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Comenius University in v Bratislava, Faculty of Arts

Department of British and American Studies

Translation and interpreting

training in Slovakia

STIMUL
2021
Translation and interpreting training in Slovakia

Editors:
Martin Djovčoš
Pavol Šveda

Contributors:
Edita Gromová, Daniela Müglová, Alojz Keníž, Miroslava Gavurová, Zuzana Angelovičová,
Marianna Bachledová, Martin Djovčoš, Pavol Šveda, Marketa Štefková, Lucia Paulínyová,
Emília Perez, Marián Kabát, Mária Koscelníková

This volume has been peer-reviewed by:

Soňa Hodáková
Matej Laš

Cover design and technical support:

Mgr. Lukáš Bendík

Technical editor:
Mgr. Milan Regec, PhD.

STIMUL, editors and contributing authors, 2021

This work is published under Creative Commons CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 international license. This
license requires that reusers give credit to the creator. It allows reusers to distribute, remix,
adapt, and build upon the material in any medium or format, for noncommercial purposes
only. If others modify or adapt the material, they must license
the modified material under identical terms. More infor-
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Publisher:
STIMUL, Advisory and Publishing Centre
Comenius University in Bratislava, Faculty of Arts,
http://fphil.uniba.sk/stimul

ISBN 978-80-8127-320-9 (PDF)

ISBN 978-80-8127-321-6 (EPUB)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE ..................................................................................................................................... 7
1 FOUNDATIONS AND TRADITIONS OF TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING TRAINING IN
SLOVAKIA ............................................................................................................................ 11
1.1 Changes in the traditional perception of the translation and interpreting profession ........... 11
1.2 Three perspectives on translation and interpreting training at Slovak universities: the past,
present and future ........................................................................................................... 19
1.2.1 The past .................................................................................................................. 19
1.2.2 The genesis of methodological foundations in Slovak translation studies .................... 20
1.2.3 Translation and interpreting training ....................................................................... 21
1.3 Translation and interpreting training today ....................................................................... 25
1.4 Internal structure of the translation and interpreting programme ...................................... 31
1.5 The future of translation and interpreting training ............................................................ 33
1.6 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 34
2 TRAINING OF LITERARY TRANSLATION ............................................................................... 36
2.1 The origins and tradition of teaching literary translation ................................................... 36
2.1.1 The goals of teaching translation and interpreting according to Popovič ..................... 37
2.2 Current practice and requirements for graduates .............................................................. 38
2.2.1 Defining the role and mission of a translator of literary texts ..................................... 39
2.2.2 The stylistic and semiotic-communicative model of the translated text ....................... 41
2.2.3 Hypnosis of the original ........................................................................................... 42
2.3 A model of competence for translators of literary texts ...................................................... 43
2.3.1 A high level of reading culture .................................................................................. 44
2.3.2 Phases of translator training .................................................................................... 45
2.3.3 The two-level concept of teaching translation............................................................ 46
2.4 The personality of a teacher of literary translation............................................................. 46
2.5 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 47
3 TRAINING OF THE TRANSLATION OF CHILDREN’S AND YOUNG ADULT LITERATURE .......... 48
3.1 Tradition and starting points for the teaching of the translation of children’s and young adult
literature ......................................................................................................................... 48
3.2 Current form and scope of teaching children’s literature translation in Slovakia ................. 51
3.3 Competencies of the graduate .......................................................................................... 51
3.3.1 Thematic competence in children’s literature translation .......................................... 52
3.3.2 Linguistic competence of children’s literature translators .......................................... 59
3.3.3 Cultural competence in children’s literature translation ............................................ 74
 3.4 Further methods and techniques in children’s literature translation ................................... 76
3.4.1 Translation of proper nouns..................................................................................... 76
3.4.2 Translation of third language words ......................................................................... 79
3.4.3 Translation of intentional spelling and grammar errors ............................................. 79
3.5 children’s literature translation as a compromise between the translator and the editor ...... 81
3.6 Competences of children’s literature translation educators ................................................ 82
3.7 Conclusion – vision and direction of translation teaching for children and young adults ...... 83
4 THE INTEGRATED MODEL OF TEACHING SPECIALISED TRANSLATION: THE BASE AND
METHODS ............................................................................................................................. 84
4.1 Current practice and graduate requirements ..................................................................... 84
4.2 Competences of a specialised translator ............................................................................ 85
4.3 The integrated model of teaching specialised translation (IMTST): definition, prerequisites
and teaching methods ...................................................................................................... 87
4.3.1 Prerequisites ........................................................................................................... 87
4.3.2 Teaching methods ................................................................................................... 88
4.3.3 Reflective interpretation and text analysis in specialised translation .......................... 88
4.3.4 Working with CAT tools ........................................................................................... 90
4.3.5 Quality assessment .................................................................................................. 91
4.3.6 Terminological work ............................................................................................... 92
4.3.7 Project workflow ..................................................................................................... 93
4.3.8 Practice................................................................................................................... 94
4.3.9 The study of the translated subject............................................................................ 96
4.3.10 Translation praxeology and ethics ............................................................................ 97
4.4 IMTST teacher profile ...................................................................................................... 98
4.5 Conclusions and visions ................................................................................................... 99
5 THE CURRENT STATE AND FUTURE OF INTERPRETING TRAINING IN SLOVAKIA ...............100
5.1 The foundations and traditions of interpreting training in Slovakia .................................. 100
5.2 The current state and scope of interpreting training in Slovakia ....................................... 102
5.3 The future of interpreting training in Slovakia ................................................................. 107
5.4 Proposing an interpreting training model with respect to current conditions at Slovak
universities ................................................................................................................... 109
5.4.1 The scope of basic interpreting training ................................................................... 111
5.4.2 The fundamentals of consecutive interpreting: its place and scope in the study
programme ............................................................................................................ 111
5.4.3 The fundamentals of consecutive interpreting: educational goals and course content 112
5.4.4 The fundamentals of simultaneous interpreting: its place in the study programme and
the scope of training ............................................................................................... 114
 5.4.5 The fundamentals of simultaneous interpreting: educational goals and course content
.............................................................................................................................. 114
5.4.6 Complementary modules for consecutive interpreting training ................................. 116
5.4.7 Complementary modules for simultaneous interpreting ........................................... 116
5.5 Other aspects of interpreting training ............................................................................. 117
5.5.1 Interpreting trainers’ profile ................................................................................... 117
5.5.2 Speeches used in interpreting training ..................................................................... 117
5.5.3 Practical interpreting training ................................................................................. 118
5.5.4 Distance interpreting and remote interpreting training ............................................ 118
5.5.5 Community interpreting training ............................................................................ 119
5.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 120
6 LEGAL TRANSLATION AND LEGAL INTERPRETING –– FROM THE DEMANDS OF PRACTICE TO
THE EDUCATIONAL MODELS ...............................................................................................121
6.1 Fundamentals and the tradition of legal translation and interpreting in Slovakia ............... 121
6.2 Definition of terms ........................................................................................................ 121
6.3 Practice and market of legal translation and interpreting in Slovakia ................................ 124
6.3.1 Volume of legal translations and interpreting by languages in Slovakia ..................... 125
6.4 Assignment hybridity ..................................................................................................... 128
6.5 Competences of a legal translator and interpreter – a starting point for education ............. 129
6.5.1 Interpreting techniques in legal interpreting ............................................................ 131
6.6 Educational models ....................................................................................................... 132
6.6.1 The Four-phase Process Method according to C. Giambruno ..................................... 135
6.6.2 Tandem method ..................................................................................................... 135
6.6.3 PACI – Introduction in PSIT .................................................................................... 136
6.7 Conclusion: education as a basis for quality management ................................................ 137
7 INTEGRATION OF AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION TRAINING INTO A TRANSLATION STUDY
PROGRAMME ......................................................................................................................138
7.1 The foundations of AVT training and its integration into translation study programmes in
Slovakia ........................................................................................................................ 138
7.2 The current state of AVT training in Slovakia .................................................................. 139
7.3 Competences in training ................................................................................................ 142
7.4 Model of AVT training in Slovakia................................................................................... 145
7.4.1 Dubbing translation ................................................................................................ 146
7.4.2 Translation of voice-over commentary..................................................................... 147
7.4.3 Dubbing dialogue adaptation .................................................................................. 148
7.4.4 Interlingual subtitling ............................................................................................. 150
7.4.5 Subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing ............................................................... 153
 7.4.6 Audio description for the visually impaired .............................................................. 154
7.5 The AVT university trainer ............................................................................................. 155
7.6 Discussion and conclusions ............................................................................................ 156
8 TRAINING LOCALIZATION...................................................................................................157
8.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 157
8.2 Slovak Research on Localization ..................................................................................... 158
8.3 Localization Training in Slovakia .................................................................................... 160
8.4 The Competences of Software Translators....................................................................... 161
8.5 A Localization Training Model ........................................................................................ 164
8.5.1 Localization-specific Issues ..................................................................................... 164
8.5.2 Team Projects ........................................................................................................ 166
8.5.3 Applying the Model ................................................................................................ 168
8.6 The Teacher of Localization ........................................................................................... 169
8.7 The Future of Localization in Slovakia ............................................................................ 170
9 WHAT DOES THE FUTURE HOLD FOR TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING TRAINING IN
SLOVAKIA? ..........................................................................................................................171
9.1 The optimal model for translation and interpreting teaching ........................................... 172
9.1.1 The overall organization of the study programme..................................................... 172
9.1.2 New courses and study formats ............................................................................... 173
9.1.3 The teacher as a person .......................................................................................... 177
9.1.4 Requirements for students ...................................................................................... 178
9.2 The long-term possibilities of the study programme’s future development ........................ 180
9.3 The ramifications of the pandemic and remote teaching .................................................. 183
9.4 Final summary .............................................................................................................. 183
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................185
CONTACT DETAILS ...................................................................................................................207
8 TRAINING LOCALIZATION

MARIÁN KABÁT AND MÁRIA KOSCELNÍKOVÁ

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Nowadays there are plenty of brands communicating in Slovak, be it Microsoft software
or an advertisement for Vanish detergent. Being close to target customers, speaking to their
culture through the product, and having a global reach is the goal of most companies aiming
for profit and success. Slovakia is no exception, and you can find plenty of websites with a
Slovak mutation. Indeed, it is now rare to find consumer goods or services without a man-
ual 100 or in-bound software in Slovak. Slovakia is a small country of 5.5 million inhabitants. It
used to be a part of Czechoslovakia (1918–1939, 1945–1992), and Czech is the closest language
to Slovak and is regarded as an “understandable language” under Slovak legislation. 101 De-
pending on the profitability of the market, the similarity of languages might stimulate com-
panies to localize in the language with a greater impact, which is particularly the case in video
game localization (Chandler 2020). In terms of certain software and websites of video game
distribution services (Steam), 102 non-gaming applications (Duolingo), 103 audiovisual media
providers (cinema and Netflix), and books, Slovak consumers must either rely on Czech
solely or have Czech provided as an option alongside Slovak (e.g., Koscelníková 2017; Perez
and Jánošíková 2018). Slovakia is a country with a less widely spoken language104 (Ethno-
logue, 2020), and the chances for a product having Slovak localization are subject to hetero-
geneous, unspecified, and always original circumstances.
The position of Slovak in relation to Czech, as well as the lack of localization training at
universities, leaves Slovak translation students with fewer opportunities to train in localiza-
tion compared to their international counterparts, e.g., United Kingdom (Bernal-Merino
2015, pp. 230–233). The lack of experienced trainees might result in using automated or par-
tial localization, or not using a professional for localization; this can be seen on several Slovak
websites 105 with services offered in poor Slovak or a mixture of Slovak and Czech, Slovak and
English, and so on.

100
Section 8(1) of Act 270/1995 on the State Language requires the use of the state language in user manuals.
Source: https://www.zakonypreludi.sk/zz/1995-270. Accessed on 29 January 2021.
101
Act 270/1995 on the State Language.
102
See the “language” section. Slovak is missing and the closet language is Czech:
https://store.steampowered.com/. Accessed on 1 February 2021.
103
See the “language” section: https://www.duolingo.com/. Accessed on 1 February 2021.
104
Being 143rd on a list of the top 200 most spoken languages, and having seven million users, Slovak can be
considered a less widely spoken language. Ethnologue: https://www.ethnologue.com/guides/ethnologue200.
Accessed on 29 January 2021.
105
Examples of bad practice: https://www.prezdravie.sk/; https://www.imageskincare.sk/HISToRIA5;
https://donaulab.sk/. Accessed on 21 January 2021.

157
 Localization involves translation, and to make a good localization one must be ade-
quately trained and skilled. Although not many works on localization are published in Slo-
vakia, localization is not a completely unknown phenomenon in Slovak research and training
environments.

8.2 SLOVAK RESEARCH ON LOCALIZATION

Localization is today understood as “one of a number of interdependent processes and
cannot be fully (or correctly) understood without being contextualized in reference to them”
(Dunne 2006a, 4). The GILT process includes globalization, internationalization, localization,
and translation. The whole concept represents the strategy of a company that wants to suc-
cessfully expand abroad. However, the term localization appeared in translation studies (and
Slovak translation studies as well) already in the seventies.
The first mention of localization in the Slovak environment comes from the work of the
Slovak co-founder of the Nitra translation school, Anton Popovič, in The Theory of Literary
Translation (Teória umeleckého prekladu, 1975). However, localization is only mentioned here
as a part of shifts in the macro-stylistics of a text which can be made during the translation
of a literary work and drama, which is understandable given that the use of computers and
software products became widespread only from the 1990s (Výpočtové stredisko SAV 2012).
Popovič references the work of Katharina Reiss (Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Übersetzungs-
kritik 1971) and defines localization as “an adaptation of thematic elements of the original
connected with the locale of the original […] aiming to meet the conventions of the recipient”
(Popovič 1975, p. 278); 106 however, localization at that time referred to different text types
(drama and literary works) to the current understanding of the localization process, which is
related mostly to the translation of software products whereby localization is understood as
a linguistic, content, cultural, and technical adaptation of the original to the target locale
(O’Hagan and Ashworth 2002; Fry 2003; Pym 2004).
The increased use of computer technology in Slovakia led to the first comprehensive ar-
ticle on localization, written by Vladimír Benko and Alexandra Rajčanová, as part of a collec-
tion of works from a young linguists’ colloquium in 1998 explicitly mentioning the localiza-
tion of software products. They defined the notion of localization as a process of changing
lexis, and they emphasized that it was a complex process with translation being just a part of
it. Despite it looking like an aspiring starting point for research on localization and for local-
ization training, there is no direct mention of Benko and Rajčanová’s research on localization
when it comes to Slovak translation studies, and only the translation of electronic media is
mentioned (Gromová 1998; Huťková 2003; Gromová 2009).
Benko and Rajčanová (1998) pioneered research on the localization of software and non-
software products in the same year as when the first comprehensive book on localization,
A Practical Guide to Software Localization (1998), was written by Bert Esselink. The two works
were published independently, and the authors did not know about each other’s work.

106
The authors’ own translation here and throughout.

158
 As an overall term, localization encompasses the translation process yet does not name
it directly, and this might be the reason why Slovak scholars did not consider localization to
be a branch of translation studies (Gromová and Müglová 2005). Nonetheless, due to the glob-
alization of various brands and companies, localization was touched upon in works on the
translation of operative/utility/advertisement texts by prominent Slovak translation studies
scholars (e.g., Gromová 2003; Müglová 2009; Rakšányiová 2012). The struggle to have locali-
zation accepted as a new term among Slovak translation studies scholars coexisted with
promising attempts by Slovak researchers (Smolík 2009; Jožio 2015) who either had experi-
ence with software products, were practitioners working for software companies, or had
worked as localization providers.
Unfortunately, it is possible that many Slovak works researching or involving localization
could be hidden under terms such as “software translation”, “translation of technical/prag-
matic/operative texts”, “translation of information technologies”, “translation of computer
terminology”, and “audiovisual translation” (Smolík, Šoltys, and Tomášik 2003). Early re-
search on localization, which does not name localization explicitly, is yet to be discovered
since it could have been published in conference proceedings which are not necessarily
available online.
In terms of localization practice, the first practical experience with the process in Slo-
vakia might have been the localization of the Microsoft Internet Explorer 3.0 browser in
1996 107; indeed, only then did the first Slovak localizers (the term “localizer” is used here and
throughout to denote a translator of software products) start to gain experience in this field.
Since many companies required the maintenance of confidentiality, information on locali-
zation could be provided either in the form of an interview with the localizer (a programmer
or translator) or during conferences. Unfortunately, such insights were provided only eleven
years after the first comprehensive work on localization and they appeared in published ma-
terials from the Specialized Translation 4 seminar (Odborný preklad 4, 2009). Several articles
on the aspects of localization were presented there (Dudová 2009; Tihlárik 2009); however,
some of them lacked a thorough list of references or were in a form of captions to PowerPoint
presentations. Nonetheless, this represented a probe by Slovak translation studies into the
world of localization and its practitioners. It was a promising start, and interest in localization
started to increase in the early 2010s.
After 2010, research on localization started to increase and was undertaken from multi-
ple viewpoints. The approaches varied, since localization still did not have any comprehen-
sive work that might have served as the foundation for further research. The insufficient
acknowledgement of localization by the rest of the translation studies sparked an interest by
audiovisual translation researchers who expressing the need to give localization greater at-
tention (Želonka 2012; Dlhošová 2012; Janecová 2014).
After incessant remarks about the lack of localization research, a boom in localization
research then started, and since 2014 research has been conducted regularly. Researchers

107
An interview with Slovak localization agency director Radoslav Tihlárik, 2002:
https://zive.aktuality.sk/clanok/10383/chcete-vediet-ako-sa-preklada-windows-do-slovenciny/. Accessed on 22
January 2021.

159
have slowly started to define the core characteristics of localization that would justify its
place as a standalone discipline. Indeed, localization started to be frequently written about
in Slovakia at the end of the 2010s (Marčanová 2018; Koželová and Kuľbak 2019; Kabát 2019,
2020a, 2020b; Koscelníková 2020).

8.3 LOCALIZATION TRAINING IN SLOVAKIA

Despite the increase in Slovak research on localization, there are only two localization
courses taught at Comenius University, both of which were established only recently; locali-
zation theory is mentioned on two courses on translation theory at the University of Prešov
and during one seminar at Matej Bel University.
There are five Slovak universities teaching translation studies (University of Prešov, Con-
stantine the Philosopher University, Matej Bel University, Comenius University, and Pavol
Jozef Šafárik University) and the Institute of World Literature at the Slovak Academy of Sci-
ences trains doctoral students, but none of them provide comprehensive training in localiza-
tion despite its established tradition in the international environment. Despite these circum-
stances, some localization strategies can be found in courses teaching the translation of non-
literary and literary texts, and aspiring localizers can obtain the necessary grounding in tra-
ditional translation courses. Nonetheless, a specialized course would prepare them much
better.
Another area where localization could be studied is informatics. One possible discipline
where localization could be taught is software engineering, where a course on localization
could inform students about possible localization practices when developing a software prod-
uct. Unfortunately, neither of the two institutions providing tuition in this field – the Slovak
University of Technology and the School of Economics and Management of Public Admin-
istration – has a localization course, not even as an elective subject.
It is worthwhile highlighting the emergence of game studies and game design courses at
several Slovak universities (e.g., the University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius and the University
of Žilina) which teach some aspects of localization, but other courses of game studies and
game design, such as at the Academy of Performing Arts and the Slovak University of Tech-
nology, do not touch upon localization at all. In addition, there are several high schools teach-
ing game development as well as several independent initiatives. 108 Slovak high school and
university environments reflect an increased interest in video games and underline the need
for dialogue between localization academics and practitioners that would enrich both sides.
Some additional localization training or information flow can be obtained from various
international associations. Slovak localizers can either join international associations like the
Globalization and Localization Association (GALA), the International Game Developers’ As-

108
An article published by Slovak Game Developers’ Association, 2021, “20 Ways of Studying Game Development
in Slovakia” (20 možností ako na Slovensku študovať tvorbu videohier)
https://sgda.sk/education/?fbclid=IwAR04YqeacUpaHGvnWHO1UbH6hMFq4TGQM3RWX6FzRXAmBeX9SSf0l
s5VTK0. Accessed on: 22 January 2021.

160
sociation (IGDA), or the Entertainment Globalization Association (EGA); there is also the Dig-
ital Game Research Association (DIGRA), 109 which is aimed specifically at video game locali-
zation researchers and which quite frequently organizes various seminars and workshops on
different aspects of localization. Additionally, there are specific international conferences
like LocWorld for international business, translation, localization, and global website man-
agement, and events and consultation services offered by the Localization Institute; there is
also Fun for All for video game localization researchers. 110 In Slovakia, there are events like
Game Days, which is organized by the Slovak Game Developers’ Association (SGDA), but this
mostly deals with video games. The SGDA publishes market statistics and informs research-
ers and practitioners in the field of video game localization about current events and options
for further research, and it even connects people directly with Slovak game developers.
As it stands at the moment, localization training is slowly emerging in Slovak translation
studies; this momentum could be used to create a dialogue among the various training insti-
tutions and perhaps establish localization as an optional course on specialized translation at
more than just one institution. In this way, future graduates would at least know what to ex-
pect from a localization assignment that they may come across as translators, given that
working as a full-time localizer in Slovakia is probably only possible in localization agencies
or software development companies.

8.4 THE COMPETENCES OF SOFTWARE TRANSLATORS

In order to develop any type of dialogue on localization, professionals need to be trained.
Given that the localization of software products can be considered to be a specialized type of
translation, students’ competences need to be trained in a different way compared to the
translation of literary and non-literary texts, and the competences and training should, as in
any field of translation, reflect the current state of best practice and the localization market,
even if there is no statistical data on the Slovak localization market as yet.
The competences of software product localizers described in this part are based on com-
petence models of other Slovak translation studies scholars (e.g., Angelovičová 2018; Keníž
2018; Gromová and Müglová 2018; Perez and Paulínyová 2018; Koželová 2018; Gavurová 2018)
as well as on competence models by leading scholars in localization (Kiraly 2000; Dunne
2006b; Jimenez-Crespo 2013; O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013). Several of these competences are
reflected in the 2009 EMT model and partially in the 2017 EMT Competence Framework and
2003 PACTE model on competences and sub-competences.

109
The websites of the organizations stated in the article are as follows: GALA website, available at:
https://www.gala-global.org/; IGDA website, available at: https://igda.org/; EGA website, available at:
https://egassociation.org/; and DIGRA website, available at: http://www.digra.org/. Accessed on 2 February
2021.
110
The websites of the localization conference organizers are as follows: the LocWorld website, available at:
https://locworld.com/; the Localization Institute website, available at: https://www.localizationinstitute.com/;
and the Fun 4 All conference website, available at: https://jornades.uab.cat/videogamesaccess/. Accessed on 3
February 2021.

161
 We consider these competences to be key in localization training: 111
− translation competence
− language competence
− intercultural competence
− info-mining competence
− strategic competence
− technological competence
− thematic competence
− translation service provision

As localization courses are part of the master’s study programme in Slovakia, students
are expected to already have a basic translation competence which can form the foundation
for further training in localization. This is supported by O’Hagan and Mangiron (2013) as well
as Kiraly (2000), who consider this to be a prerequisite for other competences as well as a
time-saver, since the teacher does not need to explain the basic principles and methods of
translation during training. It is therefore expected of students that, among many other
things, they will be able to analyse a source text, formulate a translation strategy, be able to
work with supporting materials (e.g., dictionaries, corpora, and terminological databases),
and be able to argue for their own translation solutions. The other competences might seem
self-explanatory, especially considering the 2009 EMT model, but they are specific given the
facts that Slovak is a fusional and less widely spoken language and that localization considers
the whole product and all interconnected texts it includes (e.g., user interface, help, and mar-
keting texts related to a single product).
Language competence, for example, plays an important role when dealing with variables
connected with numbers: the English sentence “You selected <0> items” needs to have a dif-
ferent structure in Slovak, as both the nominative and genitive cases are used to denote the
total amount of selected items (the nominative plural is used for two to four items and the
genitive plural is used for five and more items). In order to create a grammatically correct
sentence, the localizer would need to change its structure to something like “Vybrali ste
položky (<0>)” (back translated as “You selected items (<0>)”). This difference in language
structure – a constitutive shift (Popovič 1983) – needs to be explained and taught throughout
the whole course. This is because these structural differences are quite frequent in localiza-
tion from English into Slovak, and they tend to be the most problematic for students, who are
often used to translations where they can freely conjugate all sentence elements (i.e., sen-
tences without variables). Another issue in localization are character limits when the local-
izer needs to create a translation that fits a given number of characters and therefore needs
to be either altered or shortened (e.g., some words need to be left out).
Since a localizer needs to consider extralinguistic elements as well, intercultural compe-
tence needs to be taught and localization students need to think of these elements. A basic
change when localizing a video game into Slovak is the change the localizer can make in a
sentence such as “You can play this game on the bus or subway” when they translate it into

111
For full explanation of each competence, see Kabát 2020c.

162
Slovak as “Túto hru môžete hrať v autobuse alebo vlaku” (back translated as “You can play
this game on the bus or train”). This cultural adaptation – or thematic shift (Popovič 1983) –
is a result of the fact that there is no subway system in Slovakia. On the other hand, elements
like dialects, vulgarisms, or other cultural references in video games are highlighted and not
removed (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013). The localizer can also suggest changes on the design
level (e.g., a change of colour or icon design); however, it needs to be noted that the localizer
can only suggest these changes and that their implementation depends on the developer.
Info-mining competence is closely related to the ability to look up information in parallel
texts and check its fidelity. It is also important that a localizer can look up information and
tutorials on different CAT tools as developing companies can have their own custom tools
that a localizer is required to use alongside software products which can help them gain more
context.
Strategic competence in localization allows a localizer to make decisions based on the
context or the lack of it. A segment like “Align everything” can be the name of a command or
a dialogue window, but these two parts of a software product have a different grammatical
form in Slovak (commands use verbs in the infinitive and dialogue windows use verbal
nouns) and the localizer needs to presuppose the context based on the surrounding text
strings; however, without either visual context or additional information by the developer,
the localizer can never be totally sure about the presupposed context. As a result, they often
translate without any context.
Technological competence is closely related to info-mining competence. A localizer
should be able to quickly learn how to use new software and technologies (e.g., different
spellcheckers, quality assessment tools, terminology checks, and machine translation). An-
other important aspect of localization is the use of various file formats (e.g., .xliff, .tmx, and
.lspkg) and a localizer needs to be able to work with these file formats, or be able to quickly
look up how to work with them, which ties technological and info-mining competences to-
gether. Last but not least, a localizer should have at least a basic knowledge of programming
logic in order to understand different tag sequences (e.g., <b> and </b>).
Thematic competence means that a localizer understands localization (e.g., the position
of localization within the GILT 112 process; the difference between translation and localiza-
tion; and the different people who take part in the localization process – localization manag-
ers, terminologists, translators, and proofreaders). A localizer should also be able to special-
ize in a field of localization; however, due to the small market size in Slovakia and a lack of
professional translators of software products, such specialization in localization is not possi-
ble at the moment.
Finally, a localizer should also have a command of soft skills. They should be able to
communicate with clients, determine what the clients need, and provide that service; there-
fore, translation service provision plays an important role in the survivability of a localizer
on the market. A localizer should also be knowledgeable about rates (per word or standard
page and per hour), and they should be able to handle ethical problems that could arise dur-
ing localization or communication with a client.

112
GILT stands for globalization, internationalization, localization, and translation.

163
 We believe that these key competences should also play a role in the training process of
future localizers, and they should be integrated into the various assignments and exercises
the students need to complete during the localization courses, as this will prepare them for
the market and different situations that can arise during localization.

8.5 A LOCALIZATION TRAINING MODEL

Given the current state of the language services provision market (where localization is
playing an increasingly important role, since the market is continually growing, see Marking
2020) and the rising demand for localization services, the training of future localizers should
be a part of translator training programmes. It is best if courses on localization are
standalone courses at higher levels of study (i.e., master’s level) as this presupposes that stu-
dents already have some translation competence.
At present, localization in Slovakia is only taught at the Department of British and Amer-
ican Studies of the Faculty of Arts at Comenius University. There are two practical courses
on localization at master’s level: the first is taught during the winter semester and the second
during the summer semester. These courses assume that students have garnered some trans-
lating competence from other translation courses, given that there are no prerequisites. The
following model is based on experience from the localization courses. It combines the train-
ing of practical localization skills through various exercises and assignments and the practi-
cal teaching of localization theory and specifics. The focus of the model is on practical skills
and the fostering of the above-mentioned localization competences. The model can be di-
vided into two parts: general assignments on various localization issues and team projects.

8.5.1 Localization-specific Issues

Assignments with localization-specific issues are exercises the students complete prior
to class, which is when they are discussed. These assignments are aimed at various issues
that can arise during localization and at fostering different competences. They should deal
with the following issues (they do not have to follow this order strictly, but they should be
intertwined):
− Basic variables and tags: students should familiarize themselves with basic variables
that substitute single words and tags that denote formatting. It is important to explain
what variables and tags are and how they function in a software product, as variables
can present the biggest issue during localization. Through translation exercises, stu-
dents should familiarize themselves with the use of variables in Slovak as they often
appear in the singular nominative case, and students need to change sentence struc-
ture based on this fact. In this way, the students can work on their language and stra-
tegic competences.
− Plural forms: following basic variables, variables with plural forms should be intro-
duced (initially simple plural forms, where one variable is replaced by one plural
word, and then complex plural forms, when a variable can denote different plural

164
 forms). In the case of translation from English into Slovak, this requires basic pro-
gramming knowledge. Given the fact that Slovak is a fusional language, it has two
plural forms (three with decimals) and students should train structuring sentences in
a way that creates grammatical sentences with both plural forms: an example of this
can be found in the description of language competence above. Another problem is
variables with complex plural forms that require basic programming skills, as such a
variable in English would only contain the parameters “one” and “other”; in Slovak,
the parameters “few” and “many” need to be added. The students can enhance their
language, strategic, and technological competences during these assignments.
− Other types of variables: these can include variables for selecting something from a
database or variable compounds (when two or more variables follow each other). Alt-
hough these are not as frequent as the other types, it is good for students to experience
them in a learning environment. These exercises once again foster language, strate-
gic, and technological competences.
− Text fragmentation: text fragmentation can occur either during the export of text
strings from a software product or during segmentation in a CAT tool. Students need
to familiarize themselves with the fact that text strings in a CAT tool during localiza-
tion do not necessarily follow each other as they do in a real software product, and
that the context the text strings provide can be fake (e.g., a sentence begins in seg-
ment 1 and ends in segment 5, while segments 2, 3, and 4 are not related to the sen-
tence in any way). Such exercises improve language and strategic competences, as
well as info-mining competence, since students need to look for and verify context
out of their source texts.
− In-context translation: even though localization is often done without any visual con-
text, and therefore most of the assignments should be done without visual context as
well, an exercise where students translate a software product with visual context
might help them better understand the process of localization and the various com-
ponents a software product contains; the students would have to search for them to
find the text strings they are supposed to translate. This exercise can include charac-
ter limits, so the students see what happens if their translation is too long, and some
graphic elements that would need to be localized (e.g., colours or icons) which would
provide room for discussion on how localizers can suggest changes to these elements.
An assignment like this would, in addition to the already mentioned competences,
improve intercultural competence.
− Subtitles and dubbing: software products are often accompanied by audiovisual ele-
ments (e.g., video tutorials or story elements in video games). It is therefore im-
portant to practice the translation of subtitles – which is sometimes done without any
visual cues when localizing and therefore makes for an interesting exercise – and di-
alogues for possible future dubbing.
− Machine translation post-editing: Since machine translation and post-editing are of-
ten integrated in the localization process, students should also train in this skill. The

165
 teacher can introduce various machine translation engines and post-editing guide-
lines and then let the students try them out on various exercises. This would improve
info-mining, as students would need to look for in-depth information on various ma-
chine translation engines or post-editing guidelines, and it would improve technolog-
ical competences as students would need to implement their findings in CAT tools.
− Using different CAT tools and file formats: CAT tools need to be an integral part of
each assignment. It is also advisable to use different file formats for assignments and
not just Microsoft Word. Notepad (.txt) and Microsoft Excel (.xls and .xlsx) are used
quite often in localization. Some assignments can also be done in free CAT tools that
are not taught at the university (e.g., Matecat or OmegaT) whereby students would
not be given any information on the tool and part of the assignment would be for them
to learn how to use it. This would help with their info-mining and technological com-
petences.
− Language quality assessment (LQA): students should also gain experience in revision
through in-context revision, which can be combined with linguistic testing, the proof-
reading of translations by peers, and the filling out of LQA sheets used in the industry.
By examining the translation of their peers, students can improve their own language
competence, and by verifying the translation decisions of their peers, students also
improve their info-mining competence. A style guide can also be used during the LQA
in order to train students in working with a supporting document. A style guide can
be used during other exercises as well.

These are the core assignments of this model of localization training. It is important to
re-emphasize that the above issues are not dealt with separately during the courses and that
they are intertwined. Discussions take part during each class, machine translation post-edit-
ing is taught alongside in-context translation, and each assignment contains some forms and
a number of variables. The students can work on several competences each week, and they
deal with assignments similar to what they will come across in the field.

8.5.2 Team Projects

The second part of this model is made up of localization team projects which are based
on the work of Kraviarová (2014), Esqueda and Stupiello (2018), and Esqueda (2020). Students
are divided into smaller groups (group sizes depend on the number of enrolled students, but
four is preferable), everyone is assigned a role with different tasks and responsibilities, and
the students work together on an assignment as a team.
The roles can switch with each new project or each week, and they are based on the
mostly searched professionals in the localization industry (adapted from Bernal-Merino
2008, 2015):
− Localization managers: this role represents a contact point between the teacher and
the whole group. They receive the files that need to be localized along with any con-
text the client (in this case, the teacher) provides and come up with a quote for the

166
 project. They create a localization kit that they distribute among the other team mem-
bers. The task of the localization managers is to relay messages among different team
members – although the students know who has which role assigned in order to sim-
ulate anonymization, they can only communicate through the localization manager –
and ask the client questions if any arise during the assignment. In the end, the locali-
zation manager finalizes the task and sends the translation along with any other re-
quired files to the client.
− Terminologists: these students perform a terminological analysis of the original text
and create a terminological database for the translators and proofreaders. They are
the first ones to work with the actual text and localization kit, and they can ask for
more context if it is needed.
− Translators: they are responsible for the biggest part of the work as they translate the
file. They are expected to work with a translation memory system and the termino-
logical database provided by the terminologist.
− Proofreaders: they check the translation for any possible errors the translators might
have made, and they correct them. They check for grammar, spelling, and terminol-
ogy errors; they also perform fact-checking and translation quality checks.
− Linguistic testers: in the case of bigger groups and an open-source software product,
the teams can also have a linguistic tester who checks the language mutation of the
product. They check things like every line, dialogue, and menu of the product to see
if there are any errors or truncation problems due to previously unknown character
limits.

The workflow of the team project is in the following order: the client (teacher) sends the
assignment (the text in a selected format, e.g., .docx, .xlsx, .ini, .html or any other, with var-
ious localization-specific issues that were trained during the first part of the semester) to the
localization manager, who generates a quote based on the word count and accepts the pro-
ject. The localization manager creates a localization kit and sends it to the terminologist, who
then filters the important terminology and finds suitable terms in the target language. The
terminologist sends the terminology database to the localization manager, who adds it to the
localization kit and sends it to the translator; the localization manager can also prepare the
file for translation in a CAT tool if a cloud-based tool is being used. The translator generates
a translation of the file using all the context they have and can find in other sources. After
the translation is finished, the translator returns it to the localization manager, who sends it
to the proofreader for a checking of the text for any types of mistakes before having it re-
turned. If a linguistic tester is also a part of the team, they receive the software product with
the implemented language mutation (the implementation can be done by the localization
manager, or the localization manager can ask the client to implement it) and check the soft-
ware product as a whole and perform corrections of any errors. The final product is then
received by the localization manager, who finalizes the task and sends it back to the client. It
needs to be added that if any of the members have any questions for the client regarding the
project, these need to be sent to the localization manager, who relays them to the client.

167
 Such a project cycle can be performed within a week if the chosen software product has
a low text density. In the case of products with more text, terminology, and a requirement
for more creativity, students can switch their roles at various checkpoints during the project
(e.g., per week or per number of words translated). This allows students to experience each
role during the course at least once.
Team projects should be implemented in the second half of the semester, since students
need to familiarize themselves with the different intricacies of localization already men-
tioned in the first part of the model. The use of such a role play method teaches the students
to communicate with a potential client and with other team members; it also fosters respon-
sibility, since the result of the project depends on each member. Finally, students get to fa-
miliarize themselves with different professional roles of the localization process and gain at
least some basic experience in each of them, which can later help them in the job market.

8.5.3 Applying the Model

It is advisable to train students in localization based on this model in later years of study
(during the master’s programme), when they already have experience with other types of
translation. It is advisable for the students to have some basic audiovisual translation experi-
ence as well, although this is not required as subtitling and dubbing do not make up the core
of the model.
It is best to divide localization training based on this model into two semesters (e.g., one
semester focusing on website localization and team projects and the other semester on non-
gaming software and video game localization). The exercises and assignments should be cho-
sen based on whether the seminars are independent or the first one is a prerequisite for the
second. (If they are independent, translating variables needs to be explained in both semes-
ters.) It should also be noted that all translation exercises should be translated using CAT
tools.
The individual assignments can be grouped or divided based on the teacher’s preference
to form a desired sequence of exercises for the whole semester (e.g., training text fragmen-
tation with basic variables, in-context translation with post-editing, plural forms with char-
acter limits, and other types of variables without visual context). At least four weeks of a se-
mester should be used for team projects, so that each student experiences each role; this
model is based on five teams with four students in each one. Team project translation exer-
cises can relate to the already mentioned problems of localization and finish up with LQA
exercises where each student can work with one of the team project translations from a dif-
ferent team. Non-gaming software and video game localization can use open-source software
so students can see their translation implemented in the software and perform linguistic test-
ing. At least one class should prepare students for subtitling and dubbing. The various trans-
lation exercises should be accompanied by discussions on theoretical and practical localiza-
tion issues.
At the end of the two-semester course on localization, students should first and foremost
be able to analyse a software text. They should know how to deal with different variables and

168
be prepared to handle issues arising from a lack of context. They will have had some experi-
ence in subtitling and dubbing for a software product and they will know how to handle basic
localization project management, terminology work, proofreading, quality assessment, and
linguistic testing as well.
The model can be used to teach localization of any software product (websites and gam-
ing and non-gaming software) as it can be altered accordingly to the needs and possibilities
of the teacher and university. If a university does not have a CAT tool available, it can use any
freely available online CAT tool, or if a teacher only has experience translating websites, they
can alter the exercises and projects to focus on website localization only. This makes the
model adaptable and applicable at any training institution.

8.6 THE TEACHER OF LOCALIZATION

As localization is a specialized type of translation, the teacher plays an important role in
the process of teaching localization. The teacher should be a good instructor and a practising
professional in the field because personal experience can enrich the course.
Being a good instructor means that the teacher should be able to communicate the im-
portance of the different tasks, assignments, and exercises the students are supposed to com-
plete during the course. The teacher should also know about the latest market developments
and newest theoretical sources (both domestic and international), and they should be able to
introduce them to the students and explain their importance regarding market practices. It
is also advisable for the teacher to familiarize themselves with the teaching materials of other
translation courses at the same institution in order to know to what extent the different com-
petences mentioned above should already be acquired by students, and in order to be able to
build upon them during localization courses.
It could also be helpful if the teacher had some programming knowledge, although this
is not required. This would help in explaining software logic to students, and the teacher
could even create their own software product to use during exercises. This software could be
helpful in teaching students the different parts of a user interface, or it could familiarize them
with different types of texts a software product can contain.
Being a practising professional means that the teacher is familiar with localization prac-
tices and has first-hand experience. Thanks to this, the teacher can create a syllabus that
reflects market practices and provides the students with the latest information and localiza-
tion technologies and techniques. This also means that the teacher can use texts for assign-
ments that they translated during their own practical experience, given that the texts are not
protected by non-disclosure agreements. Such a teacher should be able to prepare students
for the present localization market.

169
8.7 THE FUTURE OF LOCALIZATION IN SLOVAKIA
The expansion of applications, as well as the omnipresence of globalization and the need
to expand to many countries, has shown us that Slovak society appreciates and uses software
that is localized into Slovak and that it would be unthinkable not to have software available
in one’s own language at these times (e.g., operation systems, social media, antivirus soft-
ware, communication platforms, and entertainment software).
The debate on the perception of whether Slovak is a language which localization should
be performed in occasionally occurs on many fora, and a thorough sociological survey
among Slovak recipients of software, and of Slovak in media in general, needs to be done in
order to show the tendencies of Slovak consumers and to create a foundation for future de-
bates on localization into Slovak. A survey on practices of Slovak video game localizers could
be another missing probe that could develop the debate on video game localization into Slo-
vak. An anthology of current research on localization in Slovakia would also be welcomed.
But to bring about change in the localization practices into Slovak, professionals need to be
trained, since some software products (especially video games) are only fan translated.
The next decade and increased interest in research on localization in Slovakia might
mean that the Slovak localization environment will finally take its first steps to reaching out
and discussing localization at a first conference on localization. Judging by the heterogene-
ous understanding of localization and the different approaches towards localization as a pro-
cess, method, and product, there is a lack of communication between researchers and prac-
titioners and of interdisciplinary dialogue between institutions teaching applied informatics,
game studies, and translation. A connection between them could finally develop space for
teaching localization at more institutions, since the phenomenon has already been re-
searched for twenty years in the international environment.

170
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CONTACT DETAILS
Edita Gromová
Faculty of Arts
Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra
Štefánikova 67, Nitra
egromova@ukf.sk

Daniela Müglová
Faculty of Arts
Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra
Štefánikova 67, Nitra
dmuglova@ukf.sk

Alojz Keníž
Faculty of Arts
Comenius University in Bratislava
Gondova 2
Bratislava
alojz.keniz@uniba.sk

Miroslava Gavurová
Faculty of Arts
University of Prešov
Ul. 17. novembra 1, Prešov
miroslava.gavurova@unipo.sk

Zuzana Angelovičová
Faculty of Arts
Matej Bel University
Tajovského 40, Banská Bystrica
info@zuzanaangelovicova.com

Marianna Bachledová
Faculty of Arts
Matej Bel University
Tajovského 40, Banská Bystrica
marianna.bachledova@umb.sk

Martin Djovčoš
Faculty of Arts
Matej Bel University
Tajovského 40, Banská Bystrica
martin.djovcos@umb.sk

207
Pavol Šveda
Faculty of Arts
Comenius University in Bratislava
Gondova 2, Bratislava
pavol.sveda@uniba.sk

Markéta Štefková
Faculty of Arts
Comenius University in Bratislava
Gondova 2, Bratislava
marketa.stefkova@umb.sk

Emília Perez
Faculty of Arts
Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra
Štefánikova 67, Nitra
eperez@ukf.sk

Lucia Paulínyová
Faculty of Arts
Comenius University in Bratislava
Gondova 2, Bratislava
lucia.paulinyova@uniba.sk

Marián Kabát
Faculty of Arts
Comenius University in Bratislava
Gondova 2, Bratislava
marian.kabat@uniba.sk

Mária Koscelníková
Faculty of Arts
Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra
Štefánikova 67, Nitra
maria.koscelnikova@ukf.sk

208
 Translation and interpreting training in Slovakia

Editors:
Martin Djovčoš
Pavol Šveda

Contributors:
Edita Gromová, Daniela Müglová, Alojz Keníž, Miroslava Gavurová, Zuzana Angelovičová,
Marianna Bachledová, Martin Djovčoš, Pavol Šveda, Marketa Štefková, Lucia Paulínyová,
Emília Perez, Marián Kabát, Mária Koscelníková

This volume has been peer-reviewed by:

Soňa Hodáková
Matej Laš

Cover design and technical support:

Mgr. Lukáš Bendík

Technical editor:
Mgr. Milan Regec, PhD.

STIMUL, editors and contributing authors, 2021

This work is published under Creative Commons CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 international license. This
license requires that reusers give credit to the creator. It allows reusers to distribute, remix,
adapt, and build upon the material in any medium or format, for noncommercial purposes
only. If others modify or adapt the material, they must license
the modified material under identical terms. More infor-
mation about the license and the use of this work:
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/

Published by STIMUL, Advisory and Publishing Centre, Comenius University in Bratislava,

Faculty of Arts, in Bratislava, 2021.

http://fphil.uniba.sk/stimul

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