98 Chapter 3 Wire Antennas

l– R
2 P(r, , )
r > > z'
z'

z'
r


os 
z' c

− –l
2
Fig. 3.3 The far-field approximation

EXAMPLE 3.1

Compute the error introduced in the amplitude and phase of e−jkR/R, if the
far-field approximation is used in the computation of the magnetic vector
potential at a distance of 50λ for a dipole of length 2λ.
Solution: Let us compute the distances for θ = π/2, z  = 1λ, and r = 50λ.
Substituting the values of θ, z  , and r in Eqn (3.6) we get
 
R= r2 + z 2 = λ 502 + 12 = 50.01λ

and from Eqns (3.8) and (3.15)

R  Ra = r = 50λ for amplitude
R  Rp = r − z  cos(π/2) = 50λ for phase
The fractional error in the amplitude, Δamp , is given by
 
 1 1 
 −
R R
a
Δamp =
1
R
 
R 

= − 1 = 2 × 10−4
R a
 3.1 Short Dipole 99

which is very small. The error in phase, Δphase , is given by

2π
Δphase = k(Rp − R) = (50 − 50.01)λ = −0.0628 rad
λ

When θ = 0, Eqn (3.6) reduces to R = r − z  = 49λ, from Eqn (3.15) we

have Ra = r = 50λ and from Eqn (3.8) Rp = r − z  = 49λ. Therefore, the
errors in the amplitude and phase are
 
 49 

Δamp =  − 1 = 0.02
50
Δphase =0

Now we will evaluate the magnetic vector potential by substituting the

current distribution on the dipole given by Eqn (3.1) into Eqn (3.2)
  
μ 0 2 e−jkR 
A(x, y, z) = az 1 + z  I0 dz
4π −l/2 l R
 l/2  
2 e−jkR 
+ 1 − z  I0 dz (3.17)
0 l R

Introducing the far-field approximations R  r − z  cos θ for the phase and

R  r for the amplitude
  
μ e−jkr 0 2
1 + z  ejkz cos θ dz 

A(x, y, z) = az I0
4π r −l/2 l
 l/2  
2
1 − z  ejkz cos θ dz 

+ (3.18)
0 l

By evaluating the integrals in Eqn (3.18) and simplifying (see Example 3.2),
we can show that for kl/4  1

μ e−jkr l
A(x, y, z)  az I0 (3.19)
4π r 2

EXAMPLE 3.2

Show that the integral within the square brackets in Eqn (3.18) is approxi-
mately equal to l/2 for kl/4  1.
100 Chapter 3 Wire Antennas

Solution: Let us denote the term in the square brackets by

    l/2  
0 2 2
1 + z  ejkz cos θ dz  + 1 − z  ejkz cos θ dz 
 
I=
−l/2 l 0 l

Substituting z  = −z  in the first integral, and interchanging the limits

 l/2    l/2  
2 2
1 − z  e−jkz cos θ dz  + 1 − z  ejkz cos θ dz 
 
I=
0 l 0 l
Since both the integrals have the limits 0 to l/2, we can write
 l/2  
2
1 − z  (ejkz cos θ + e−jkz cos θ )dz 
 
I=
0 l
Now we can simplify the integrand by using the identity ejx + e−jx = 2 cos x,
to get
 l/2  
2
I= 1 − z  2 cos(kz  cos θ)dz 
0 l
Performing the integration
 l/2  l/2
sin(kz  cos θ) 4  sin(kz  cos θ) cos(kz  cos θ)
I=2 − z +
k cos θ 0 l k cos θ (k cos θ)2 0

Substituting the limits and simplifying, we get

  
4 kl
I= 2
1 − cos cos θ
l(k cos θ) 2

Using the identity cos (2θ) = 1 − 2 sin2 θ, the above expression can be
written as
 
4 kl
I= 2
2 sin2 cos θ
l(k cos θ) 4
For kl/4  1
   2
kl kl
sin2 cos θ  cos θ
4 4
and hence the integral reduces to
l
I
2
 3.1 Short Dipole 101

Following the procedure described in Section 1.2, we first express the

components of the magnetic vector potential in spherical coordinates as
μ e−jkr l
Ar = Az cos θ = I0 cos θ (3.20)
4π r 2
μ e−jkr l
Aθ = −Az sin θ = I0 sin θ (3.21)
4π r 2
The next step is to find the magnetic field using
1
H= ∇×A (3.22)
μ
Expanding the curl equation in the spherical coordinate system with the
knowledge that the field quantities are φ-symmetric and, hence, the result
of differentiation with respect to φ is zero (see Example 3.3)
 
1 ∂(rAθ ) ∂Ar
H = aφ Hφ = aφ − (3.23)
rμ ∂r ∂θ
Substituting the values of Ar and Aθ from Eqn (3.20) and Eqn (3.21) into
Eqn (3.23) and performing the differentiation

Hr = 0 (3.24)
Hθ = 0 (3.25)
 
kI0 l e−jkr 1
Hφ = j 1+ sin θ (3.26)
8π r jkr

In the far-field region of the antenna, we can neglect the term containing
1/r2 and, hence, the φ-component of the magnetic field reduces to
kI0 l e−jkr
Hφ = j sin θ (3.27)
8π r
The electric field can be computed by substituting the value of the magnetic
field into the Maxwell’s curl equation for a source-free region
1
E= ∇×H (3.28)
jω
Performing the differentiation and neglecting the term containing 1/r2 we
get the electric field as
kI0 l e−jkr
E = aθ jη sin θ (3.29)
8π r
In the far-field of the dipole the electric and magnetic field intensities are
transverse to each other as well as to the direction of propagation. Eθ , Hφ ,
102 Chapter 3 Wire Antennas

and the direction of propagation, ar , form a right handed system. The ratio
of Eθ /Hφ is equal to the impedance of the medium, η. The expressions for
the electric and magnetic field intensities are related to the magnetic vector
potential by the following equations

E = −jωAt (3.30)
jω
H=− ar × At (3.31)
η

where At represents the transverse component of the magnetic vector po-

tential given by

At = aθ Aθ + aφ Aφ (3.32)

These equations are valid only in the far-field of an antenna.

EXAMPLE 3.3

Given that A = ar Ar + aθ Aθ is independent of φ, show that

 
1 ∂(rAθ ) ∂Ar
H = aφ −
rμ ∂r ∂θ
Solution: From Eqn (3.22)

1
H= ∇×A
μ

The curl operation in spherical coordinates can be written as

 
 ar raθ r sin θaφ 

1  
∇×A= 2  ∂/∂r ∂/∂θ ∂/∂φ 

r sin θ  

 Ar rAθ r sin θAφ 

Since Aφ = 0
    
1 ∂(rAθ ) ∂Ar
∇×A= 2 ar − − aθ r −
r sin θ ∂φ ∂φ
 
∂(rAθ ) ∂Ar
+ aφ r sin θ −
∂r ∂θ
 3.1 Short Dipole 103

Given that Ar and Aθ are independent of φ, the partial derivatives with

respect to φ are zero. Thus ∇ × A reduces to
  
1 ∂(rAθ ) ∂Ar
∇×A= aφ −
r ∂r ∂θ
Substituting this expression in Eqn (3.22), gives us the required result.

3.1.1 Radiation Resistance and Directivity

Since for a dipole oriented along the z-direction, only Eθ and Hφ exist in
the far-field region, the average power density, S, is given by
1
S = Re(aθ Eθ × aφ Hφ∗ )
2
1
= ar Re(Eθ Hφ∗ ) (3.33)
2
Using the relationship Eθ /Hφ = η and Eqn (3.29) for Eθ , the power density
at a distance r is given by
   
1 E∗ 1 η  kI 0 l 2 sin2 θ
S = ar Re Eθ θ = ar |Eθ |2 = ar  (3.34)
2 η 2η 2 8π  r 2
Total power radiated, Prad , is obtained by integrating the power density over
a sphere of radius r
 2π  π
Prad = S · ar r2 sin θdθdφ (3.35)
0 0
   2π  π  2
η  kI0 l 2 π l
=  sin θdθdφ = η |I0 |2
3
(3.36)
2 8π  0 0 12 λ

To obtain the radiation resistance, the total radiated power is equated to

the power absorbed by an equivalent resistance carrying the same input
current, I0 .
1
Prad = |I0 |2 Rrad (3.37)
2
Equating Eqn (3.36) and Eqn (3.37) and substituting the value of η for free
space, we get the expression for the radiation resistance of a short dipole as
 2
l
Rrad = 20π 2 Ω (3.38)
λ
104 Chapter 3 Wire Antennas

 = 0°
0
30°

Relative power (dB)

30°

–10

60° –20 60°

–30

90° 90°

120° 120°

150° 150°
180°

Fig. 3.4 The x-z plane cut of the radiation pattern of a

z -directed short dipole

In order to compute the directivity, we first compute the radiation

intensity
 
η  kI0 l 2 2
U (θ, φ) = r2 S = sin θ (3.39)
2  8π 
where S is the radial component of S. The directivity is given by
U (θ, φ)
D(θ, φ) = 4π (3.40)
Prad
Substituting the value of Prad and U (θ, φ) into Eqn (3.40), we get the
directivity of a short dipole as

D = 1.5 sin2 θ (3.41)

It may be noted that the directivity is same as that of a Hertzian dipole.

The normalized radiation intensity expressed in decibels is given by

UdB (θ, φ) = 10 log10 (sin2 θ) dB (3.42)

and is shown in Fig. 3.4. The radiation pattern has a null along the axis
of the dipole and a maximum in the θ = 90◦ plane. The radiation pattern
 3.1 Short Dipole 105

is independent of φ. The 3D pattern is obtained by rotating the right half

of the pattern about the axis of the dipole. Such a pattern is called an
omni-directional pattern. An omni-directional pattern has a non-directional
pattern in one plane, and a directional pattern in any plane orthogonal
to it.

EXAMPLE 3.4

A short dipole with a triangular current distribution radiates Prad watts

into free space. Show that the magnitude of the maximum electric field at a
distance r is given by
√
90Prad
Eθ = V/m
r
Solution: The maximum value of the electric field given by Eqn (3.29) occurs
along θ = 90◦ and is given by
k|I0 |l 1
|Eθ | = η
8π r
The radiated power can be expressed as [Eqn (3.36)]
 2
π l
Prad = η |I0 |2
12 λ
from which we can write |I0 | in terms of Prad as

λ 12Prad
|I0 | =
l ηπ

Substituting the value of |I0 | into |Eθ |


kl 1 λ 12Prad
|Eθ | = η
8π r l ηπ
and simplifying, we get
√
90Prad
Eθ = V/m
r
EXAMPLE 3.5

A short dipole of length 0.1λ is kept symmetrically about the origin, oriented
along the z-direction and radiating 1 kW power into free space. Calculate
the power density at r = 1 km along θ = 45◦ and φ = 90◦ .
106 Chapter 3 Wire Antennas

Solution: The radiation resistance of a short dipole is

 2
l
Rrad = 20π 2 = 20π 2 0.12 = 1.974 Ω
λ
From the relationship
1
Prad = I02 Rrad
2
we get the input current as

2 × 1000
I0 = = 31.83 A
1.974
Using the equation
 
η  kI0 l 2 sin2 θ
S = 
2 8π  r2
the power density at 1 km distance is calculated as
 
120π  2π × 31.83 × 0.1 2 sin2 (π/4)
S= = 5.9683 × 10−5 W/m2
2  8π  10002
An alternate approach: Power density, S (in W/m2 ) at (r, θ, φ) from
the antenna with a directivity of Dt (θ, φ) and radiated power Prad (in W)
is given by
Prad
S(r, θ, φ) = Dt (θ, φ)
4πr2
The directivity along (θ, φ) is

Dt (θ, φ) = 1.5 sin2 θ = 1.5 sin2 (π/4) = 0.75

Substituting the values Prad = 1000 W, r = 1000 m, and Dt = 0.75 into the
expression for the radiated power density
1000
S= 0.75 = 5.9683 × 10−5 W/m2
4π × 10002

3.2 Half-wave Dipole

The current distribution on a thin (radius, a  λ) wire dipole depends on its
length. For a very short dipole (l < 0.1λ) it is appropriate to assume that the
current distribution is triangular. As the length of the dipole approaches a
significant fraction of the wavelength, it is found that the current distribution
 3.2 Half-wave Dipole 107

is closer to a sinusoidal distribution than a triangular distribution. For a

centre-fed dipole of length l, symmetrically placed about the origin with
its axis along the z-axis (Fig. 3.1), the current on the dipole has only a
z-component and is given by

I(z  ) = az Iz (z  )
⎧   
⎪
⎪ l 
⎪
⎨ az I0 sin k −z , 0 ≤ z  ≤ l/2
2
=    (3.43)
⎪
⎪ l
⎪
⎩ az I0 sin k + z  , −l/2 ≤ z  ≤ 0
2

where I0 is the amplitude of the current distribution and k is a constant

(equal to the free space propagation constant). The technique to compute
the radiation characteristics of a dipole is very similar to that presented in
the previous section for a short dipole. First, compute the magnetic vector
potential in the far-field region of the antenna and then determine the E
and H fields from it. Since the current has only a z-component, A also has
only the Az -component.
 l/2
μ e−jkr
Iz (z  )ejkz dz 

cos θ
Az = (3.44)
4π r −l/2

Substituting the value of Iz from Eqn (3.43) into Eqn (3.44)

   
μ e−jkr 0 l
+ z dz 

cos θ
Az = I0 sin k ejkz
4π r −l/2 2
 l/2    
l
+ sin k − z jkz  cos θ
e dz 
(3.45)
0 2

Integrating this with respect to z  and substituting appropriate limits, the

vector potential expression is reduced to
    
kl kl
cos cos θ − cos
I0 e−jkr 2 2
Az = μ 2 (3.46)
2π r k sin θ
Decomposing Az into components along the r and θ directions, we have

Ar = Az cos θ (3.47)
Aθ = −Az sin θ (3.48)
108 Chapter 3 Wire Antennas

In the far-field region of the z-oriented dipole, the component of the magnetic
vector potential transverse to the direction of propagation is Aθ , and is
given by

At = aθ Aθ (3.49)

The electric and magnetic field intensities can be computed using Eqns (3.30)
and (3.31)

E = −jωAt
= −jωaθ Aθ
    
kl kl
cos cos θ − cos
I0 e−jkr 2 2
= aθ jη (3.50)
2π r sin θ
jω
H=− a r × At
η
jω
= − a φ Aθ
η
    
kl kl
cos cos θ − cos
I0 e−jkr 2 2
= aφ j (3.51)
2π r sin θ

The relationship η = ωμ/k has been used in the derivation of the electric
field intensity.
The radiation intensity is given by
    2
kl kl
 2 cos cos θ − cos
1 
η I0  2 2
U (θ) = r2 |Eθ |2 =   2 (3.52)
2η 2 2π sin θ

Figures 3.5 and 3.6 show the current distributions and the radiation patterns
of thin wire dipoles of different lengths. As the dipole length increases from
0.5λ to 1.2λ, the main beam becomes narrower. The 10 dB beamwidth for
a 0.5λ long dipole is 134.4◦ ; it reduces to 85.7◦ for a λ long dipole and goes
down to 60.2◦ for l = 1.2λ. As the length further increases to 1.4λ the main
beam narrows to 39.6◦ , however, the side lobe level starts approaching 0 dB.
Beyond this length, the main beam splits (Fig. 3.6) and the maximum of
the pattern is no longer along θ = 90◦ .
 3.2 Half-wave Dipole 109

0.25  = 0° z
0 30° l = 0.5λ

Relative power (dB)

−10
60°
−20
−30
z ' / 0 90°

120° y
x
150°
− 0.25
−1 0 1 180°
I (z ')/I0
0.5  = 0° z
0 30°
l = 1.0 λ
Relative power (dB)

−10
60°
−20
−30
z ' / 0 90°

120° y
x
150°
−0.5 180°
−1 0 1
I(z ')/I0
0.6  = 0° z
0 30°
Relative power (dB)

l = 1.2λ
−10
−20 60°

−30
z ' / 0 90°

120° y
x
150°
−0.6
−1 0 1 180°
I (z ')/I0
Fig. 3.5 Current distributions and radiation patterns of dipoles of different
lengths (l = 0.5λ, 1.0λ, and 1.2λ)
110 Chapter 3 Wire Antennas

0.65  = 0° z
0 l = 1.3λ
30°

Relative power (dB)

−10
−20 60°

−30
z ' / 0 90°

120° y
x
150°
−0.65
−1 0 1 180°
I(z')/I0 z
0.75  = 0°
0 30° l = 1.5λ
Relative power (dB)

−10
−20 60°
−30
z ' / 0 90°

120° y
x
150°
− 0.75
−1 1 180°
0
I(z')/I0 z
0.85  = 0°
0 l = 1.7λ
30°
Relative power (dB)

−10
60°
−20
−30
z ' / 0 90°

120° y
x
150°
− 0.85
−1 0 1 180°
I(z')/I0
Fig. 3.6 Current distributions and radiation patterns of dipoles of different
lengths (l = 1.3λ, 1.5λ, and 1.7λ)
 3.2 Half-wave Dipole 111

EXAMPLE 3.6

Calculate the length of the dipole with a sinusoidal current distribution to

obtain a 60◦ beamwidth between the first nulls.
Solution: The specified radiation pattern has a maximum along θ = π/2,
and the beamwidth between the first nulls is π/3. Therefore, the pattern
nulls are at θ = π/2 ± 0.5 × π/3 = π/3 and 2π/3. Substituting θ = π/3 in
Eqn (3.50) and equating it to zero
     
kl π kl 1
cos cos − cos =0
2 3 2 sin (π/3)
This can be simplified to
kl kl
cos − cos =0
4 2
This equation is satisfied for kl/2 = 4π/3, from which we get l = 1.333λ.

EXAMPLE 3.7

A 6 cm long z-directed dipole carries a current of 1 A at 2.4 GHz. Calculate

the electric and magnetic field strengths at a distance of 50 cm along θ = 60◦ .
Solution: The wavelength at 2.4 GHz is
c 3 × 108
λ= = = 0.125 m
f 2.4 × 109
Therefore, for the given antenna
l 6 × 10−2
= = 0.48
λ 0.125
For this length we can assume a sinusoidal current distribution on the dipole.
Since r = 0.5 m and 2l2 /λ = 0.0576 m, the field point is in the far-field of
the antenna. Therefore, we can use Eqn (3.50) to compute the electric field
    
I0 e−jkr kl kl 1
Eθ = jη cos cos θ − cos
2π r 2 2 sin θ
2π 2π
kr = r= 0.5 = 8π
λ 0.125
kl 2π π
= l= 0.06 = 0.48π
2 2λ 0.125
Substituting in Eqn (3.50)
    
1 e−j8π π 1
Eθ = j120π cos 0.48π cos − cos (0.48π)
2π 0.5 3 sin (π/3)
112 Chapter 3 Wire Antennas

On simplifying

Eθ = j92.3e−j8π = j92.3 V/m

The magnetic field in the far-field region is related to the electric field by
the following relation
1 1
H= ar × E = aφ Eθ
η η
Therefore
Eθ 92.3
Hφ = =j = j0.2448 A/m
η 120π

The computation of the directivity of a dipole of arbitrary length involves

integration of Eqn (3.52) over the entire sphere. The analytical computation
of the integral is reasonably complicated. Interested readers can refer to
Balanis 2002. In this section, we compute the directivity of a half-wave dipole
for which the integrand can be simplified. The electric and magnetic field
intensities for a half-wave dipole are obtained by substituting kl/2 = π/2
into Eqns (3.51) and (3.50)
 
π
−jkr cos cos θ
I0 e 2
Hφ = j (3.53)
2π r sin θ
 
π
cos cos θ
I0 e−jkr 2
Eθ = jη (3.54)
2π r sin θ

Using these field expressions the average radiated power density reduces to
 
 2 cos 2 π cos θ
1 η  I0  1 2
S(θ, φ) = |Eθ |2 =   2 (3.55)
2η 2 2π r sin2 θ
The total radiated power is obtained by integrating the power density over
the entire sphere of radius r. Integrating Eqn (3.55) over the sphere
 2π  π
Prad = S(θ, φ)r2 sin θdθdφ (3.56)
φ=0 θ=0
 
π
 2π  π   cos 2 cos θ
η  I0 2 2
=   sin θdθdφ (3.57)
φ=0 θ=0 2 2π sin2 θ
 3.2 Half-wave Dipole 113
 
π
 2  π cos2 cos θ
η  I0  2
= 2π   sin θdθ (3.58)
2 2π θ=0 sin2 θ

where, the factor 2π is obtained by integrating over φ. On performing the

integration over θ (see example 3.4) we get
 2  
 I0   
Prad = ηπ   1.2179 = 36.54 I02  (3.59)
2π
The radiation resistance is computed by equating the average radiated power
to the power dissipated in an equivalent resistance carrying the same input
current
  1  
 
Prad = 36.54 I02  = I02  Rrad (3.60)
2
Thus, we obtain the radiation resistance for a half-wave dipole as
Rrad = 73.08 Ω (3.61)
Using Eqn (3.55), the radiation intensity can be written as
 
π
 2 cos2 cos θ
η  I0  2
U (θ, φ) = r2 S(θ, φ) =   (3.62)
2 2π sin2 θ
Substituting Eqn (3.62) and Eqn (3.59) into Eqn (3.40), the directivity is
 
π
 2 cos2 cos θ
U (θ, φ) η  I0  2 1
D(θ, φ) = 4π = 4π   2
 2
 
Prad 2 2π sin θ I0 36.54
 
π
cos2 cos θ
2
= 1.642 (3.63)
sin2 θ

The maximum value of the directivity occurs along θ = π/2, and is equal to
1.642. Directivity expressed in decibels is
DdB = 10 log10 (1.642) = 2.15 dB (3.64)

EXAMPLE 3.8

Show that
 
π
 π cos2 cos θ
2
dθ = 1.2179
θ=0 sin θ
114 Chapter 3 Wire Antennas

Solution: Let
 
π
 π cos2 cos θ
2
I= dθ
θ=0 sin θ

1 π 1 + cos(π cos θ)
= dθ
2 θ=0 sin θ

Substituting u = cos θ and du = −sin θdθ, and interchanging the limits of

integration
 1
1 1 + cos(πu)
I= du
2 −1 1 − u2

Using the relation

 
1 1 1 1
= +
1−u 2 2 1+u 1−u
we can write
 1  1 
1 1 + cos(πu) 1 + cos(πu)
I= du + du
4 −1 1−u −1 1+u

Substituting u = −t in the first integral and interchanging the limits

 1  1
1 + cos(πu) 1 + cos(πt)
du = dt
−1 1−u −1 1+t

Therefore, we can now write

 1
1 1 + cos(πu)
I= du
2 −1 1+u

We make another substitution, πu = y − π, to get

 2π
1 1 − cos y
I= dy
2 0 y

The relation cos(y − π) = −cos y has been used to arrive at the above
expression. The Taylor series expansion of cos y is

y2 y4 y6
cos y = 1 − + − + ···
2! 4! 6!
 3.3 Monopole 115

This can be used to rewrite the integral as

 2π  
1 y y3 y5 y7
I= − + − + · · · dy
2 0 2! 4! 6! 8!

On performing termwise integration and substituting the limits, we get

1
I = (9.8696 − 16.235 + 14.2428 − 7.5306 + 2.6426 − 0.6586 + 0.1225
2
− 0.01763 + · · ·) = 1.2179

3.3 Monopole
Dipole antennas for HF and VHF applications tend to be several metres long.
Constructing a dipole to radiate vertically polarized (electric field orientation
is perpendicular to the surface of the earth) electromagnetic waves poses
some real challenges due to the size of the antenna and the presence of the
earth itself. From the image theory (see Section 4.2.4), we know that the
fields due to a vertical electric current element kept above an infinitely large
perfect electrical conductor (also known as the ground plane) are the same
as the fields radiated by the element and its image (without the ground
plane). Therefore, it is possible to virtually create a half-wave dipole by
placing a quarter wavelength long wire (called a monopole) vertically above
an infinitely large ground plane.
Consider a monopole of length l/2, fed at its base and kept above the
ground plane as shown in Fig. 3.7. By image theory, this structure is equiv-
alent to a dipole of length l radiating into free space. Therefore, the electric
and magnetic fields in the far-field region are given by Eqns (3.51) and (3.50).
If the monopole is quarter wavelength long, the field expressions reduce to
 
π
cos cos θ
I0 e−jkr 2
Hφ = j (3.65)
2π r sin θ
 
π
cos cos θ
I0 e−jkr 2
Eθ = jη (3.66)
2π r sin θ

The original problem has an infinitely large ground plane and there are
no fields below the ground plane. Therefore, Eqns (3.65) and (3.66) are
to be evaluated only in the upper hemisphere, i.e., for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2 and
for 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π. The total radiated power is obtained by integrating the