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South India Kingdom

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SANGAM AGE
• The Tamil heroic poems, popularly called the Sangam literature, constitute the-major evidence for the old
Tamil literary tradition.
• In South India, Tamil had become a literary language, i.e., a full-blown language with its own system of
writing, at least by third century BC.
• The Neolithic - Chaleolithic amalgam, which began around 2000 B.C., continued upto the middle of the
first millennium B.C. It was then overlapped by the Magalithic culture inhabited by the Megaliths builders.
• The Megalithic culture which dates to C. 500 B.C. and A.D. 100 brings us to the historical period in South

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India.
• The Megalithic culture is known not from its actual settlements, which are rare, but from its graves. These

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graves are called Megaliths because they were encircled by big pieces of stone. They contain not only
skeletons of peolple (fractional burials) who were buried but also iron objects like swords, spears, arrowheads,
axes and pottery (black-and-red pottery).
• Agricultural tools like hoes and sickles found in the graves indicate and advanced type of agriculture.
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• The Cholas, Pandyas, Cheras and Satyaputras mentioned in Ashoka's inscriptions were probably in the
Megalithic phase of material culture.
• About the beginning of the Christian era, the Megalithic culture was overlapped by what has been called
Andhra Culture, on account of occurrence of Andhra coins.
• The distinctive pottery of the period was a white painted reddish brown ware known as the Russet-coated
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Painted Ware.
• This is also the time when South India had a large volume of trade with the Roman world, as shown by
the occurrence, at numerous sites of Roman coins, glass work and pottery, the most noteworthy in the
last item being the arrentine and the amphora.
• The cultural and economic contacts between the north and the deep south paved the way for the introduction
of material culture brought from the north to the deep south by traders, conquerors, Jainas, Buddhists and
some Brahmana missionaries.
• From the second century B.C., there was formation of state system, rise of social classes, use of writing,
beginning of written literature, etc.
• The land south of the Krishna River was divided into three kingdoms - Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras or
Keralas.
• The Pandyas are first mentioned by Megasthenes who speaks of the Pandya kingdom being ruled by a
woman and that even seven year old mothers were found in the Pandya country; this may suggest some
matriarchal influence in the Pandya society.

• According to Megasthenes Pandyan kingdom was celebrated for pearls.


Notes

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• The three kingdoms - Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras, together with Satiyaputras (Satyaputra) are referred to
as independent states by Ashoka in his inscriptions with which he maintained friendly relations.

• The name Satiyaputras is otherwise is an unknown name and has not yet been satisfactorily identified.

• The word 'Sangam' is associated with South Indian history where a college or assembly of Tamil scholars
and poets flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings at Madurai.

• Hence the age is known as 'Sangam Age', which extends roughly between 300 B.C. and 300 A.D.

• According to Tamil legends, there existed three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) in ancient Tamil
Nadu popularly called Muchchangam.

• These Sangams flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandyas.

• The first Sangam, held at then Madurai, was attended by gods and legendary sages but no literary work
of this Sangam was available.

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• The second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram but the all the literary works had perished except
Tolkappiyam.
OR
• The third Sangam at Madurai was founded by Mudathirumaran. It was attended by a large number of
poets who produced voluminous literature but only a few had survived.

• These Tamil literary works remain useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam Age.

Sangam Literature
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• The Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and the two
epics- Silappathigaram and Manimegalai.
• Tolkappiyam authored by Tolkappiyar is the earliest of the Tamil literature. It is a work on Tamil grammar
but it provides information on the political and socio-economic conditions of the Sangam period.
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• The Ettutogai or Eight Anthologies consist of eight works - Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru,
Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppattu.
• The Pattuppattu or Ten Idylls consist of ten works - Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai,
Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu,
Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam.
• Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were divided into two main groups - Aham (love) and Puram (valour).
• Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works mostly dealing with ethics and morals.
• The most important among them is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar.
• Silappathigaram written by Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar also provides valuable
information on the Sangam polity and society.

Other Sources
• In addition to the Sangam literature, the Greek authors like Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy
mention the commercial contacts between the West and South India.
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• The Asokan inscriptions mention the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers on the south of the Mauryan empire.

• The Hathikumbha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga also mentions about Tamil kingdoms.

• The excavations at Arikkamedu, Poompuhar, Kodumanal and other places reveal the overseas commercial
activities of the Tamils.

Period of Sangam Literature


• The chronology of the Sangam literature is still a disputed topic among the scholars.

• The sheet anchor of Sangam chronology lies in the fact that Gajabhagu II of Sri Lanka and Cheran
Senguttuvan of the Chera dynasty were contemporaries. This is confirmed by Silappathigaram as well as
the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa.

• Also the Roman coins issued by Roman emperors of the first century A.D were found in plenty in various

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places of Tamil Nadu.

• Therefore, the most probable date of the Sangam literature has been fixed between the third century B.C.


OR
to third century A.D. on the basis of literary, archaeological and numismatic evidences.

Political History
The Tamil country was ruled by three dynasties namely the Chera, Chola and Pandyas during the Sangam
Age.
SC
• The political history of these dynasties can be traced from the literary references.
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Notes

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The Cholas

• The Cholas Kingdom was situated between the Pennar and the Velar rivers were the most powerful of all
three kingdoms.

• Their chief centre of political power was at Uraiyar, a place famous for cotton trade.

• In the middle of second century B.C., a Chola king named Elara Conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over it
for nearly 50 years. He was the first important Chola king.

• A firmer history of the Cholas begins in the second century A.D. when their greatest and most famous
king Karikala, or the man with charred leg, who founded the port city of Puhar (identical with
Kaveripattinam) and constructed 160 km of embankment along the Kaveri River.

• Puhar or Kaveripattanam was Chola capital. Puhar was also a great centre of trade and commerce.

• Trade in cotton cloth was one of the main sources of Cholas wealth.

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• The Cholas also maintained an efficient navy.

The Cheras
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• The Cheras or the Kerala country was situated to the west and north of the land of the Pandyas covering
some portions of Tamil Nadu also.

• The history of the Cheras was marked by continuous fight with the Cholas and the Pandyas.
SC

• Nedunjeral Adan, the first known Chera king, earned the title of 'Udiyanjiral'.

• He also bore the title of 'Imayavarambam' or he who had the Himalayas for his boundary.'

• Senguttuvan, the Red or Good Chera, according to the Chera poets, was the great Chera king. It is said
that he had invaded the north and crossed the Ganga.
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• He build a temple for Kannagi, the Goddess of Chastity. The worship of Kannagi is known as the Pattini-
cult, which was stabilized by him.

• After the second century A.D., the Cehra power declined, and nothing of its history until the eighth
century A.D. is known.

• The capital of the Cheras was Vanji or Kaur.

• The Cheras owed its importance to trade with the Romans. They also build a temple of Augustus there.

The Pandyas

• The Pandyan kingdom occupied the south-most and the south-eastern portion of the Indian Peninsula,
with Madurai as it capital.

• The Pandyas were one of the most ancient dynasties to rule South India and are mentioned in Kautilya's
Arhasastra and Megasthenes' Indica.

• The Sangam age started form a Pandya king and, as per Sangam literature, there were at least twenty kings
in this dynasty.
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• Legendary and traditional accounts mention the loss of many Sangam texts on account of a 'deluge' which
compelled the Pandyan kings to shift their capital first from Ten-Madurai to Kapatapuram and then from
there to Madurai on the Vaigai.

• The most prominent among them was Nedunzalian, who made Madurai his capital.

• Another king was Madaranjeral Irumporai who sent embassies to Roman emperor Augusts and performed
Vedic sacrifices.

• Pandya rulers exercised a clan-rule under several lineages, each bearing Tamil names ending with suffixes
such as Valuti and Celiyan.

• The Pandyas acquired their resources in inter-tribal conflicts with the Cheras and Cholas, and luxury goods
from their maritime trade with countries further west.

• The Pandyas founded a Tamil Literary academy called the Sangam, at Madurai

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• They adopted the Vedic religion of sacrifice and patronized Brahmin priests.


OR
The Pandyas profited from trade with the Roman Empire.

Their power declined with the invasion of a tribe called the Kalabhras.

After the Sangam Age, this dynasty lost its significance for more than century, only to rise once again at
the end of the 6th century.
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• Their first significant ruler was Dundungan (590-620) who defeated the Kalabars and brought the Pandyas
back to the path of glory.

• The last known Pandya king, Parakramadeva, was defeated by Usaf Khan a viceroy of Muhmmad-bin-
Tughlaq when the Tughlaq dynasty was in process of extending their kingdom up to Kanyakumari.
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Minor Chieftains

• The minor chieftains played a significant role in the Sangam period and among them Pari, Kari, Ori, Nalli,
Pegan, Ay and Adiyaman were popular for their philanthropy and patronage of Tamil poets.

• They were known as Kadai Yelu Vallalgal. Although they were subordinate to the Chera, Chola and
Pandya rulers, they were powerful and popular in their respective regions.

Sangam Polity
• Hereditary monarchy was the form of government during the Sangam period.

• The king had also taken the advice of his minister, court-poet and the imperial court or avai.

• The Chera kings assumed titles like Vanavaramban, Vanavan, Kuttuvan, Irumporai and Villavar, the Chola
kings like Senni, Valavan and Killi and the Pandya kings Thennavar and Minavar.

• Each of the Sangam dynasties had a royal emblem - carp for the Pandyas, tiger for the Cholas and bow
for the Cheras.

• The imperial court or avai was attended by a number of chiefs and officials.
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• The king was assisted by a large body of officials who were divided into five councils. They were ministers
(amaichar), priests (anthanar), military commanders (senapathi), envoys (thuthar) and spies (orrar).

• The military administration was also efficiently organized during the Sangam Age and each ruler had a
regular army and their respective Kodimaram (tutelary tree).

• Land revenue was the chief source of state's income while custom duty was also imposed on foreign trade.

• The Pattinappalai refers to the custom officials employed in the seaport of Puhar.

• Booty captured in wars was also a major income to the royal treasury.

• Roads and highways were well maintained and guarded night and day to prevent robbery and smuggling.

Sangam Society
• Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold division of lands - Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam
(agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai (desert).

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• The people living in these five divisions had their respective chief occupations as well as gods for worship.
OR
– Kurinji - chief deity was Murugan - chief occupation, hunting and honey collection.
– Mullai - chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) - chief occupation, cattle-rearing and dealing with dairy products.
– Marudam - chief deity Indira - chief occupation, agriculture.
– Neydal - chief deity Varunan - chief occupation fishing and salt manufacturing.
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– Palai - chief deity Korravai - chief occupation robbery.

• Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes namely arasar, anthanar, vanigar and vellalar.

• The ruling class was called arasar.

• Anthanars played a significant role in the Sangam polity and religion.


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• Vanigars carried on trade and commerce.

• The vellalas were agriculturists.

• Other tribal groups like Parathavar, Panar, Eyinar, Kadambar, Maravar and Pulaiyar were also found in the
Sangam society.

• Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.

Religion
• The primary deity of the Sangam period was Seyon or Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God.
• The worship of Murugan was having an ancient origin and the festivals relating to God Murugan was
mentioned in the Sangam literature.
• Murugan was honoured with six abodes known as Arupadai Veedu.
• Other gods worshipped during the Sangam period were Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indiran), Varunan and
Korravai.
Notes

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• The Hero Stone or Nadu Kal worship was significant in the Sangam period and was erected in memory
of the bravery shown by the warrior in battle.

• Many hero stones with legends inscribed on them were found in different parts of Tamil Nadu. This kind
of worshipping the deceased has a great antiquity.

Position of Women
• There is a plenty of information in the Sangam literature to trace the position of women during the
Sangam age.

• Women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this period and contributed
to Tamil literature.

• The courage of women was also appreciated in many poems.

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• Karpu or Chaste life was considered the highest virtue of women.

• Love marriage was a common practice.


Women were allowed to choose their life partners.

However, the life of widows was miserable.


OR
• The practice of Sati was also prevalent in the higher strata of society.
SC
• The class of dancers was patronized by the kings and nobles.

Fine Arts
• Poetry, music and dancing were popular among the people of the Sangam age.

• Liberal donations were given to poets by the kings, chieftains and nobles.
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• The royal courts were crowded with singing bards called Panar and Viraliyar. They were experts in folk
songs and folk dances.

• The arts of music and dancing were highly developed.

• A variety of Yazhs and drums are referred to in the Sangam literature.

• Dancing was performed by Kanigaiyar.

• Koothu was the most popular entertainment of the people.

Economy of the Sangam Age


• Agriculture was the chief occupation and Rice was the common crop.

• Ragi, sugarcane, cotton, pepper, ginger, turmeric, cinnamon and a variety of fruits were the other crops.

• Jack fruit and pepper were famous in the Chera country.

• Paddy was the chief crop in the Chola and Pandya country.
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• The handicrafts of the Sangam period were popular and include weaving, metal works and carpentry, ship
building and making of ornaments using beads, stones and ivory.

• There was a great demand for these products, as the internal and external trade was at its peak during the
Sangam period.

• Spinning and weaving of cotton and silk clothes attained a high quality.

• The poems mention the cotton clothes as thin as a cloud of steam or a slough of a snake.

• There was a great demand in the western world for the cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur.

• Both internal and foreign trade was well organized and briskly carried on in the Sangam Age. The Sangam
literature, Greek and Roman accounts and the archaeological evidences provide detailed information on
this subject.

• Merchants carried the goods on the carts and on animal-back from place to place.

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• Internal trade was mostly based on the barter system.

• External trade was carried between South India and the Greek kingdoms.
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• After the ascendancy of the Roman Empire, the Roman trade assumed importance.

• The port city of Puhar became an emporium of foreign trade, as big ships entered this port with precious
goods.
SC

• Other ports of commercial activity include Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam.

• The author of Periplus provides the most valuable information on foreign trade.

• Plenty of gold and silver coins issued by the Roman Emperors like Augustus, Tiberius and Nero were
found in all parts of Tamil Nadu which reveals the extent of the trade and the presence of Roman traders
in the Tamil country.
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• The main exports of the Sangam age were cotton fabrics, spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon
and turmeric, ivory products, pearls and precious stones. Gold, horses and sweet wine were the chief
imports.

End of the Sangam Age


• Towards the end of the third century A.D., the Sangam period slowly witnessed its decline.

• The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country for about two and a half centuries.

• Jainism and Buddhism became prominent during this period.

• The Pallavas in the northern Tamil Nadu and Pandyas in southern Tamil Nadu drove the Kalabhras out
of the Tamil country and established their rule.
Notes

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THE PALLAVAS
• After the decline of the Sangam Age in the Tamil country, the Kalabhra rule lasted for about 250 years.

• Thereafter, the Pallavas established their kingdom in Tondaimandalam with its capital at Kanchipuram.
Their rule continued till Tondaimandalam was captured and annexed by the Imperial Cholas in the
beginning of the tenth century A.D.

Origin of the Pallavas

• According to one school, they were a branch of Parthians, but there is no evidence for the migration of

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the Parthians into the south.

• Another school opines that the Pallavas were a branch of the Brahmin royal dynasty of the Vakatakas of


Pallavas.
OR
the Deccan, but again there is no direct evidence of any connection between the Vakatakas and the

The third school maintains that it was an indigenous dynasty and rose to power after the dismemberment
of the lkshvaku kingdom. In other words, they were the indigenous Nagas.
SC
GS

Political History

• Sirnhavishnu (560-90)

• He is considered the first important Pallava ruler, though Pallavas existed even during the time of
Samudragupta's invasion of south India.
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• He is credited with capturing the territory of the Cholas and humiliating his other southern neighbours
including Ceylon.

• He followed Vaishnavism, as is evident from archaeological evidence.


• Mahendravarman I (590-630)
• During his reign began the long drawn out struggle between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas.
• He was defeated by Pulakesin II and a part of his kingdom was occupied.
• Narasimhavarman I (630-68)
• He is considered the greatest of the Pallava rulers and is credited with repelling the second invasion of
Pulakesin II, killing him and capturing the Chalukyan capital, Badami. Hence he assumed the title of
`Vatapikonda' (Conqueror of Vatapi).
• He also defeated the Cholas, the Cheras and the Pandyas, thus becoining supreme in south India.

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• He sent two naval expeditions to Ceylon and helped his ally, a Ceylonese prince, to capture the throne
of Ceylon.
OR
• He was a great builder having constructed Mamallapuram and the various buildings in it.
• Another significant thing about his reign was the visit of Hiuen Tsang to Kanchi.
• Mahendravarman II (668-70)
• He ruled for a very short period, since he was killed by Chalukya king, Vikramaditya I (son of Pulakesin
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II).
• Paramesvaravarman 1 (670-700)
• He had to face the invading forces of Vikramaditya I, but finally succeeded in defeating and driving them
back after repeated efforts.
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• Narasimhavarman II (100-28)
• His rule is marked by peace and prosperity, literary activity, and the construction of large and beautiful
temples like the Shore temple at Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi.
• He is also said to have sent embassies to China; and maritime trade flourished during his reign.
• Paramesvaravarman II (728-31)
• The Pallava kingdom again had to face defeat and humiliation during his reign.
• The Chalukya, Vikramaditya II attacked the Pallava capital and Paramesvaravarman had to conclude a
humiliating treaty with him.
• When the Pallava ruler tried to retaliate, he was killed by the Ganga ally of the Chalukyas.
• Nandivarman II (731-96)

• The Chalukya, Vikramaditya II again invaded and captured the Pallava capital during his reign, but
Vikramaditya showed consideration and restraint in treating the vanquished, the only instance of restraint
in the whole of the suicidal Chalukya-Pallava conflict, and withdrew from Kanchi without destroying it.
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• Nandi soon strengthened himself and defeated the Chalukya ally, the Gangas. But he had to meet defeat
at the hands of the Pandyas. And after this defeat, he concentrated on domestic matters.

• He was a worshipper of Vishnu and a great patron of learning.

• During his reign, several old temples were renovated and new ones like the Vaikuntaperumal temple at
Kanchi were constructed.

• Successors of Nandivarman II were Dantivarman (796-847), Nandivarman III (847-69), Nripatunga (869-
99) and Aparajita (899-903).

• The last nail in the coffin was driven by Aditya Chola by defeating Aparajita Pallava towards the end of
the ninth century AD.

• However, the Pallava chiefs continued to exist till the end of the 13th century AD as feudatories.

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Administration of the Pallavas

• The Pallavas had a well organized administrative system.


The Pallava state was divided into Kottams.
OR
The Kottam was administered by officers appointed by the king.

• The king was at the centre of administration in which he was assisted by able ministers.
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• The king was the fountain of justice.

• The king maintained a well-trained army.

• The king provided land-grants to the temples known as Devadhana and also to the Brahmans known as
Brahmadeya.
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• It was also the responsibility of the central government to provide irrigation facilities to the lands. A
number of irrigation tanks were dug by the Pallava kings.

• The irrigation tanks at Mahendravadi and Mamandoor were dug during the reign of Mahendravarman I.

• Detailed information on the tax system could also be traced from the Pallava inscriptions.

• Land tax was the primary source of the government revenue.

• The Brahmadeya and Devadhana lands were exempted from tax.

• Traders and artisans such as carpenters, goldsmiths, washer-men, oil-pressers and weavers paid taxes to the
government.

• The Pallava inscriptions throw much light on the village assemblies called sabhas and their committees.

• They maintained records of all village lands, looked after local affairs and managed temples.

Society under the Pallavas

• The Tamil society witnessed a great change during the Pallava period.
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• The caste system became rigid.

• The Brahmins occupied a high place in the society. They were given land-grants by the kings and nobles.
They were also given the responsibility of looking after the temples.

• The Pallava period also witnessed the rise of Saivism and Vaishnavism and also the decline of Buddhism
and Jainism.

• The Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava Alwars contributed to the growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism.
This is known as the Bakthi Movement. They composed their hymns in the Tamil language. These hymns
revealed the importance of devotion or Bakthi. The construction of temples by the Pallava kings paved
the way for the spread of these two religions.

Education and Literature


• The Pallavas were great patrons of learning and their capital Kanchi was an ancient centre of learning.
• The Ghatika at Kanchi was popular and it attracted students from all parts of India and abroad.

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• The founder of the Kadamba dynasty, Mayurasarman studied Vedas at Kanchi.
OR
• Dinganaga, a Buddhist writer came to study at Kanchi. Dharmapala, who later became the Head of the
Nalanada University, belonged to Kanchi.
• Bharavi, the great Sanskrit scholar lived in the time of Simhavishnu. Dandin, another Sanskrit writer
adorned the court of Narasimhavarman II.
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• Mahendravaraman I composed the Sanskrit play Mattavilasaprahasanam.


• Tamil literature had also developed and the Nayanmars and Alwars composed religious hymns in Tamil.
• The Devaram composed by Nayanmars and the Nalayradivyaprabandam composed by Alwars represent
the religious literature of the Pallava period.
• Perundevanar was patronized by Nandivarman II and he translated the Mahabharata as Bharathavenba in
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Tamil.
• Nandikkalambagam was another important work but the name of the author of this work is not known.
• Music and dance also developed during this period.
Religion
• The Pallavas were orthodox Brahmanical Hindus and their patronage was responsible for the great reformation
of the medieval ages.
• Most of the Pallava kings were devotees of Siva, the exceptions being Simhavishnu and Nandivarman
who were worshippers of Vishnu.
• Mahendravarman I was the first to be influenced by the famous Saivite saints of the age.
• Besides worshipping Siva, he also showed reverence to other Hindu gods.
• Pallavas were tolerant towards other religions like Buddhism and Jainism. However, some of the sects like
Buddhism were losing their former glory to Saivism.
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• The Vedic tradition in general bossed over the local tradition. Sankaracharya in fact gave this stimulus to
Vedic tradition.Tamil saints of the sixth and seventh centuries AD were the progenitors of the bhakti
movement.

• The hymns and sermons of the Nayanars (Saivite saints) and Alvars (Vaishnavite saints) continued the
tradition of bhakti.

• Saivite saints were Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar, and others. Most remarkable thing about this age was
the presence of women saints such as Andal (an Alvar).

Pallava Art and Architecture


• The Pallavas introduced the art of excavating temples from the rock. In fact, the Dravidian style of temple
architecture began with the Pallava rule.
• It was a gradual evolution starting from the cave temples to monolithic rathas and culminated in structural

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temples.
• The development of temple architecture under the Pallavas can be seen in four stages.

OR
Mahendravarman I introduced the rock-cut temples. This style of Pallava temples are seen at places like
Mandagappattu, Mahendravadi, Mamandur, Dalavanur, Tiruchirappalli, Vallam, Siyamangalam and
Tirukalukkunram.
• The second stage of Pallava architecture is represented by the monolithic rathas and Mandapas found at
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Mamallapuram. Narasimhavarman I took the credit for these wonderful architectural monuments. The
five rathas, popularly called as the Panchapanadava rathas, signifies five different styles of temple
architecture. The mandapas contain beautiful sculptures on its walls. The most popular of these mandapas
are Mahishasuramardhini Mandapa, Tirumurthi Mandapam and Varaha Madapam.
• In the next stage, Rajasimha introduced the structural temples. These temples were built by using the soft
sand rocks. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and the Shore temple at Mamallapuram remain the finest
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examples of the early structural temples of the Pallavas. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi is the
greatest architectural master piece of the Pallava art.
• The last stage of the Pallava art is also represented by structural temples built by the later Pallavas. The
Vaikundaperumal temple, Muktheeswara temple and Matagenswara temples at Kanchipuram belong to
this stage of architecture.
• The Pallavas had also contributed to the development of sculpture.
• Apart from the sculptures found in the temples, the 'Open Art Gallery' at Mamallapuram remains an
important monument bearing the sculptural beauty of this period.
• The Descent of the Ganges or the Penance of Arjuna is called a fresco painting in stone.
• The minute details as well as the theme of these sculptures such as the figures of lice-picking monkey,
elephants of huge size and the figure of the 'ascetic cat' standing erect show highly evovled sculpture era.
Fine Arts
• Music, dance and painting had also developed under the patronage of the Pallavas.

• The Mamandur inscription contains a note on the notation of vocal music.


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• The Kudumianmalai inscription referred to musical notes and instruments.

• The Alwars and Nayanmars composed their hymns in various musical notes.

• Dance and drama also developed during this period.

• The sculptures of this period depict many dancing postures.

• The Sittannavasal paintings belonged to this period.

• The commentary called Dakshinchitra was compiled during the reign of Mahendravarman I, who had the
title Chittirakkarapuli.

Spread of Indian Culture

• Pallavas were also instrumental in spreading Indian culture in South-East Asia.

• Till the eighth century AD Pallava influence was predominant in Cambodia. Saivism enjoyed official
patronage in these countries.

E
The Pallava type of sikhara is to be found in the temples of Java, Cambodia and Annam.
OR
SC
GS
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THE CHALUKYAS
• Besides the Pallavas, the Western Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan constitute important
political forces.

• Both these kingdoms had their rivals in the far south, namely the Pallavas and later the Cholas.

• Their period has also been important in the history of India for their cultural contributions.

E
OR
SC
GS

• According to Bilhana, the author of Vilawnankacharita and the court poet of one of the Kayani Chalukyan
rulers, their original home of the Chalukyas was Ayodhya.

• Also, the later Chalukyan inscriptions lay claim to Ayodhya as their ancestral home, but all this seems
to have been done to claim legitimacy and respectability.

• According to another opinion the Chalukyas were related to Gurjaras, but there is no direct evidence for
this opinion also.

• The Chalukyas, according, to third opinion, were a local Kanarese people, who improvised into the ruling
varna under Brahmanical influence. The third opinion seems to be more probable, though there is no
sufficient evidence for this also.

• The Western Chalukyas ruled over an extensive area in the Deccan for about two centuries after which
the Rashtrakutas became powerful.
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• The family of Western Chalukyas had its offshoots like the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and the Chalukyas
of Kalyani.

• Pulakesin I was the founder of the Chalukya dynasty who eestablished a small kingdom with Vatapi or
Badami as its capital.

Political History
• Kirtivarman I (566-97)
• The son and successor of Pulakesin I, he expanded the kingdom by wars against the Kadambas of
Banavasi and the Nalas of Bastar.
• Mangalesa (597-609)
• On the death of Kirtivarman, his brother Mangalesa became the regent, since his son, Pulakesin II was
a minor.

E
• Mangalesa plundered the territories of Gujarat, Khandesh and Malwa.
• Pulakesin II (608-642 A.D.)
OR
• The most important ruler of this dynasty was Pulakesin II.
• The Aihole inscription issued by him gives the details of his reign.
• He fought with the Kadambas of Banavasi and the Gangas of Mysore and established his suzerainty.
SC

• Durvinita, the Ganga ruler accepted his overlordship and even gave his daughter in marriage to Pulakesin
II.
• Another notable achievement of Pulakesin II was the defeat of Harshavardhana on the banks of the river
Narmada. He put a check to the ambition of Harsha to conquer the south.
• In his first expedition against the Pallavas, Pulakesin II emerged victorious. But he suffered a humiliating
GS

defeat at the hands of Narasimhavarman I near Kanchi.


• Subsequently, the Chalukya capital Vatapi was captured and destroyed by the Pallavas.
• The most important event in the reign of Pulakesin II was the visit of Hiuen Tsang to his kingdom.
• The description given by this Chinese pilgrim of the kingdom of Pulakesin is quite useful in knowing the
social and economic conditions under the Chalukya rulers of Badami.
• Vikramaditya 1 (644-81): After an occupation of about 12 years, he not only drove out the Pallava forces,
but also consolidated the kingdom and plundered the Pallava capital, Kanchi, thus avenging his father's
defeat and death at the hands of the Pallavas.
• Vinayaditya (681-93): His reign was generally peaceful and prosperous.
• Vijayaditya (693-733): It was the longest and also the most prosperous and peaceful reign. It was marked
by great increase in temple building.

• Vikramaditya 11 (733-44): His reign is significant for the successful invasion of the Pallava kingdom three
times, and the repelling of the Arab invasion of south Gujarat.
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• Kirtivarmin 11 (744-55): This last Chalukyan ruler of Badami was defeated by Dantidurga, the founder
of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, and thus came an end to the Chalukya dynasty of Badami.

Administration

• The central government under the Chalukyas of Badami exercised a paternalistic control over the village
administration, which was unlike the administrative practice of south India.

• The main difference between the Chalukyan administration and that of south Indian rulers like Pallavas
and Cholas, was that the south India rulers allowed a great amount of autonomy to the village administration,
while the Chalukyas of western Deccan did not.

• The Chalukyas of Badami are said to have been a great maritime power.

• Pulakesin II, with 100 ships, attacked and captured the capital of a hostile country.

E
• The army of the Chalukyas consisted of a small standing army, but mainly of feudal levies.

• Army officers have been used in civil administration whenever an emergency arose.


OR
Religion

The Badami Chalukyas were Brahmanical Hindus, but respected other faiths too.

• Great importance came to be attached to Vedic sacrifices and rituals.


SC
• Pulakesin I, the founder of the dynasty, performed the asvamedha sacrifice.

• Quite a few Brahmanical treatises were also composed during this period.

• Apart from the orthodox form of Brahmanism, Puranic religion also grew popular under the Chalukyas.
It was, in fact, this popularity that gave momentum to the building of temples in honour of Vishnu, Siva
and other gods.
GS

• From the account of Hiuen Tsang, it is clear that Buddhism was on the decline in western Deccan. This
decline of Buddhism in western Deccan was in keeping with its general decline throughout India from the
fifth and sixth centuries AD.

• But Jainism, on the other hand, was steadily increasing its popularity, and the decline of Buddhism, in fact,
helped it.

Art and Architecture

• The Chalukyas were great patrons of art and developed the vesara style in the building of structural
temples. However, the vesara style reached its culmination only under the Rashtrakutas and the Hoysalas.

• The structural temples of the Chalukyas exist at Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal.

• Cave temple architecture was also famous under the Chalukyas and their cave temples are found in Ajanta,
Ellora and Nasik.

• The best specimens of Chalukya paintings can be seen in the Badami cave temple and in the Ajanta caves.

• The reception given to a Persian embassy by Pulakesin II is depicted in a painting at Ajanta.


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• The Chalukya temples may be divided into two stages.

• The first stage is represented by the temples at Aihole and Badami.

– Among the seventy temples found at Aihole, four are important.


1. Ladh Khan temple is a low, flat-roofed structure consisting of a pillared hall.
2. Durga temple resembles a Buddha Chaitya.
3. Huchimalligudi temple.
4. The Jain temple at Meguti.

– Among the temples at Badami, the Muktheeswara temple and the Melagutti Sivalaya are notable for their
architectural beauty.

– A group of four rock-cut temples at Badami are marked by high workmanship. The walls and pillared halls
are adorned by beautiful images of gods and human beings.

E
• The second stage is represented by the temples at Pattadakal.
OR
• There are ten temples here, four in the northern style and the remaining six in the Dravidian style.

• The Papanatha temple is the most notable in the northern style.

• The Sangamesvara temple and the Virupaksha temple are famous for their Dravidian style.
SC

• The Virupaksha temple is built on the model of the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram. It was built by
one of the queens of Vikramaditya II. Sculptors brought from Kanchi were employed in its construction.

• The Chalukyan period was marked by frequent invasions and plunder of the neighbouring territories.

• The state income from land seems to have been very limited, since most of the land under the Chalukyas
was rocky and not fertile.
GS

• The earnings from the trading activities also were not considerable, since trade and commerce in India
during this period was on the general decline. Hence, the Chalukyas resorted to frequent invasions and
plunder of the neighbouring territories. The mutually destructive Chalukya-Pallava conflict can be properly
understood only in this background.
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THE CHOLAS
• After the decline of the Sangam period, the Cholas became feudatories in Uraiyur. They became prominent
in the ninth century and established an empire comprising the major portion of South India. Their capital
was Tanjore.
• The Cholas also extended their sway in Sri Lanka and the Malay Peninsula. Therefore, they are called as
the Imperial Cholas.
• Thousands of inscriptions found in the temples provide detailed information regarding the administration,
society, economy and culture of the Chola period.

E
OR
SC
GS

• The founder of the Imperial Chola line was Vijayalaya. He captured Tanjore from Muttaraiyars in 815
A.D. and built a temple for Durga.
• Vijayalaya son Aditya put an end to the Pallava kingdom by defeating Aparajita and annexed
Tondaimandalam.
• Parantaka I was one of the important early Chola rulers. He defeated the Pandyas and the ruler of Ceylon.
But he suffered a defeat at the hands of the Rashtrakutas in the famous battle of Takkolam.
• Parantaka I was a great builder of temples. He also provided the vimana of the famous Nataraja temple
at Chidambaram with a golden roof.
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• The two famous Uttiramerur inscriptions that give a detailed account of the village administration under
the Cholas belong to his reign.
• After a gap of thirty years, the Cholas regained their supremacy under Rajaraja I.

Political History
Rajaraja I (985 - 1014 A.D.)
• Under Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I the Chola power reached its highest point of glory.
• His military conquests were:
– The defeat of the Chera rulerBhaskararavivarman in the naval battle of Kandalursalai and the
destruction of the Chera navy.
– The defeat of the Pandya ruler, Amarabhujanga and establishment of Chola authority in the Pandya
country.
– The conquest of Gangavadi, Tadigaipadi and Nolambapadi located in the Mysore region.

E
The invasion of Sri Lanka which was entrusted to his son Rajendra I. As the Sri Lankan king Mahinda
OR
V fled away from his country, the Cholas annexed the northern Sri Lanka. The capital was shifted
from Anuradhapura to Polanaruva where a Shiva temple was built
– The Chola victory over the growing power of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani. Satyasraya was
defeated and Rajaraja I captured the Raichur Doab, Banavasi and other places. Hence the Chola
power extended up to the river Tungabadhra.
SC

– The restoration of Vengi throne to its rulers Saktivarman and Vimaladitya by defeating the Telugu
Chodas. Rajaraja gave his daughter Kundavai in marriage to Vimaladitya.
– Rajaraja's last military achievement was a naval expedition against the Maldive Islands which were
conquered.
• By these conquests, the extent of the Chola empire under Rajaraja I included the Pandya, Chera and the
GS

Tondaimandalam regions of Tamil Nadu and the Gangavadi, Nolambapadi and the Telugu Choda territories
in the Deccan and the northern part of Ceylon and the Maldive Islands beyond India.
• Rajaraja assumed a number of titles like Mummidi Chola, Jayankonda and Sivapadasekara.
• Rajaraja was a devout follower of Saivism.
• Rajaraja completed the construction of the famous Rajarajeswara temple or Brihadeeswara temple at
Tanjore in 1010 A.D.
• Rajaraja also helped in the construction of a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam.
Rajendra I (1012-1044 A.D.)
• Rajendra demonstrated his military ability by participating in his father's campaigns and continued his
father's policy of aggressive conquests and expansion.
• His important wars were:
– Mahinda V, the king of Sri Lanka attempted to recover from the Cholas the northern part of Ceylon.
Rajendra defeated him and seized the southern Sri Lanka. Thus the whole of Sri Lanka was made
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part of the Chola Empire.


– He reasserted the Chola authority over the Chera and Pandya countries.
– He defeated Jayasimha II, the Western Chalukya king and the river Tungabadhra was recognised as
the boundary between the Cholas and Chalukyas.
– His most famous military enterprise was his expedition to north India. The Chola army crossed the
Ganges by defeating a number of rulers on its way. Rajendra defeated Mahipala I of Bengal. To
commemorate this successful north-Indian campaign Rajendra founded the city of
Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed the famous Rajesvaram temple in that city. He also excavated
a large irrigation tank called Cholagangam on the western side of the city.
– Another famous venture of Rajendra was his naval expeditionto Kadaram or Sri Vijaya. It is difficult
to pin point the real object of the expedition. Whatever its objects were, the naval expedition was a
complete success. A number of places were occupied by Chola forces. But it was only temporary and
no permanent annexation of these places was contemplated. He assumed the title Kadaramkondan.

E
• Rajendra I had put down all rebellions and kept his empire intact and at the death of Rajendra I the extent
of the Chola Empire was at its peak.


Lanka formed part of the empire. OR
The river Tungabadhra was the northern boundary. The Pandya, Kerala and Mysore regions and also Sri

He gave his daughter Ammangadevi to the Vengi Chalukya prince and further continued the matrimonial
alliance initiated by his father.
SC
• Rajendra I assumed a number of titles, the most famous being Mudikondan, Gangaikondan, Kadaram
Kondan and Pandita Cholan.
• Like his father he was also a devout Saiva and built a temple for that god at the new capital
Gangaikondacholapuram.
• He made liberal endowments to this temple and to the Lord Nataraja temple at Chidambaram.
GS

• He was also tolerant towards the Vaishnava and Buddhist sects.


• After Rajendra I, the greatness of the Chola power was preserved by rulers like Kulottunga I and Kulottunga
III.
• Kulottunga I was the grandson of Rajendra I through his daughter Ammangadevi.
• Kulottunga I succeeded the Chola throne and thus united the Vengi kingdom with the Chola Empire.
• During Kulottunga I reign Sri Lanka became independent. Subsequently, Vengi and the Mysore region were
captured by the western Chalukyas.
• Kulottunga I sent a large embassy of 72 merchants to China and maintained cordial relations with the
kingdom of Sri Vijaya.
• Under Kulottunga III the central authority became weak.
• The rise of the feudatories like the Kadavarayas and the emergence of the Pandya power as a challenge
to Chola supremacy contributed to the ultimate downfall of the Chola Empire.
• Rajendra III was the last Chola king who was defeated by Jatavarman Sundarapandya II.
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• The Chola country was absorbed into the Pandya Empire.

Chola Administration
Central Government
• The Cholas had an excellent system of administration.
• The emperor or king was at the top of the administration.
• The extent and resources of the Chola Empire increased the power and prestige of monarchy.
• The big capital cities like Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram, the large royal courts and extensive grants
to the temples reveal the authority of the king.
• They undertook royal tours to increase the efficiency of the administration.
• There was elaborate administrative machinery comprising various officials called perundanam and sirudanam.
Revenue

E
• The land revenue department was known as puravuvarithinaikkalam.
OR
• All lands were carefully surveyed and classified for assessment of revenue.
• The residential portion of the village was called ur nattam. These and other lands such as the lands
belonging to temples were exempted from tax.
• Besides land revenue, there were tolls and customs on goods taken from one place to another, various
kinds of professional taxes, dues levied on ceremonial occasions like marriages and judicial fines.
SC

• During the hard times, there were remission of taxes and Kulottunga I became famous by abolishing tolls
and earned the title - Sungam Tavirtta Cholan.
• The main items of government expenditure were the king and his court, army and navy, roads, irrigation
tanks and canals.
GS

Military Administration
• The Cholas maintained a regular standing army consisting of elephants, cavalry, infantry and navy.
• About seventy regiments were mentioned in the inscriptions.
• The royal troops were called Kaikkolaperumpadai.
• Within this there was a personal troop to defend the king known as Velaikkarar.
• Attention was given to the training of the army and military cantonments called kadagams existed.
• The Cholas paid special attention to their navy.
• The naval achievements of the Tamils reached its climax under the Cholas.
• They controlled the Malabar and Coromandal coasts. In fact, the Bay of Bengal became a Chola lake for
sometime.
Provincial Administration
• The Chola Empire was divided into mandalams and each mandalam into valanadus and nadus.
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• In each nadu there were a number of autonomous villages.


• The royal princes or officers were in charge of mandalams.
• The valanadu was under periyanattar and nadu under nattar.
• The town was known as nagaram and it was under the administration of a council called nagarattar.
Village Assemblies
• The system of village autonomy with sabhas and their committees developed through the ages and
reached its culmination during the Chola rule.
• Two inscriptions belonging to the period of Parantaka I found at Uttiramerur provide details of the
formation and functions of village councils. According to them village was divided into thirty wards and
each was to nominate its members to the village council.
• The qualifications to become a ward member were:

E
a. Ownership of at least one fourth veli of land.
b.
c.
d.
Own residence.

OR
Above thirty years and below seventy years of age.
Knowledge of Vedas.
• However, certain norms of disqualification were also mentioned in the inscriptions. They were:
SC
a. Those who had been members of the committees for the past three years.
b. Those who had failed to submit accounts as committee members.
c. Those who had committed sins.
d. Those who had stolen the property of others.
GS

• From the persons duly nominated, one was to be chosen for each ward by kudavolai system for a year.
• The names of eligible persons were written on palm-leaves and put into a pot.
• A young boy or girl would take out thirty names each for one ward.
• They were divided into six variyams such as samvatsaravariyam, erivariyam, thotta variyam, pancha
variyam, pon variyam and puravuvari variyam to take up six different functions of the village administration.
• The committee members were called variyapperumakkal.
• They usually met in the temple or under a tree and passed resolutions.
• The number of committees and ward members varied from village to village.

Socio-economic Life
• Caste system was widely prevalent during the Chola period.
• Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoyed special privileges.
• The inscriptions of the later period of the Chola rule mention about two major divisions among the castes
- Valangai and Idangai castes.
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• However, there was cooperation among various castes and sub-castes in social and religious life.
• The position of women did not improve. The practice of 'sati' was prevalent among the royal families.
The devadasi system or dancing girls attached to temples emerged during this period.
• Both Saivism and Vaishnavism continued to flourish during the Chola period.
• A number of temples were built with the patronage of Chola kings and queens.
• The temples remained centres of economic activity during this period.
• The mathas had great influence during this period.
• Both agriculture and industry flourished.
• Reclamation of forest lands and the construction and maintenance of irrigation tanks led to agricultural
prosperity.
• The weaving industry, particularly the silk-weaving at Kanchi flourished.

E
• The metal works developed owing to great demand of images for temples and utensils.
OR
• Commerce and trade were brisk with trunk roads or peruvazhis and merchant guilds.
• Gold, silver and copper coins were issued in plenty at various denominations. Commercialcontacts between
the Chola Empire and China, Sumatra, Java and Arabia were extensively prevalent.
• Arabian horses were imported in large numbers to strengthen the cavalry.
SC

Education and Literature


• Education was also given importance.
• Besides the temples and mathas as educational centres, several educational institutions also flourished.
• The inscription at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal and Thirubhuvanai provide details of the colleges existed
GS

in these places.
• Apart from the Vedas and Epics, subjects like mathematics and medicine were taught in these institutions.
Endowment of lands was made to run these institutions.
• The development of Tamil literature reached its peak during the Chola period.
• Sivakasintamani written by Thiruthakkadevar and Kundalakesi belonged to 10th century.
• The Ramayana composed by Kamban and the Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar are the
two master-pieces of this age.
• Jayankondar's Kalingattupparani describes the Kalinga war fought by Kulotunga I.
• The Moovarula written by Ottakuthar depicts the life of three Chola kings.
• The Nalavenba was written by Pugalendi.
• The works on Tamil grammar like Kalladam by Kalladanar, Yapperungalam by Amirthasagarar, a Jain,
Nannul by Pavanandhi and Virasoliyam by Buddhamitra were the products of the Chola age.
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Art and Architecture


• The Dravidian style of art and architecture reached its perfection under the Cholas.
• The chief feature of the Chola temple is the vimana.
• The early Chola temples were found at Narthamalai and Kodumbalur in Pudukottai district and at
Srinivasanallur in Tiruchirappalli district.
• The Big Temple at Tanjore built by Rajaraja I is a master-piece of South Indian art and architecture. It
consists of the vimana, ardhamandapa, mahamandapa and a large pavilion in the front known as the
Nandimandapa.
• Another notable contribution made by the Cholas to temple architecture is the Siva temple at
Gangaikondacholapuram built by Rajendra I.
• The Airavathesvara temple at Darasuram in Tanjore District and the Kampaharesvara temple at Tribhuvanam
are examples of later Chola temples.

E
• The Cholas also made rich contributions to the art of sculpture. The walls of the Chola temples such
as the Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram temples contain numerous icons of large size with fine


execution.
OR
The bronzes of the Chola period are world-famous. The bronze statues of Nataraja or dancing Siva are
master pieces.
• The Chola paintings were found on the walls of Narthamalai and Tanjore temples.
SC
GS
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RASHTRAKUTAS AND OTHER


SOUTH INDIAN KINGDOMS
The Rashtrakutas (755 - 975 A.D.)
• The Rashtrakutas were of Kannada origin and Kannada language was their mother tongue.
• Dantidurga was the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. He defeated the Gurjaras and captured Malwa
from them. Then he annexed the Chalukya kingdom by defeating Kirtivarman II. Thus, the Rashtrakutas
became a paramount power in the Deccan.

E
OR
SC

• Dantidurga successor Krishna I was also a great conqueror. He defeated the Gangas and the eastern
Chalukyas of Vengi.
GS

• Krishna I built the magnificent rock-cut monolithic Kailasa temple at Ellora.


• The next important king of this dynasty was Govinda III. He achieved victories over north Indian
kingdoms.
• Govinda III successor Amoghavarsha I (815- 880 A.D.) ruled for a long period of 64 years. He had lost
control over Malwa and Gangavadi. Yet, his reign was popular for the cultural development. He was a
follower of Jainism. Jinasena was his chief preceptor. He was also a patron of letters and he himself wrote
the famous Kannada work, Kavirajamarga. He had also built the Rashtrakuta capital, the city of Malkhed
or Manyakheda.
• Among the successors of Amoghavarsha I, Krishna III (936-968 A.D.) was famous for his expeditions.
He marched against the Cholas and defeated them at Takkolam. He marched further south and captured
Tanjore. He went as far as Rameswaram and occupied it for sometime. He built several temples in the
conquered territories including the Krishneswara temple at Rameswaram. Throughout his reign he possessed
the Tondaimandalam region including the capital Kanchi. After his death, the power of the Rashtrakutas
declined.
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Administration
• The Rashtrakuta Empire was divided into several provinces called Rashtras under the control of
Rashtrapatis.
• Rashtras were further divided into Vishayas or districts governed by Vishayapatis.
• The next subdivision was Bhukti consisting of 50 to 70 villages under the control of Bhogapatis. Bhogapatis
were directly appointed by the central government.
• The village administration was carried on by the village headmen. However, the village assemblies played
a significant role in the village administration.

Society and Economy


• The Hindu sects of Vaishnavism and Saivism flourished during the period of Rashtrakutas. Yet, they did
not affect the progress of Jainism under the patronage of Rashtrakuta kings and officers. Almost one third

E
of the population of the Deccan were Jains.
• There were some prosperous Buddhist settlements at places like Kanheri, Sholapur and Dharwar.


There was harmony among various religions.
OR
There was a college at Salatogi, situated in modern Bijapur district. It was run by the income from the
endowments made by the rich as well as by all the villagers on occasions of functions and festivals.
• The economy was also in a flourishing condition. There was an active commerce between the Deccan and
SC
the Arabs. The Rashtrakuta kings promoted the Arab trade by maintaining friendship with them.
Cultural Contributions
• The Rashtrakutas widely patronized the Sanskrit literature and there were many scholars in the Rashtrakuta
court.
• Trivikrama wrote Nalachampu and the Kavirahasya was composed by Halayudha during the reign of
GS

Krishna III.
• The Jain literature flourished under the patronage of the Rashtrakutas.
• Amogavarsha I, who was a Jain patronized many Jain scholars. His teacher Jinasena composed
Parsvabhudaya, a biography of Parsva in verses.
• Another scholar Gunabhadra wrote the Adipurana, the life stories of various Jain saints. Sakatayana wrote
the grammer work called Amogavritti.
• The great mathematician of this period, Viracharya was the author of Ganitasaram.
• The Kannada literature saw its beginning during the period of the Rashtrakutas.
• Amogavarsha's Kavirajamarga was the first poetic work in Kannada language.
• Pampa was the greatest of the Kannada poets. His famous work was Vikramasenavijaya.
• Ponna was another famous Kannada poet and he wrote Santipurana.

Art and Architecture


• The art and architecture of the Rashtrakutas were found at Ellora and Elephanta.
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• At Ellora, the most remarkable temple is the Kailasa temple.


– It was excavated during the reign of Krishna I.
– It is carved out of a massive block of rock 200 feet long, and 100 feet in breadth and height.
– The temple consists of four parts - the main shrine, the entrance gateway, an intermediate shrine for
Nandi and mandapa surrounding the courtyard.
– The temple stands on a lofty plinth 25 feet high.
– The central face of the plinth has imposing figures of elephants and lions giving the impression that
the entire structure rests on their back.
– It has a three-tiered sikhara or tower resembling the sikhara of the Mamallapuram rathas.
– In the interior of the temple there is a pillared hall which has sixteen square pillars.
– The Kailasa temple is an architectural marvel with it beautiful sculptures.

E
– The sculpture of the Goddess Durga is shown as slaying the Buffalo demon.
– In another sculpture Ravana was making attempts to lift Mount Kailasa, the abode of Siva.
OR
– The scenes of Ramayana were also depicted on the walls.
– The general characteristics of the Kailasa temple are more Dravidian.
• Elephanta is an island near Bombay and was originally called Sripuri.
SC

– The Portuguese after seeing the large figure of an elephant named it Elephanta.
– The sculptural art of the Rashtrakutas reached its zenith in this place.
– There is a close similarity between the sculptures at Ellora and those in Elephanta.
– At the entrance to the sanctum there are huge figures of dwara-palakas.
GS

– In the walls of the prakara around the sanctum there are niches containing the images of Shiva in
various forms - Nataraja, Gangadhara, Ardhanareesvara and Somaskanda.
– The most imposing figure of this temple is Trimurthi.
– The sculpture is six metre high which represent the three aspects of Shiva as Creator, Preserver and
Destroyer.

The Cheras (9th to 12th Century)


• The Chera kingdom was another of the historical Tamil chiefdoms of southern India, which controlled the
most of the Canuvery river valley.
• It first arose some time after the 3rd century BC with Karuvur-Van-chi as its inland political centre and
Muchiri on the Kerala cost as its port of trade, where merchants exchanged pepper for gold and wine from
the Roman empire.
• The Cheras exercised a clan rule under different lingages.
• Its rulers apparently fought intertribal conflicts with the Cholas and Pandyas, and subjugated minor chiefs
of the Velir clan.
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• The Chera kingdom of Makotai was established in the 9th century in the Periyar valley of Derala, with
Makotaipuram (Kodungallur) and Quilon as its first and second capital.
• The kingdom acquired an agrarian base through land grants to Brahmins and Brahmin institutions, such
as temples to Siva and Vishnu, trading ventures with Arab and Jewish lands provided commercial resources.
• Contemporary texts give an account of the ruling dynasty's legendary origins and history.
• Makotai was supposedly hostile to the Pandyas but friencly with the Mushakas of Kerala.
• Despite a series of defensive wars, constant invasisons by the Cholas of Tanjavur led to the disintegration
of the Makotai kingdom by the early 12th century.

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The Yadavas of Devgiri (12th to 13th Century)


• The first member of the dynasty was Dridhaprahara.
• However, Seunachandra I, the son of Dridhaprahar, was the first to secure feudatory status for his family
from the Rashtrakutas.
• The importance of Seunachandra I can be assessed from the fact that the territory ruled by the Yadavas
came to be known as Seuna desa.
• Meanwhile, the great Chalukyan power was already on the road to decline and the Yadavas naturally took
advantage of the situation and asserted their independence.
• Bhillama, thus, laid the foundationof the Yadava Empire which endured for about a century.
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• Simhana was the most powerful ruler of the family.


• As the Hoyasalas proved a great obstacle to the further expansion of the kingdom in the south, Simhana
launched a successful campaign against them.
• Elated by successes in the south, Simhana waged war against his hereditary enemies in the north the
Paramaras of Malwa and the Chalukyas of Gujarat.
• Simhana defeated and killed the Paramara king Arjunavarman. Thus, the Yadava kingdom reached the
zenith of its glory and power in the reign of Simhan.
• None among the Hoyasalas, the Kakatiyas, the Paramaras and the Chalukyas dared to challenged his
supremacy in the Deccan.

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• Simhana was also a patron of music and literature.


• Singitaratnakara of Sarangadeva, an important work on music, was written in his court.
• Anantadeva and Changadeva were the two famous astronomers who also adorned his court.
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• Changadeva establidhed a collage of astronomy at Patana in Khandesh in memory of his illustrious


grandfather, Bhaskaracharya.
• Anantadeva wrote a commentary on Bharhmagupta's Brahmasutra Siddhanta and Varahamihira's Brihat
Jataka.
• Sankaradeva was probably the last of the Yadava rulers. After his accession, he immediately repudiated
the authority of Alauddin.
• Malik Kafur easily defeated Sankaradeva, put him to death and annexed the Yadav kingdom.
Features of South Indian Temples
1. A pyramidal tower (vemana) story up on storey, above the garbhagriha (chief deity room)
2. Temples have very lofty and site gateways called gopurams.
3. Temples are made mostly of rocks.
4. Temples are generaly bigger and more airy.
5. Temples were not only centres religious activity but also social and economical activities.
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Literature and Science


Under the Chalukyas of Kalyani
• The Chaludya period withnessed a phenomenal growth in literature, both in Sansdrit and Kannada.
• Among the Sanskrit writers of the period, the foremost in Bihana, the court poet of Vidramaditya VI.
• Vikramankadevacharita of Bilhana is a mahakavaya.
• The great jurist Vikramaditya, wrote the famous Mitaksara, a commentary on the Yanjavalkya Smriti,
• Somesvara III was the author of encyclopadic work, Manasollasa or Abhilashitarha-chintamani.
• Under the western Chalukyas, Kannada literature reached great heights.
• The three Literary gems, Pampa, Ponna and Ranna, contributed to the development of Kannada literature
in the 10th century. Of the three, Ranna was the court poet of Satyasraya, while the other two belonged

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to earlier decades.
• Nagavarma I was another poet of fame. He was the author of Chandombudhi, 'Ocean of Prosody', the


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earliest work on the subject in Kannada. He also wrote Karnataka-Kandambari which is based on Bana's
celebrated romance in Sanskrit.
The Verasaiva mystics, especially Basava, contributed to the development of Kannada language and
literature, particularly prose literature. They brought into existence the Vachana Literature to convey high
philosophical ideas to the common man in simple language.
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Under the Yadavas
• The Senas gave a great impetus to the development of Sanskrit Literature.
• The family of the famous astronomer and mathematician Bhaskaracharya belonged to this period.
• Bhaskaracharya's father, Mahesvari (known as Kavisvara), wrote two works on astrology, Sekhara and
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Laghutika.
• Of the numerous works of Bhaskaracharya, the most famous are Siddhanta Siromani (composed in 1150)
and Karanakuthuhala, the first being the best treatise on algebra to be found in Sanskrit Literature.
• Bhaskaracharya's son Lakshmidhara and his grandson Changadeva were the court astrologers of Jaitugi
and Simhana respectively.
• Bhaskaracharya's grand-nephew Anantadeva, a protege of Simhana, was a master of the three branches
of astronomy and wrote a commentary on the Brihat Jataka of Varahamihira and also on one chapter of
Brahmasphuta Siddhana of Brahmagrupta.
Under the Kakatiyas
• The kakatiya rules extended liberal patronage to Sanskrit.
• Several eminent Sanskrit writers and poets authored inscriptions which must be regarded as kavyas in
miniature.
• Of these writers, Achinterdra was commissioned by Rudradeva to compose the Prasati embodies in the
Anumakonda inscription.
• Telugu literature also flourished in the Kakatiya Kingdom.
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• Several inscriptions were composed party or wholly in Telugu verse, like the inscriptions at Gudur of (Beta
II), Karimnagar (Gangakhara), Upparapalle (Kata) and Konnidena (Opilisiddhi).
• The new religious movement like Vaishnavism and Virasaivism gave a great impetus to Telugu literature.
Contact with Southeast Asia
• Indians have been moving out from ancient time to different parts of the world for trade and other
activities.
• As far as the Indian contact with Southeast Asia is concerned, it appears to be as old as fifth century B.C.
• Jatakas, the Buddhist texts belonging to this period refer to Indians visiting Suvarnadvipa (island of gold),
which is identified with Java.
• Such early contacts with Southeast Asia are confirmed by the recent archeological finds of pearls and
ornaments of agate and carnelian, the semi-precious stones of Indian origin, from the coastral sites in
Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, etc. These finds belong to as far back as first century BC.
• According to the Chinese traditions, the first kingdom in South east Asia was founded at Funan (Cambodia)

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in the fourth century AD by a brahman known as Kaundinya who had come from India and had married
the local princess.
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• Indian and Southeast Asian contacts became closer from 5th century AD onwards when inscriptions in
Sanskrit language start appearing in many areas.
• It reached its peak during AD 800-AD 1300 when many kings and dynasties with Indian names emerge
all over Southeast Asia.
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• The Southeast contact was largely on account of trade.


• Southeast Asia is rich in cardamom, sandal wood, camphor, cloves etc. which formed important items of
trade between India and the West.
• Initially, the Indian traders appear to have settled along the coast, but gradually they shifted their network
to the interior.
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• Along with the traders came the priests particularly the Buddhist and brahmanas, to meet the ritual
requirements of the Indian settlers and thus created a situation for the spread of Indian social and cultural
ideas in South east Asia.
• But it must be noted that Indian contact did not uproot the local culture. It was rather a case of peaceful
intermixing of Indian concepts with local cultural features.
• While Sanskrit was accepted as a language of court and religion in Southeast Asia the regional languages
continued to be used side by side, and we find many inscriptions in mixed Sanskrit and local language.
• Similarly, the concept of varna was known to the south east Asians and brahmanas were respected in
society, but social divisions were not rigid as it was in India.
• The most important empire which come to be founded in South east Asia in the 8th Century AD was
the Shailendra empire. It comprised Java, Sumatra, Malay- Pennisula and other parts of the Southeast
Asian region. They were a leading naval power and on account of their geographical position controlled
the trade between China and India as well as other countries in the west.
• The Shailendra kings were followers of Buddhism and had close contact with the Indian rulers. One of
the kings of this empire, built a monastery at Nalanda in the ninth century, and at his request the Pala
king Devapala of Bengal granted five villages for its upkeep.
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• Similarly in the eleventh century another Shailendra king was permitted by the Chola king Rajaraja I to
build a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattam on the Tamil Coast.
• The Shailendras also built a beautiful temple dedicated to Buddha at Barabudur in Java. It is situated on
the top of a hillock and consists of nine gradually receding terraces.
• Besides Buddhism, the worship of Hindu gods such as Vishnu and Siva was also quite popular in Southeast
Asia and the temples dedicated to them have been found at various places which show distinct traces of
Indian influence and inspiration.
• One of the most famous temples, dedicated to Vishnu, is Angkorvat temple built in the 12th century by
Surya Varman II, the king of Kambuja (Cambodia). It is surrounded by a moat, filled with water. It has
a huge gopuram (gateway) and number of galleries, the walls of which are decorated with sculptures based
on themes drawn from Mahabharat and Ramayana.

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