main article: Social movement theory 
They are more likely to evolve in the time and place
which is friendly to the social movements: hence their Sociologists have developed several theories related to
evident symbiosis with the 19th century proliferation of social movements [Kendall, 2005]. Some of the better-
ideas like individual rights, freedom of speech and civil known approaches are outlined below. Chronologically
disobedience. Social movements occur in liberal and they include:
authoritarian societies but in different forms. However
there must always be polarizing differences between  collective behavior /collective action theories (1950s)
groups of people: in case of 'old movements', they were  relative deprivation theory (1960s)
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[edit]Deprivation theory 1. structural conduciveness - people come to

believe their society has problems
Deprivation theory argues that social movements have
their foundations among people who feel deprived of 2. structural strain - people experience deprivation
some good(s) or resource(s). According to this 3. growth and spread of a solution - a solution to
approach, individuals who are lacking some good, the problems people are experiencing is
service, or comfort are more likely to organize a social proposed and spreads
[11]
movement to improve (or defend) their conditions. 4. precipitating factors - discontent usually requires
a catalyst (often a specific event) to turn it into a
There are two significant problems with this theory. First,
social movement
since most people feel deprived at one level or another
5. lack of social control - the entity that is to be
almost all the time, the theory has a hard time explaining
changed must be at least somewhat open to the
why the groups that form social movements do when
change; if the social movement is quickly and
other people are also deprived. Second, the reasoning
powerfully repressed, it may never materialize
behind this theory is circular - often the only evidence for
6. mobilization - this is the actual organizing and
deprivation is the social movement. If deprivation is
active component of the movement; people do
claimed to be the cause but the only evidence for such is
[12] what needs to be done
the movement, the reasoning is circular .
This theory is also subject to circular reasoning as it
[edit]Marxist theory
incorporates, at least in part, deprivation theory and
Derived from Karl Marx, Marxism as an ideology and relies upon it, and social/structural strain for the
theory of social change has had an immense impact on underlying motivation of social movement activism.
the practice and the analysis of social movements. However, social movement activism is, like in the case of
Marxism arose from an analysis of movements deprivation theory, often the only indication that there
structured by conflicts between industrial workers and was strain or deprivation.
their capitalist employers in the 19th century. In the
[edit]Resource mobilization theory
twentieth century a variety of neo-Marxist theories have
been developed that have opened themselves to adding Resource mobilization theory emphasizes the
questions of race, gender, environment, and other importance of resources in social movement
issues to an analysis centered in (shifting) political development and success. Resources are understood
economic conditions. Class-based movements, both here to include: knowledge, money, media, labor,
revolutionary and labor-reformist, have always been solidarity, legitimacy, and internal and external support
stronger in Europe than in the US and so has Marxist from power elite. The theory argues that social
theory as a tool for understanding social movements, but movements develop when individuals with grievances
important Marxist movements and theories have also are able to mobilize sufficient resources to take action.
evolved in the US. Marxist approaches have been and The emphasis on resources offers an explanation why
remain influential ways of understanding the role of some discontented/deprived individuals are able to
political economy and class differences as key forces in organize while others are not.
many historical and current social movements, and they
Some of the assumptions of the theory include:
continue to challenge approaches that are limited by
their inability to imagine serious alternatives to consumer
 there will always be grounds for protest in modern,
capitalist social structures.
politically pluralistic societies because there is
[edit]Mass society theory constant discontent (i.e., grievances or deprivation);
this de-emphasizes the importance of these factors
Mass society theory argues that social movements are
as it makes them ubiquitous
made up of individuals in large societies who feel
insignificant or socially detached. Social movements,  actors are rational; they weigh the costs and
according to this theory, provide a sense of benefits from movement participation
empowerment and belonging that the movement  members are recruited through networks;
members would otherwise not have.
[13] commitment is maintained by building a collective
identity and continuing to nurture interpersonal
Very little support has been found for this theory. Aho
relationships
(1990), in his study of Idaho Christian Patriotism, did not
 movement organization is contingent upon the
find that members of that movement were more likely to
aggregation of resources
have been socially detached. In fact, the key to joining
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 the form of the resources shapes the activities of the  growth of political pluralism
movement (e.g., access to a TV station will result in  decline in effectiveness of repression
the extensive use TV media)  elite disunity; the leading factions are internally
 movements develop in contingent opportunity fragmented
structures that influence their efforts to mobilize; as  a broadening of access to institutional participation
each movement's response to the opportunity in political processes
structures depends on the movement's organization  support of organized opposition by elites
and resources, there is no clear pattern of
One of the advantages of the political process theory is
movement development nor are specific movement
that it addresses the issue of timing or emergence of
techniques or methods universal
social movements. Some groups may have the insurgent
Critics of this theory argue that there is too much of an consciousness and resources to mobilize, but because
emphasize on resources, especially financial resources. political opportunities are closed, they will not have any
Some movements are effective without an influx of success. The theory, then, argues that all three of these
money and are more dependent upon the movement components are important.
members for time and labor (e.g., the civil rights
Critics of the political process theory and resource-
movement in the U.S.).
mobilization theory point out that neither theory
[edit]Political process theory discusses movement culture to any great degree. This
Political process theory is similar to resource has presented culture theorists an opportunity to
mobilization in many regards, but tends to emphasize a expound on the importance of culture.
different component of social structure that is important
One advance on the political process theory is
for social movement development: political opportunities.
the political mediation model, which outlines the way in
Political process theory argues that there are three vital
which the political context facing movement actors
components for movement formation: insurgent
intersects with the strategic choices that movements
consciousness, organizational strength, and political
make. An additional strength of this model is that it can
opportunities.
look at the outcomes of social movements not only in
Insurgent consciousness refers back to the ideas of terms of success or failure but also in terms of
deprivation and grievances. The idea is that certain consequences (whether intentional or unintentional,
members of society feel like they are being mistreated or positive or negative) and in terms of collective benefits.
that somehow the system is unjust. The insurgent
[edit]Culture theory
consciousness is the collective sense of injustice that
More recent strains of theory understand social
movement members (or potential movement members)
movements through their cultures - collectively shared
feel and serves as the motivation for movement
beliefs, ideologies, values and other meanings about the
organization.
world. These include explorations into the "collective
identities" and "collective action frames" of movements
and movement organizations.

Culture theory builds upon both the political process and

resource-mobilization theories but extends them in two
ways. First, it emphasizes the importance of movement
culture. Second, it attempts to address the free-rider
problem.

Both resource-mobilization theory and political process

theory include a sense of injustice in their approaches.
Culture theory brings this sense of injustice to the
forefront of movement creation by arguing that, in order
for social movements to successfully mobilize
Photo taken at the 2005 U.S. Presidential inauguration
individuals, they must develop an injustice frame. An
protest.
injustice frame is a collection of ideas and symbols that
Organizational strength falls inline with resource- illustrate both how significant the problem is as well as
mobilization theory, arguing that in order for a social what the movement can do to alleviate it,
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[17]
consequences and values are at stake. We do movement. For example, the emergence of
the Coffee Party first appeared on the social
not see the frame directly, but infer its presence
networking site,Facebook. The party has continued
by its characteristic expressions and language. to gather membership and support through that site
Each frame gives the advantage to certain ways and file sharing sites, such as Flickr . The2009 –2010
of talking and thinking, while it places others out Iranian election protests also demonstrated how
[15] social networking sites are making the mobilization
of the picture."
of large numbers of people quicker and easier.
Important characteristics of the injustice frames Iranians were able to organize and speak out
[16]
include: against the election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad by
using sites such as Twitter and Facebook. This in
 Facts take on their meaning by being embedded turn prompted widespread government censorship
in frames, which render them relevant and of the web and social networking sites.
significant or irrelevant and trivial.
The sociological study of social movements is quite
 People carry around multiple frames in their
new. The traditional view of movements often
heads.
perceived them as chaotic and disorganized,
 Successful reframing involves the ability to enter
treating activism as a threat to the social order . The
into the worldview of our adversaries.
activism experienced in the 1960s and 1970s
 All frames contain implicit or explicit appeals to
shuffled in a new world opinion about the subject.
moral principles.
Models were now introduced to understand the
In emphasizing the injustice frame, culture theory organizational and structural powers embedded in
also addresses the free-rider problem. The free-rider social movements.
problem refers to the idea that people will not be
Introduction
motivated to participate in a social movement that
will use up their personal resources (e.g., time, Social movements are any broad social alliances of
money, etc.) if they can still receive the benefits people who are connected through their shared interest
without participating. In other words, if person X in blocking or affecting social change. Social movements
knows that movement Y is working to improve do not have to be formally organized. Multiple alliances
environmental conditions in his neighborhood, he is may work separately for common causes and still be
presented with a choice: join or not join the considered a social movement.
movement. If he believes the movement will
 A distinction is drawn between social m ovements
succeed without him, he can avoid participation in
and social movement organizations (SMOs). A social
the movement, save his resources, and still reap the
movement organization is a formally organized
benefits - this is free-riding . A significant problem for
component of a social movement. But an SMO may only
social movement theory has been to explain why
make up a part of a particular social movement. For
people join movements if they believe the
instance, PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of
movement can/will succeed without their
 Animals) advocates for vegan lifestyles along wit h its
contribution. Culture theory argues that, in
other aims. But PETA is not the only group to advocate
conjunction with social networks being an important
for vegan diets and lifestyles; there are numerous other
contact tool, the injustice frame will provide the
groups actively engaged toward this end
motivation for people to contribute to the movement. [1]
(seevegan). Thus, the social movement may be a push
Framing processes includes three separate toward veganism (an effort with numerous
[1]
components: motivations) and PETA is an SMO working within the
broader social movement.
 Diagnostic frame: the movement organization
Modern social movements became possible through the
frames what is the problem or what they are
wider dissemination of literature and increased mobility
critiquing
of labor due to the industrialization of societies.
 Prognostic frame: the movement organization
Organised social structures like modern day armies,
frames what is the desirable solution to the
political societies, and popular movements required
problem
freedom of expression, education and relative economic
 Motivational frame: the movement organization
independence.
frames a "call to arms" by suggesting and
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3. ecological movements that are concerned with national politics in the U.S. and developed into a Political
the environment  Action Committee or PAC. In this instance, the
4. peace movements that work toward, well, peace movement may or may not have attained its original goal
- encouraging the censure of Clinton and moving on to
It is also interesting to note that social movements can
more pressing issues - but the goals of the SMO have
spawn counter movements. For instance, the women's
changed. This makes the actual stages the movement
movement of the 1960s and 1970s resulted in a number
has passed through difficult to discern.
of counter movements that attempted to block the goals
of the women's movement, many of which were reform
[3]
movements within conservative religions.

[edit]Types of Social Movements

[4]
 Aberle described four types of social movements
based upon two characteristics: (1) who is the
movement attempting to change and (2) how much
change is being advocated. Social movements can be
aimed at change on an individual level (e.g.,  AA) or
change on a broader, group or even societal level
(e.g., anti-globalization). Social movements can also
advocate for minor changes (e.g., tougher restrictions on
drunk driving; see MADD) or radical changes
(e.g., prohibition). [edit]Social Movement Theories

 A variety of theories have attempted to explain how

social movements develop. Some of the better-known
approaches are outlined below.

[edit]Deprivation Theory

De privation Theory  argues that social movements have

their foundations among people who feel deprived of
some good(s) or resource(s). According to this
approach, individuals who are lacking some good,
ser vice, or comfort are more likely to organize a social
[8]
movement to improve (or defend) their conditions.

There are two significant problems with this theory. First,

since most people feel deprived at one level or another
almost all the time, the theory has a hard time explaining
why the groups that form social movements do when
other people are also deprived. Second, the reasoning
behind this theory is circular - often the only evidence for
deprivation is the social movement. If deprivation is
[edit]Stages in Social Movements
claimed to be the cause but the only evidence for such is
[9]
Blumer ,
[5]
Mauss,
[6] [7]
and Tilly have described different the movement, the reasoning is circular .
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[edit]Structural-Strain Theory  social movement entrepreneurs and protest

Structural-Strain Theory  proposes six factors that organizations are the catalysts which transform
[12] collective discontent into social movements; social
encourage social movement development:
movement organizations form the backbone of

1. structural conduciveness - people come to social movements

believe their society has problems  the form of the resources shapes the activities of the

2. structural strain - people experience deprivation movement (e.g., access to a TV station will result in
the extensive use TV media)
3. growth and spread of a solution - a solution to
the problems people are experiencing is  movements develop in contingent opportunity

proposed and spreads structures that influence their efforts to mobilize; as

each movement's response to the opportunity
4. precipitating factors - discontent usually requires
structures depends on the movement's organization
a catalyst (often a specific event) to turn it into a
and resources, there is no clear pattern of
social movement
movement development nor are specific movement
5. lack of social control - the entity that is to be
techniques or methods universal
changed must be at least somewhat open to the
change; if the social movement is quickly and Critics of this theory argue that there is too much of an
powerfully repressed, it may never materialize emphasize on resources, especially financial resources.
6. mobilization - this is the actual organizing and Some movements are effective without an influx of
active component of the movement; people do money and are more dependent upon the movement
what needs to be done members for time and labor (e.g., the civil rights
movement in the U.S.).
This theory is also subject to circular reasoning as it
incorporates, at least in part, deprivation theory and [edit]Political Process Theory
relies upon it, and social/structural strain for the Political Process Theory  is similar to resource
underlying motivation of social movement activism. mobilization in many regards, but tends to emphasize a
However, social movement activism is, like in the case of different component of social structure that is important
deprivation theory, often the only indication that there for social movement development: political opportunities.
was strain or deprivation. Political process theory argues that there are three vital
[edit]Resource-Mobilization Theory components for movement formation: insurgent
consciousness, organizational strength, and political
Resource-Mobilization Theory  emphasizes the
opportunities.
importance of resources in social movement
development and success. Resources are understood Insurgent consciousness refers back to the ideas of
here to include: knowledge, money, media, labor, deprivation and grievances. The idea is that certain
solidarity, legitimacy, and internal and external support members of society feel like they are being mistreated or
from power elite. The theory argues that social that somehow the system is unjust. The insurgent
movements develop when individuals with grievances consciousness is the collective sense of injustice that
are able to mobilize sufficient resources to take action. movement members (or potential movement members)
The emphasis on resources offers an explanation why feel and serves as the motivation for movement
some discontented/deprived individuals are able to organization.
organize while others are not.

Some of the assumptions of the theory include:

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Political opportunity refers to the receptivity or not see the frame directly, but infer its presence
vulnerability of the existing political system to challenge.
by its characteristic expressions and language.
This vulnerability can be the result of any of the following
(or a combination thereof): Each frame gives the advantage to certain ways
of talking and thinking, while it places others out
 growth of political pluralism of the picture." (p. 14)
[13]

 decline in effectiveness of repression [13]

 A few things we know about injustice frames:
 elite disunity; the leading factions are internally
fragmented
 Facts take on their meaning by being embedded
 a broadening of access to institutional participation
in frames, which render them relevant and
in political processes
significant or irrelevant and trivial.
 support of organized opposition by elites
 People carry around multiple frames in their
One of the advantages of the political process theory is heads.
that it addresses the issue of timing or emergence of  Successful reframing involves the ability to enter
social movements. Some groups may have the insurgent into the worldview of our adversaries.
consciousness and resources to mobilize, but because  All frames contain implicit or explicit appeals to
political opportunities are closed, they will not have any moral principles.
success. The theory, then, argues that all three of these
In emphasizing the injustice frame, culture theory
components are important.
also addresses the free-rider problem. The free-rider
Critics of the political process theory and resource- problem refers to the idea that people will not be
mobilization theory point out that neither theory motivated to participate in a social movement that
discusses movement culture to any great degree. This will use up their personal resources (e.g., time,
has presented culture theorists an opportunity to money, etc.) if they can still receive the benefits
expound on the importance of culture. without participating. In other words, if person X
knows that movement Y is working to improve
One advance on the political process theory is
environmental conditions in his neighborhood, he is
the political mediation model, which outlines the way in
presented with a choice: join or not join the
which the political context facing movement actors
movement. If he believes the movement will
intersects with the strategic choices that movements
succeed without him, he can avoid participation in
make. An additional strength of this model is that it can
the movement, save his resources, and still reap the
look at the outcomes of social movements not only in
benefits - this is free-riding . A significant problem for
terms of success or failure but also in terms of
social movement theory has been to explain why
consequences (whether intentional or unintentional,
people join movements if they believe the
positive or negative) and in terms of collective benefits.
movement can/will succeed without their
[edit]Culture Theory contribution. Culture theory argues that, in
Culture theory  builds upon both the political process and conjunction with social networks being an important
resource-mobilization theories but extends them in two contact tool, the injustice frame will provide the
ways. First, it emphasizes the importance of movement motivation for people to contribute to the movement.
culture. Second, it attempts to address the free-rider
Framing processes includes three separate
 problem.
components:
Both resource-mobilization theory and political process
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 environmental movement countries. Surveys of poverty that exposed the brutal

 green movement conditions in the urban slum conurbations of Victorian
 gay rights movement Britain pressured changes reform of the Poor
 labor movement Law and welfare reforms by the British Liberal Party.
Other significant examples in the development of social
 anti-globalization movement
policy are the Bismarckian welfare state in 19th
 vegetarian movement
centur yGermany; social security policies introduced by
 feminist movement
the New Deal in the United States between 1933 and
 pro-life movement
1935, and health reforms theBeveridge Report of 1942.

Social policy in the 21st century is complex and in each

state it is subject
to local, national and supranational political influence.
For example, membership of the European Union is
conditional to member states' adherence to the Social
Social policy primarily refers to guidelines, principles, Chapter of European Union law and other international
legislation and activities that affect the living conditions laws.
conducive to human welfare. The Department of Social [edit]Types of social policy
Policy at the London School of Economics, defines
social policy as "an interdisciplinary and applied subject Social policy aims to improve human welfare and to
concerned with the analysis of societies' responses to meet human needs for education, health, housing and
social need. It seeks to foster in its students a capacity social security. Important areas of social policy are
to understand theory and evidence drawn from a wide the welfare state, social security, unemployment
range of social science disciplines, including economics, insurance, environmental policy, pensions, health
sociology, psychology, geography, history, law, care,social housing, social care, child protection, social
philosophy and political science.Social Policy is focused exclusion, education policy, crime and criminal justice.
on those aspects of the economy, society and policy that
The term 'social policy' can also refer to policies which
are necessary to human existence and the means by
govern human behaviour. In the United States, the term
which they can be provided. These basic human needs
'social policy' may be used to refer to abortion and the
include: food and shelter, a sustainable and safe
regulation of its practice, euthanasia, homosexuality, the
environment, the promotion of health and treatment of
rules surrounding issues of marriage, divorce,adoption,
the sick, the care and support of those unable to live a
the legal status of recreational drugs, and the legal
fully independent life; and the education and training of
status of prostitution.
individuals to a level that enables them fully to
participate in their society".
[1]
The Malcolm Wiener [edit]In academia
Center for Social Policy at Harvard University describes
Social Policy is also an academic discipline focusing on
it as "public policy and practice in the areas of  health
the systematic evaluation of societies' responses to
care, human services, criminal
[2] social need. It was developed in the early-to-mid part of
 justice, inequality, education, and labor."
the 20th century as a complement to social
[3]
Social policy often deals with wicked problems. Social work studies. London School of
Policy is defined as actions that affect the well-being of Economics professor Richard Titmuss is considered to
members of a society through shaping the distribution of have established Social Policy (or Social Administration)
[4]
and access to goods and resources in that society as an academic subject and many universities offer the
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Within a society, processes leading to change include Acculturation is what happens to an entire culture when
invention and culture loss. Inventions may be either alien traits diffuse in on a large scale and substantially
technological or ideological. The latter includes such replace traditional cultural patterns. After several
things as the invention of algebra and calculus or the centuries of relentless pressure from European
creation of a representative parliament as a replacement  Americans to adopt their ways, Nati ve American cultures
for rule by royal decree. Technological inventions have been largely acculturated. As a result, the vast
include new tools, energy sources, and transportation majority of American Indians now speak English instead
methods as well as more frivolous and ephemeral things of their ancestral language, wear European style clothes,
such as style of dress and bodily adornment. go to school to learn about the world from a European
perspective, and see themselves as being a part of the
Culture loss is an inevitable result of old cultural patterns broader American society. As Native American societies
being replaced by new ones. For instance, not many continue to acculturate, most are experiencing a
 Americans today know how to care for a h orse. A corresponding loss of their traditional cultures despite
century ago, this was common knowledge, except in a efforts of
few large urban centers. Since then, vehicles with preservationists in their
internal combustion engines have replaced horses as communities.
our primary means of transportation and horse care
knowledge lost its importance. As a result, children are While acculturation is
rarely taught these skills. Instead, they are trained in the what happens to an
use of the new technologies of automobiles, televisions, entire culture when
stereos, cellular phones, computers, and iPods. alien traits overwhelm
it, transculturationis
Within a society, processes that result in the resistance what happens to an
to change include habit and the integration of culture individual when he or
traits. Older people, in particular, are often reticent to she moves to another
replace their comfortable, long familiar cultural patterns. society and adopts its
Habitual behavior provides emotional security in a culture. Immigrants
threatening world of change. Religion also often who successfully learn
the language and Sequoyah
provides strong moral justification and support for
accept as their own the (ca. 1767-1843)
maintaining traditional ways. In the early 21st century,
this is especially true of nations mostly guided by Islamic cultural patterns of their adopted country have
Law, such as Iran, Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, and transculturated. In contrast, people who live as socially
Pakistan. isolated expatriates in a foreign land for years without
desiring or expecting to become assimilated
The fact that cultural participants in the host culture are not transculturating.
institutions are integrated
and often interdependent is There is one last process leading to change that occurs
a major source of resistance as an invention within a society as a result of an idea
to change. For instance, in that diffuses from another. This is stimulus
the second half of the 20th
century, rapidly changing diffusion --a genuine invention that is sparked by an
roles of North American and 21st century professional idea from another culture. An example of this
European women were resis woman working in a job occurred about 1821 when a Cherokee Indian
ted by many men because it not open to women in her
named Sequoyah saw English writing which
inevitably resulted in grandmother's generation
stimulated him to create a unique writing system for his
changes in their roles as
own people. Part of his syllable based system is
well. Male and female roles do not exist independent of
illustrated below. Note that some letters are similar to
each other. This sort of integration of cultural traits
English while others are not. To see the entire
inevitably slows down and modifies cultural changes.
Cherokee syllabary, click here.
Needless to say, it is a source of frustration for both
those who want to change and those who do not.

The processes leading to change that occur as a result

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even immoral. These ingroup-outgroup dynamics decision to require all children in their country, beginning
commonly result in resistance to acculturation and with the 3rd grade of elementary school, to learn
assimilation. English. This will very likely acceleratewesternization.

China is far from being unique in experiencing a

Summation revolutionary rate of change. It is now abundantly clear
that we are in an accelerating culture change period all
In order to better grasp the relationship between all of around the world regardless of whether we try to resist it
the different mechanisms of change operating within and or not. It is driven by the expansion of international
between societies, it is useful to see them again in commerce and especially mass media. Ultimately, what
summary: is driving it is our massive human population explosion.
The number of people in the world now doubles in less
than half a century.

What
Actually
Changes
When
Cultures
Change?

When
analyzing t
he 21st century jack based on principles
We now understand that this holistic approach to transformat of physics known to the ancient Greeks
understanding culture change must also include ion of a culture, it is clear that different understandings
consideration of changes in the environment in which a are gained depending on the focus. Anthropology began
society exists. For instance, environmental degradation its study of this phenomenon, during the late 19th
of fresh water supplies, arable land, and energy sources century, largely from the perspective of trying to
historically have resulted in the creation of new understand how manufactured things, such as tools, are
inventions, migrations, and even war to invented and modified in design over time. It became
acquire essential resources. apparent that there rarely are entirely new inventions.
Most often, only the function, form, or principle is new,
but not all three. For instance, our modern jack, used
for lifting up the side of a car, is usually based on the
NOTE: Human activities globally now move ten times as principles of the lever and/or the screw. Those
much earth and rock as all natural processes. One of principles were well known to the ancient Greeks more
the side effects of this is soil erosion that is causing the than 2,000 years
 progressive loss of farmlands at the same time that the ago.
human need for them is growing. Driving this has been
our rapidly increasing human population. Research By the 1940's,
done by Bruce Wilkinson of the University of Michigan anthropologists
has shown that this human-caused erosion began to began to realize that
exceed nature's ability to repair it nearly 1,000 years ago ideas,
(WilkinsonGeology 28, 843-846, [2000]). tools, and other artifa
cts generally are not
Overview  invented or changed
 All cultures change through time. No culture is static. in isolation. They are
However, most cultures are basically conservative in that the product of
they tend to resist change. Some resist more than particular cultural
others by enacting laws for the preservation and settings. Cultures are organic wholes consisting of
interdependent components. Inventions often occur in
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Similarly, the introduction of households. For a quarter century there has been a
new, effective birth control demand for housing that is significantly over what would
measures, mostly beginning be expected from the population growth in these
in the early 1960's, allowed nations. As a result, the need for lumber and other
people to easily limit the construction materials has caused a dramatic increase in
number of children they had the exploitation of forests. This in turn makes it
and to space their births. increasingly more difficult to maintain global biological
This affected the diversity.
relationships of children with
their parents and siblings. The interrelationship between culture and environment
When there are fewer also can be seen in our depletion of energy resources
children, parents can give and forced adoption of new energy sources. As wood
Parents with few children more attention to each one.
became relatively scarce by the beginning of
can give more personal Likewise, more money per the Industrial Revolution in Europe, it was replaced by
attention to each of them child is available for clothes, coal to fuel factories and heat homes. In turn, coal
entertainment, gifts, and education. Potentially, there is began to be replaced by oil and natural gas during the
also more money and leisure time for parents when early 20th century. The increasing costs associated with
there are fewer children in petroleum products have now caused it to begin to be
their family. replaced by nuclear, solar, and other energy sources.

The interrelated nature of Human economies change as necessity forces us to

cultural institutions can also alter our relationship with the environment. As our
be seen in the effects of economies change, the rest of culture changes in
changing roles for American response. We are now facing potential major global
women since the mid-20th cultural changes over the next century as a result of the
century. As they have greenhouse effect that is presumably being caused or
increasingly moved into the aggravated by the accelerated burning of fossil fuels and
work force outside of the forest products. The result likely will be progressive
home, it has given them global warming, shifting climates, and flooded coastal
North American father
financial independence and regions. Entire island nations in the Pacific and Indian
in a non-traditional role:
has altered traditional roles Oceans may disappear below the sea. Actually, this
caring for his child while
within the family. Men are process of people changing the global climate may have
his wife works elsewhere
less essential as bread begun much earlier than the beginning of the Industrial
winners and less accepted Revolution as it has been commonly thought. William
as patriarchs. They have begun to take on more child Ruddiman of the University of Virginia has evidence
rearing and other domestic household responsibilities indicating that the rise of global temperatures began
previously defined as "women's work." Divorce has about 8,000 years ago with the early spread of
become an economically viable alternative for women in agriculture. He suggests that the massive clearance of
unhappy marriages. There also has been a marked forests in Europe and Asia for farming beginning at that
decrease in the frequency of mother-child interaction. time released huge amounts of greenhouse gases into
 American children have increasingly been raised b y non- the atmosphere. In his estimation, this was enough
family members in child care centers and schools. warming to put off an impending ice age.

By the early 1960's, it It is now clear that culture change is very complex. It
was evident to some has far ranging causes and effects. In order to
anthropologists that understand all of the manifestations of change, we must
cultures do not exist in
isolation. When take a holistic approach to studying cultures and the
cultures change, they environments in which they exist. In other words, we
can have major impacts must assume that human existence can be understood
on the environment. only as a multifaceted whole. Only then can we hope to
Similarly, when the understand the phenomena of culture change.
Culture and the natural environment changes,