Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINES

MODULE 1
BY DR TUSHAR CHOUDHARY
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

ABOUT FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINES COURSE

Course Title: Fluid Mechanics and Machines
Proposed Course Number: ME308
Units: Lecture 3 Tutorial 1 Lab 2 Credit 4
Mode: Core
Evaluation Scheme on Campus: Lab Work (20%) Quiz I-II (10%), Mid-Term (25%), Assignment (10%), End-Term (35%)
Evaluation Scheme (online): Lab Work (20%), VIVA (20%), Evaluation I,II,III, IV (60%)
Semester: III-IV
Programme: BTech
Learning Objective:
• Understand the basics of fluid statics, kinematics and dynamics, used in the applications of Aerodynamics, Hydraulics,
Marine Engineering, Gas dynamics etc.
• Understand the importance of flow and pressure measurements and its applications in Industries
• Recognize the basic design concepts of a pipe flow and understand the various losses in a flow system.
• Realize the significance of non-dimensional parameters.
• Carry out dimensional analysis and establish relationship between the dependent and independent variables
• Understand boundary layer formation and concepts related to flow separation
• Acquire knowledge about the testing of fluid machineries for its performance characteristics
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

DETAILED COURSE CONTENT

Module I
Fluid Statics: Definition of Fluid & Characteristics – Concept of Continuum - Properties of fluids- Classification of
Fluids – Pascal’s and Hydrostatic Law- Hydrostatic Forces on Different Surfaces – Determination of Total Pressure
and Centre of Pressure – Buoyancy – Centre of Buoyancy – Metacentre – Conditions of Equilibrium for Submerged
and Floating Bodies.

Module 2
Fluid Kinetics, Dynamics & Flow Through Pipes: Description of Fluid Motion – Lagrangian and Eulerian Methods –
Types of Fluid Flow – Stream Function and Velocity Potential – Rotation – Vorticity – Flow Lines, Reynolds Transport
Theorem – Continuity Equation – Euler’s Equation – Bernoulli’s Equation and its Practical Applications
Hydraulic and energy gradient – Laminar flow through circular conduits and circular annuli-Boundary layer concepts –
types of boundary layer thickness – Darcy Weisbach equation –friction factor- Moody diagram- commercial pipes-
minor losses.
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

DETAILED COURSE CONTENT

Module 3
Dimensional Analysis: Dimensional analysis and similitude, dimensionless parameters, kinematic and dynamic
similarity.

Module 4
Pumps: Impact of jets – Euler’s equation – Theory of roto-dynamic machines – various efficiencies– velocity
components at entry and exit of the rotor- velocity triangles – Centrifugal pumps– working principle – work done by
the impeller – performance curves – Reciprocating pump- working principle – Rotary pumps –classification.

Module 5
Turbines: Classification of turbines – heads and efficiencies – velocity triangles. Axial, radial and mixed flow turbines.
Pelton wheel, Francis turbine and Kaplan turbines- working principles – work done by water on the runner – draft tube.
Specific speed – unit quantities – performance curves for turbines – governing of turbines
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

LIST OF PRACTICAL

[1] To determine Coriolli's Component of Acceleration at various speeds of rotation.

[2] To calculate the Coefficient of Discharge Cd, Coefficient of Velocity Cv, and Coefficient of Contraction Cc for
various heads over orifice fitted in the side of a tank. And to draw a relationship between these coefficients and the size
of the orifice
[3] To compute Piezo-metric head and draw Hydraulic Gradient Line for the given flow passage
[4] To determine friction factor for the given pipes and also plot friction factor vs Reynold’s number for all the pipes
and compare it with the Moody’s chart.
[5] To determine Experiments performance and operating characteristics of turbines
[6] To determine Experiments performance and operating characteristics of centrifugal pumps - reciprocating
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE BOOKS:

Text Books:
1. Yunus A. Çengel, John M. Cimbala (2013) Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals And Applications,
McGraw-Hill, 3rd Edition.
2 Dr.R.K.Bansal, (2012), A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines, 5th Edition,
Laxmi Publication.
Reference Books:
1. Robert W. Fox, Alan T. McDonald, Philip J. Pirtchard John W. Mitchell (2015), Introduction to
Fluid Mechanics, 9th Edition,Wiley Publications.
2. P.N.Modi and S.M.Seth (2011), Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics including Hydraulic Machines,
17th Edition.
3. Donald F. Elger, Barbara C. Williams, Clayton T. Crowe, John A. Roberson (2013) Engineering
Fluid Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, 10th Edition.
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

Definition
Mechanics is the oldest physical science that deals with both stationary and moving
bodies under the influence of forces.

The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest is called statics, while the
branch that deals with bodies in motion is called dynamics.

The subcategory fluid mechanics is defined as the science that deals with the
behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics), and the
interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries.

The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics.

 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

Definition

✓ The study of f1uids in motion, where pressure forces are not considered, is called fluid kinematics
and if the pressure forces are also considered for the fluids in motion. that branch of science is called
fluid dynamics.

✓ Fluid mechanics itself is also divided into several categories.

✓ The study of the motion of fluids that are practically incompressible (such as liquids, especially water,
and gases at low speeds) is usually referred to as hydrodynamics.

✓ A subcategory of hydrodynamics is hydraulics, which deals with liquid flows in pipes and open
channels.
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

Definition

Gas dynamics deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant density changes,
such as the flow of gases through nozzles at high speeds.

The category aerodynamics deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over bodies
such as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or low speeds.

Some other specialized categories such as meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology

deal with naturally occurring flows.
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

What is a Fluid?

✓ A substance exists in three primary phases: solid, liquid, and gas. A substance in
the liquid or gas phase is referred to as a fluid.
✓ Distinction between a solid and a fluid is made on the basis of the substance’s
ability to resist an applied shear (or tangential) stress that tends to change its
shape.

✓ A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming, whereas a fluid deforms
continuously under the influence of shear stress, no matter how small.

✓ In solids stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids stress is proportional to

strain rate.
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

What is a Fluid?

When a constant shear force is

applied, a solid eventually stops
deforming, at some fixed strain angle,
whereas a fluid never stops deforming
and approaches a certain rate of
strain. Figure.
Deformation of a rubber eraser
placed between two parallel plates
under the influence of a shear
force
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

State of Matter
1. gas

2. Liquid Fluid

3. Solid
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

DIFFERENT TYPES OF FLUIDS

Basically the fluids are classified into 5 types and these are
1. Ideal fluid
2. Real fluid
3. Newtonian fluid
4. Non-Newtonian fluid
5. Ideal plastic fluid
6. Incompressible fluid
7. Compressible fluid
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

Ideal Fluid
✓ A fluid which is incompressed and have no viscosity falls in the category of ideal fluid.
✓ Ideal fluid is not found in actual practice but it is an imaginary fluid because all the fluid that exist in the
environment have some viscosity. there in no ideal fluid in reality.

Real Fluid
✓ A fluid which has at least some viscosity is called real fluid.
✓ Actually all the fluids existing or present in the environment are called real fluids..

Newtonian Fluid
✓ If a real fluid obeys the Newton's law of viscosity (i.e the shear stress is directly proportional to the shear
strain) then it is known as the Newtonian fluid.
✓ Example: water, kerosene
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

Non-Newtonian Fluid
If real fluid does not obeys the Newton's law of viscosity then it is called Non- Newtonian fluid.
Example: paint, toothpaste

Ideal Plastic Fluid

A fluid having the value of shear stress more than the yield value and shear stress is proportional to
the shear strain (velocity gradient) is known as ideal plastic fluid.

Compressible Fluid
A fluid, in which the density of fluid changes while the change in external pressure or force, is
known as compressible fluid.
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Density (or) Mass Density:(ρ)
✓ Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of a fluid to its
volume.
✓ Thus mass per unit volume of a fluid is called density.
✓ ρ = Mass of fluid / Volume of fluid
✓ Its units ,kg/m3
✓ Temperature increase with density decrease
✓ Pressure increase with density increase
✓ To estimate the density from characteristic gas equation of Pv = mRT (R= 287J/kgK
(or) 0.287 KJ/kg)
✓ Water = 1000 kg/m3, Mercury = 13600 kg/m3, Air = 1.23 kg/m3, Paraffin Oil = 800
kg/m3.(at pressure =1.013 N/m2, and Temperature = 288.15 K.)
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

Specific weight or weight density:(w)

✓ Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the ratio between the weight of a fluid to its
volume.
✓ The weight per unit volume of a fluid is called Specific weight or weight density
✓ It various from place to place because of acceleration due to gravity changing from place
to place.
✓ Specific weight, w =Weight of fluid / Volume of fluid
✓ w = ρg (w=W/V = mg/V = ρg)
✓ Its units, N/m3
✓ Temperature increase with specific weight decrease
✓ Pressure increase with specific weight increase
✓ Water =9810 N/m3, Mercury = 132943 N/m3, Air =12.07N/m3, Paraffin Oil =7851 N/m3
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

Specific Volume:(v)
✓Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied by a unit mass or
volume per unit mass of a fluid.
✓ v = Volume of fluid / Mass of fluid
v = 1/ ρ
✓Its units, m3/kg

Specific Gravity (or) Relative Density :(S)

✓ Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the density of a fluid to density of a standard
fluid.
✓ S = density of a fluid / density of a standard fluid.
✓ Specific gravity of mercury is 13.6
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

Viscosity
✓ Viscosity is the property of a fluid, due to cohesion and interaction between molecules, which
offers resistance to sheer deformation.

✓ Different fluids deform at different rates under the same shear stress.

✓ Fluid with a high viscosity such as syrup, deforms more slowly than fluid with a low viscosity
such as water.

✓ Shear stress, 𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

✓ Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid
which offers resistance to the movement of one
layer of fluid over adjacent layer of the fluid.
✓ The viscosity together with relative velocity causes
✓ When two layers of a fluid, a distance ‘dy’ a shear stress acting between the fluid layers.
apart, move one over the other at different
velocities, say u and u+du. ✓ The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent
lower layer while the lower layer causes a shear
stress on the adjacent top layer.

✓ This shear stress is proportional to the rate of

change of velocity with respect to y.
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

Dynamic Viscosity (μ):

✓ Its defined as the Shear stress(τ), required causing unit rate of shear
deformation(du/dy).
✓ μ = τ /(du/dy).
✓ Its units, N-s/m2 (or) kg/m-s (or) poise

Kinematic Viscosity (ν):

✓ Its defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density.
𝜇
𝜈=
𝜌
✓ Its units, m2/s (or) stoke
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

Calculate the specific weight, specific mass, specific volume and specific gravity of a liquid having a volume of 6
m3 and weight of 44 kN.

Solution:
Volume of the liquid = 6 m3
Weight of the liquid = 44 kN
Specific weight, w :
= 7.333 kN/m3 (Ans.)

Specific mass or mass density, ρ : Specific Gravity, S

𝒘𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝟕. 𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝒘 𝟕. 𝟑𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟒𝟕(Ans.)
𝝆= = = 𝟕𝟒𝟕. 𝟓kg/m3 (Ans.) 𝒘𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏
𝒈 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏

𝟏 𝟏
Specific volume, v = = = 0.00134 m3/kg (Ans.)
𝝆 𝟕𝟒𝟕. 𝟓
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

𝟐 𝟐
𝒖 = 𝒚 − 𝒚
If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by 𝟑 in which u is the velocity in Metre per
second at a distance y metre above the plate, determine the shear stress at y=0 and y= 0.15 m. Take
dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.63 poises
𝟖.𝟔𝟑
Solution: Value of µ=8.63 poise = SI units = 0.863 N s/m2
𝟏𝟎
Given 𝒅𝒖
For Shear stress, 𝝉 = 𝝁
𝒅𝒚

(i) Shear stress at y = 0 is given by

= 0.863 x 0.667 = 0.5756 N/m2• Ans

= 0.667
(ii) Shear stress at y = 0.15 m is given by

= 0.863 x 0.367 = 0.3176 N/m2• Ans

= 0.367
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

The velocity distribution over a plate is given by

𝟑 𝟏 𝟐
𝒖= 𝒚− 𝒚
𝟐 𝟐
where, u = velocity, m/s, and y = distance from the plate boundary, m. If the viscosity of the fluid is 8 poise find the
shear stress at the plate boundary and at y = 0.15 m from the plate.

[Ans. 1.20 N/m2, 1.08 N/m2]

 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

A plate 0.025 mm distant from a fixed plate, moves at 60 cm/s and requires a force of 2 N per unit area i.e., 2 N/m2 to
maintain this speed. Determine the fluid viscosity between the plates.

Solution.
Given :
Distance between plates, dy =0 .025 mm = .025 x 10-3 m
Velocity of upper plate, u = 60 cm/s = 0.6 m/s
Force on upper plate, τ = 2.0 N/m2
𝒅𝒖
𝝉=𝝁
𝒅𝒚 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎
For, Change of velocity, du = u - 0 = u = 0.60 m/s 𝟐=𝝁
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
Change of distance, dy = 0.025 x 10-3 m
= 8.33 x 10-5 Ns/m2
= 8.33 x 10-4 poise. Ans
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

The space between two parallel plates 5 mm apart is filled with crude oil. A force of 2 N is required to drag the
upper plate at a constant velocity of 0.8 m/s. The lower plate is stationary. The area of the upper plate is 0.09 m2.
Determine:
(i) The dynamic viscosity, and
(ii) (ii) the kinematic viscosity of the oil in stokes if the specific gravity of oil is 0.9.

[Ans. (i) 1.39 poise, (ii) 1.52 stokes]

 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

A 400 mm diameter shaft is rotating at 200 r.p.m. in a bearing of length 120 mm. If the thickness of oil film is 1.5
mm and the dynamic viscosity of the oil is 0.7 N.s/m2, determine:
(i) Torque required to overcome friction in bearing;
(ii) Power utilised in overcoming viscous resistance.
Assume a linear velocity profile
Solution.
Diameter of the shaft, d = 400 mm = 0.4 m
Speed of the shaft, N = 200 r.p.m.
Thickness of the oil film, t = 1.5 mm = 1.5 × 10–3 m
Length of the bearing, l = 120 mm = 0.12 m (i) Torque required to overcome friction in bearing;
Viscosity, μ = 0.7 N.s/m2 𝒅𝒖
𝝉=𝝁
Tangential velocity of the shaft, u 𝒅𝒚
𝝅𝒅𝑵 𝝅 × 𝟎. 𝟒 × 𝟐𝟎𝟎 du = change of velocity = u – 0 = 4.19 m/s
𝒖= = = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟗𝒎/𝒔
𝟔𝟎 𝟔𝟎 dy = t = 1.5 × 10–3 m 𝝉 = 1955.3 N/m2
Shear force, F = shear stress × area = τ ⋅ π dl
𝒅
F = 294.85 N 𝑻 = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × =58.97 Nm (Ans.)
𝟐
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

(ii) Power utilised in overcoming viscous resistance

𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑻
𝑷= =1235W (Ans)
𝟔𝟎
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

QUESTIONS
Calculate the dynamic viscosity of an oil, which is used for lubrication between a square plate of size 0.8 m x 0.8 m
and an inclined plane with angle of inclination 30° as shown in Fig. The weight of the square plate is 300 N and it
slides down the inclined plane with a uniform velocity of 0.3 m/s. The thickness of oil film is 1.5 mm.

Solution.
Given :
Area of plate, A = 0.8 X 0.8 = 0.64 m2
Angle of plane, θ = 30°
Weight of plate, W= 300 N W sinθ
Velocity of plate, u = 0.3 m/s, du=0.3m/s W cosθ

Thickness of oil film, t = dy = 1.5 mm = 1.5 X 10-3 m 𝒅𝒖

𝝉=𝝁
Let the viscosity of fluid between plate and inclined plane is µ 𝒅𝒚
Component of weight W, along the plane = W sin 30° = 300 sin 30° 𝝁 = 1.17 N s/m2
= 150 N
Thus the shear force, F, on the bottom surface of the plate= 150 N =11.7 poise. Ans
𝑭 𝟏𝟓𝟎
shear stress 𝝉= = = 𝟐𝟑𝟒. 𝟑𝟕𝟓
𝑨 𝟎. 𝟔𝟒
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

QUESTIONS
The dynamic viscosity of an oil, used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve is 6 poise. The shaft is of diameter
0.4 m and rotates at 190 r.p.m. Calculate the power lost in the bearing for a sleeve length of 90 mm. The thickness of
the oil film is 1.5 mm.

[T=716.48 W. Ans]
In a stream of glycerine in motion, at a certain point the velocity gradient is 0.25 metre per sec per metre. The
mass density of fluid is 1268.4 kg per cubic metre and kinematic viscosity is 6.30 x 10-4 square metre per second.
Calculate the shear stress at the point.

[Ans. 0.2 N/m2]

Two plates are placed at a distance of 0.15 mm apart. The lower plate is fixed while the upper plate having
surface area 1.0 m2 is pulled at 0.3 m/s. Find the force and power required to maintain this speed, if the
fluid separating them is having viscosity 1.5 poise.

[Ans. 300 N, 89.8 W]

 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

PASCAL’S LAW & HYDROSTATIC LAW

It states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static fluid is equal
in all directions. This is proved as :
The fluid element is of very small dimensions i.e., dx, dy and ds.

Consider an arbitrary fluid element of wedge shape in a fluid mass at rest as shown
in Fig.
Let the width of the element perpendicular to the plane of paper is unity and px•

Forces on a fluid element.

Py and Pz are the pressures or intensity of pressure acting on the face AB, AC and BC respectively.
Let ∠𝑨𝑩𝑪 = 𝜽. Then the forces acting on the element are :
1. Pressure forces normal to the surfaces, and
2. Weight of element in the vertical direction.
The forces on the faces are :
Force on the face AB = Px X Area of face AB
= Px X dy X 1 Similarly force on the face AC =Py X dx X 1
Force on the face BC = Pz X ds X 1
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

PASCAL’S LAW & HYDROSTATIC LAW

Weight of element = (Mass of element) x g
𝑨𝑩×𝑨𝑪×𝟏
=(Volume X ρ) X g = ×𝝆×𝒈
𝟐

where p =density of fluid.

Or
Resolving the forces in x-direction, we have

But from Fig.

Similarly, resolving the forces in y-direction, we get

 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

PASCAL’S LAW & HYDROSTATIC LAW

But ds sinθ = dx and also the element is very small and hence weight is negligible

From equations (1) and (2), we have

The above equation shows that the pressure at any point in x, y and z directions is equal.
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

PASCAL’S LAW & HYDROSTATIC LAW

The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is obtained by the Hydrostatic Law which states that the rate of
increase of pressure in a vertically downward direction must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid at
that point. This is proved as :
Consider a small fluid element as shown in Fig.
Let ΔA= Cross-sectional area of element
ΔZ = Height of fluid element
p = Pressure on face AB
Z = Distance of fluid element from free surface

The forces acting on the fluid element are :

1. Pressure force on AB = p x ΔA and acting perpendicular to face AB in Forces on a fluid element
the downward direction.
𝝏𝒑
2. Pressure force on CD 𝒑 + 𝝏𝒁 ∆𝒁 × ΔA acting perpendicular to face CD, vertically upward
direction.
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

PASCAL’S LAW & HYDROSTATIC LAW

3. Weight of fluid element= Density x g x Volume= p x g x (ΔA x ΔZ).

4. Pressure forces on surfaces BC and AD are equal and opposite. For equilibrium of fluid element, we
have

... (1) integrating

where w =Weight density of fluid.
Equation (1) states that rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal to weight density of the fluid at that
point. This is Hydrostatic Law.
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

QUESTIONS
A hydraulic press has a ram of 30 cm diameter and a plunger of 4.5 cm diameter. Find the weight lifted by the
hydraulic press when the force applied at the plunger is 500 N.
Solution
Given :
Dia. of ram, D = 30 cm = 0.3 m
Dia. of plunger, d = 4.5 cm = 0.045 m
Force on plunger, F= 500 N
Find weight lifted =W
𝜋 2 Due to Pascal's law, the intensity of pressure will be equally
Area of ram, 𝐴= 𝐷 = 0.07068 m2 transmitted in all directions.
4
𝜋 2 Hence the pressure intensity at the ram
Area of plunger, 𝑎 = 𝑑 = 0.00159 m2
4 =314465.4 N/m2
Pressure intensity due to plunger
But pressure intensity at ram
Force on plunger 𝑭
= =314465.4 N/m2 𝑾 𝑭 𝑾
Area of plunger 𝒂 = = 314465.4 W=22.222 kN. Ans.
𝑨 𝒂 0.07068
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

QUESTIONS
A hydraulic press has a ram of 20 Cm diameter and a plunger of 3 cm diameter. It is used for lifting a weight of
30 kN. Find the force required at the plunger

675.2 N. Ans

The pressure intensity at a point in a fluid is given 3.924 N/cm2• Find the corresponding height of fluid
when the fluid is : (a) water, and (b) oil of sp. gr. 0.9.
Solution
Given :
Pressure intensity, p = 3.924 N/cm2 = 3.924 x 10^4 N/m2
The corresponding height, Z, of the fluid is given by equation as
𝒑
𝒁=
𝝆×𝒈
(a) For water, 𝝆 = 1000kg/m3, (b) For water, 𝝆=1000kg/m3,
Z = 4 m of water Ans. Z= 4.44 m of oil. Ans
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SURFACES

TOTAL PRESSURE AND CENTRE OF PRESSURE

Total pressure is defined as the force exerted by a static fluid on a surface either plane or curved when the
fluid comes in contact with the surfaces. This force always acts normal to the surface.

Centre of pressure is defined as the point of application of the total pressure on the surface. There are four
cases of submerged surfaces on which the total pressure force and centre of pressure is to be determined.
The submerged surfaces may be :
1. Vertical plane surface,
2. Horizontal plane surface,
3. Inclined plane surface, and
4. Curved surface.
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SURFACES

VERTICAL PLANE SURFACE SUBMERGED IN LIQUID
Consider a plane vertical surface of arbitrary shape immersed in a liquid as shown in Fig..
Let A = Type equation here.otal area of the surface
ഥ =Distance of C.G. of the area from free surface of liquid
𝒉
G = Centre of gravity of plane surface
P = Centre of pressure
h* = Distance of centre of pressure from free surface of liquid
Total Pressure (F). The total pressure on the surface may be determined by dividing the entire surface
into a number of small parallel strips.
The force on small strip is then calculated and the total pressure force on the whole area is calculated by
integrating the force on small strip.
Consider a strip of thickness dh and width b at a depth of h from free surface of liquid as shown in Fig.
Pressure intensity on the strip, p = ρgh
Area of the strip, dA = b X dh
Total pressure force on strip, dF= ρ x Area
= ρgh X b X dh
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SURFACES

Total pressure force on the whole surface

𝑭 = න 𝒅𝑭 = න 𝝆𝒈𝒉 × 𝒃 × 𝒅𝒉 = 𝝆𝒈 න 𝒃 × 𝒉 × 𝒅𝒉

න 𝒃 × 𝒉 × 𝒅𝒉 = න 𝒉 × 𝒅𝑨

= Moment of surface area about the free surface of liquid

= Area of surface x Distance of C.G. from free surface
ഥ
=A X 𝒉
𝑭 = 𝝆𝒈𝑨𝒉 ഥ
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SURFACES

(b) Centre of Pressure (h*).
Centre of pressure is calculated by using the "Principle of Moments", which
states that the moment of the resultant force about an axis is equal to the sum of
moments of the components about the same axis.
The resultant force F is acting at P, at a distance h* from free surface of the liquid
as shown in Fig.
Hence moment of the force F about free surface of the liquid= F x h* .
Moment of force dF, acting on a strip about free surface of liquid
= 𝒅𝑭 × 𝒉
=𝝆𝒈𝒉 × 𝒃 × 𝒅𝒉 × 𝒉
Sum of moments of all such forces about free surface of liquid
𝑭 = න 𝒅𝑭 = න 𝝆𝒈𝒉 × 𝒃 × 𝒅𝒉 × 𝒉 = 𝝆𝒈 න 𝒃 × 𝒉 × 𝒉𝒅𝒉
𝝆𝒈 ‫𝑨𝒅 𝟐𝒉 ׬ 𝒈𝝆 = 𝒉𝒅 𝟐𝒉𝒃 ׬‬
(·: bdh = dA)
න 𝒉𝟐 𝒅𝑨 = න 𝒃𝒉𝟐 𝒅𝒉
= Moment of Inertia of the surface about free surface of liquid
= 𝑰𝟎
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SURFACES

Sum of moments about free surface = 𝝆𝒈𝑰𝟎

Equating Total pressure force with above equation, we get
𝑭 × 𝒉∗ = 𝝆𝒈𝑰𝟎

By the theorem of parallel axis, we have

where 𝑰𝑮 =Moment of Inertia of area about an axis passing through the C.G. of the area and parallel
to the free surface of liquid. Substituting 𝑰𝟎 in equation ,we get
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SURFACES

The moments of inertia and

other geometric properties of
some important plane surfaces
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SURFACES

The moments of inertia and

other geometric properties of
some important plane surfaces
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SURFACES

A rectangular plane surface is 2 m wide and 3 m deep. It lies in vertical plane in water. Determine the total pressure and
position of centre of pressure on the plane surface when its upper edge is horizontal and (a) coincides with water surface,
(b) 2.5 m below the free water surface.

Solution.
Given :
Width of plane surface, b = 2 m
Depth of plane surface, d = 3 m
(a) Upper edge coincides with water surface

= 88290 N. Ans.

=2.0 m. Ans

IG = =4.5 m4
F= 235440 N. Ans.
h*= 4.1875 m.
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

QUESTIONS

Determine the total pressure on a circular plate of diameter 1.5 m which is placed vertically in water in such a way
that the centre of the plate is 3m below the free surface of water. Find the position of centre of pressure also.

Solution.
Given :
Dia. of plate, d = 1.5 m
ഥ 3m
𝒉= 𝝅
Area, A = × 𝟏. 𝟓𝟐 = 1.767 m2
𝟒
Total pressure,
= 1000 X 9.81 X 1.767 X 3.0
= 52002.81 N. Ans
Position of centre of pressure (h*)

= 0.2485 m4

h*= 3.0468 m. Ans

 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

QUESTIONS
A rectangular sluice gate is situated on the vertical wall of a lock. The vertical side of the sluice is 'd' metres in
length and depth of centroid of the area is 'p' m below the water surface
Prove that the depth of pressure is equal to 𝒅𝟐
𝒑+
𝟏𝟐𝒑
solution.
Given :
Depth of vertical gate = d m
Let the width of gate = b m
Area, A = b x d m2
Depth of C.G. from free surface Fig.
ഥ =p m.
𝒉
Let h* is the depth of centre of pressure from free surface

𝒅𝟐
h*= 𝒑 +
𝟏𝟐𝒑
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

QUESTIONS
Determine the total pressure and centre of pressure on an isosceles triangular plate of base 4 m and altitude 4 m
when it is immersed vertically in an oil of sp. gr. 0.9. The base of the plate coincides with the free surface of oil
Solution
Given:
Base of Plate, b = 4m
Height of plate, h =4m
𝒃×𝒉
Area, A= 𝟐 = 8.0 m2
Sp. Gr. of oil, S = 0.9 Position of centre of pressure (h*)
Density of oil, ρ= 0.9 x 1000= 900 kg/m3
The distance of C.G. from free surface of oil,
ഥ =𝟏 × 𝒉 =1.33m
𝒉 𝟑
Total pressure, 𝒃𝒉𝟑
𝑰𝑮 =
𝟑𝟔 = 7.11 m4

= 900 X 9.81 X 8.0 X 1.33 h*= 1.99 m.

= 9597.6. N. Ans
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

QUESTIONS
A rectangular tank 4 m long, 1.5 m wide contains water upto a height of 2m. Calculate the force due to water
pressure on the base of the tank. Find also the depth of centre of pressure from free surface.

[Ans. 117720 N, 2m from free surface]

A tank contains water upto a height of 1 m above the base. An immiscible liquid of sp. gr. 0.8 is filled on the top of
water upto 1.5 m height. Calculate : (i) total pressure on one side of the tank, (ii) the position of centre of pressure
for one side of the tank, which is 3m wide.

[Ans. 76518 N, 1.686 m from top]

A trapezoidal 2 m wide at the bottom and 1 m deep has side slopes 1: 1. Determine:
(i) Total pressure;
(ii) Centre of pressure on the vertical gate closing the channel when it is full of water

[Ans. 13.08 kN, 0.62m]

 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

QUESTIONS
A vertical sluice gate is used to cover an opening in a dam. The opening is 2 m wide and 1.2 m high. On the
upstream of the gate, the liquid of sp. gr. 1.45, lies upto a height of 1.5 m above the top of the gate, whereas on the
downstream side the water is available up to a height touching the top of the gate. Find the resultant force acting
on the gate and position of centre of pressure. Find also the force acting horizontally at the top of the gate which is
capable of opening it. Assume that the gate is hinged at the bottom

Solution.
Given :
Width of gate, b=2m
Depth of gate, d=1.2m
Area, A = b x d = 2 x 1.2 = 2.4 m2
Sp. gr. of liquid = 1.45
Density, ρ1 =1.45 x 1000 = 1450 kg/m3
Density, ρ2 = 1000 kg/m3 ഥ
The force F1 is given by F 1 = ρ1 x g x A x 𝒉1
Let where p 1 = 1.45 x 1000 = 1450 kg/m2
F 1 = Force exerted by the fluid of sp. gr. 1.45 on gate h1 = Depth of C.G. of gate from free surface of liquid
F 2 = Force exerted by water on the gate. 𝟏.𝟐
= 1.5 + 𝟐 = 2.1 m. F1 = 71691 N
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

QUESTIONS
Similarly,
ഥ
The force F2 is given by F 2 = ρ2 x g x A x 𝒉𝟐
h2 = Depth of C.G. of gate from free surface of liquid
𝟏.𝟐
= 𝟐 = 0.6 m.
F2 = 1000 X 9.81 X 2.4 X 0.6 = 14126 N
(i) Resultant force on the gate=
F 1 - F2 = 71691 - 14126 = 57565 N. Ans

(ii) Position of centre of pressure of resultant

0.288 m4
h1* = 2.1571 m ഥ = 0.6 m, A = 2.4 m2 ,
where IG = 0.288 m4 , 𝒉𝟐
Distance of F 1 from hinge h2* = 0.8 m
= (1.5 + 1.2) - h1* = 2.7-2.1571 = 0.5429 m Distance of F2 from hinge = 1.2 - 0.8 = 0.4 m
The force F2 will be acting at a depth of h2* from free
surface of water and is given by
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

QUESTIONS

The resultant force 57565 N will be acting at a distance

given by

71691 X .5429−14126 X 0.4

= 0.578 m above the hinge
57565

Force at the top of gate which is capable of opening the gate. Let F is the force required on the top of the
gate to open it as shown in Fig.
Taking the moments of F, F1 and F2 about the hinge, we get

F X 1.2 + F2 X 0.4 = F1 X .5429

F = 27725.5 N. Ans
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

HORIZONTAL PLANE SURFACE SUBMERGED IN LIQUID

Consider a plane horizontal surface immersed in a static fluid.
As every point of the surface is at the same depth from the free surface of the liquid, the pressure
intensity will be equal on the entire surface and equal to, p = pgh, where h is depth of surface
Let
A = Total area of surface FREE SURFACE
Then total force, F, on the surface

ഥ
= p x Area = pg x h x A = pgA 𝒉

where 𝒉ഥ =Depth of C.G. from free surface of liquid= h

also h* =Depth of centre of pressure from free surface= h
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

INCLINED PLANE SURFACE SUBMERGED IN LIQUID

Consider a plane surface of arbitrary shape immersed in a liquid in such a way that the plane of the surface
makes an angle θ with the free surface of the liquid as shown in Fig

A = Total area of inclined surface

ഥ = Depth of C.G. of inclined area from free surface
𝒉
h* = Distance of centre of pressure from free surface of liquid
θ = Angle made by the plane of the surface with free liquid
surface.
ഥ = distance of the C.G. of the inclined surface from 0-0
Let 𝒚
y* =distance of the centre of pressure from 0-0.

Total Pressure force (F) Inclined immersed surface.

Centre of Pressure (h*)

 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

QUESTIONS
A rectangular plane surface 2 m wide and 3 m deep lies in water in such a way that its plane makes an angle of 30°
with the free surface of water. Determine the total pressure and position of centre of pressure when the upper edge is
1.5 m below the free water surface
Solution.
Given :
Width of plane surface, b = 2 m
Depth, d=3m
Angle, θ = 30°
Area, A= b x d = 3 x 2 =6m2
Distance of upper edge from free water surface = 1.5 m
(i) Total pressure
ഥ
F= pgA𝒉
where p = 1000 kg/m3 (ii) Centre of pressure (h*)
ഥ = Depth of C.G. from free water surface
𝒉
= 1.5 + 1.5 sin 30° = 4.5 m4
ഥ = AE + EB = 1.5 + BC sin 30° = 1.5 + 1.5 sin 30°}
{ ·: 𝒉
h*= 2.3333 m. Ans.
F = 1000 X 9.81 X 6 X 2.25 = 132435 N. Ans
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

QUESTIONS
A rectangular plane surface 3 m wide and 4 m deep lies in water in such a way that its plane makes an angle of 30° with
the free surface of water. Determine the total pressure force and position of centre of pressure, when the upper edge is 2
m below the free surface
Solution.
Given :
Width of plane surface, b = 3 m
Depth, d=4m
Angle, θ = 30°
Area, A= b x d = 3 x 4 =12m2
Distance of upper edge from free water surface = 2 m
(i) Total pressure
F= pgA𝒉ഥ
where p = 1000 kg/m3 (ii) Centre of pressure (h*)
ഥ = Depth of C.G. from free water surface
𝒉
= 2+ 2 sin 30° = 16 m4
ഥ = AE + EB = 2 + BC sin 30° = 2+ 2 sin 30°}
{ ·: 𝒉
h*= 3.111 m. Ans.
F = 1000 X 9.81 X 12 X 3 = 353167N
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

QUESTIONS
A circular plate 3.0 m diameter is immersed in water in such a way that its greatest and least depth below the free
surface are 4 m and 1.5 m respectively. Determine the total pressure on one face of the plate and position of the centre
of pressure
Solution.
Given :
Dia of plate, d= 3m
𝝅
Area, A= 𝟒 × 𝒅𝟐 = 7.068m2
Distance , DC = 1.5m , BE = 4m
(i) Total pressure
F= pgA𝒉ഥ
where p = 1000 kg/m3
ഥ = Depth of C.G. from free water surface
𝒉
(ii) Centre of pressure (h*)
= 1.5+ 1.5 sin θ
ഥ = CD +GC sinθ = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝟗𝒎
{ ·: 𝒉 = 3.976 m4
𝑨𝑩 𝑩𝑬−𝑨𝑬 𝟒−𝑫𝑪 𝟒−𝟏.𝟓
sinθ = 𝑩𝑪 = = = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟑
𝑩𝑪 𝟑 𝟑 h*= 2.891 m. Ans.
F = 1000 X 9.81 X 7.0685 X 2.749 = 190621N
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

QUESTIONS
If in the above problem, the given circular plate is having a concentric circular hole of diameter 1.5 m, then calculate
the total pressure and position of the centre of pressure on one face of the plate.

Solution.
Given :
Dia of solid plate, d= 3m
𝝅
Area, A1= 𝟒 × 𝒅𝟐 = 7.0685m2 ഥ = CD +GC sinθ = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝟗𝒎
{ ·: 𝒉
Dia of hole in plate, d= 1.5m
𝝅
Area, A0= 𝟒 × 𝒅𝟐 = 1.7671m2 𝑨𝑩 𝑩𝑬−𝑨𝑬 𝟒−𝑫𝑪 𝟒−𝟏.𝟓
sinθ = 𝑩𝑪 = 𝑩𝑪 = 𝟑 = 𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟑
Area of plate, A=A1-A0= 5.3014 m2
Distance , DC = 1.5m , BE = 4m
(i) Total pressure (ii) Centre of pressure (h*)
ഥ
F= pgA𝒉
where p = 1000 kg/m3 = 3.727 m4
ഥ = Depth of C.G. from free water surface
𝒉
= 1.5+ 1.5 sin θ h*= 2.927 m. Ans.
F = 1000 X 9.81 X 5.3014 X 2.749 = 143018N
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

QUESTIONS
A rectangular plane surface 1 m wide and 3m deep lies in water in such a way that its plane makes an angle of 30°
with the free surface of water. Determine the total pressure and position of centre of pressure when the upper edge
of the plate is 2m below the free water surface.

[Ans. 80932.5 N, 2.318 m]

A circular plate 3.0 m diameter is immersed in water in such a way that the plane of the plate makes an angle of
60° with the free surface of water. Determine the total pressure and position of centre of pressure when the upper
edge of the plate is 2 m below the free water surface.

[Ans. 228.69 kN, 3.427 m from free surface]

 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

BUOYANCY AND CENTRE OF BUOYANCY

BUOYANCY
When a body is immersed in a fluid, an upward force is exerted by the fluid on the body. This upward force is
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body and is called the force of buoyancy or simply buoyancy .

CENTRE OF BUOYANCY
It is defined as the point, through which the force of buoyancy is supposed to act. As the force of buoyancy is a
vertical force and is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body, the centre of buoyancy will be the
centre of gravity of the fluid displaced.
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

Find the volume of the water displaced and position of centre of buoyancy for a wooden block of width 2.5 m and
of depth 1.5 m, when it floats horizontally in water. The density of wooden block is 650 kg/m3 and its length 6.0 m
Solution.
Given :
Width= 2.5 m
Depth= 1.5 m
Length=6.0m
Volume of the block, = 2.5 X 1.5 X 6.0 = 22.50 m3
Density of wood, p = 650 kg/m3
Weight of block, = p x g x Volume
= 650 X 9.81 X 22.50 N = 143471 N
For equilibrium the weight of water displaced = Weight of wooden
block
= 143471 N
14•625 m3Ans.
Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

Position of Centre of Buoyancy.

Volume of wooden block in water =Volume of water displaced
2.5 x h x 6.0 = 14.625 m3, where h is depth of wooden block in water
h = 0.975 m
𝟎.𝟗𝟕𝟓
Centre of Buoyancy = =
𝟐
= 0.4875 m from base. Ans
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

✓ The upward force exerted by a liquid on a body when the body is immersed in the liquid is known as
buoyancy or force of buoyancy.

✓ The point through which force of buoyancy is supposed to act is called centre of buoyancy.

✓ The point about which a body starts oscillating when the body is tilted is known as meta-centre.

✓ The distance between the meta-centre and centre of gravity is known as meta-centric height.

✓ The meta-centric height (GM) is given by

𝑰
𝐆𝐌 = − 𝑩𝑮
∀
where
I =Moment of Inertia of the floating body (in plan) at water surface about the axis Y-Y
∀=Volume of the body sub-merged in water
BG = Distance between centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy.
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A FLOATING AND SUB-MERGED

BODIES
A sub-merged or a floating body is said to be stable if it comes back to its original position after a slight
disturbance. The relative position of the centre of gravity (G) and centre of buoyancy (B1) of a body determines the
stability of a sub-merged body.

Stability of a Sub-merged Body.

The position of centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy in case of a completely sub-merged body are fixed.
Consider a balloon, which is completely submerged in air. Let the lower portion of the balloon contains heavier
material, so that its centre of gravity is lower than its centre of buoyancy as shown in Fig. (a).
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

STABILITY OF A SUB-MERGED BODY

Let the weight of the balloon is W. The weight W is acting through G, vertically in the downward
direction, while the buoyant force FB is acting vertically up, through B. For the equilibrium of the
balloon W = FB . If the balloon is given an angular displacement in the clockwise direction as shown in
Fig. (a), then Wand FB constitute a couple acting in the anti-clockwise direction and brings the balloon
in the original position. Thus the balloon in the position, shown by Fig. (a) is in stable equilibrium
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

STABILITY OF A SUB-MERGED BODY

a) Stable Equilibrium. When W = FB and point B is above G, the body is said to be in stable equilibrium.

b) Unstable Equilibrium. If W = FB , but the centre of buoyancy (B) is below centre of gravity (G), the body is
in unstable equilibrium as shown in Fig. (b). A slight displacement to the body, in the clockwise direction,
gives the couple due to W and FB also in the clockwise direction. Thus the body does not return to its
original position and hence the body is in unstable equilibrium.

c) Neutral Equilibrium. If FB =W and B and G are at the same point, as shown in Fig.(c), the body is said to
be in neutral equilibrium.
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

STABILITY OF FLOATING BODY

The stability of a floating body is determined from the position of Meta-centre (M). In case of floating body, the
weight of the body is equal to the weight of liquid displaced.
(a) Stable Equilibrium. If the point M is above G, the floating body will be in stable equilibrium as shown in Fig. (a).
If a slight angular displacement is given to the floating body in the clockwise direction, the centre of buoyancy
shifts from B to B 1 such that the vertical line through B 1 cuts at M. Then the buoyant force FB through B 1
and weight W through G constitute a couple acting in the anticlockwise direction and thus bringing the floating
body in the original position.

Stability of floating bodies.

 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

STABILITY OF FLOATING BODY

(b) Unstable Equilibrium. If the point M is below G, the floating body will be in unstable equilibrium as shown in
Fig. (b). The disturbing couple is acting in the clockwise direction. The couple due to buoyant force FB and W is
also acting in the clockwise direction and thus overturning the floating body.

(c) Neutral Equilibrium. If the point M is at the centre of gravity of the body, the floating body will be in neutral
equilibrium.
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

QUESTIONS
A rectangular pontoon is 5 m long, 3 m wide and 1.20 m high. The depth of immersion of the pontoon is 0.80 m in
sea water. If the centre of gravity is 0.6 m above the bottom of the pontoon, determine the meta-centric height. The
density for sea water= 1025 kg/m3•
Solution.
Given :
Dimension of pontoon, = 5 m x 3 m x 1.20 m
Depth of immersion, = 0.8 m
Distance AG= 0.6 m

Distance AB = 1- x Depth of immersion BG = AG - AB = 0.6 - 0.4 = 0.2 m

= 1- x 0.8 = 0.4 m GM=0.7375m
Density for sea water = 1025 kg/m3
Meta-centre height GM, given by
𝑰
𝑮𝑴 = ∀ − 𝑩𝑮
where I= M.O. Inertia of the plan of the pontoon about Y-Y axis
𝟏 ∀= Volume of the body sub-merged in water
𝑰= × 𝟓 × 𝟑𝟑 = 11.25m4
𝟏𝟐 = 3 X 0.8 X 5.0 = 12.0 m3
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

QUESTIONS
A uniform body of size 3 m long x 2 m wide x 1 m deep floats in water. What is the weight of the body if depth of
immersion is 0.8 m ? Determine the meta-centric height also•
Solution.
Given :
Dimension of body = 3m x 1 m x 1 m
Depth of immersion, = 0.8 m BG = AG - AB = 0.5 - 0.4 = 0.1 m
Find (i)Weight of body, W GM=0.3167m
(ii) Meta-centric height, GM
(i) Weight of Body, W
=Weight of water displaced
= pg x Volume of water displaced
= 1000 x 9.81 x Volume of body in water
= 1000 X 9.81 X 3 X 2 X 0.8 N
= 47088 N. Ans.
Meta-centre height GM, given by
𝑰
𝑮𝑴 = − 𝑩𝑮
∀
where I= M.O. Inertia of the plan of the pontoon about Y-Y axis ∀= Volume of the body in water
𝟏 = 3 X 0.8 X 2 = 4.8m3
𝑰= × 𝟑 × 𝟐𝟑 = 11.25m4
𝟏𝟐
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

QUESTIONS
A solid cylinder of diameter 4.0 m has a height of 4.0 m. Find the meta-centric height of the cylinder if the specific
gravity of the material of cylinder= 0.6 and it is floating in water with its axis vertical. State whether the
equilibrium is stable or unstable•
Solution.
Given : D = 4 m where I= M.O. Inertia of the plan of the pontoon about Y-Y
Height, h=4m axis
Sp.gr. = 0.6 𝝅 𝟒
𝑰= 𝑫 = 12.37m4
Depth of cylinder in water 𝟔𝟒
𝝅
= Sp. gr. X h ∀ = 𝟒 × 𝑫𝟐 × depth of cyl. In water
= 0.6 x 4.0 = 2.4 m = 30.159m3
Distance of centre of buoyancy (B) from A
AB = 2.4/2 = 1.2 m
GM= -0.3833m
Distance of centre of gravity (G) from A.
-ve sign means that the meta-centre (M) is below the centre
AG =h/2 = 4/2 = 2m
of gravity (G). Thus the cylinder is in unstable equilibrium.
BG = AG- AB = 2.0- 1.2 = 0.8 m
Meta-centre height GM, given by
𝑰
𝑮𝑴 = ∀ − 𝑩𝑮
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

QUESTIONS

A solid cylinder of diameter 3.0 m has a height of 2m. Find the meta-centric height of the cylinder when it is floating in
water with its axis vertical. The sp. gr. of the cylinder is 0.7.

[Ans. 0.1017 m]

A body has the cylindrical upper portion of 4 m diameter and 2 m deep. The lower portion is a curved one, which
displaces a volume of 0.9 m3 of water. The centre of buoyancy of the curved portion is at a distance of 2.10 m below the
top of the cylinder. The centre of gravity of the whole body is 1.50 m below the top of the cylinder. The total displacement
of water is 4.5 tonnes. Find the meta-centric height of the body.

[Ans. 2.387 m]

A solid cylinder of diameter 5.0 m has a height of 5.0 m. Find the meta-centric height of the cylinder if the specific
gravity of the material of cylinder is 0.7 and it is floating in water with its axis vertical. State whether the equilibrium is
stable or unstable.
 Dr Tushar Choudhary Fluid Mechanics & Machines Module 1

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