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FRESH NOTES 2019-20

PAKISTAN STUDIES

O LEVEL NOTES

History and Culture of Pakistan

PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/1)

 WORKS OF SHAH WALIULLAH FOR REVIVAL OF ISLAM IN THE

SUBCONTINENT

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 Shah Waliullah was born on 21 February 1703. His real name was
Qutub-ud-Din. His father Shah Abdul Rahim, founded the Madrassa
Rahimiya in Delhi. His father contributed the famous work of
Aurangzaib, “Fatawa-i-Alamgiri”. When his father died in 1718
Waliullah began teaching at the Madrassa. He went for further studies
to Arabia. At Arabia he studied under the famous scholar Sheikh Abu
Tahir bin Ibrahim. During his time in Arabia, Shah Waliullah thought
deeply about the problems faced by Muslims in the Mughal Empire
and their remedies. The Empire was in decline and Muslims were
disunited. The Muslim society was too facing deterioration. Shah
Waliullah realised that reform could not come from the weak
leadership. He believed that many of the problems of the Muslims
resulted from their incomplete knowledge of the Quran. He felt that it
was necessary that Quranic teachings become more accessible to
the people. All political, social and economic behavior of people
should be based on Islamic principles. The Muslim community was
the way it was divided in to sectarian groups such as Sunnis and
Shias. Shah Waliullah wanted them to concentrate on the
fundamental principles of Islam. He translated the Holy Quran into
Persian. Few Muslims spoke Arabic and so the Quran had not been
widely studied previously. Now it would be understandable by a larger
number of Muslims. Fundamentalist Ulema criticized his work but his
repute was enough to counter that criticism. Latter his two sons, Shah
Abdul Qader and Shah Rafi translated the Quran into Urdu which
meant that many more people could now study and understand it.
o In addition to translating the Quran, Shah Waliullah wrote fifty one
books in Persian and Arabic. Amongst the most famous were
Hujjatullah-al-Baligha and Izala al Akhfa. He also wrote an account of
the first four caliphs of Islam in a way that was acceptable to both

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Shias and Sunnis. His book “ Khalifa-tul-Kulfa created some balance

between Shias and Sunnis over Caliphate issues. Shah Waliullah
wrote to all the Muslim nobles calling on them to join together to save
the Mughal Empire. It was partly his influence which helped to
persuade Ahmad Shah Abdali of Persia to intervene. He joined
forces with local Muslim leaders, like Najeeb-ud-Daula of Ruhail
Khand, and defeated the Marathas at Panipat in 1761.
o SWU advised that the peasants should be given a respectable salary
so that they can meet their daily needs. He also advised the
merchants to charge reasonable profits on goods. Shah Waliullah
was in favoure of “total revival” of the society.
o SWU emphasized that Muslims must follow the footsteps of the Holy
Prophet Muhammad ‫ﷺ‬
 IMPORTANCE OF HIS WORKS:
o Shah Waliullah’s works are considered very significant for revival of
Islam and strengthening of Muslim rule in the subcontinent. His
books and the translation of Holy Quran gave people a better and
clearer understanding of the basic principles of Islam. His works
helped people to purify their faith. Even after his death his books
remained valuable and are part of syllabus of Madarssas in Pakistan
India and Bangladesh. On the invitation of Shah Waliullah ,Najeeb-
ud-Daula of Ruhali Khand and Ahmad Shah Abdali of Afghanistan
fought with Marathas at Panipat in 1761 and crushed their power
Shah Waliullah also emphasized the equilibrium in political matters.
o SWU strived for integration of whole Islamic structure. He can be
called “ The founder of neo-Islamism” in the region. Shah Waliullah
also influenced the people like Syed Ahmed Brailvi and Haji
Shariatullah who struggled for the same cause in their own way.

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Shah Waliullah played more important role in revival of Islam than

any other religious figure in the region.
 WHY DID SYED AHMED BARAILVI SELECT PUNJAB FOR HIS
JIHAD MOVEMENT?
 Syed Ahmed Barailvi was a man of action. He was in favour of
practical Jihad. He thought his necessary that a Muslims should have
an independent area where they could practice Islam freely. For this
purpose he started a campaign popularly known as Jihad Movement
or Tehreek-e-Mujahideen. He selected Punjab for his movement.
There are many reasons for selection of Punjab of Jihad ground.
 Firstly the ruler of Punjab Ranjeet Singh was very cruel to the
Muslims. Muslims were not allowed to perform their religious
obligation independently. In some areas Juma prayer and Azan was
banned.
 Secondly, northern Punjab was a Muslims majority area and Syed
Ahmed hoped that the Muslims would Support his Jihad movement.
 Thirdly, fighting with Sikhs was comparatively safer compare to fight
with the British who were very powerful and well organized.
 Fourtly, the north western part of Punjab was an independent tribal
area attached to Afghanistan. The Muslims of that area were used to
of fighting and wars. They had weapons as well as war techniques.
 Lastly, according to shariah Jihad had been obligatory in Punjab
because the Sikh ruler was not allowing Muslims to Practise Islam
and was involved in brutal acts against Muslims.
 AIMS OF THE JIHAD MOVEMENT FAIL?
 Syed Ahmad wanted to eliminate the domination of the Sikhs in
northern Punjab (today KPK).
 He wanted to revive Islamic values and faith.

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 Jihad Movement aimed to protect the Muslims against such acts and
ideas which were contrary to basics of Islam.
 He wanted to save Muslims from economic exploitation.
 STRUGGLE OF THE JIHAD MOVEMENT
 Syed Ahmad visited many areas to collect Jihad army. He was helped
by Pir Sibghatullah(Pir Pagara of Sindh) Shah Ismail also joined his
army. First battle was fought at Akora in which Sikh army was
defeated. After this war a large number or tribal people joined
Mujahideen and the number of soldiers rose to 80000. Syed Ahmad
was given the status of “ Amir-ul-Momineen”. Initially the movement
gathered some successes but then because of conspiracies and
treachery of Yar Muhammad the brother of Sultan Muhammad. Syed
Ahmad had to retreat to Nowshehra and then to Balakot, there he
was killed along with his main commander in a sudden attach by
Sikhs.
 WHY DID THE JIHAD MOVEMENT FAIL?
 Syed Ahmed Shaheed’s Jihad Movement ended in 1831. There were
many reasons for failure of the Jihad movement.
 Syed Ahmed Army was mostly composed of volunteers who were not
trained for wars. When they were indulged in practical war they could
not bear hardships of battle field. More over the Jihad many lacked
weapons and other necessary day to day needs.
 There were sectarian differences within Syed Ahmed army. Sikhs also
spread rumours about the faith of Syed Ahmed and said that he was
not like other Muslims of the sub-continent. He was named as
‘Wahabi’.
 After initial victories Syed Ahmed had imposed taxes in area which he
had captured, to meet the economic needs of the Jihad Army. This

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was resented by the tribal people because they were not familiar of
such taxes.
 There were personality clashes among the commanders of Jihad
movement. They argued in favour of different wars strategies and
techniques.
 Tribal chiefs didn’t like having a popular and powerful person like
Syed Ahmed around them.
 Treachery of Yar Mohammad, brother of Sultan Mohammad
compelled Syed Ahmed army to retreat to Balakot. At Balakot he was
killed along with his main commanders in 1831.After this incident
there was no one to carry out the Jihad movement. Thus, the battle of
Balakot brought logical end to the Jihad Movement.
 FRAIZI MOVEMENT OF HAJI SHARIATULLAH
 Haji Shariatullah belonged to Bengal. He was influenced by beliefs of
Sheikh Abdul Wahab.
 He believed that miserable condition of Muslims was due to
negligence of basic Islamic principles.
 He believed that Muslim community had moved away from Islam
 He started Fraizi Movement in Bengal.
 He thought that Bengal had become Dar-ul-Harb as Muslims were not
allowed to perform Friday and Eid prayers.
 Haji sahib emphasized on performing basic Faraiz i.e. Prayer,
Fasting etc.
 He stressed that Muslims should pray for their past sins and seek
forgiveness from Allah.
 His followers are called Taubar Muslims or Fraizis.
 He asked poor farmers to resist high and unnecessary taxes and
must not be prey to exploitation of landlords.

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 His movement was carried out by his son Mohsin ud Din famously
known as Dudu Mian and then by Titu Meer whose real name was Mir
Mither Ali.
 Followers of Mohsin ud Din were called Hajis because he
emphasized physical Jihad.
 Titu Meer arranged Bamboo Force against the British. He was
successful in the battle of Narain Gunj but later British were able to
defeat his forces. Titu Meer was killed in the fight.
IMPACTS OF FRAIZI MOVEMENT
 Fraizi Movement encouraged the demoralized Muslims to raise voice
against Hindu and British exploitation.
 It also brought about a spiritual revival leading to revival of Islam in
Bengal.
 The Movement had also economic and political impacts as Muslims
now stood against economic exploitation by their lords.
 There was more awareness about political rights now.
 Fraizi Movement alarmed both the British and the Hindus.
 WHY HAD AURANGZEB BECOME UNPOPULAR BY 1707?
 Historians are divided about Aurangzeb’s attitude towards religion.
Some say that he was intolerant and wanted to destroy the religions.
They pointed out that he re-introduced the tax on non-Muslims, the
Jizya. Many non-Muslims thought by this he was forcing them to
Islam.
 He destroyed a number of Hindu temples and he tried to ban some
old Hindu practices, such as suttee.
 He also enforced some Islamic laws, making Hindus and Sikhs live
according to the Quran.
 There are mixed views on how successful Aurangzeb was as an
emperor. Perhaps much of the criticism is a result of his more austere

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measures, such as appointing censors of public morals, banning the

consumption of alcohol, stopping singing and dancing at ‘Court’ and
even determining the maximum length for beards.
 But to many people these were wise and needy measures helping to
ensure that people lives were lived in the correct manner. Generally
taxation was very high during his reign. Not only did he had to pay for
the cost of his military campaigns but he also spent huge sums on
building luxurious palaces like the famous Pearl Mosque at Delhi. The
taxes resulting from Aurangzeb’s heavy spending meant that by his
death in 1707, he had become an unpopular ruler.
 THE WESTERN NATIONS AND EAST INDIA COMPANY IN THE
SUB CONTINENT
 The western nations like Portuguese, Dutch and the French had been
here in the sub continent since 15th century.
 They basically came here for the purpose of trade.
 Trade in the sub continent was quite profitable.
 The sub continent was known as “ Golden Sparrow” in the Europe
 It was general belief of the Europeans that a single trip to the sub
continent could change the fate of a person.
 Agricultural and mineral resources were also attraction.
 East India Company (EIC) was established in 1600 AD by Queen
Elizabeth.
 The Company was given monopoly in trade in the sub continent.
 EIC exported spices, indigo, cotton, cloth, gemstones etc.
 Important imports were gold, jewelry, gunpowder etc.
 In early 19th century reasonably good portion (about 10 %) of Britain’s
revenue came from the sun continent.
 Taking advantage of disunity, backwardness of army, internal conflicts
and incapability of local rulers EIC got involved in politics.

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 After initial victory in battle of Plessey (Bengal) in 1757 EIC had taken
over the control of almost entire sub continent by 1858.
 BRITISH EXPANSION 1750-1850 (ASSUMPTION OF POWER BY
EIC)
 The decision to allow British EIC was to have unimaginable serious
results. Though they were punished by Auranzaib in 1691and had to
pay heavy taxes yet they continued to expand their influence.
 In 1751 EIC managed to defeat the French in 1751 at Arcot. Now the
field was open for the British.
 In 1756 the new Nawab of Bengal expelled the British from Calcutta
but could not keep the hold. Combined with local allies Lord Clive was
able to defeat Nawab Sirajuddaula in the battle of Plassey in 1757.
For the first time British were able to have a local ruler dependent on
them (Mir Jaffar).
 The EIC now became the main power in Bengal having a growing
force of local soldiers trained by the British army officers.
 In 1764 Mir Qasim, the son in law of Mir Jaffar, joined forces with
Nawab of Oudh and Mughal emperor Shah Alam II to drive the British
out of Bengal.
 They were not successful and were defeated by the British at Buxar
in 1764. The victory at Buxar increased the British influence. Now
they took control of revenue collection in Bengal, Bihar and Orrisa
and also extended influence in Bengal.
 On reports of plundering in Bengal by EIC the British government
passed Pitt’s India Act in 1784.It appointed a Governor General and a
civil, comprising of British only, was also introduced.
 In 1799 Lord Wellesley invaded Maysore and took control defeating
Tipu Sultan’s army. In the same years Oudh also fell in the British
control.

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 In 1803 British launched an attack on Delhi and Mughal ruler Shah

Alam II found himself in British “protection”. His son Akbar II replaced
him and his son Bahadur Shah II was the last Mughal emperor.
 Punjab was under Sikh rule of Ranjeet Singh. Because of Russian
expansionism British and Sikhs agreed the need for an independent
Afghanistan but Ranjeet Singh refused to involve directly so British
tried to move ahead on their own. A rebellion in Afghanistan, in 1841
resulted, all British troops in the country being killed. This setback
shocked the British.
 To restore their prestige and to ensure that Sindh could not be the
target of Sikhs expansion, British decided to turn on Sindh. Charle
Napier provoked the Amirs of so much that they attacked the British
Residency in1843. The Amirs were defeated and Sindh was annexed.
 Soon after the annexation of Sindh Punjab also fell into British hands.
Ranjeet Singh had treaty of ‘perpetual friendship’ with the British but
after his death rival chiefs came in conflict on who will be the king.
Sikh attack on British in 1846 remained unsuccessful and they had to
sign the Treaty of Lahore. Gulab Singh Dogra, the Raja of Jammu
who had helped British in the war was offered to purchase Kashmir. In
the second Sikh War the Sikhs once again had to face defeat. So in
1849 Punjab became part of British Empire. Now the British were
unchallenged they had control over most of India.
 DECLINE OF MUGHAL EMPIRE IN THE SUBCONTINENT?
 There are many reasons why the Mughal Empire declined.The
decline was gradual and although some historians blame Aurangzeb
for sowing the seeds. The empire continued for another 150 years
after his death. Perhaps the real answer to the question is that a
number of factors combined to bring about the fall of one of Asia’s
most famous dynasties.

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 The huge empire was very difficult to administer. Obviously emperors

could not know exactly what was happening in every part of the
empire. This was one reason why Aurangzeb encouraged the use of
‘mansabdars’. The Mughal Empire was huge and within the empire
there was an array of different peoples and different religions. The
emperors were continually fighting rebellions. The cost of putting
down rebellions and fighting wars against invaders from Iran (Nadir
Shah) and Afghanistan (Ahmad Shah Abdali) ,was enormous.
 It should also not be forgotten that it was often true that huge sums
were wasted when emperors died and there was a succession
dispute. So, as a result of succession disputes and wars the Mughals
became divided and very weak.
 There was an unrest and anti-Mughal feelings. The Mughal Army also
degenerated and become infective force.
 The rulers too become pleasure seeking and negligent of their
empire and subjects. Some of them used to go to battle fields in
‘Pakleez’.
 As a result of all these the nobility grew characterless and coward,
with weak control from the centre.
 Inefficiency decreased the revenues too, the Mughals could not pay
to their armies for months which created unrest.
 The arrival of the British:
 The Mughal Empire was in serious decline by the end of the 18 th
century what eventually pushed it into final decline was the ambition
of the British. The EIC was a private trading company, but behind it
was the government of what was possibly the most powerful country
in the word.
 England had been the first country to experience the industrial
Revolution. With the wealth this created the British could afford a

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military strength which the Mughals could not match. The

weaknesses of the Mughal Empire together with the strength of
British meant that the fall of one of the mightiest dynasties in history
was almost inevitable.

 THE CAUSES OF THE WAR (1857)

 The reasons for the outbreak of the war in 1857 can be divided into
four areas though different sections of the population were motivated
by different factors, however, was resentment of British rule.

 The Causes of the War (1857):

 As the British extended their control, the local leaders saw their
authority decline Lord Dalhousie’s use of the Doctrine of Lapse’ was
particularly unpopular. The seizure of Oudh in 1856 convinced many
Indian leaders that the British were simply greedy land grabbers. The
mistreatment of the Mughal Emperor was another cause of unrest. At
a level in society there was also resentment at the lack of
opportunities for native Indians in the civil service. Added to this,
English had replaced Persian as the official language.

 Religious and Social Reasons:

 The British considered it their duty to spread their ‘superior’ culture. In
1835 one English administrator talked of how a single shelf of a good
European library was worth the whole native literature of India and
Arabia. This arrogant attitude, coupled with the introduction of a new
way of life with its railways, roads and telegraph, was unacceptable to
many Indians. Many Indians feared that Islam, Hinduism and Sikhism
were under threat from British rule. In the Schools the missionaries
taught Christianity and expected locals who worked for them to give
up their religion and follow the Christian teachings.

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 Economic Reasons:
 The British followed a practice of imposing high taxation. Peasants
and small land owners, in particular found it difficult to pay the
increasing taxes and resentment grew. It was also true that some tax
collectors were corrupt. At the same time, the British were also
keeping the salary of sepoys low, causing more resentment.

 Military Causes:
 Most of the Soldiers in the East India Company’s army were Indian.
The sepoys and so wars (cavalry) were almost exclusively Indian, but
the officer class was almost exclusively British. This caused great
resentment. There were also regular rumours that Muslim, Hindu and
Sikh Soldiers would be forced to convert to Christianity. The use of
Indian troops in Afghanistan had also proved unpopular as Hindu
soldiers did not want to leave ‘Mother Land’. The British introduced
new gun cartridges. However, it was rumored that the grease on the
cartridge was made from the fat of both cow and digs. The sepoys
were so angered by this that refused to use the new cartridges.
 FAILURE OF WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 1857
 The attempt to over throw the British and expel them from India was
unsuccessful. Although resentment of the British was a single cause
to fight for, the Indians were not co-ordinated or united in what they
hoped to achieve. There was no general plan and no attempt to work
together. In different places different groups fought for different
reasons. Most Indian princes didn’t really want to see imperial power
restored. Nor was there any real sense of national patriotism. The
Punjab and Sindh were not interested in supporting freedom fighters.
Some of the Indian princes were interested only in restoring their own
feudal powers. The ruler of Kashmir sent 2000 troops to help the
British win. Perhaps the

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major reason for the failure of the Indians was that the British were
too strong. Britain was one of the most powerful nations in the world.
Their troops were experienced in warfare and highly trained. They
also had a good reputation for discipline on the battle field. British
were skilled diplomats and they knew that most of the Indian rulers
were fighting to restore their own rights not to establish a united India.
The British forces out numbered the freedom fighter by 1:6. It was
only a matter of time before the highly efficient British military
machine restored order in August 1858.
 IMPORTANT WORKS OF SIR SYED AHMED KHAN

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was extremely unhappy about the position of
Muslims in the sub-continent. He felt that the poor status of the Muslims
was due to the way they were treated as second class citizen by the
British and the Hindus. Sir Syed wanted to see the Muslims united and
prospering. He worked hard for improvement in their economic, social,
political and religious fortunes.

 Sir Syed Ahmed Khan wrote a pamphlet called “Essay on the

causes of Indian Revolt”. In the pamphlet he pointed out that the uprising
of 1857 was due to certain British polices (like ban on Satti), forcible
conversion of Muslims to Christianity and poor management of Army.
 In 1860 Sir Syed wrote “The Loyal Mohammadens of India”. In this
work he showed that Muslims were loyal to the British. He gave a
detailed account of the loyal services of the Muslims who had shown
particular loyalty to the British. He demanded that the British should end
their hostility towards the Muslims.
 Sir Syed Ahmed khan wanted that Muslims should acquire modern
western education. He was of the view that solution to the most of
problems of Muslims was in getting education. He opened a school at

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Muradabad in 1859. In 1864 He opened another school in Ghazipur. In

1869 he visited Oxford and Cambridge Universities. He wished to set up
an educational intuition based on their model. In 1875, He established
Mohammaden Angle Oriental (MAO) School at Aligarh. It was up grated
to college in 1877.
 The college offered both western and Indian education. In 1920 the
college became a university. Many of the future leaders such as Liaquat
Ali Khan and Ayub Khan were educated from there.
 When Sir Syed Ahmed Khan visited England. He read a book in a
library ‘The life of Mohammad’ written by William Meiur. The book
contained some controversial and confused matter about Prophet
Mohammad (PBUH). Sir Syed was very much emmoyed. As he returned
India. He wrote a Rebottle of the book with name Khutbat-e-Ahmadia.
Sir Syed also wrote a book Tabayan al Kalam in which he showed the
similarities between Islam and Christianity. His journal Tehzib al Akhlag
was a source of spreading awareness about day to day matters in the
light of the Holy Quran and the Sunnah.
 URDU-HINDI CONTROVERSY

Urdu grew as common language of all the Indians regardless of origin or

religion. But in 1867 the Hindus of Banaras started campaign to replace
Urdu by Hindi. To gain the objectives, they declared numerous
oganizations, which discouraged Sir Syed who said to Shakespeare the
commissioner of Banaras, that since Hindus had demonstrated against
the language of Muslims I think now both the nations could not live
together for a longer period of time. Later the followers of Sir Syed tried
their level best to save Urdu language. Mohsin ul Mulk was the
outstanding person who organized the Muslims in defense of Urdu.

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 WHY DID LORD CURZON DIVIDE BENGAL INTO TWO PARTS IN

1905?
 Bengal was the largest of the provinces of India.
 Western Bengal with a population of 54 million, (42 million Hindus and
12 million Muslims) and East Bengal and Assam with a population of
31 million. (There were ten times as many people in Bengal as there
were in the whole Britain at this time).
 This was a huge area to govern as one unit. Administration of such a
huge province and law and order had become a concern for the
British. The British thought it would be more efficient to govern it as
two smaller provinces. In 1903 viceroy Curzon proposed that Bengal
should be partitioned in to west Bengal and East Bengal.
 In 1905 the British partitioned Bengal as Curzon had suggested.
Many Hindus believed that the partition had nothing to do with
administrative efficiency. They believed there were much more
‘sinister’ reasons. Whatever reasons the British had; the most
immediate effect of partition was to cause conflict between the
Muslims and the Hindus.
 SIMLA DEPUTATION 1906
 In fact the Simla Deputation of 1906 was the first systematic attempt
on the part of the Muslims to present their demands, to the British
government and to seek their acceptance.
 The Simla deputation comprised of 35 prominent Muslims from all
over India. It was a galaxy of Muslims leaders from all the provinces,
from one end of India to the other and it had Muslims of all
background. Therefore, when in 1906, this deputation called on the
Viceroy, it was the most representative Muslim delegation.

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 This delegation was led by Sir Agha Khan and Nawab Mohsin ul
Malik served as a secretary and this delegation met the Viceroy Lord
Minto in Simla that was why it was called as Simla Deputation.
 The delegation emphasized that the Muslims should not be viewed
simply in numerical terms but they should be taken into account their
on historical importance and the kind of contribution the Muslims had
made to British India.
 The delegation emphasized that democratic principles should be
introduced keeping in view the peculiar conditions and circumstances
of India. In view of this submission they presented some demands:
o Muslim representation more than their population because of their
importance.
o Separate electorate for Muslims
o Reservations of Muslims seats in government jobs.
o Special share in Municipal or district boards University senates and
syndicates
o Muslim representation in Viceroy Executive Council.
o Muslim University at Aligarh.

The Viceroy was sympathetic towards the demands. It encouraged the

Muslims to launch struggle for their rights parallel to the Indian National
Congress but it required an organized platform. That is why All India
Muslim League was set up in 1906.

 ESTABLISHMENT OF MUSLIM LEAGUE 1906

Time had come to formally organize the Muslims after the success of the
Simla Deputation. After the meeting of the Mohammedan Educational
Conference, the Muslim leaders met to set up the All India Muslim

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League. Wiqar-ul-Mulk chaired the meeting. Nawab Salimullah proposed

Muslim League and Hakim Ajmal Khan and Maulana Zafar Ali Khan
seconded.Agha Khan was formally elected its president.

((Justice Amir Ali Syed organised a branch of Muslim League (1908) at

London and responded effectively to the misunderstandings and
conspiracies of the Hindus against the Muslims)).

o GOALS / AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

1. Protection and promotion of political rights and interests of the
Muslims.
2. Cooperation with other communities without prejudice to the above
goal.
3. Fostering sense of loyalty, among the Muslims, towards the
government.

REASONS FOR ESTABLISHMENT

o Hindu reaction over partition of Bengal; sense of insecurity

o To encounter the activities of Congress and Hindus
o Success of Simla Delegation 1906
o Anti Muslim activities of Congress and its dominating role
o Muslims were now mature enough to take part in politics

CHANGE IN THE GOALS OF THE MUSLIM LEAGUE 1913

Important developments occurred during the first decade of the 20th

century like annulment of the

Partition of Bengal and Western aggression towards Muslim countries,

Balkan wars, Libya-Italy war, Demolition of the mosque in Kawnpur

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(1913), etc. weakened Muslim faith in the British. This led to a major drift
in the Muslim League’s policy. In 1913, the League changed its goals:

• Self government under the British Crown keeping in view the peculiar

conditions in India.

• Good relations with other communities’ cooperation with any party

working for similar goals.

This change brought the ML and Congress closer. In this way the era of
cooperation between Hindus and Muslims set in. The role of the Quaid-i-
Azam is highly noteworthy to bring the Congress and the Muslim League
to the table. He joined the Muslim League in 1913.

 WHY WAS THE PARTITION OF BENGAL REVERSED IN 1911?

 Partition of Bengal was annulled by the British in 1911.
 The Hindus believed that the British had divided Bengal as part of
their traditional divide and rule policy. The Hindus dominated
congress and they had begun to call for cancellation of the partition.
They believed that the British had tired to weaken Hindu unity by
dividing Bengal and establishing East Bengal with a Muslim majority.
This meant the, so-called, Hindu ‘threat’ would be reduced.
 The partition aroused fury amongst the Hindus. They proclaimed 16
October 1905, the day partition was put into effect, as a Day of
Mourning.
 There were hundreds of protest meetings and many petitions sent to
the government. Later, there was even an assassination attempt on
the future viceroy, Lord Minto.
 The Hindus also decided to introduce a boycott of British goods.
Instead of buying British salt, cloth, or any other manufactured

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product Hindus vowed to buy Indian produced goods this ‘Swadeshi

Movement’ spread rapidly.
 British cloth was thrown onto bonfires and it became a matter of
honour to wear locally produced clothes. At the same time some
Indian workers , such as those in Calcutta, began a series of strike to
show their opposition. Soon, the sale of British goods dropped
dramatically.
 Law and order situation also became a matter of great concern for the
British.
 Lord Harding, the new viceroy, agreed to reverse the partition of
Bengal. The decision was announced at a durbar in Delhi on 12
December by King George V, who was visiting India at the time.
 MORLEY- MINTO REFORMS 1909

This act was another step towards giving Indians more representation in
the Government. This act provided,

 Expansion of Legislative Councils Central: Additional members up to 60

but official majority remained there.

 Provincial: Size varied in different provinces.

 Powers of the Councils were increased. Now
 Budget could be discussed. Members were allowed to present
Resolutions and put up questions.
 Executive Councils were formed for Bombay, Madras and Bengal with
Lt.Governor Provinces.
 Elections were to be held by University Senate, District Boards,
Municipal , Committees, Zamindars, and Chambers of Commerce.
 Separate Electorate was accepted for minorities.

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 IMPORTANCE OF LUCKNOW PACT 1916

 Lucknow pact was the first official gesture of unity between the two
major communities i.e. the Hindus and the Muslims.
 This agreement gave Muslims the right of separate electorates and
an idea of self-rule leading to certain amount of partition at only time
in future.
 Acceptance of separate electorates for the Muslims favoured the
philosophy of “Two Nation Theory”.
 The Lucknow pact was the first note able achievement for the Muslim
league. It gave strength to the Muslim league and a fame and
popularity to Mr. Jinnah who was the principal architect of Lucknow
pact. After this settlement Mr. Jinnah was hailed as ‘Ambassador of
the Hindu Muslims unity’ by Sorojini Neado ih her book The
Ambassador of Unity. Within a short time Mr. Jinnah came to be
known as Quaid-i-Azam. The pact was high-water mark of Hindu
Muslim Unity. It was to be short-lived, however, as the consequences
of the Amritsar Massacre and Khilafat Movement which led to a more
communal approach to politics.
 MEASURES TAKEN DURING KHILAFAT MOVEMENT TO
PRESSURIZE THE GOVERNMENT

The Muslims of sub-continent started the Khilafat Movement to at the

end of World War-1 to pressurize the government to fulfill their demands.
Their major demands included:

a) To save the institution of caliphate

b) To ensure the sanctity of sacred places of Muslims in Turkey like
Makkah, Madina
c) To retain Turkey as a single country
 A Khilafat Committee was formed

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 Two Khilafat Conferences were held

 Muslims started a movement having cooperation of Mr. Gandhi
 The non cooperation movement was started in the movement
 The people came on the roads demanding and protesting
 Boycotted the British goods e.g. they boycott British cloth, salt etc.
 Boycott of courts
 Withdrew their children from government schools
 Many people resigned from the jobs denouncing the titles.
 Refused to contest in the elections and resigned from seats in local
bodies
 KHILAFAT DELEGATION AND HIJRAT MOVEMENT
 A Khilafat delegation was sent to Britain. It met the British Prime
minister Lloyd George. He replied sarcastically that Turkey would get
justice ; ‘Australia has had justice, Germany has had justice – pretty
terrible justice – why should Turkey escape?
 Khilafat delegation came back desperately and ulema of Farangi
Mehal Mosque issued a fatwa that now Muslims should stand against
the government or should migrate to some other country.
 Muslims started Hijrat Movement in 1920 and some 18000 Muslims
sold their possessions and migrated towards Afghanistan.
 Afghanistan allowed few people to enter Afghanistan and rest were
forced to go back.
 When they came back more problems awaited them; they had no
jobs and whatever property they had was in the hands of others.
 This was damaging and most supporters lost their enthusiasm to
carry on. The Hijrat Movement was a complete disaster for Muslims.
 WHY THE MOVEMENT FAIL?
 The Khilafat Movement failed due to

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 It was not a logical one

 All the Muslims (even Muslim League) did not officially support it ;
Jinnah had warned that the movement will only bring disaster to the
Muslims
 Turkish people showed almost no concern
 Hijrat movement also resulted in demoralizing the Muslims
 Gandhi withdrew his support after violent incident at Chaura Chori
 After abolition of caliphate by Turkish parliament in 1924 there was no
logic of such movement
 HOWEVER the movement made Muslims to realize that they are a
political power. Ulema entered the practical politics who played a very
vital role during Pakistan Movement. Muslims learnt political tactics
during non cooperation as how to pressurize the government. The
movement also encouraged the Turkish. It also revealed that Hindus
are not trust worthy.
 GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1919 (MONTAGU-CHELMSFORD
REFORMS OR MOUNTFORD REFORMS)

Mr. Montagu, Secretary of State visited India from November 1917 to

April 1918 and discussed the constitutional matters with Viceroy Lord
Chelmsford and the Indian political leaders. The outcome was the
government of India Act 1919. Its salient features are:

o This act provided a bicameral legislature at the Centre, which

consisted of two houses.
o One was the Council of State with a membership of 60, out of which
34 were to be elected and 26 nominated official & nonofficial
members. The Council’s tenure was fixed at 5 years.
o Legislative Assembly was consisted of 145 members, out of whom
105 were elected and the rest would be nominated.
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o Direct elections were introduced with limited franchise on the basis of

property, tax paying, previous experience of legislative councils,
university senate, district councils, etc.
o Separate Electorate for minorities.
o Limited law making powers were assigned to the Legislature but for
certain categories prior permission was required. It had no control
over defense, foreign policy, budget etc. Legislature could refuse
grants but Governor General could restore them.
o Questions, Resolutions, Adjournment Motions were allowed.
o G.G. remained a powerful office with all the executive, legislative
powers with a nominated Executive Council.
o Two lists of subjects were given in the act, one was Central and the
other was Provincial. Centre had overriding powers.
o Provincial Legislative Councils Membership increased. 70 percent
were elected. They were having limited powers. They could reject
budget but GG could restore it.
o Diarchy System in the Provinces. The act introduced DIARCHY
system in the provinces.
o According to the new arrangement subjects were divided into two
categories i.e., Reserved subjects and Transferred subjects.
o Reserved subjects included judiciary, canal, land revenue, Finance,
press, power, etc.
o Transferred subjects included Local govt. education, public health. In
case of a dispute, if something belonged to reserved or transferred
side, the Governor was entitled to make the final decision.
o Limited Responsible Government at the provincial level was
introduced. The system of Diarchy was complicated.

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o The continuous tussle between the elected and nominated members

created fear of breakdown of administration. GG had Control on key
departments. Elective elements became strong in the legislatures.
 Indians were expecting more from the Reforms as they had provided
full support to British during world war one.
 No one was satisfied with the reforms. There was great hue and cry
from all sections of society including Congress and Muslim League.
 System of Diarchy was much criticized by all.
 Protests and agitations , congress once again started non
cooperation
O ROWLETT ACT, 1919

Rowlett Act was introduced by the govt. to tackle with revolutionary

activities. The law was called ‘the black law’.The government got
authority

o Arrested any one without warrant

o No facility of legal assistance and right to appeal or bail just as the
‘Lettres de Cachet’ in France before the French Revolution.
o Government could direct any person where to live i.e. House
Arrest.
o Jinnah resigned from the central legislature as a protest.

 JALLIANWALA BAGH INCIDENT, APRIL 1919

Due to strikes and demonstrations the govt. banned anti state

publications and public meetings. Despite unrest continued especially in
Punjab. People gathered in Jallianwala Bagh at Amritsar for a peaceful
demonstration but General Dyer opened fire to disperse them. About

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1600 rounds were fired. Around 400 people were killed and 1200 were
wounded. General Dyer said that he had done all this to make the
people of Punjab understood that they should obey the British rule. It is
considered one of the great tragedies in India. A special enquiry, the
Hunter Committee, was setup to investigate what Dyer had done in
Amritsar. In 1940, by killing Governor Punjab, Sir Micheal O’ Dayer,
‘Ram Muhammad Singh Azad’ got revenge of the Indian massacre.

 WHY DID MUSLIM LEAGUE REJECT THE NEHRU REPORT?

 Muslim League and congress had decided to boycott the Simon
Commission which came to the subcontinent in 1927. In 1928, Nehru
committee was set up. Pandit Motilal Nehru was appointed the
chairman of the committee. In May in 1928 members of Congress
Muslim League , Liberals, the Hindu Mahasabah and the central Sikh
league met in all party conference to draw the constitution to be used
to run their country. The suggestions of the Committee were
contained in the Nehru Report. The Report called for:
 Immediate dominion status for India (that meant India would become
independent, but remain a member of the common wealth accepting
the British monarch as Head of state).
 India to be a federation with a two-chamber parliament.
 The protection of minorities through a system of reserving seats in the
two-chamber (though it did not support separate electorates).
 The vote for all adult men and women.
 Gandhi proposed a resolution saying that the British should be given
one year to accept the recommendations of the Nehru Report of a
campaign of non-cooperation should begin. The resolution was
passed.

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 Although the Nehru Report had been drafted up by the all parties yet
it was controversial.
 In the report basic demands of the Muslims (separate electorates, 1/3
representation, maximum provincial autonomy) were ignored.
 Congress also demanded for unitary form of government.
 Mr. Jinnah tired his best that congress should include major demands
of the Muslim which had been accepted in the Lucknow Pact, 1916.
He proposed some changes in the Nehru Report but congress could
not agree.
 Jinnah named the Report as Hindu Report and described the
moment as “the parting of ways”. He would not reconcile with
congress. He presented his own suggestion in 1929 as minimum final
demands of Muslims known as fourteen points of Jinnah.
 ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES: 1930, 1931, AND 1932
 First Session of the Conference

In the first session, a number of prominent Muslims like M. A. Jinnah, Sir

Shafi, Maulana M. A. Jauhar, Zafarullah Khan participated. They
emphasized federalism, self government, safeguards for minorities,
separate electorate, preferential representation in central legislature,
secure majorities in Punjab and Bengal.

 Second Conference

Maulana M. A. Jauhar had died after the first conference. Iqbal, Jinnah
and others participated in the second conference. Gandhi was also there
after Gandhi- Irwin Pact 1931. He represented the Congress. Mr. Gandhi
adopted an inelastic attitude. He argued that he was the representative
of all the Indians. The key issues of the session were ‘Federation’ and
‘Minorities.’ But Gandhi was not ready to recognize the problem of
minorities in India. Consequently the second conference failed to
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achieve anything except cognition of Sindh and NWFP as full provinces

with Governors.

The Communal Award, August 1932

Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald announced the Communal Award:

1. Separate electorate for all minorities and schedule castes of India

2. Weightage to minorities

3. No Muslim majorities in Punjab and Bengal as was followed in

Lucknow Pact

4. One third representation for Muslims in Central legislature

5. One fourth representation for Muslims in services

Poona Pact, September 1932

The Congress expressed strong reaction against the right of separate

electorate to the Indian minorities, especially to low caste Hindus whom
Gandhi named Harijan (sons of God). Gandhi observed fast unto death
against separate electorate for Shudders. The leader of Shudders Dr.
Bheim Rao Ambedkar (B.R.Ambedkar) was pressurized by the Hindus.
Under Poona Pact low caste to surrender the separate electorate to
save Gandhi’s life.

 3rd Roundtable Conference

The main issues had been discussed in the first two conferences and
now the rest of them were to be discussed. It was poorly attended
conference. Jinnah did not participate despite living in London. Gandhi
did not attend as he had been detained.

 CONGRESS RULE 1937-39

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 Elections were held in 1937 under the government of India act 1935.
Congress got absolute majority in 7 provinces out of 11.
 After formation of governments congress adopted a series of polices
and measures that created a lot of panic within Muslims.
 Congress introduced Bande Mataram National anthem, an extremist
Hindu song as National anthem. It would be sung during all official
proceedings and in school assemblies. The song contained
humiliating remarks about Muslim rulers of the sub-continent. The
Muslims were quite unhappy on the introduction of Bande Mataram.
 Congress also started hoisting tri colour flag on the official buildings.
This was also disliked by the Muslims. By introducing the congress
flag officially Congress wanted to create an impression that now
Hindus were the rulers or there was Ram Raj in India.
 Wardha Educational scheme was also introduced. The scheme was
devised by Dr. Zakir Hussain under the instructions of Mr. Gandhi.
Children of age 7 to 13 were supposed to get education under
Wardha Scheme. The scheme emphasized on co-education and
preached secularism. Muslims reacted and rejected the system. They
argued that the purpose of the educational scheme was to subvert
the love for Islam and to brain wash the Muslim students. A picture of
Gandhi was hung in schools and all the students had to show
reverence to it.
 Another educational scheme with name Vidiya Mandir was introduced
in which Mandirs were declared as schools. It was also criticize by
Muslims because mostly Pandits were appointed as teachers in these
schools.
 During the congress rule Hindu Muslim riots became very common.
The slaughtering of cows was officially banned. When any Muslim

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slaughtered cow the Hindus burnt his house even some times the
person was killed. Such cases were more common on Eid-ul-Azha.
 Hindu mobs used to sing songs and beat drums in front of Mosques
during prayer times. Pigs were pushed into the mosques sometimes.
The result was Hindu Muslim clash in which mostly Muslims were at
loss. Muslims were also under political, economic and social
victimization.
 DAY OF DELIVERANCE
 On 3 September 1939 Britain announced that it was at war with Nazi
Germany. On the same day Indian Viceroy Linlithgow announced that
India too was at war with Germany.
 The British government sought cooperation from the Indians.
Congress objected the decision by saying that India could only do so
if it were granted a promise of full independence.
 The British could not accept instead they promised dominion status
after the war. Congress could not accept it and resigned from the
ministries. The Muslims were so pleased to see the end of the Hindu
tyrannical government that they decided to celebrate the occasion.
 During the congress rule Muslims had faced a very tough time.
Congress had made them to feel that there was no room for Muslims
in India if congress were the rulers. Mr. Jinnah called Muslims to
celebrate the end of Congress tyrannical rule on 22 December 1939
as the “Day of Deliverance”.
 THE CRIPPS MISSION 1942
 During the world war II. The British government sent a mission to
India in chairmanship of Mr. Stafford Cripps. The purpose of the
mission was to win support of Indians in British war efforts. Cripps
Proposed that.
 After the war an Indian union would be set up with Dominion status.

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 Provinces in the union could opt out of the union and negotiate their
own independence which would frame new constitution.
 Elections for the constituent assembly would be held immediately
after the war.
 The Muslim league rejected the plan immediately as it contained no
clear reference with respect to establishment of Pakistan. Though
there was a provision of opting out of future Union but it was after ten
years of working of new constitution after the war.
 Muslim league had clearly started in 1940 that no constitutional
formula in future would be acceptable without announcement of a
separate homeland for Muslims.
 Congress also rejected the plan as they wanted immediate
announcement of complete independence. It also rejected the plan
because they could see an image of Pakistan after 10 years.
 Congress was not ready to divide India any case .Mr. Gandhi called
the proposal ‘a post dated cheque on a failing exploit it.
 After rejecting Cripps suggestions Congress started Quit India
Movement demanding immediate withdrawal of the British. Soon
most of the main leaders of Congress were in jails. The Movement
was forcibly crushed by the Govt.
 Jinnah did not support the Movement. He said “ First Divide then
Quit”
 GANDHI JINNAH TALKS
 After Quit India, when Gandhi released from prison, he proposed
Jinnah to meet to consider the future of India after, once the British
has gone.
 In 1944 they met at Jinnah’s home Mount Pleasant house in Bombay.
The talks broke down for a number of reasons.

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 Gandhi considered that he the representative of India. All people in

India are Indians he negated the Two Nation Theory.
 Jinnah said Gandhi spoke only for Hindus and Congress
 Gandhi wanted that central government have control over areas such
as defiance and foreign policy while Jinnah wanted that these matters
should be dealt by provinces.
 Though the Talks failed but Muslim League was at advantage as it
showed that now Congress was ready for talks on equal footings and
also Jinnah got even high standing among Muslims as he very firmly
and intelligently handled the talks in favour of Muslims
 SIMLA CONFERENCE 1945
 Before the World War II had ended , Lord Wavell had proposed an
Executive Council.
 The Council would comprise of Indians (except defence and Viceroy
himself)
 There would be equal members on the Council of Hindus and
Muslims.
 To discuss the formation of the Council and future handover the
Viceroy called a conference at Simla in June-July1945.
 There were 21 participants from all major parties. Jinnah ,Khwaja
Nazimuddin, Liaquat Ali Khan from Muslim League. Gandhi led the
congress while Abul Kalam Azad and Khizar Hayat Tiwana were
included to demonstrate that not all Muslims were members of Muslim
League.
 All parties accepted the idea of Executive Council
 Congress argued that they had right to nominate the Muslims and
that these members should be included in the total number of the
Muslims.

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 Jinnah objected the stand point of Congress and said that only
Muslim League had a right to nominate Muslim members as Muslim
League had won all by-elections in previous two year.
 Moreover, Jinnah said if there would be simple parity between
Muslims and Hindus the Muslims would be constantly outvoted as
Sikhs and Scheduled castes would side the Congress.
 Jinnah continued to insist that Pakistan was necessary.
 Lord Wavell had met Jinnah Gandhi and Azad separately on 24 June
but of no use.
 Wavell admitted defeat and closed the Conference on 14 July 1945
 (Gandhi and Lord Wavell may be held responsible for
the failure of Conference. Jinnah could not take
risk of any compromise in face of Congress strong
desire of complete dominating role.)
 CABINET MISSION PLAN 1946
 In March 1946 the British made their final effort to settle the
differences within India. The Cabinet Mission arrived in New Delhi on
24 March 1946. It was led by Sir Stafford Cripps and also included
A.V. Alexander and Lord Pethic Lawrence.
 The Mission met representatives of the Muslim League Congress the
Sikhs and the Hindu Mahasabha.
 The delegation soon found that there was little common ground
between the league and congress. Jinnah was insisting on the
formation of Pakistan comprising six provinces.
 The Mission soon realized that Muslim league and Congress were
fundamentally opposed to each other proposals.
 Only after granting Pakistan , Jinnah was willing to discuss an
amicable solution to various issues. He might consider the setting up

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of a central agency of India and Pakistan to look after certain

common subjects.
 The Mission suggested that the government would form an All – India
commission from members of the provincial and central legislatures.
The commission would then decide whether there should be one or
two states after the British had left.
 Neither Congress nor the league agreed the suggestions but the
delegation continued its work and announced its final plan.
 It presented an idea of three tier federation and divided India into
three groups
Group A : Hindu majority provinces

Group B: Muslim majority provinces

Group C: Bengal and Assam

 Each group would have local autonomy and would be able to draw up
its own constitution.
 Foreign affairs, defense and communication would be managed by a
central Indian Union.
 It rejected the idea of establishing Pakistan.
o Jinnah rejected the idea of dividing Bengal and Punjab as it will leave
them ‘ moth-eaten’ and economically handicapped.
o He said that Bengal without Calcutta would be a ‘man without lungs’.
o However, Jinnah was prepared to nominate members to an interim
cabinet to oversee the move to independence based on the plan.
o Nehru said that congress would not feel bound by the plan once the
British had left. It meant that any agreement might just be overturned
after the British had goone. This destroyed any chance of Cabinet
Mission Plan had ever being accepted by Muslim League. Even Abul

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Kalam Azad felt that Nehru’s statement was ‘one of those events that
changed the course of history’.

 3rd JUNE PLAN 1947 (Partition Plan)

 Newly appointed viceroy lord Mount Batten announced the partition of
India on 3rd June 1947.
 The announcement was accompanied by a comprehensive plan for
division of India into two sovereign states India and Pakistan.
 It was announced that the partition would come to action by 1948.
Both Muslim league and congress accepted the plan. The main
features of plan were as follows.
 Two states India and Pakistan would be set up India. The
Government of India Act 1935 would be interim constitution of both
states.
 Each state will have Dominion status and have an Executive
responsible to a Constituent Assembly.
 Muslims majority provinces would vote either to stay in India
or join Pakistan.
 The princely states would also opt for Pakistan or India keeping in
view their geo–political condition. ( There was no third option)
 By the middle of June Muslim league and Congress had accepted the
plan.
 After approval by Muslim League and Congress and decisions by
provinces the Plan was passed by the British parliament on July 18,
1947 and was known as “Independence Act 1947”.
 BOUNDARY COMMISSION

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 A Commission was set up in 1947 to demarcate boundaries of Punjab

and Bengal.
 Cyril Radcliffe was the Chairman of the Commission
 Justice Shah Din Muhammad , Justice M. Muneer , Justice Teja
Singh, Justice Mehrchand Mahajan were members of Punjab
Boundary Commission
 Justice Abu Saleh M, Akram , Justice S.A.Rehman, Justice
C.C.Biswas and Jusice B.K.Mukerjee were in Bengal Boubdary
Commission.
 RADCLIFFE AWARD 1947
 According to 3rd June plan 1947 to separate Boundary Commissions
were set up to demarcate the boundaries of Punjab and Bengal. Mr.
Cyril Radcliffe was the joint head of both commissions. Two Muslims
and two Hindu judges were also including in each commission. The
decision of the boundary commissions is known as ‘ Boundary
Commission Award OR Radcliffe Award’ .
o The announcement was made on 16 th august 1947. Muslims were
disappointed to hear that Calcutta was given to India which was
surrounded by Muslim majority area. In Punjab Gurudaspur and
Ferozpur were awarded to India. All these were Muslim majority
area. Through Gurudaspur India got a road accesses to Kashmir
making future disputes between India and Pakistan inevitable. The
decision also caused refugee problems. The canal water dispute of
1948 was also a result of Radcliffe Award. Mr. Jinnah told the people
of Pakistan that the award was wrong unjust and perverse.
o Pakistan had to face a number of problems because of Radcliffe
Award:
o Canal water dispute ( Resolved in 1960, under Indus Water Treaty)

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o Refugee problem ( A lot of disturbance in the country about 1 crore

20 lac Muslims migrated to Pakistan by April 1948)
o Kashmir issue ( Resulted three wars between two countries and
issue still stands unresolved) .Kept tension high since 1947.

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