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: UNIT -I
The property of matter offering resistance to any change of its state of rest or of uniform motion in a
straight line is known as inertia.
The inertia force is an imaginary force, which when acts upon a rigid body, brings it in an equilibrium
position.
D’ Alembert’s principle states that the inertia forces and torques, and the external forces and torques
acting on a body together result in statically equilibrium.
The principle of superposition states that for linear systems the individual responses to several
disturbances or driving functions can be superposed on each other to obtain the total response of the
system.
Piston effort is defined as the net or effective force applied on the piston, along the line of stroke. It is
also known as effective driving force (or) net load on the gudgeon pin.
* Crank effort is the net effort (force) applied at the crank pin perpendicular to the crank, which gives
the required turning moment on the crankshaft.
* The component of force acting along the connecting rod (F Q) perpendicular to the crank is known as
crank-pin effort.
TC = ml1 (l − L)
This couple must be applied, when the masses are placed arbitrarily to make the system dynamically
equivalent
* It is the graphical representation of the turning moment or crank effort for various position of the
crank
* In turning moment diagram, the turning moment is taken as the ordinate (Y-axis) and crank angle as
abscissa (X-axis).
9. Define inertia torque?
The inertia torque is an imaginary torque, which when applied upon the rigid body, brings it in
equilibrium position. It is equal to the acceleration couple in magnitude but opposite in direction.
The different between the maximum and the minimum energies is known as maximum fluctuation of
energy
It is the ratio of maximum fluctuation of energy to the work done per cycle.
The difference between the maximum and minimum speeds during a cycle is called maximum
fluctuation of speed.
The ratio of the maximum fluctuation of speed to the mean speed is called the coefficient of
fluctuation of speed (CS).
N1 − N 2 2( N1 − N 2 )
CS = =
N ( N1 + N 2 )
N1 + N 2
N = Mean speed =
2
The reciprocal of the coefficient of fluctuation of speed is known as coefficient of steadiness (m)
1 N
m= =
CS N1 − N 2
In both forging and pressing operations, flywheels are required to control the variations in speed
during each cycle of an engine.
Cam dynamics is the study of cam follower system with considering the dynamic forces and torques
developed in it.
Unbalance: A disc cam produces unbalance because its mass is not symmetrical with the axis of
rotation.
* Twisting effect produced in the camshaft during the raise of heavy load follower is called as windup
* Camshaft windup can be prevented to a large extend by mounting the flywheel as close as possible
to the cam.
If the moving part of a machine are not balanced completely then the inertia forces are set up which
may cause excessive noise, vibration, wear and tear of the system. So balancing of machine is
necessary.
If the rotating masses are not dynamically balanced, the unbalanced dynamic forces will cause worse
effects such as wear and tear on bearings and excessive vibrations on machines. It is very common in
cam shafts, steam turbine rotors, engine crank shafts, and centrifugal pumps, etc.
23. Unbalanced effects of shafts in high speed machines are to be closely looked into – Why?
The dynamic forces of centrifugal forces or a result of unbalanced masses are a function the angular
velocity of rotation.
i.e., FC = m 2 r
2 N
=
60
25. State the conditions for complete balance of several masses revolving in different planes of a shaft?
Yes, the grinding wheels are properly balanced by inserting some low density materials. If not the
required surface finish won’t be attained and the vibration will cause much noise.
Yes, my watch needles are properly balanced by providing some extra projection (mass) in the
opposite direction.
28. Why is only a part of the unbalanced force due to reciprocating masses balanced by revolving mass? (Or)
Balancing of reciprocating masses is done by introducing the balancing mass opposite to the crank.
The vertical component of the dynamic force of this balancing mass gives rise to “Hammer blow”. In
order to reduce the Hammer blow, a part of the reciprocating mass is balanced. Hence complete
balancing is not possible in reciprocating engines.
30. Differentiate between the unbalanced force caused due to rotating and reciprocating masses?
• Complete balancing of revolving mass can be possible. But fraction of reciprocating mass only
balanced.
• The unbalanced force due to reciprocating mass varies in magnitude but constant in direction. But
in the case of revolving masses, the unbalanced force is constant in magnitude but varies in
direction.
31. Why are the cranks of a locomotive, with two cylinders, placed 90° to each other?
In order to facilitate the starting of locomotive in any position (i.e., in order to have uniformity in
turning moment) the cranks of a locomotive are generally at 90° to one another.
The resultant unbalanced force due to the two cylinders along the line of stroke, is known as tractive
force.
The unbalanced force acting at a distance between the line of stroke of two cylinders, constitute a
couple in the horizontal direction. The couple is known as swaying couple.
35. The swaying couple is maximum or minimum when the angle of inclination of the crank to the line of
stroke (Ө) is equal to ………. And ………….?
The maximum magnitude of the unbalanced force along the perpendicular to the line of stroke is
known as hammer blow.
37. What are the effects of hammer blow and swaying couple?
• The effect of hammer blow is to cause the variation in pressure between the wheel and the rail,
such that vehicle vibrates vigorously.
• The effect of swaying couple is to make the leading wheels sway from side to side.
38. What are the condition to be satisfied for complete balance of in- line engine?
• The algebraic sum of the primary and secondary forces must be zero, and
• The algebraic sum of the couples due to primary and secondary forces must be zero.
In radial engines the connecting rods are connected to a common crank and hence the plane of
rotation of the various cranks is same, therefore there are no unbalanced primary or secondary
couples. Hence radial engines are preferred.
• Free vibrations,
• Forced vibrations, and
• Damped vibration
Free or natural vibrations: When no external force acts on the body, after giving it an initial
displacement, then the body is said to be under free or natural vibrations.
Forced vibrations: When the body vibrates under the influence of external force, then the body is said
to be under forced vibrations.
Damped vibration: When there is a reduction in amplitude over every cycle of vibration, then the
motion is said to be damped vibration.
When the frequency of external force is equal to the natural frequency of a vibrating body, the
amplitude of vibration becomes excessively large. This phenomenon is known as resonance.
47. What is the limit beyond which damping is detrimental and why?
When damping factor > 1, the aperiodic motion is resulted. That is, aperiodic motion means the
system cannot vibrate due to over damping. Once the system is disturbed, it will take infinite time to
come back to equilibrium position.
d 2 x c dx s
+ + x=0
dt 2 m dt m
2
s c
If > , then radical becomes negative. The two roots k1 and k2are known as complex
m 2m
conjugate. Then the vibration system is known as under-damping.
The system is said to be critically damped when the damping factor Ϛ = 1. If the system is critically
damped, the mass moves back very quickly to its equilibrium position within no time.
The natural frequency of transverse vibration for a shaft carrying a number of point loads and
uniformly distributed load is obtained by Dunkerley’s formula.
Dunkerley’s formula:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ............ +
( f n1 ) ( f n 2 ) ( f n3 ) ( f ns )
2 2 2 2 2
fn
The speed at which resonance occurs is called critical speed of the shaft. In other words, the speed at
which the shaft runs so that the additional deflection of the shaft from the axis of rotation becomes
infinite is known as critical speed.
52. What are the factors that affect the critical speed of a shaft?
• The eccentricity of the C.G of the rotating masses from the axis of rotation of the shaft,
• Diameter of the disc,
• Span of the shaft, and
• Type of supports connections at its ends.
53. Critical speed of shaft is the same as the natural frequency of transverse vibration. Justify?
s g
cr = n = = Hz
m
Hence proved.
54. What are the causes of critical speed? (Or) Why is critical speed encountered?
The critical speed may occur due to one or more of the following reasons:
When the particles of a shaft or disc move in a circle about the axis of the shaft, then the vibrations
are known as torsional vibrations.
• In transverse vibrations, the particles of the shaft move approximately perpendicular to the axis of
the shaft. But in torsional vibrations, the particles of the shaft move in a circle about the axis of
the shaft.
• Due to transverse vibrations, tensile and compressive stresses are induced.
• Due to torsional vibrations, torsional shear stresses are induced in the shaft.
A shaft having diameter for different lengths can be theoretically replaced by an equivalent shaft of
uniform diameter such that they have the same total angle of twist when equal opposing torques are
applied at their ends. Such a theoretically replaced shaft is known as torsion ally equivalent shaft.
1 CJ
Natural frequency of torsional vibration, f n =
2 Il
59. What are the conditions to be satisfied for an equivalent system to that of geared system in torsional
vibrations?
• The kinetic energy of the equivalent system must be equal to the kinetic energy of the original
system.
• The strain energy of the equivalent system must be equal to the strain energy of the original
system.
The number of independent coordinates required to completely define the motion of a system is known as
degree of freedom of the system.
UNIT - IV
It is defined as the ratio of actual damping coefficient (c) to the critical damping coefficient (C C)
c c
Mathematically, Damping ratio, = =
cc 2mn
Logarithmic decrement is defined as the natural logarithm of the amplitude reduction factor. The
amplitude reduction factor is the ratio of any two successive amplitudes on the same side of the mean
position.
63. Give the equation for damping factor and damped frequency ωd ?
c c
(i)Damping factor, = =
cc 2mn
The term harmonic refers to a spring-mass system with viscous damping, excited by a sinusoidal
harmonic force.
F = F0sinω t
65. What is the relationship between frequencies of undamped and damped vibrations?
d
f d 2 d
= = = 1− 2
f n n n
2
66. What is meant by dynamic magnifier or magnification factor? What are the factors on which it depend?
• It is the ratio of maximum displacement of the forced vibration (Xmax) to the deflection due to the
static force F (x0)
xmax 1 1
D= = =
x0
(1 − r ) + ( 2 r )
2 2 2
2 2 2
1 − + 2
n n
It depends on: (i) the ratio of circular frequencies( ), and
n
When a machine is supported by a spring, the spring transmits the force applied on the machine to
the fixed support or foundation. This is called transmissibility.
The ratio of force transmitted (FT) to the force applied (F) is known astransmissibility ratio
1 + ( 2 r )
2
F
= T =
F0
(1 − r ) + ( 2 r )
2 2 2
Where r = Frequency ratio = ( )
n
When machine components are suspended from elastic members, the vibrational force produced by
the machine components will not be transmitted to the foundation. This is called elastic suspension.
70. Specify any two industrial application where the transmissibility effects of vibration are important?
The term vibration isolation refers to the prevention or minimisation of vibrations and their
transmission due to the unbalanced machines.
When an unbalanced machine is installed on the foundation, it produces vibration in the foundation.
So, in order to prevent these vibrations or to minimize the transmission of forces to the foundation,
vibration isolation is important.
• Periodic forces
• Impulsive forces and
• Random forces.
d 2 x c dx s F
+ + x = 0 sin t
m
2
dt m dt m
• Rubber
• Felt
• Cork
• Metallic Springs
The process of reducing the vibrations of machines and hence reducing the transmitted force to the
foundation using vibration isolating materials is called vibration isolation.
• Isolation of force
• Isolation of motion.
Amplitude transmissibility is defined as the ratio of absolute amplitude of the mass ( xmax ) to the base
excitation amplitude(y).
UNIT - V
1 The function of a governor is to regulate The function of a flywheel is to reduce the fluctuations
the mean speed of an engine, when there of speed caused by the engine turning moment during
are variations in the load. each cycle of operation.
2 It is provided or, prime movers such as It is provided on engine and fabricating machines viz.,
engines and turbines. rolling mills, punching machines, shear machines,
presses, etc.
3 It works intermittently, i.e., only when It works continuously from cycle to cycle.
there is change in load.
4 It has no influence over cyclic speed It has no influence on mean speed of the prime mover
fluctuation
The mean force acting on the sleeve for a given percentage change of speed for lift of the sleeve is
known as the governor effort.
The power of a governor is the work done at the sleeve for a given percentage change of speed. It is
the product of the mean value of the effort and the distance through which the sleeve moves.
• The sensitiveness is defined as the ratio of the mean speed to the difference between the
maximum and minimum speeds.
• A governor is said to be sensitive, when it really responds to a small change of speed.
The phenomenon of continuous fluctuation of the engine speed above and below the mean speed is
termed as hunting. This occurs in over-sensitive governors.
A governor is said to be stable if there is only one radius of rotation for all equilibrium speeds of the
balls within the working range. If the equilibrium speed increases the radius of governor ball must also
increase.
A governor with zero range of speed is known as an isochronous governor. Actually the isochronism is
the stage of infinite sensitivity. i.e., when the equilibrium speed is constant for all radii of rotation of
rotation of the balls within the working range, the governor is said to be in isochronism.
For a Porter governor, Maximum speed (N1)and minimum speed N2 are given by
m 895
( N1 ) = m+ (1 + q ) ×
2
2 h1
m 895
( N2 ) = m+ (1 + q ) ×
2
2 h2
i.e., N1-N2 =0 ⇒ h1 = h2
It is used:
Whenever a rotating body changes its axis of rotation, a torque is applied on the rotating body. This
torque is known as gyroscopic torque.
• Steering is the turning of a complete ship in a curve towards left or right, while it moves forward.
• Pitching is the movement of a complete ship up and down in a vertical plane about transverse
axis.
• Rolling is the movement of a ship in a linear fashion.
We know that, for the effect of gyroscopic couple to occur, the axis of precession should always be
perpendicular to the axis of spin. In case of rolling of a ship, the axis of precession is always parallel to
the axis of spin for all positions. Hence there is no effect of the gyroscopic couple acting on the body
of the ship during rolling.
96. The left hand and the right hand sides of the ship when viewed from the stern are called _________ and
________ respectively?
97. Discuss the effect of the gyroscopic couple on a two wheeled vehicle when taking a turn?
The gyroscopic couple will act over the vehicle outwards. The tendency of this couple is to overturn
the vehicle in outward direction.
98. The engine of an aeroplane rotates in clockwise direction when seen from the tail end and the
aeroplane takes a turn to the left. What will be the effect of the gyroscopiccouple on the aeroplane?
The effect of gyroscopic couple will be to raise the nose and dip the tail.
If a body having moment of inertia I and rotating about its own axis at ω rad/sec is also caused to turn
at ωPrad/sec about an axis perpendicular to axis of spin, then it experiences a gyroscopic couple of
magnitude (I ω ωP) in an axis which is perpendicular to both the axis of spin and axis of precession.
Gyroscopic couple, C = I • ω • ωP