buildings

Article
Research on the Evolution of Building Technology
Based on Regional Revitalization
Jingjing Wu *, Hongyang Wei and Li Peng *
School of Architecture and Urban Planning, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
* Correspondence: jingjing.2004_9@163.com (J.W.); 20151501002@cqu.edu.cn (L.P.);
Tel.: +86-135-9406-4963 (J.W.); +86-151-2305-1093 (L.P.)




Received: 23 May 2019; Accepted: 2 July 2019; Published: 8 July 2019


Abstract: With the rapid development of the times, regionalization has become one of the
hotspots in the field of architecture. The aim of this paper is to deal with the regionalization
of contemporary architecture from the perspective of building technology. This paper systematically
and comprehensively evaluates and summarizes the development process of China's building
technology, determines the key points of the evolution of building technology, and combines a
large number of historical documents and historical remains to analyze the causes of the evolution
of building technology, which include the natural environment, science and technology, building
system and concept consciousness. Based on this, it analyses buildings in Sichuan from three
aspects—building materials, structural system and construction process—and seeks for a reasonable
regional development direction of building technology. Analysis results showed that greening,
integration and scientific are the evolution path of building technology in the new era. Not only
building technology is a necessary means of building realization, but also its influence on the
regionalization of architecture should be supplemented and promoted.

Keywords: influence factors; building materials; structural system; construction process

1. Introduction
Rheology, which comes from the field of material mechanics, focuses on the law of deformation
and flow between materials and time. The same is true of the development of building technology.
Ludwig Mies Van der Rohe once said, “technology is rooted in the past, dominates the present and
extends to the future” [1]. It is known that building technology is constantly developing and innovating
in the time dimension, and will not stop or disappear. Before the industrial revolution, China's building
technology was dominated by soil–wood structures, while Western building technology was dominated
by stone–wood structures. In essence, the two were consistent and belonged to natural materials. After
the industrial revolution, the emergence of artificial materials such as steel, glass, concrete, etc. brought
new structural forms [2], such as steel structures and reinforced concrete structures, and the emergence
of mechanized production tools also brought new construction processes [3]. At the same time, the
popularity of electricity, insulation materials [4] and the widespread use of modern construction
equipment [5] had contributed to the development of environmental control technologies [6].
In the past, building technology was created based on a specific geographical environment.
Nowadays, with the rapid development of technology and information, modern technology has almost
ablated the geographical concept of time and space, resulting in the convergence of architecture [7,8].
However, convergence is relative to difference, especially regional differences. If regional differences
exist, convergence is always relative [9]. Therefore, the regional nature of building technology is the
key to solving the problem.

Buildings 2019, 9, 165; doi:10.3390/buildings9070165 www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

46 significance for third world countries [11]. Erskine explained regionalism from a human and
47 geographical perspective [12]. Norberg Schultz more fully integrated regionalism into architecture
48 [13]. Alexander Tzonis and Liana Lefevre explicitly proposed critical regionalism and used locality
49 to resist
Buildings the9,impact
2019, 165 of global civilization [14]. Critical regionalism also emphasizes the influence of
2 of 12
50 regional factors on the development of architecture. Although China’s studies on regionality emerged
51 later than abroad, most of them focus on architecture, culture and image [15–17], with less emphasis
52 Regionality
on building began with
technology. the concept
Therefore, of regionalism
the purpose of thismentioned
paper is toby Lewisthe
analyze Mumford in 1924of
development [10], and
China's
53 led to a series of discussions. Among them, Giedion thought that new regionalism had
building technology, determine the causes of its evolution, and find a feasible path of contemporary special
54 significance for third inworld
building technology, ordercountries
to achieve[11]. Erskineofexplained
the purpose regionalism from a human and
regional revitalization.
geographical perspective [12]. Norberg Schultz more fully integrated regionalism into architecture [13].
55 Alexander
2. HistoricTzonis and Liana Lefevre explicitly proposed critical regionalism and used locality to resist
Evolution
the impact of global civilization [14]. Critical regionalism also emphasizes the influence of regional
56 Building technology is accompanied by the emergence of buildings, and a complete history of
factors on the development of architecture. Although China’s studies on regionality emerged later
57 building technology carries the entire development of the building. Building structure is the main
than abroad, most of them focus on architecture, culture and image [15–17], with less emphasis on
58 element of building technology, and it can be used to trace the history of building technology.
building technology. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to analyze the development of China's
59 According to records, building structure has existed since the beginning of human civilization and
building technology, determine the causes of its evolution, and find a feasible path of contemporary
60 has been influenced on many aspects such as economy, politics, science and technology, and culture.
building technology, in order to achieve the purpose of regional revitalization.
61 It is mainly divided into the following stages (Figure 1):
62 Nest structure.
2. Historic EvolutionAncestors began with the structure of the nest in primitive society (about 1.7
63 million years ago to around 21st century BC). With the rich experience of labor, ancestors gradually
Building technology is accompanied by the emergence of buildings, and a complete history of
64 moved to ground buildings and dry-column buildings. The emergence of bauxite, dark foundation
building technology carries the entire development of the building. Building structure is the main
65 and Qingyan column was crucial to the development of the building. The nest structure is the source
element of building technology, and it can be used to trace the history of building technology. According
66 of the soil–wood structure.
to records, building structure has existed since the beginning of human civilization and has been
67 Wooden frame structure. In slave society (around 21st century BC to around 2nd century BC),
influenced on many aspects such as economy, politics, science and technology, and culture. It is mainly
68 the concentration of rights and the emergence of bronze tools had promoted the development of the
divided into the following stages (Figure 1):
69 wooden frame structure and the plate-building method.

70
Figure 1. Time diagram of the development of building technology.
71 Figure 1. Time diagram of the development of building technology.
Nest structure. Ancestors began with the structure of the nest in primitive society (about 1.7 million
72 years Wooden beam 21st
ago to around structure. Due
century to the
BC). With stability
the richofexperience
economy and culture
of labor, in feudal
ancestors society (around
gradually moved
73 2nd century BC to late 18th century), craftsmen used their experience and
to ground buildings and dry-column buildings. The emergence of bauxite, dark foundation lessons learned from
and
74 practice and gradually formed a whole set of building technologies on a wooden beam
Qingyan column was crucial to the development of the building. The nest structure is the source of the structure,
75 which included
soil–wood structural components, such as the foundation, the wall, the roof and the arch.
structure.
76 Brick (stone)–wood
Wooden frame structure. mixed structure.
In slave After
society the Opium
(around War in
21st century BC1840, the trading
to around ports were
2nd century BC),
77 established,
the and of
concentration a large
rightsnumber of Western of
and the emergence building techniques
bronze tools were introduced.
had promoted Then, aofbrick
the development the
wooden frame structure and the plate-building method.
Wooden beam structure. Due to the stability of economy and culture in feudal society (around 2nd
century BC to late 18th century), craftsmen used their experience and lessons learned from practice and
Buildings 2019, 9, 165 3 of 12

gradually formed a whole set of building technologies on a wooden beam structure, which included
structural components, such as the foundation, the wall, the roof and the arch.
Brick (stone)–wood mixed structure. After the Opium War in 1840, the trading ports were
established, and a large number of Western building techniques were introduced. Then, a brick (wood)
load-bearing structure with wooden trusses and iron roofs appeared. However, most buildings still
used a wooden beam structure, because the new alternative was too expensive.
Steel structure or reinforced concrete structure. During the Republic of China (1912–1949),
many Western architects and Chinese overseas architects poured into the Chinese construction
market and established several architectural firms. In the same period, the construction level of
construction workers had gradually matured. Together these provided a solid human foundation
for the development of concrete structures. After the opening, many steel, cement, glass and other
factories, and semi-mechanical construction tools provided a material basis. Additionally, under
the strong promotion of the government, the development of steel structure and reinforced concrete
structure was promoted. At the same time, the wood structure from the historical stage gradually
faded in use [18].
Precast reinforced concrete structure. New China was founded in 1949. Due to political and
economic factors, the government directly drew on Soviet building technology experience. To save steel
and cement, industrial buildings widely promoted prestressed precast reinforced concrete structure.
Houses still were dominated by the brick–concrete structure in the same period.
Cast-in-place reinforced concrete structure. Until the reform and opening up in 1978, the output
of the prefabricated structure and the construction technology of the workers could not meet the needs
of the society due to the increase in construction volume. The cast-in-place concrete structure came
into being, greatly improving building safety and construction speed.
New structural form. Since 2000, in the era of technological innovation, the building structure has
created a lot of forms, such as grid structure, thin shell structure, suspension structure and aerated
structure to satisfy super high-rise buildings, large-span buildings and super-large-scale buildings.

3. Exploring the Evolution Factors of Building Technology

The Great Learning said, “if you can one day renovate yourself, do so from day to day, and let
there be daily renovation”. The general idea is to look at the development of things from a dynamic
and introspective point of view, and building technology should also be like this. Building technology
is a very complex system, including building materials and structures, building physics and equipment,
construction and many other aspects. It is also necessary to sort out the development of building
technology dynamically and systematically. Therefore, this paper aims to explore the evolutionary
laws from the following aspects and guide the development of contemporary building technology.

3.1. Basic Factors: Natural Environment

Building technology exists to provide human beings with a physical and spiritual ‘shelter’. Its
essence lies in directly and simply solving the contradiction between man and nature. It can be said
that building technology will vary with the geographical conditions of the climate. There are seven
architectural climate zones in China, and different zones form different building technologies (see
Figure 2). Cold and warmth are considered in hot and cold areas. Both heat protection and cold
protection are required in hot summer and cold winter areas. Summer heat and winter warm areas are
concerned with ventilation and heat insulation, while mild areas pay more attention to ventilation. It
can be seen that climate adaptation becomes one of the keys of building technology [19]. In addition,
the structure of buildings is mostly dry-column buildings in the ancient mountainous and hilly areas
of China, while the plains and basins are mostly buildings. Therefore, traditional building technology
is the result of natural selection of the survival of the fittest, and the natural environment is the basic
factor for the evolution of building technology.
 Buildings 2019, 9, 165 4 of 12
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 12

122
Figure 2. Chinese traditional architecture map.
123 Figure 2. Chinese traditional architecture map.
Since the industrial revolution, modern technology had transcended the limitations of nature
124 and beganthe
Since industrial
to blindly revolution,
transform the modern technology had
living environment transcended
of mankind, the limitations
causing of nature
great destruction of
125 and began to blindly transform the living environment of mankind,
ecology. Therefore, the development of contemporary building technology needs to consider the causing great destruction of
126 ecology.
role of the Therefore, the development
natural environment, of contemporary
extract ‘effective genes’ building technology
from traditional needs to consider
technologies, the role
rationally use
127 of
thethe natural environment,
‘accumulation extract ‘effective
effect’ of technology, creategenes’
buildingfromtechnologies
traditional technologies,
that adapt to rationally use the
different climatic
128 ‘accumulation
conditions, andeffect’improve of the
technology,
ecologicalcreate building technologies that adapt to different climatic
environment.
129 conditions, and improve the ecological environment.
3.2. Promoting Factors: Science and Technology
130 3.2. Promoting Factors: Science and Technology
Science and technology are the driving force behind the development of building technology, and
131 everyScience
stage ofand technologydevelopment
technological are the driving force behind
is closely relatedthe development
to the renewal of of building
building technology,
tools. It can be
132 and
seen from Table 1 that from stone tools to bronze tools to iron tools, the ancestors had done theirtools.
every stage of technological development is closely related to the renewal of building It
best in
133 can be seen from Table 1 that from stone tools to bronze tools to iron tools,
the application of wood coupled with the continuous, stable and slow growth of China’s science and the ancestors had done
134 their best in Finally,
technology. the application of wood
they formed a setcoupled
of wooden with the continuous,
beam structures asstable and frame.
the main slow growth of China’s
In modern times,
135 science and technology. Finally, they formed a set of wooden beam structures
the industrial revolution led to artificial construction materials and mechanization of the construction as the main frame. In
136 modern
process, times,
which the industrial
largely expandedrevolution ledand
the scale to artificial
complexityconstruction materials
of the buildings. So,andthemechanization
advancement of of
137 the construction process, which largely expanded the scale and complexity
science and technology has brought an opportunity for the innovation of building technology. of the buildings. So, the
138 advancement
No matter ofwhat
science
formandortechnology has brought
in which field, technology an opportunity
has developed for from
the innovation
low to high ofand
building
from
139 technology.
simple to complex, and it has risen and fallen [20]. There is always a spiral response to the development
of technology. Building technology may lose geographical support if it is followed blindly. For example,
140 Table 1. Comparison
air conditioning solves theofindoor
construction
comforttools and building
level, but the structures in various
result is the historical
heat island stages.
effect. Thus, air
conditioning
Historicalis required more frequently. Today, traditional technology has been re-enabled in the
Construction tools Structure type Icon
ecological crisis. Therefore, it is necessary to correctly treat the promotion of science and technology to
period
building technology.From Do not blindly admire
chopping modern technology or ignore traditional technology. It is
stone tools
Primitive Nest structure
important to choose to appropriate
polishingconstruction
stone tools, techniques.
society wood, bone, pottery and
other tools.
 131 Science and technology are the driving force behind the development of building technology,
132 and every stage of technological development is closely related to the renewal of building tools. It
133 can be seen from Table 1 that from stone tools to bronze tools to iron tools, the ancestors had done
134 their best in the application of wood coupled with the continuous, stable and slow growth of China’s
135 science and technology. Finally, they formed a set of wooden beam structures as the main frame. In
136 modern times, the industrial revolution led to artificial construction materials and mechanization of
Buildings 2019, 9, 165 137 the construction process, which largely expanded the scale and complexity of the buildings. 5So,ofthe
12
138 advancement of science and technology has brought an opportunity for the innovation of building
139 technology.

Table 1. Comparison
140 of construction tools and
Table 1. Comparison buildingtools
of construction structures in structures
and building variousinhistorical stages.
various historical stages.

Historical
Historical Period Construction Tools Construction tools
Structure Type Structure type Icon
Icon
period
From chopping stone tools
Primitive Nest structure
to polishing stone tools,
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEWwood, bone, pottery and
society 5 of 12
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEWother tools. 5 of 12
Primitive society From chopping stone tools to Nest structure
polishing stone Bronze
tools, wood, tool,
bone, knives, axes, Wooden frame
Slave society
Buildings 2018, 8,
Buildings 2018,Bronze
x FOR PEER
8, x FOR PEER
REVIEW
REVIEW
5 of 12
5 of 12
pottery tool, knives,
saws, chisels,
and other tools. drillsaxes,
and Wooden
structureframe
Slave society
other Bronze drills
saws, chisels,
sharp tool, knives,
and axes,
wooden Wooden frame
structure
tools axes, Wooden frame
Slave
Buildings society
2018, Bronze
8, x FOR tool, knives,
PEER REVIEW 5 of 12
Slave society
other sharp saws,
woodenchisels,
toolsdrills and structure
saws,
other chisels, drillstools
sharp wooden and structure
Bronze tool, knives, axes, Wooden frame
Slave societyother sharp wooden tools
Slave society Bronze tool, knives, axes, saws,saws, chisels, drillsframe
Wooden and structure
structure
other sharp wooden tools
chisels, drills and other sharp wooden
tools Iron tool, tools for felling
Iron tool, tools for felling
Feudal Iron tool, Iron
Feudal toolstool,
fortools Wooden
for felling
felling Wooden
beam
beam
Feudal and unwinding,
Iron
andtool, such
toolsasfor
unwinding, as Wooden
axe,
suchfelling
axe, beam
Feudaland unwinding, such as axe, Wooden beam
society saws and
society andframe
saws andsaws
framesuch
unwinding, structure
sawsas axe, structure
society saws and frame
Iron saws structure
tool, tools for felling
Feudal
society sawsandand frame saws Wooden beam
structure
unwinding, such as axe,
society saws and frame saws structure

Feudal society Iron tool, tools for felling and Wooden beam structure
unwinding, such as axe, sawsHandmade
and gradually is Brick (stone)
Republic of
frame saws replaced by mechanical wood mixed
Handmade
Handmade Handmade gradually
gradually isis Brick
gradually Brick
is (stone)
Brick (stone)
(stone)
Republic ofChina
Republic Republic of construction:
Handmade
Development
gradually wood
structure;
iswood
Brick mixed(stone)
replaced
Republic replaced
by by mechanical
mechanical
replacedof ofby building
mechanical woodBrick mixed mixed
materials (stone)
China replaced Development
construction: by mechanical structure; wood mixed
China
China construction: Development
construction:construction:
Development
industry such as brick, structure;
structure;
glass reinforced
China of and building Development
materials structure;
Brick (stone)
of building
building woodmaterials
processing;
materials Brick
Brick concrete (stone)
(stone)
of such
industry building
as brick, materials Brick (stone)
Introduction of glassnew reinforced
structure;
industry
industryandsuch
such as
asbrick,
brick,
industry
wood such glass
processing;glass
as brick,reinforced
reinforced
glass reinforced
concrete
equipment such as air Steel structure or
Republic of China Handmade gradually andiswood
and replaced
wood andby Brick (stone)
wood processing;
processing;
processing; wood
concrete
concrete mixed
concrete
Introduction
conditioners andofelevators
new structure;
reinforced
mechanical construction:
Introduction Introduction
of structure;
newof structure;
new structure;
Introduction
equipment
Development of building materials
of such new structure;
as air Steel structure or
concrete
equipment Brick such(stone)
as air reinforced
Steel structure or
equipment
equipment such
conditioners as
and
such concrete air
elevatorsSteel
asand elevators
air structure;structure
reinforced
structure
Steel structure or
industry such as brick, glass andconditioners reinforced or
conditioners and elevators concrete
reinforced
conditioners
wood processing;Introduction ofand
new elevators
Steel structure reinforced
or concrete
reinforced
equipment such as air conditioners
Early The mechanization concrete
concrete structure
and
structure
structure
Precast
concrete
and elevators structure
founding assembly degree of the structure
reinforced
EarlyEarly The Themechanization
mechanizationand
andPrecast
Precast
construction are improved; concrete
Early founding assembly
The mechanization
founding degree
assembly andof ofPrecast
degree thethe reinforced
reinforced
Early The The flow operation
mechanization method
and structure
Precast
founding assemblyconstruction
degree
and
are
construction
the winter
improved;
of are improved;
the concrete
concrete
reinforced
construction
Early founding founding
The mechanizationassembly
and assembly degree of thereinforced
Precast reinforced
concrete
The The
flowflow operation
operation methodstructure
method structure
degree of the construction aremethod
construction structure concrete
are improved;
improved; construction andare
theimproved;
winter concrete
construction
After theand the winter
Introduction construction
of computer- Cast-in-place
The flow operationThe flow and
method operation
the
method
method structure
The
reform
winter construction flow
method operation
andmethod
aided method structure
technology; reinforced
and the winter construction
After the the Introduction
After
opening
and up the Introduction of of
Mechanization
winter of
computer- Cast-in-place
computer-
building Cast-in-place
construction concrete
methodand
reform aided technology; reinforced
reform and aided technology;
construction; reinforced
structure
method
opening up Mechanization of building concrete
After the Introduction
opening up of computer-
Diversification
Mechanization Cast-in-place
and concrete
of building
After the reform
After the Introduction of computer-
Introduction of computer-aidedconstruction;
Cast-in-place
structure
Cast-in-place reinforced
reform and aided technology;
intelligentization
construction; reinforced
of structure
and opening up technology;
reform and aided technology; concrete structure
Diversification and
reinforced
opening up of building construction
Diversification
Mechanization equipmentand
of building concrete
Mechanization
141 intelligentization
No matter what form of
or in which field, technology has developed from low to high and from
construction;
opening
142 up simple
Diversification
Mechanization
construction;
to
and complex, and
of building
intelligentization
it has risen
intelligentization
construction equipment
concrete
of
and structure
fallen [20]. There is always a spiral response to the
143 development of technology.
construction Building technology may lose geographical support if it is followed
of construction
141 construction;
equipment
No matter what
Diversification form or equipment
and field,structure
in which technology has developed from low to high and from
144 blindly. For example, air conditioning solves the indoor comfort level, but the result is the heat island
141 142 No matter
simple what form
to complex, and or itin has
whichrisenfield,
andtechnology
fallen [20].has developed
There is always from low toresponse
a spiral high andtofrom the
145 effect. Thus, air conditioning is required
Diversification andmore frequently. Today, traditional technology has been re-
142146143
simple to intelligentization
development
complex, of and
technology.
it has Building
risen and oftechnology
fallen [20].mayThere
lose geographical
is always a support if it is followed
spiral response to the
3.3. Constraints Factors: enabled
Building in
System the ecological crisis. Therefore, it is necessary to correctly treat the promotion of science
143 144 blindly.
development For
of example,
technology. air conditioning solves the indoor
Building technology comfort
may lose level, but the
geographical result is
support if the
it isheat island
followed
intelligentization
construction equipment of
144 145 effect.
blindly. ForThus, air conditioning
example, air conditioningis required
solvesmore frequently.
the indoor Today,
comfort traditional
level, but the technology
result is thehasheatbeen re-
island
The 141
building system
No 146
145 is a what
matter set ofform
effect.enabled
laws
in the
Thus,construction
air orand regulations
ecological
in which
conditioning crisis.
is field,
required
involved
Therefore,
moreitfrequently.
technology in developed
has construction
is necessary to correctly
Today, from
traditional
activities
treat the
low promotion
to high
technology
that
has
must
ofbeen
and science
from re-
equipment
be observed
142 by simple
all 146
parties [21]. Starting
to enabled
complex, in the it from
andecological
has risenthe clan
crisis. and society, building
fallenit is[20].
Therefore, Theretois
necessary technology
alwaystreat
correctly was
a spiral influenced
response
the promotion to bythe
of science
141 No matter what form or in which field, technology has developed from low to high and from
143 development
the clan system and the ritual of technology.
and musicBuilding hierarchy technology
system,may andlose geographical
gradually formed supporta setifof it officially
is followed
142
144 simple to complex, and it has risen and fallen [20]. There is always a spiral response to the
blindly. For example, air conditioning solves the indoor comfort level, but the result is the heatform,
island
specific143
architectural concepts
development and corresponding
of technology. Building systems technology and may regulations that constrained
lose geographical support ifthe it is followed
scale and
145 effect. Thus, air conditioning is required more frequently. Today, traditional technology has been re-
layout of theFor building [22]. The hierarchy system regulated thelevel,
development ofisbuildings
144
146 blindly.
enabled in theexample,
ecologicalair conditioning
crisis. Therefore, solvesit isthe indoor
necessary comfort
to correctly butthe
treat thepromotion
result the
of heat
science island
145 effect. Thus, air conditioning is required more frequently. Today, traditional technology has been re-
146 enabled in the ecological crisis. Therefore, it is necessary to correctly treat the promotion of science
Buildings 2019, 9, 165 6 of 12

and cities more harmoniously and orderly and played a certain role in the production of out-of-control
construction. It also limited the development of ancient buildings and technological innovation.
This hierarchy ended and the Western building system was introduced in the Republic of China.
It still did not form its own building system in the early days of the founding of the People’s Republic
of China, not yet fully adopting the Western and Soviet building system. The building system with
Chinese characteristics began to develop and improve after reform and opening up.
Table 2 shows that the evolution of building technology has always been restricted by the building
system. Although the initial development of the system is conducive to the summarization and
application of technology, it constrains and restricts the development and innovation of technology in
the later stage of the system. Therefore, the development of building technology and building systems
need to advance, integrate and innovate with each other, leaving a certain flexibility space for each
other, alleviating the contradiction between advantages and disadvantages, and better promoting the
benign development of the two.

Table 2. Relevant contents about building technology in each historical period.

Historical Period Construction Participant Building System Related to Building Technology

At that time, there was no clear
norm, only to meet the needs of
Primitive society Everyone Clan system
living and production in groups and
to express religious beliefs.
Through the bloodline clan system,
a strict hierarchy of superiority and
Slave society Slave Separate system subordination is created to make
people stand in their own right, and
architecture is no exception.
Determine the combination of the
building regulations and the
Management and construction hierarchy of the city and the palace,
The hierarchy of ethics
Feudal society of the industrial officer; the form, scale, layout, materials
and rituals
Folk craftsman and decoration of the house, and
gradually form the official
construction laws and regulations.
Building regulations pay more
National Government Western architectural attention to design, guide national
Construction Committee; system adapted to construction, promote "inherent
Republic of China
Private architecture firm; industrial conditions forms of China" and have detailed
Private construction enterprise Building Law, etc. regulations on public housing,
schools, and industries.
The government can only control
Basically, quote the
the construction work in a macro
Construction Engineering existing Soviet building
manner, lack of plans and
Department; State system to meet the
regulations, and building standards
Early founding Construction Company; construction
are not high. Design principles are
Central Design Institute, requirements at that time;
based on “applicability, economy,
Soviet expert Design Work
and attention to beauty under
Regulations, etc.;
possible conditions”.
From design ideas to design content
Construction Engineering
and design methods, from technical
Department; State
During the Cultural theory to technical norms,
Construction Company; Design revolution
Revolution management systems embody
Architectural Design Institute
political, regional, domain and
of the Ministry of Construction
internal modernity.
Ministry of Construction; Various laws and
Building policy of “appropriate,
state-owned and private regulations related to
Reform and opening safe, economical and beautiful”
construction companies; building and planning to
up period Implementation of a registered
state-owned and private adapt to national
architect system
architectural design institutes conditions, etc.

3.4. Potential Factors: Conceptual Awareness

An important reason why humans are different from other animals is that people are subjective.
From the original Paleolithic beliefs of the Paleolithic Age to the Sun beliefs of the Neolithic Age to the
various religious beliefs, they were all embodied in architecture and thus achieved through building
178 fundamental conscious values that guide people’s thoughts and behaviors [23]. China’s traditional
179 values are dominated by the practical rational spirit [24] and have the relevant tool rationality of
180 practicality and effectiveness. It fundamentally reflects the essence of building technology, which has
181 an emphasis on practicality and neglect of experimentation. Taking the traditional tenon and mortise
182 structure
Buildings as 9,an165example (Figure 3), to maximize utility, the ancients only used the simple occlusion
2019, 7 of 12
183 of the gimmick protruding from the component itself and the squint of the sag to complete the
184 connection between the components and then derived the ever-changing combination. Practical
technology. According to dialectical materialism, there is a decisive consciousness: consciousness
185 rationality makes traditional technology pay attention to practicality, but it also has the shortcomings
actively reacts to existence, and this reaction is decisive for the development of things.
186 of short-sightedness.
Therefore, building technology is influenced by values, philosophy, religion, aesthetics, and all
187 After the Opium War, Western civilization intruded, and Chinese society gradually began to
conscious activities used to regulate and guide architectural activities. Among them, values are the
188 reflect on the gains and losses of traditional values. Our traditional values gradually disintegrated,
fundamental conscious values that guide people’s thoughts and behaviors [23]. China’s traditional
189 and new values began to wage a conflict between Western values and traditional values. The same is
values are dominated by the practical rational spirit [24] and have the relevant tool rationality of
190 true of building technology. The big roof building in the Republic of China is the best example.
practicality and effectiveness. It fundamentally reflects the essence of building technology, which
191 Modern technology prevailed until the advent of globalization, as did the values. But the concept of
has an emphasis on practicality and neglect of experimentation. Taking the traditional tenon and
192 consciousness always lags behind and subtly influences the evolution of building technology.
mortise structure as an example (Figure 3), to maximize utility, the ancients only used the simple
193 Today, for the Chinese dream, we should cultivate and promote the core values of socialism [25].
occlusion of the gimmick protruding from the component itself and the squint of the sag to complete
194 Building socialist core values requires the achievement of outstanding genes that inherit traditional
the connection between the components and then derived the ever-changing combination. Practical
195 values while innovating and developing the values of the new era. Therefore, building technology
rationality makes traditional technology pay attention to practicality, but it also has the shortcomings
196 must not only absorb the essence of traditional technology, but also actively respond to the spirit of
of short-sightedness.
197 the times, and construct building technology with Chinese characteristics.

198
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of parts of tenon and mortise structure in Rules of Architecture.
199 Figure 3. Schematic diagram of parts of tenon and mortise structure in Rules of Architecture.
After the Opium War, Western civilization intruded, and Chinese society gradually began to
200 In summary,
reflect on the gainsbuilding technology
and losses is influenced
of traditional values. Our by traditional
factors such as the
values natural disintegrated,
gradually environment,
201 science and technology, building system, and conceptual awareness. These factors
and new values began to wage a conflict between Western values and traditional values. The promote or inhibit
same
202 the development of building technology at different stages. From a dynamic and holistic perspective,
is true of building technology. The big roof building in the Republic of China is the best example.
203 building technologyprevailed
Modern technology is innovating and
until the moving
advent forward in aasspiral
of globalization, way.
did the Therefore,
values. But the after
conceptfully
of
204 understanding the influencing
consciousness always factors
lags behind and of the evolution
subtly influencesofthe
building technology,
evolution wetechnology.
of building can ensure stable,
205 healthy andfor
Today, orderly development.
the Chinese dream, we should cultivate and promote the core values of socialism [25].
Building socialist core values requires the achievement of outstanding genes that inherit traditional
206 4. Evolution
values while Paths: The Development
innovating and developing Direction of Building
the values of the newTechnology in Sichuan
era. Therefore, building technology
207 mustThe
not only absorb thecauses
evolutionary essenceofof traditional technology, but
building technology alsoits
affect actively respond to the
developmental spirit ofThe
direction. the
208 times, and construct building technology with Chinese characteristics.
development of building technology involves the localization problem, and also the sustainable
209 In summary,
development building
problem technology
[26]. Building is influenced
technology by factors
also includes such as the
all technical natural
means, environment,
which is roughly
210 science and
divided into technology, building
three aspects: system,
building and conceptual
materials, awareness.
structural systems These factorsprocess
and construction promote or
[27].
211 inhibit the development of building technology at different stages. From a dynamic
Because the soil–wood structure is the source in China, this paper attempts to find a feasible and holistic
212 perspective,
evolutionarybuilding technology
path by taking is innovating
the Sichuan regionand moving
as an forward in a spiral way. Therefore, after
example.
fully understanding the influencing factors of the evolution of building technology, we can ensure
stable, healthy and orderly development.

4. Evolution Paths: The Development Direction of Building Technology in Sichuan

The evolutionary causes of building technology affect its developmental direction. The
development of building technology involves the localization problem, and also the sustainable
 Buildings 2019, 9, 165 8 of 12

development problem [26]. Building technology also includes all technical means, which is roughly
divided into three aspects: building materials, structural systems and construction process [27]. Because
the soil–wood structure is the source in China, this paper attempts to find a feasible evolutionary path
by taking the Sichuan region as an example.
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 12
4.1. Greening of Building Materials
213 4.1. Greening of Building Materials
From the agricultural society to the industrial society to post-industrial society, the innovation of
214 From the
building agricultural
materials society
always to the industrial
promotes society toofpost-industrial
the innovation society,and
structural systems the innovation of process.
construction
215 building materials always promotes the innovation of structural systems and construction process.
Building materials are the primary factor in the development of building technology [28]. In the
216 Building materials are the primary factor in the development of building technology [28]. In the
pursuit of green buildings, the greening of building materials will be an inevitable trend. This requires
217 pursuit of green buildings, the greening of building materials will be an inevitable trend. This
that building materials have the least impact on the ecological environment during the whole lifecycle
218 requires that building materials have the least impact on the ecological environment during the
through production, use and disposal, in order to achieve commonalities such as safety, energy
219 whole lifecycle through production, use and disposal, in order to achieve commonalities such as
conservation, environmental protection and recycling [29]. The eight aspects of the Green Building
220 safety, energy conservation, environmental protection and recycling [29]. The eight aspects of the
Evaluation Standards all involve the greening of building materials (see Figure 4).
221 Green Building Evaluation Standards all involve the greening of building materials (see Figure 4).

222
223 Figure
Figure 4. Application
4. Application of green
of green building
building materials
materials in Green
in Green Building
Building Evaluation
Evaluation Standards.
Standards.

224 Sichuan
Sichuan hashas abundant
abundant sunshine
sunshine andand concentrated
concentrated rainwater.
rainwater. TreeTree resources
resources are are abundant.
abundant.
225 Additionally, the philosophy of harmony between man and nature conforms
Additionally, the philosophy of harmony between man and nature conforms to the development of to the development
226 of local
local wood.wood.
Modern Modern
woodwood not only
not only has good
has good ecological
ecological properties,
properties, but but
alsoalso better
better mechanical
mechanical
227 properties, thermal insulation properties, fire protection, moisture resistance and shock
properties, thermal insulation properties, fire protection, moisture resistance and shock resistance resistance than
228 natural
than wood,
natural wood, which together
which togethermeet
meetthe
theproblem
problemofofsustainable
sustainabledevelopment
developmentofofbuildings.
buildings.There
Thereare
229 many cases of modern wood in Sichuan, such as antique tourist buildings that satisfy
are many cases of modern wood in Sichuan, such as antique tourist buildings that satisfy emotional emotional needs,
230 Wenchuan disaster buildings that meet seismic needs, and residential buildings
needs, Wenchuan disaster buildings that meet seismic needs, and residential buildings that meetthat meet ecological
231 needs (Figure
ecological needs. 5).
(Figure 5)

232
233 Figure 5. Applications of green building materials in Sichuan.

234 4.2. Integration of Structural Systems

226 local wood. Modern wood not only has good ecological properties, but also better mechanical
227 properties, thermal insulation properties, fire protection, moisture resistance and shock resistance
228 than natural wood, which together meet the problem of sustainable development of buildings. There
229 are many cases of modern wood in Sichuan, such as antique tourist buildings that satisfy emotional
230 Buildings
needs, 2019, 9, 165
Wenchuan disaster buildings that meet seismic needs, and residential buildings that9 meet
of 12

231 ecological needs. (Figure 5)

232
233 Figure 5.5.
Figure
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER Applications
REVIEW ofof
Applications green building
green materials
building inin
materials Sichuan.
Sichuan. 10 of 12

234
237 4.2.
4.2.Integration
Integration
architecture, inofoforder
Structural
Structural Systems
Systems a theoretical point of developing the modern structure [30].
to provide
238
235 Subsequent
The
Thewoodenstructural
wooden systems have
beam–column
beam–column shown
system
system structure
isisthe
the essencespirit,
essence but there
ofoftraditional
traditional are more Lin
buildings.
buildings. or
Linless
oncedeficiencies
once affirmed
affirmedthe in
the
239
236 the overall.
traditional structural spirit and pointed out the intersection of modern architecture
traditional structural spirit and pointed out the intersection of modern architecture and traditional and traditional
240 Under the
architecture, emergence
in order of prefabricated
to provide building,
a theoretical point this situation
of developing is reversed.
the modern From[30].
structure the Subsequent
perspective
241 of generative
structural logic,have
systems the shown
wooden beam–column
structure structure
spirit, but there areinmore
Sichuan is adeficiencies
or less combination of carpentry
in the overall.
242 workUnder
and joinery work. Prefabricated building is coordinated to create an efficient
the emergence of prefabricated building, this situation is reversed. From the perspective organic whole of
243 from the design, from the production to the on-site construction [31]. It
generative logic, the wooden beam–column structure in Sichuan is a combination of carpentry work can be seen from the flow
244 chartjoinery
and (Figure 6) of Prefabricated
work. the two constructions
building isthat the prefabricated
coordinated to createbuilding
an efficientcanorganic
be regarded
whole asfroman
245 extension and evolution of the wooden beam–column system, which is a
the design, from the production to the on-site construction [31]. It can be seen from the flow chartreasonable development
246 direction
(Figure 6) for thetwo
of the integration of structural
constructions that thesystems. It not building
prefabricated only meets canthe inheritance
be regarded as of
antraditional
extension
247 wood structure system, but also caters to the development of modern technology.
and evolution of the wooden beam–column system, which is a reasonable development direction for
the integration of structural systems. It not only meets the inheritance of traditional wood structure
248 4.3. Scientific
system, Construction
but also Process
caters to the development of modern technology.

249
Figure 6. Procedure charts of carpentry work construction and prefabricated building construction.
250 Figure 6. Procedure charts of carpentry work construction and prefabricated building construction.
4.3. Scientific Construction Process
251 The traditional construction process has always been taught by masters and apprentices, which
The traditional construction process has always been taught by masters and apprentices, which is
252 is restricted by regional factors and human factors. The process is the result of continuous experience
restricted by regional factors and human factors. The process is the result of continuous experience
253 and mistakes. With the advent of the industrial age, the craftsman model was gradually replaced by
and mistakes. With the advent of the industrial age, the craftsman model was gradually replaced by
254 factory production. The construction process is always closely related to the development of building
factory production. The construction process is always closely related to the development of building
255 tools. Additionally, the development of science and technology has promoted the construction
tools. Additionally, the development of science and technology has promoted the construction process
256 process to become more scientific, from the material ratio to the determination of the structural form
to become more scientific, from the material ratio to the determination of the structural form and the
257 and the mechanization of the construction tools, and it has become more detailed and specialized.
mechanization of the construction tools, and it has become more detailed and specialized.
258 The traditional earthen process has good ecological properties, but also poor durability and
259 mechanical properties [32,33]. However, the modern earthen process is different, which improves the
260 mechanical properties and durability through the introduction of earthen raw materials and
261 mechanical boring tools [34,35]. The post-disaster reconstruction project in Ma’anqiao Village,
262 Sichuan (Figure7) is an excellent example of this [36,37]. Based on local earthen process, it
263 systematically, comprehensively and scientifically uses various methods, such as experimental
 Buildings 2019, 9, 165 10 of 12

Buildings
The 2018, 8, x FOR PEER
traditional REVIEW
earthen process has good ecological properties, but also poor durability 11 of
and12
mechanical properties [32,33]. However, the modern earthen process is different, which improves
270 and comprehensive
the mechanical consideration.
properties Thus, it is
and durability necessary
through thetointroduction
explore the influence of raw
of earthen regional factorsand
materials on
271 the evolution of architectural technology from a more comprehensive and macroscopic perspective.
mechanical boring tools [34,35]. The post-disaster reconstruction project in Ma’anqiao Village, Sichuan
272 This is inseparable
(Figure from example
7) is an excellent a large number of historical
of this [36,37]. Baseddocuments and practical
on local earthen process,case analysis and
it systematically,
273 induction. This paper
comprehensively combines uses
and scientifically the various
existingmethods,
factors such
of natural environment
as experimental and science
comparisons, and
computer
274 technology to acknowledge their support and promotion of building technology. However,
simulation and physical models in soil materials, structural joints and structural systems, building for the
275 sudden changes that cannot be explained by traditional studies, the consideration of building
physics, construction tools and construction methods. This process improves the thermal comfort of system
276 and concept
the living roomconsciousness is increased, which can more accurately and reasonably evaluate the
as much as possible.
277 evolution of building technology.

278
Figure 7. The reconstruction of Ma’anqiao Village in Sichuan Province takes advantage of the improved
279 Figure 7. The reconstruction of Ma’anqiao Village in Sichuan Province takes advantage of the
traditional rammed earth technique.
280 improved traditional rammed earth technique.
5. Conclusions
281 The evolution of building technology varies from region to region. Taking Sichuan as an
282 Therethe
example, is aunique
need for different
regional angles with human
environment, which to study and
history the evolution of building
contemporary technology.
background have
283 Existing studies focus on the single factor of building technology, such as materials,
created the development of contemporary regional building technology. Compared with traditional without overall and
284 comprehensive consideration. Thus, it is necessary to explore the influence of regional
methods that only consider the objective factors of building technology, this method is more rigorous factors on the
285 evolution
and of architectural technology from a more comprehensive and macroscopic perspective. This is
reliable.
inseparable from a large number of historical documents and practical case analysis and induction. This
286 paper combines
Author the existing
Contributions: factors of natural
Conceptualization, environment
Methodology, J.W.,and science
H.W.; and technology
Investigation, to acknowledge
J.W., L.P.; Manuscript
287 their support
preparation andand promotion
writing, J.W., of building technology. However, for the sudden changes that cannot be

288 explainedThis
Funding: by traditional
research was studies,
fundedtheby consideration of building
National Key Research and system and concept
Development Program consciousness
of China, grant is
289 increased, which can more accurately and reasonably evaluate the evolution of building technology.
number2017YFC0702404-03.
The evolution of building technology varies from region to region. Taking Sichuan as an example,
290 Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
the unique regional environment, human history and contemporary background have created the
development of contemporary regional building technology. Compared with traditional methods that
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