Level: Curriculum Development (6406) Semester: Autumn,2021

Course: ADE/ B.Ed (4Years) Name: Saba Nawaz

Q.1 Explain the functions of BTES?

Ans: BTES: Academic Learning Time Model of Classroom Instruction:

Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study (BTES) was carried out by the Far West Laboratory
for Educational Research and Development in San Francisco, California, USA, in 1970s,
which showed a new path in research on teacher behaviour and pupils' achievement in
elementary school classrooms. The study has developed, tested and pitted into operation
as the Academic Learning Time Model in Classroom Instruction. Until the 1960s, research
on teaching had not received a great deal of attention. By 1975, however, a number of
teams and individual research efforts had been completed or were underway. Almost all
of these studies were cast in the form of process product analyses, wherein teacher
behaviour and classroom characteristics were observed and subsequently related to
measures of student achievement and attitudes. Correlation was the frequently used
statistics in these studies. The BTES hypothesized that the acquisition of knowledge in the
classroom is best conceived as a multiyear process (Fisher and Barliner - 1977). Thus,
experimental designs that reflect the process product framework often suffer from
problems of ecological validity.

Simple Modification of Process Product Approach:

Researchers on the BTES have proposed a simple modification of the process product
approach to the study of classroom learning. The link between teacher behaviour and
student achievement is the ongoing student behaviour in the classroom learning
situation. This complex variable is called the Academic Learning Time(ALT). The
investigation of the relations of ALT to teacher behaviour and to student achievement
requires a simple flow of events that influence achievement in a particular curriculum
area.

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The Teacher behaviours, that influence student learning have been conceptualised as
serving five interrelated functions. These are diagnosis, prescription, presentation,
monitoring and feedback. These functions are broadly of two categories: planning and
interaction, and these functions occur through time, in a cyclical fashion. The inajor
component of the ALT is the classroom allocation of time from both the teacher and
student standpoints. Studying the time variable has led the BTES researchers to observe
classroom allocation of time of a teacher. Typically, a teacher in the primary grade
allocates 50-100 minutes a day to reading and 30-50 minutes to mathematics. From the
analysis of teaching protocols taken in the classes of more and less effective teachers, it
has been found that teachers become constrained by their time allocation, starting and
ending lessons by clock rather, than on the basis of the cyclical functions of the ALT
model. Thus, when teacher rushes students for any reason, skipping one or more
functions of the model, they appear to be less effective in helping students achieve in
academic areas. Immature learners cannot thrive when disjointed lessons occur within a
given instruction period. The ALT is synonymous with engagement, attention, and on task
behaviour. Every time, a student is apparently on-task during a teacher's allocated time
for a lesson, increase in learning takes place. Even slight increase in ALT would appear to
be logically, related .to increased-student acquisition of knowledge. Empirical data from
many sources is accumulating to support this position.

Main Points:

1. Basic psychological teaching model was developed by Glaser (1962)

2. Four components of this model are:
(a) Instructional Objectives
(b) Entering Behaviour

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(c) Instructional Procedure
(d) Performance Assessment
3. Formal Teaching Steps of Herbert are clarity, association, assimilation
and application.
4. Most widely used instructional steps of Herbartian teaching method are
preparation, presentation, association, assimilation and application.
5. The instruction analysis model is a technique of recording and analysing
data,
6. The goal of instruction analysis model is to achieve understanding of
teacher-pupil interaction and conditions in which learning is maximised.
7. There are three principles of teacher influence to which the interaction
model applies.
8. Concepts are the key building blocks for the structure of knowledge ofthe various
academic disciplines.
9. This model is concerned with two ideas that are the nature of concepts
themselves and thinking process used by individual to learn concepts. -
10. Concepts are informations about objects, events and process.
11. They allow us to differentiate, know relationship and generate ideas
about events, things and process.
12. The elements of this concept are name, examples, attribute, attribute
value and the rule.
13. Cognitive growth model of Piaget is concerned with the development of
intellectual process.
14. His views also include organization of the educational environment,
curriculum, content and sequence, teaching methods and assessment.
15. Piaget classified this intellectual development in sensory-motor stage,
pre operational stage and operational stage.
16. His ideas are summarised into three principles of learning and teaching.
17. The developmental model of teaching is based on these three principles.
18. This model consists of three phases: conformation, inquiry and transfer,
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19. There are some principles of reaction, which a teacher must follow while
he is with the students.
20. By following cognitive developmental model all areas of development
will be nurtured.
21. Chi the basis of BTES research, the students acquire more academic
knowledge at primary grades in classrooms.
22. The schools and teachers have allocated more time for academic
instruction.
23. The time used for lessons is continuous rather than disjointed.
24. Teachers are actively oriented rather than bound by clock as a guide for
the length of the lesson.

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25. Students are actively involved in instructional episode so that differences
between the teacher's and students' allocation of time are minimized.

Q.2 Follow up the steps of problem solving and project method in order to their
application in the real life situation?

Ans: Problem-solving skills are necessary in all areas of life, and classroom problem
solving activities can be a great way to get students prepped and ready to solve
real problems in real life scenarios. Whether in school, work or in their social
relationships, the ability to critically analyze a problem, map out all its elements
and then prepare a workable solution is one of the most valuable skills one can
acquire in life. Educating your students about problem solving skills from an early
age in school can be facilitated through classroom problem solving activities.
Such endeavors encourage cognitive as well as social development, and can
equip students with the tools they’ll need to address and solve problems
throughout the rest of their lives.

Steps of Problem Solving Method

Here is a five-stage model that most students can easily memorize and put into action
and
which has direct applications to many areas of the curriculum as well as everyday life:

1. Understand the problem. It's important that students understand the nature of a
problem and its related goals. Encourage students to frame a problem in their own
words.

2. Describe any barriers. Students need to be aware of any barriers or constraints that
may be preventing them from achieving their goal. In short, what is creating the
problem? Encouraging students to verbalize these impediments is always an important
step.
3. Identify various solutions. After the nature and parameters of a problem are
understood, students will need to select one or more appropriate strategies to help
resolve the problem. Students need to understand that they have many strategies
available to them and that no single strategy will work for all problems. Here are
some problem-solving possibilities:

Create visual images. Many problem-solvers find it useful to create “mind pictures”
of a problem and its potential solutions prior to working on the problem. Mental

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imaging allows the problem-solvers to map out many dimensions of a problem and
“see” it clearly.

Guesstimate. Give students opportunities to engage in some trial-and-error

approaches to problem-solving. It should be understood, however, that this is not a
singular approach to problem-solving but rather an attempt to gather some
preliminary data.

Create a table. A table is an orderly arrangement of data. When students have

opportunities to design and create tables of information, they begin to understand that
they can group and organize most data relative to a problem.

Use manipulatives. By moving objects around on a table or desk, students can

develop patterns and organize elements of a problem into recognizable and visually
satisfying components.

Work backward. It's frequently helpful for students to take the data presented at the
end of a problem and use a series of computations to arrive at the data presented at the
beginning of the problem.

Look for a pattern. Looking for patterns is an important problem-solving strategy

because many problems are similar and fall into predictable patterns. A pattern, by
definition, is a regular, systematic repetition and may be numerical, visual, or
behavioral.

Create a systematic list. Recording information in list form is a process used quite
frequently to map out a plan of attack for defining and solving problems. Encourage
students to record their ideas in lists to determine regularities, patterns, or similarities
between problem elements.

4. Try out a solution. When working through a strategy or combination of strategies, it

will be important for students to.

Keep accurate and up-to-date records of their thoughts, proceedings, and

procedures. Recording the data collected, the predictions made, and the
strategies used is an important part of the problem solving process.

Try to work through a selected strategy or combination of strategies until

it becomes evident that it's not working, it needs to be modified, or it is
yielding inappropriate data. As students become more proficient problemsolvers, they
should feel comfortable rejecting potential strategies at any time
during their quest for solutions.

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Monitor with great care the steps undertaken as part of a
solution. Although it might be a natural tendency for students to “rush”
through a strategy to arrive at a quick answer, encourage them to carefully
assess and monitor their progress.

Feel comfortable putting a problem aside for a period of time and

tackling it at a later time. For example, scientists rarely come up with a
solution the first time they approach a problem. Students should also feel
comfortable letting a problem rest for a while and returning to it later.
5. Evaluate the results. It's vitally important that students have multiple opportunities
to assess their own problem-solving skills and the solutions they generate from using
those skills. Frequently, students are overly dependent upon teachers to evaluate their
performance in the classroom. The process of self-assessment is not easy, however. It
involves risk-taking, self-assurance, and a certain level of independence. But it can be
effectively promoted by asking students questions such as “How do you feel about
your progress so far?” “Are you satisfied with the results you obtained?” and “Why
do you believe this is an appropriate response to the problem?.

Teacher's Role in Problem Solving

Teacher’s has a very important role in Teaching Learning Process. He or She has the
duty to provide proper guideline to the students in the completion of their work. Some
important roles are given below:
1. Give suggestions not answers
2. Offer a problem solving heuristic
3. Teach a variety of problem solving strategies
4. Allow time for the students to struggle with the problem
5. Choose problems that require time to think through a solution
6. Provide a variety of problems
7. Allow students time to practice a heuristic and strategies
8. Give similar or the same problem in different ways
9. Ask questions that encourage students to:
think divergently
explain how they are thinking.
to share strategies
think of other ways that the same problem could be asked
think of real life problems that are or relate to the problem
discover different problems that can be solved with the same strategy
discover multiple ways to solve the problem
reflect or check their solutions
reflect and discuss how they imagined a certain strategy might be possible

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explain why they have confidence in their solutions
10. Provide encouragement and appreciation:
appreciate different solutions and strategies
encourage students to find multiple solutions to a problem
encourage students to take time to solve problems
compliment students on good problem solving strategies whether they reach a
solution or not
make sure students know what a compliment or praise specifically relates to
about the problem and problem solving
encourage students to keep trying and to learn by correcting mistakes
let students know that problem solving is difficult and rewarding
share and discuss attitudes and dispositions that are conducive to problem
Solving.

Project Method:

The Project Method is a medium of instruction which was introduced during the 18th
century into the schools of architecture and engineering in Europe when graduating
students had to apply the skills and knowledge they had learned in the course of their
studies to problems they had to solve as practicians of their trade, for example, designing
a monument, building a steam engine. It is based on the philosophy of Pragmatism.
Founded by John Dewey. In the early 20th Century, William Heard Kilpatrick expanded
the project method into a philosophy of education. His device is child-centred and based
in progressive education. Both approaches are used by teachers worldwide to this day.
Unlike traditional education, proponents of the project method attempt to allow the
student to solve problems with as little teacher direction as possible. The teacher is seen
more as a facilitator than a deliver of knowledge and information.

Major steps of the Project Method.

1. Creating the situation (providing a situation) Provide for such a situation where in the
pupils feel spontaneous urge to carry out a particular project according to their needs
and interests. The teacher has to discover the interests, needs, tastes and aptitudes of
children. He may draw the pupil’s attention to the projects in mind through informal
conversation or discussion as taking out children outside the school. Thus pupils are
brought face to face with the situation.

2. Choosing the project (Selection of the Project) The pupils should themselves choose
the subject. Self choice leads to better results and entail self satisfaction. Pupils select
any one, discuss the various projects, rejects some, explain others and thus come to a

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decision. The teacher should see that the project chosen are of great utility and satisfy
the real need of the pupils and are within their capacity to be successfully carried out.

3. Planning Pupil should themselves do the planning and the teacher is to guide them.
Discussions may be held and each student should be encouraged to express his views and
suggestions. The teacher may point out the difficulties involved in the carrying out of the
project. Resources and limitations should be discussed. After such oral discussion, the
detailed plan may be written up by the students in their project book.

4. Carrying out the project (Executing) When the plan is ready, pupils are to put it to
practice. Students themselves should distribute the various items of duties among
themselves according to individual interest and capacities. Every student must contribute
something towards the successful completion of the project. A chain of activities are to
performed by the students. They are busy in collecting information, visiting various
places and pupils, looking up maps, writing letters, referring library books, observing
specimens, studying history, keeping accounts, calculating prices, inquiring rates,
measuring lengths of areas. The teacher should guide the students provide necessary
information and help them on right lines.

5. Evaluating No project is complete unless the work done in it is evaluated. Students

should assess their activities; whether they have been carried out in accordance with the
plan or not, mistakes committed are noted.

6. Recording (Project Report) The teacher should keep a complete record of work how
they planned, what discussion were held, how duties were assigned and finally criticism
of their own work and some important point for future reference. Some examples of
Project: ● By vising various public institutions the students can prepare a report on
various functions of those institutions i.e. Post Office, Hospital, Bank. Police Station etc. A
project involves planning and developing a schedule of study and outcomes to be
achieved over a period of time usually longer than that of an individual assignment.
Implicit in the project are educational ideas of deep learning as opposed to surface
learning. The students are not required to only produce a single outcome, but are
required to link multiple, and often distantly related, prior learning tasks. The role of the
teacher throughout the project is one of a facilitator of each student’s learning strategy.
It is important that both teachers and students know precisely what is involved in doing
project work. The students should be familiar with the assessment structure that will be
used by the teacher to assess and grade their project. Project work can be carried out
individually or in groups. The formation of groups can be carried out in one of two ways:
either students form their own group or the teacher identifies the group membership.
Both of these methods have their own merits and drawbacks. Students who form their
own groups tend to choose friends with similar backgrounds and objectives. This may
detract from the rich learning experience to be gained by groups formed by students

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with different approaches to learning. Teachers can form groups in a variety of ways. It
could be done randomly by allocating a number to each student and selecting these
numbers from a hat or by using random number tables to select groups. If this method is
adapted some useful statistics can be discussed and elucidated during the selection
process. One of the most useful methods used is to compose groups by individual
student ability. In order to use this technique this method obviously assumes that the
teacher knows his/her students. Teachers who previously used this method recommend
that the group contain a mixed ability range; otherwise one may well find that a high flier
group or a very weak group often materialises. (Weak groups present problems when or
if—verbal assessment is given.) Another advantage of a mixed ability group is that the
most able students can be used as mentors to the least able. It is well known in
educational circles that we learn by doing and by teaching others. Carefully choice of a
project is required; otherwise teachers may find that the project does not proceed very
well and in some cases not succeed at all. Whether students choose projects on their
own or in conjunction with their teachers, clearly defined objectives for the projects are
essential. Teachers vary in their opinion of projects and in particular the assessment of
these projects. A great deal depends on whether projects are introduced for examination
purposes or for instructional reasons. If the projects are part of an examination syllabus
the assessment structure should be followed as stated in the syllabus. When projects are
not part of a formal examination, an appropriate model for assessment can be used.
These projects can be assessed in stages or at the end, depending on the teacher’s
preference. Teachers have found that a successful project begins with a clear problem
scenario, with precise goals identified. From this a detailed outline of work can be
produced.

Q.3 What are the steps and characterizes in curriculum planning?

Ans: curriculum planning has been defined in various ways:

1. Curriculum planning is a process in which participants at many levels make
decisions about what the purposes of learning ought to be, how those purposes
mighty be carried out through teaching-learning situations and whether the
purposes and means are both appropriate and effective.
2. Curriculum planning consists of all the processes necessary to plan for and write
a curriculum.
3. Curriculum planning is the process of gathering, sorting, selecting, balancing,
and synthesizing relevant information from many sources in order to design those
experiences that will assist learners in attaining the goals of the curriculum.
4. Curriculum planning is the orderly study and improvement of schooling in the
light of stated objectives.
5. Curriculum planning is the preliminary phase of curriculum development when

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the curriculum workers make decisions and take action to establish the plan that
teachers and students carry out.
6. Curriculum planning is the process whereby arrangements of learning
opportunities or curriculum plans are created.

Characteristics of Curriculum Planning

These may be stated as:

1. Curriculum planning is ultimately concerned with the experiences of the learners.
2. Curriculum planning involves decisions about both content and planning.
3. Curriculum-planning involves decisions about a variety of issues.
4. Curriculum planning involves many groups.
5. Curriculum planning takes place at many levels.
6. Curriculum planning is a continuous process.

Process of Curriculum Development:

The process of curriculum development begins with the following:

1. Formulation of objectives of education, which are based on the ultimate, aims of
life, and also on the political and social philosophy and development needs of a
country.
2. Specification of objectives of education in respect of different stages of school
education and also in respect of different subjects and activities and experiences
at different stages of education.
3. Determination of the scheme of studies, syllabi, etc.
4. Preparation of instruction materials like textbooks, supplementary readers
workbooks, teacher guides, etc.
5. Implementation of curriculum in the school.
6. Evaluation of curriculum to ensure quality control for effecting suitable
modifications in the curriculum.

Effective Curriculum Planning

Following are some crucial factors, which guide effective curriculum planning:
1. Curriculum planning must be based upon a clear conception of what makes a
good life.
2. Curriculum planning must take into account the characteristics of past,
contemporary and future society.
3. Curriculum goals should address a broad range of needs, interests of both

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individual and society.
4. Curriculum planning should recognize and encourage diversity among learners.
5. Curriculum planning must make provision for all aspects of teaching-learning
situations. They should include suggestive activities, content, resources, and
measuring devices, etc.
6. Curriculum planning should be done in the light of the characteristics of the
learners for whom they are intended.
7. Curriculum planning should also make use of approaches other than subject-area
approach. .
8. Curriculum planning must provide flexibility to allow teacher pupil planning.
9. Curriculum planning must provide for the infusion of spontaneous ideas, which
emerge during the interaction of the learners and teachers.
10. Curriculum planning should reflect a balance among cognitive, affective and
psychomotor needs of the learners.
11. Curriculum planning should include provision for reflective thinking, values and
valuing, enhancement of self-concept and self-esteem.
12. Cooperative planning and development are most effectively done in cooperative
settings.
13. Curriculum planning should take into consideration an integrated set of experiences
rather than a disjointed conglomeration of activities.
14. Curriculum planning must provide for continuous evaluation of all aspects of
curriculum.

Basic Principles of Curriculum Development

Curriculum is a tool in the hands of the teachers, to give training to children in
the art of living together in the community. It is a tool, which, considerably helps to
inculcate those standards of moral action, which are essential for successful living in
society and for getting true satisfaction out of life. It is therefore; very essential that the
curriculum should be, based on sound principles.
The following principles should be kept in mind when framing curriculum;
l. The Conservative Principle: It has been stated that nations live in the present, on
the past and for the future. This means that the present, the past and the future
needs of the community should be taken into consideration. The past is a great
guide for the present as it helps us to decide what has been useful to those, who
have gone before and what will be useful to those, who are going through now.
The point has been explained in the Handbook of Suggestions for Teachers as “It
is, in fact, being increasingly recognized that the various subject of the
curriculum represent certain form of skills and certain branches of knowledge,
which have proved to be of importance in the experience of the race, and which
have to be taught to each succeeding generation. From this point of view it is the
function of the school to preserve and transmit the traditions, knowledge and
standards of conduct on which our civilization depends.

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This principle will be of help only when we carefully select as to what things of
the past are likely to help us in the present. All the things of the past may not suit us. It is,
therefore, essential that we should select only those subjects and activities, which are
required by the present generation.
This principle has been criticized by some educationists on the ground that it
looks to subjects and not to the pupils. It is contended by its antagonists that in these
days
when it is accepted that education and schools, and therefore curriculum, should be
childcentred, this principle does not take us very far. It may be replied to such critics that
to
condemn everything of the past is not a sound policy and especially in a country, which
has had a glorious past and, which showed the path of knowledge to other countries.
Another point to be stressed is that there must be a base to stand upon and if the base is
durable it must be accepted. Thirdly, it would be wrong to say that in the past the child
was entirely ignored. However, as stated above, the principle of selectivity should be
adapted in the selection of the curriculum on the basis of the past.
2. The Forward-looking Principle: While discussing the first principle, we have
pointed out that in the present, future needs and requirements of the community
should be given their due place. Children of today are the citizens of tomorrow.
Therefore, their education should be such as it enables them to be progressive
minded persons. Education should give them a foundation of knowledge and
feeling that will enable them to change the environment where change is needed.
3. The Creative Principle: In the curriculum those activities should be included,
which enable the child to exercise his creative and constructive powers. The
objective of education is to discover and to develop special interests, tastes and
aptitudes. Weeler says, “The promptings to anyone of the intellectual interests
may fade away and become practically irrevocable unless opportunities be then
and there forthcoming. None of the child's native gifts should escape our notice
and so perish of inanition. In a curriculum that is suited to the needs of today and
of the future, there must be a definite bias towards definitely creative activities.
4. The Activity Principle: The curriculum should be thought in terms of activity
and experience, rather than of knowledge to be acquired and facts to be stored
growth and learning take place only where there is activity. 'Experience' rather
than 'instruction' is to meet the needs of the various stages of growth. In the
words of John Dewey. “The general movement is away from the old overreliance and
verbal instruction, formulated subject and learning from books, and
in the direction of more varied and many sided individual activities in keeping
with child's real interests”.
Playgrounds, shops, workrooms and laboratories not only direct the natural active
tendencies of youth, but they also involve intercourse, communication and cooperation.
Abbott and Wood report has also stressed the activity principle, “It is vitally
important that young children should not be required to sit still for long periods at

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a time. A young child needs rest, it is true, but he must play, he must explore, and
he must be physically active if he is to derive a daily satisfaction out of his
attendance at school. In short, he needs experience more than instruction”.
The curriculum must ensure the activity of body and mind. It should be the centre
of the curriculum. All modern methods of teaching, i.e. Kindergarten,
Montessori, Project, Basic, etc., are based on this principle of activity.
5. Principle of Preparation for Life: This is most important principle in the
construction of the curriculum. Education must equip an individual for life.
Hence, curriculum must include those activities, which enable the child to take
his part effectively and amicably in the activities of the community when he
becomes an adult. We have to prepare him in such a way, as he is capable of
facing the various challenges of the complex problems of the future.
6. Child-Centred Curriculum: It is true that the child is to be prepared for life. But
this does not mean that his immediate interests should be sacrificed for the sake
of the future, which is indefinite. The best preparation for life that we can give a
child is to help him to live fully and richly his life at that stage at which he is.
The child automatically prepares himself for the next stage by living well and
true life at one stage. Smith and Harrison observe, 'Education.... regards the child
as an individual growing by his own activity, living in his own environment, and
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preparing himself for adult life, not by imitating the adult, but by living as fully
as possible in the environment of childhood”
7. Principle of Maturity: Curriculum should be adapted to the grade of the pupils
and to their stage of mental and physical development. In the early childhood;
'wonder' and 'romance' predominate. So subjects and activities, which present the
elements of 'wonder' and 'romance, should be included at this stage. At a later
stage they are interested in practical things. So at the Elementary Stage the
curriculum should provide for practical problem. At the next stage, that is the
Secondary Stage, students are interested in generalizations and accordingly
curriculum should provide such activates. The child at this stage is keen to
discover, to find out and discuss new facts. The curriculum should harness the
adventurous spirit of the growing child.
The experience provided should be within the comprehension of the students.
8. Principle of Individual Differences: Individuals differ in taste,
temperament, skill, experience, aptitude, and innate ability and in sex. Therefore,
the curriculum should be adapted to individual differences. It should not be rigid.
9. Vertical and Horizontal Articulation: On the one hand, each year’s course
should be built on what has been done in previous years and at the same time
should serve as basis for subsequent work. It is absolutely essential that the entire
curriculum should be coordinated.
10. Principle of Linking with Life: The community needs and characteristics
should be kept in view while framing the curriculum.

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11. Principle of Comprehensiveness and Balance: The curriculum should be
framed in such a way as every aspect of life i.e. economic relationships, social
activities, occupations and spiritual life, is given due emphasis.
12. Principle of Loyalties: The curriculum should be planned in such a manner that
it teaches a true sense of loyalty to the family, the school, the community, the
town, the province, the country and the world at large. It should enable the child
to understand that there is unity in diversity.
13. Flexibility: Curriculum should take into consideration the special need and
circumstances of the pupils. Curriculum of the girls may not always he identical
with the hoys. The special needs of both the sexes should be given their due
consideration.
In general the curriculum of the village and the urban school will be the same but
there might be variation according to the specific needs of the locality.
14. Principle of Core or Common Subjects: There are certain broad areas of
knowledge, skill and appreciation with which all the children must be made
conversant and these should find a place in the curriculum. This is more
important at higher secondary stage where there are diversified courses. These
subjects are to be common to all groups. They are known as core subjects.
Mother tongue or regional language, special studies (general course), general
science including mathematics and one craft are expected to be the core subject.
15. Principle of Leisure: The curriculum should prepare the child for the use of
leisure time. According to Herbert Spencer, Literature, Music and Art occupy the
leisure part of life and should, therefore, occupy the leisure part of education. The
capacity to enjoy leisure greatly determines a man's capacity to work. If leisure is
spent in gambling, drinking and reading obscene literature, it will hamper
progress not only of an individual but also the nation as a whole. The school
curriculum should therefore, prepare the would-be-citizens to use effectively
their leisure time.
16. Principle of All-round Development of Body, Mind and Spirit: All kinds of
experiences should be provided to the students so that they may develop their all
powers.

Q.4 What is the roe of psychology and sociology in curriculum development?

Ans: The word psychology is derived from two Greek words “psyche” means soul and
“logos” means study. Psychology is the scientific study: of human behaviour.

Psychology attempts to describe, explain and predict human behaviour. Psychology gives
us an insight into the child's development and learning and provides various techniques

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of inquiry for use in the curriculum area. The contribution of psychological basis to
curriculum is significant and is growing. As this is a relatively young discipline, the scope
for applying its concepts, principles, processes and values to curriculum development is
gradually increasing.

Psychological Sources

The purpose of psychology is the study of human behaviour. The psychologists

are concerned with:

Describing
Explaining
Predicting

Evaluating (investigating) the behaviour of human being, curriculum developers,

therefore, can draw upon psychology, particularly educational psychology, for at least
five areas of information.
(1) Educational objectives
(2) Student characteristics
(3) Learning process
(4) Teaching methods
(5) Evaluation procedures
The study of psychology does not provide a source of contents a school
curriculum (other than for a few subjects on psychological studies).
Let us briefly examine the psychological sources that the curriculum developers
can employ.

Educational objectives
Knowledge of the psychology of learning helps the curriculum developers to
devise and phrase appropriate goals and objectives. The curriculum developers can
determine whether goals and objectives are suitable for various developmental levels
and
ages of learners and that whether they are attainable or not. Subsequently, the
formulation
of curriculum goals and objectives has profound influence upon the selection of contents
for the curriculum.

Student/Learner Characteristics

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An understanding of the nature of learners particularly of individual differences
and personalities will assist, the curriculum developers to-make more choices in
curriculum decision-making. The study of personality can tell us whether different
personalities respond to learning experiences in different ways, Indeed, this is something
the experienced teacher has long known and some teachers have, endeavoured to
accommodate these differences within their classrooms. Similarly, an understanding of
individual differences is most useful to the curriculum developers, An effective
curriculum is able to accommodate .differences in student skills and abilities.

Learning Processes
Perhaps the greatest contribution that psychology makes to curriculum is an
understanding of how people learn. The curriculum developers, who have a sound grasp
of learning and learning theory, are in a commanding position to devise an appropriate
curriculum for learners. In particular, an understanding of learning is essential to the
effective selection of appropriate learning/teaching strategies.

Whether or not one supports a theory- of operant conditioning such as that of

B.F. Skinner, some forms of Gestalt theory (K. Lewin). Jean Piaget's approach to growth
and development, or some other form of explaining how learning occurs, the final
outcome speaks how the curriculum is shaped. Indeed, one of the difficulties
encountered
by curriculum developers is the vast array of theories, paradigms and algorithms that
support to explain the process of learning.

Teaching Methods
Psychology makes a significant contribution to both the selection of learning
experiences and the way teaching is conducted in the classroom. In the school curriculum
an understanding of psychology is essential to the curriculum developers in devising
appropriate learning experiences and conditions for learning, In selecting learning
experiences, the curriculum developers should take an account of: -
 Learning theories
 Individual differences amongst students
 Motivational strategies
 Personality
 Cognitive and affective development
 Teaching style
 Group dynamics
 Teaching methodology and
 Learning styles
This extensive list of psychological factors suggests that, the curriculum
developers can make substantial use of psychological sources while selecting
learning/teaching experiences.

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Evaluation Procedures

Psychology can also provide curriculum developers with directions for

undertaking the evaluation of students and teacher’s performance. Educational
psychologists have developed a vast array of techniques for measuring the degree of
students learning, students' attitudes towards learning/ teaching and so forth, as well as
the extent of teacher's effectiveness.
Educational psychologists, as well as other educators, have been concerned with
such evaluation issues as:
Norm-referenced assessment or criterion referenced assessment
The role of formative evaluation
Appropriate instruments to measure students' performance.
Determination of teacher's effectiveness.

These aspects of psychology indicate the range of influence that psychology has
upon the development of curriculum.

Sociology in curriculum development:

Curriculum must take into account the sociological considerations otherwise it will
remain bookish and divorced from life. A curriculum that ignores sociological foundations
does not serve any purpose. It results in waste of time, energy and resources. It will
produce individuals, who cannot play their role effectively as enlightened members of a
society., A sound curriculum must be based on the needs and aspirations of a society. An
unrelated curriculum may lead to individuals, who can neither find employment nor
engage themselves in fruitful occupations and consequently remain dissatisfied,
maladjusted and frustrated.

“Sociology is the systematic study of the groups and societies, human beings
build and the way these alliances effects our behaviour”.
“Sociology is the study of social life and social causes and consequences of
human behaviour”.
“Social life” encompasses all interpersonal relationships. The “causes and
consequences of human behaviour encompasses how these relationships,' groups, and
organizations are inter-related and how they influence personal and interpersonal
behaviour.
“Sociology is the study of social relationships, social institutions and society”.

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Role of Sociology in Curriculum Development
According to sociologists, schools are social institutions especially set up for the
preservation of culture and transmission of culture by society. School seeks to discharge
this function through the curriculum. The curriculum, therefore, includes learning
experiences based on the ways of life, kinds of knowledge, attitudes and beliefs that are
considered important by the society. Some kinds of selection are needed, as all the
aspects of culture cannot be included in the curriculum planning thus becomes a way for
the selection of various elements.

There are various sociological foundations like cultural, economic and political
that deeply influence the school curriculum, its conception, content and organization.
Among the most important sociological considerations that should guide those
engaged in the task of curriculum development, may be listed as below:

 Core values of society

 Changing values of the people
 Demands of modernization
 Criterion of a good family life
 New forms of cooperation
 Media explosion
 Population explosion
 Regional and national imbalances
 Economic efficiency
 ducation for fellowship and leadership creative and purposeful activities.

________________________________________________________________________

Q.5 Enlist and explain philosophical categories that have particular relevance for
curriculum development?

Ans: There are three philosophical categories that have particular relevance for
curriculum development.

(1) ONTOLOGY (The Nature of Reality)

(2) ESPISTEMOLOGY (The Nature of the Knowledge)
(3) AXIOLOGY (The Nature of Value)

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Ontology
Ontology is concerned with the nature of reality, and by asking the question
“what is real”? A number of queries become clear. While this question may appear
simple at the first glance, it deserves greater consideration. Different societies, for
example, perceive reality in quite different ways, as do the individuals', who constitute
these societies. In primitive societies, it was accepted as real that the earth was flat, yet
today we would regard this as nonsense. Similarly, one society may regard the use of
chemical fertilizers as essential, while another may consider biological wastes more
useful than the chemicals.

Thus what is real to a society is very important and must be taken into account
while constructing curriculum. Indeed, some curriculum developers see, their role as a
vehicle for change: Thus a new social studies curriculum may depict “Kelly Gang” as a
symbol of working-class resistance to authoritative oppression and so re-create reality
for a new generation of school students. Thus, some recent curriculum developments like
multiculturalism gender equality and environmental education, etc. have sought to
achieve just that.

Epistemology
The philosophical problem that deals with the nature of knowledge and of
knowing is called epistemology. For Waller and Evers (1988), “epistemology is the study
of the nature, scope and applicability of knowledge'“. In curriculum, what we advocate
becomes the basis for student learning. We are actually concerned with the nature of
knowledge, its basis, how we know and what we know.
When studying epistemology, we ask:
What is true?
How do we know the truth?'
How do we know what we know?
These are obviously vital questions for curriculum developers to consider,
particularly in a society, which purportedly values truth and seeks to pass the truth to
subsequent generations.
Ultimately our position becomes a statement of faith, a stand on those questions,
which we believe, and are prepared to accept, as true. As such we rely heavily upon our
fundamental ontological beliefs (what is real?)
In this way the close relationship between epistemology and ontology .is
consolidated.
Thus in any curriculum development activity, but particularly in relation to
schools, the epistemological stance taken by those developers involved is of vital
importance. Will they include the accepted truth? What does that constitute? To what
degree is there a consensus accepting that truth, or is that “consensus” a fallacy too?

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And so the epistemological questions continue. At the very least curriculum
developers should be aware of epistemology and be prepared to pose the fundamental
questions involved in such a study.

Axiology
Axiology is that aspect of philosophy that is concerned with the nature of value.
Axiology questions are a fundamental feature of our life in that the resulting decisions
have a profound effect upon our behaviour. Questions such as:
what is good? and
what is attributable to humans? etc.
are both fundamental to our very existence and constantly present in our daily lives.
Thus the axiological considerations are important in one's development of a curriculum
for future generations.
Zais (1976) contends that axiological questions are usually divided into two main
categories.

(a) Ethics
(b) Aesthetics

(a) Ethics:
Is concerned with concepts of good and bad. right and wrong as they apply to
human behaviour. When constructing the curricula, developers should be aware of both
their own ethical positions and the ethical basis (hopefully not biases) that they are
integrating into the curriculum. Thus, developers will select objectives and contents that
in their minds are more ethical both in terms of knowledge and process.
Robert Zais summarized the situation succinctly” Education, after all, is a
process of deliberately influencing. Children and youth in such a way that they become
what they would not otherwise become. And the curriculum is the master plan by which
this purpose is accomplished. At this point it is important to raise these issues and
questions in the minds of curriculum developers. There is increasing evidence in recent
years that saver elements of Pakistani society want a greater and more purposeful input
of ethical aspects into school curricula.

(b) Aesthetics:
Is concerned with such values and issues as beauty and enjoyment of human
experience. Aesthetics questions: What is beautiful? What aspects of the senses produce
enjoyment? And what aesthetic experiences yield “higher order” enjoyment?

The issues involving aesthetics produce particular difficulties for curriculum

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developers because individuals answer the above questions in very different ways. What
is beautiful to one person may be ugly to another, particularly if they come from
different
cultures. And what produces aesthetic enjoyment to one individual, may produce hay
fever in another'! The sensory pleasure associated with a bottle of quality cold drink may
be difficult for the patient/individual who suffers from allergies.
In answer to these questions, curricula developers in the part have opted for a
more conservative, accepted view of what is beautiful and what is enjoyment. In more
recent times, this position has weakened and we have witnessed the emergence of more
“popular” aesthetics within the school curriculum.

For the curriculum developers the value of philosophical considerations is

abundantly clear. Ontology, epistemology and axiology provide a useful structure for
examining one's own philosophical position as well as how philosophical stances affect
the development of curricula. In these considerations, one might pose some typical
philosophical questions that are useful to curriculum developer. The questions are:

 On what grounds should contents be selected or rejected?

 How different is instruction from conditioning?
 Are there distinct forms of knowledge?
 How can specific curricula be justified?
 How should content be structured within a curriculum?
 Should a curriculum be differentiated for different students?
 What is fact?
 To what degree should “new” reality be included within the curriculum?

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