The Circulatory System 2. 1 Composition and Function of Blood

Introduction of Physiology and Biochemistry
[Notes For BBA(HA) 1st sem] Unit 2 – The Circulatory System
2. The Circulatory System

2. 1 Composition and Function of Blood
Introduction
• Approximately 8% of an adult’s body weight is made up of blood.
• Females have around 4-5 litres, while males have around 5-6 litres. This
difference is mainly due to the differences in body size between men and
women.
• It has a pH of 7.35-7.45, making it slightly basic (less than 7 is
considered acidic).
• Whole blood is about 4.5-5.5 times as viscous as water, indicating that it
is more resistant to flow than water. This viscosity is vital to the function
of blood because if blood flows too easily or with too much resistance, it
can strain the heart and lead to severe cardiovascular problems.
• Blood in the arteries is a brighter red than blood in the veins because of
the higher levels of oxygen found in the arteries.
• An artificial substitute for human blood has not been found.
Functions of blood
Blood has three main functions: Transport, Protection and Regulation.
Transport
Blood transports the following substances:
• Gases, namely oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2), between the
lungs and rest of the body
• Nutrients from the digestive tract and storage sites to the rest of the body
• Waste products to be detoxified or removed by the liver and kidneys
• Hormones from the glands in which they are produced to their target
cells
• Heat to the skin so as to help regulate body temperature
Protection
Blood has several roles in inflammation:
Notes By:- Dr. Sneha Panjabi 7748811405 Page 1

• Leukocytes, or white blood cells, destroy invading microorganisms and

cancer cells
• Antibodies and other proteins destroy pathogenic substances
• Platelet factors initiate blood clotting and help minimise blood loss
Regulation
Blood helps regulate:
• pH by interacting with acids and bases

• Water balance by transferring water to and from tissues
Composition of blood

Composition of blood
Blood is classified as a connective tissue and consists of two main
components:
1. Plasma, which is a clear extracellular fluid

2. Formed elements, which are made up of the blood cells and platelets
The formed elements are so named because they are enclosed in a
plasma membrane and have a definite structure and shape. All formed
elements are cells except for the platelets, which are tiny fragments of bone
marrow cells.
Formed elements are:
• Erythrocytes, also known as red blood cells (RBCs)

• Leukocytes, also known as white blood cells (WBCs)
• Platelets
Leukocytes are further classified into two subcategories called granulocytes

which consist of neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils; and agranulocytes
which consist of lymphocytes and monocytes.
The formed elements can be separated from plasma by centrifuge, where a
blood sample is spun for a few minutes in a tube to separate its
components according to their densities. RBCs are denser than plasma,
and so become packed into the bottom of the tube to make up 45% of total
volume. This volume is known as the haematocrit. WBCs and platelets
form a narrow cream-coloured coat known as the buffy coat immediately
above the RBCs. Finally, the plasma makes up the top of the tube, which is
a pale yellow colour and contains just under 55% of the total volume.

Blood Plasma
Blood plasma is a mixture of proteins, enzymes, nutrients, wastes,
hormones and gases. The specific composition and function of its
components are as follows:
Proteins
These are the most abundant substance in plasma by weight and play a
part in a variety of roles including clotting, defence and transport.
Collectively, they serve several functions:
• They are an important reserve supply of amino acids for cell nutrition.
Cells called macrophages in the liver, gut, spleen, lungs and lymphatic
tissue can break down plasma proteins so as to release their amino
acids. These amino acids are used by other cells to synthesise new
products.
• Plasma proteins also serve as carriers for other molecules. Many types
of small molecules bind to specific plasma proteins and are transported
from the organs that absorb these proteins to other tissues for utilisation.
The proteins also help to keep the blood slightly basic at a stable pH.
They do this by functioning as weak bases themselves to bind excess
H+ ions. By doing so, they remove excess H+ from the blood which
keeps it slightly basic.
• The plasma proteins interact in specific ways to cause the blood to
coagulate, which is part of the body’s response to injury to the blood
vessels (also known as vascular injury), and helps protect against the
loss of blood and invasion by foreign microorganisms and viruses.
• Plasma proteins govern the distribution of water between the blood and
tissue fluid by producing what is known as a colloid osmotic pressure.
There are three major categories of plasma proteins, and each individual
type of proteins has its own specific properties and functions in addition to
their overall collective role:
1. Albumins, which are the smallest and most abundant plasma proteins.
Reductions in plasma albumin content can result in a loss of fluid from
the blood and a gain of fluid in the interstitial space (space within the

tissue), which may occur in nutritional, liver and kidney disease. Albumin
also helps many substances dissolve in the plasma by binding to them,
hence playing an important role in plasma transport of substances such
as drugs, hormones and fatty acids.
2. Globulins, which can be subdivided into three classes from smallest to
largest in molecular weight into alpha, beta and gamma globulins. The
globulins include high density lipoproteins (HDL), an alpha-1 globulin,
and low density lipoproteins (LDL), a beta-1 globulin. HDL functions in
lipid transport carrying fats to cells for use in energy metabolism,
membrane reconstruction and hormone function. HDLs also appear to
prevent cholesterol from invading and settling in the walls of arteries.
LDL carries cholesterol and fats to tissues for use in manufacturing
steroid hormones and building cell membranes, but it also favours the
deposition of cholesterol in arterial walls and thus appears to play a role
in disease of the blood vessels and heart. HDL and LDL therefore play
important parts in the regulation of cholesterol and hence have a large
impact on cardiovascular disease.
3. Fibrinogen, which is a soluble precursor of a sticky protein called fibrin,
which forms the framework of blood clot. Fibrin plays a key role
in coagulation of blood, which is discussed later in this article under
Platelets.
Amino acids :- These are formed from the break down of tissue proteins or
from the digestion of digested proteins.
Nitrogenous waste :- Being toxic end products of the break down of

substances in the body, these are usually cleared from the bloodstream
and are excreted by the kidneys at a rate that balances their production.
Nutrients :- Those absorbed by the digestive tract are transported in the
blood plasma. These include glucose, amino acids, fats, cholesterol,
phospholipids, vitamins and minerals.
Gases :- Some oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by plasma.

Plasma also contains a substantial amount of dissolved nitrogen.
Electrolytes :- The most abundant of these are sodium ions, which
account for more of the blood’s osmolarity than any other solute.

Red blood Cells [RBC / Erythrocytes]

Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes, have two main
functions:
1. To pick up oxygen from the lungs and deliver it to tissues elsewhere

2. To pick up carbon dioxide from other tissues and unload it in the lungs
An erythrocyte is a disc-shaped cell with a thick rim and a thin sunken
centre. The plasma membrane of a mature RBC has glycoproteins and
glycolipids that determine a person’s blood type. On its inner surface are
two proteins called spectrin and actin that give the membrane resilience
and durability. This allows the RBCs to stretch, bend and fold as they
squeeze through small blood vessels, and to spring back to their original
shape as they pass through larger vessels.
RBCs are incapable of aerobic respiration, preventing them from
consuming the oxygen they transport because they lose nearly all their
inner cellular components during maturation. The inner cellular components
lost include their mitochondria, which normally provide energy to a cell, and
their nucleus, which contains the genetic material of the cell and enable it
to repair itself. The lack of a nucleus means that RBCs are unable to repair
themselves. However, the resulting biconcave shape is that the cell has a
greater ratio of surface area to volume, enabling O2 and CO2 to diffuse
quickly to and from Hb.
The cytoplasm of a RBC consists mainly of a 33% solution of haemoglobin
(Hb), which gives RBCs their red colour. Haemoglobin carries most of the
oxygen and some of the carbon dioxide transported by the blood.
Circulating erythrocytes live for about 120 days. As a RBC ages, its
membrane grows increasingly fragile. Without key organelles such as a
nucleus or ribosomes, RBCs cannot repair themselves. Many RBCs die in
the spleen, where they become trapped in narrow channels, broken up and
destroyed. Haemolysis refers to the rupture of RBCs, where haemoglobin
is released leaving empty plasma membranes which are easily digested by
cells known as macrophages in the liver and spleen. The Hb is then further
broken down into its different components and either recycled in the body
for further use or disposed of.

White blood Cells [WBC / Leukocytes]

White blood cells (WBCs) are also known as leukocytes. They can be
divided into granulocytes and agranulocytes. The former have cytoplasms
that contain organelles that appear as coloured granules through light
microscopy, hence their name. Granulocytes consist of neutrophils,
eosinophils and basophils. In contrast, agranulocytes do not contain
granules. They consist of lymphocytes and monocytes.
Granulocytes
1. Neutrophils: These contain very fine cytoplasmic granules that can be
seen under a light microscope. Neutrophils are also called
polymorphonuclear (PMN) because they have a variety of nuclear
shapes. They play roles in the destruction of bacteria and the release of
chemicals that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria.
2. Eosinophils: These have large granules and a prominent nucleus that is
divided into two lobes. They function in the destruction of allergens and
inflammatory chemicals, and release enzymes that disable parasites.
3. Basophils: They have a pale nucleus that is usually hidden by granules.
They secrete histamine which increases tissue blood flow via dilating the
blood vessels, and also secrete heparin which is an anticoagulant that
promotes mobility of other WBCs by preventing clotting.
Agranulocytes
1. Lymphocytes: These are usually classified as small, medium or large.
Medium and large lymphocytes are generally seen mainly in fibrous
connective tissue and only occasionally in the circulation bloodstream.
Lymphocytes function in destroying cancer cells, cells infected by viruses,
and foreign invading cells. In addition, they present antigens to activate
other cells of the immune system. They also coordinate the actions of
other immune cells, secrete antibodies and serve in immune memory.
2. Monocytes: They are the largest of the formed elements. Their
cytoplasm tends to be abundant and relatively clear. They function in
differentiating into macrophages, which are large phagocytic cells, and
digest pathogens, dead neutrophils, and the debris of dead cells. Like
lymphocytes, they also present antigens to activate other immune cells.

Platelets
Platelets are small fragments of bone marrow cells and are therefore not
really classified as cells themselves.
Platelets have the following functions:
1. Secrete vasoconstrictors which constrict blood vessels, causing vascular

spasms in broken blood vessels
2. Form temporary platelet plugs to stop bleeding
3. Secrete procoagulants (clotting factors) to promote blood clotting
4. Dissolve blood clots when they are no longer needed
5. Digest and destroy bacteria
6. Secrete chemicals that attract neutrophils and monocytes to sites of
inflammation
7. Secrete growth factors to maintain the linings of blood vessels
The first three functions listed above refer to important haemostatic
mechanisms in which platelets play a role in during bleeding: vascular
spasms, platelet plug formation and blood clotting (coagulation).
Etc…….
Vascular spasm :- This is a prompt constriction of the broken blood vessel
and is the most immediate protection against blood loss. Injury stimulates
pain receptors. Some of these receptors directly innervate nearby blood
vessels and cause them to constrict. After a few minutes, other
mechanisms take over. Injury to the smooth muscle of the blood vessel
itself causes a longer-lasting vasoconstriction where platelets release a
chemical vasoconstrictor called serotonin. This maintains vascular spasm
long enough for the other haemostatic mechanisms to come into play.
Platelet plug formation :- Under normal conditions, platelets do not

usually adhere to the wall of undamaged blood vessels, since the vessel
lining tends to be smooth and coated with a platelet repellent. When a
vessel is broken, platelets put out long spiny extensions to adhere to the
vessel wall as well as to other platelets. These extensions then contract

and draw the walls of the vessel together. The mass of platelets formed is
known as a platelet plug, and can reduce or stop minor bleeding.
Coagulation :- This is the last and most effective defence against bleeding.
During bleeding, it is important for the blood to clot quickly to minimise
blood loss, but it is equally important for blood not to clot in undamaged
vessels. Coagulation is a very complex process aimed at clotting the blood
at appropriate amounts. The objective of coagulation is to convert plasma
protein fibrinogen into fibrin, which is a sticky protein that adheres to the
walls of a vessel. Blood cells and platelets become stuck to fibrin, and the
resulting mass helps to seal the break in the blood vessel. The forming of
fibrin is what makes coagulation so complicated, as it involved numerous
chemicals reactions and many coagulation factors.
Production of blood
Haemopoiesis
Haemopoiesis is the production of the formed elements of blood.
Haemopoietic tissues refer to the tissues that produce blood. The earliest
haemopoietic tissue to develop is the yolk sac, which also functions in the
transfer of yolk nutrients of the embryo. In the foetus, blood cells are
produced by the bone marrow, liver, spleen and thymus. This changes
during and after birth. The liver stops producing blood cells around the time
of birth, while the spleen stops producing them soon after birth but
continues to produce lymphocytes for life. From infancy onwards, all
formed elements are produced in the red bone marrow. Lymphocytes are
additionally produced in lymphoid tissues and organs widely distributed in
the body, including the thymus, tonsils, lymph nodes, spleen and patches
of lymphoid tissues in the intestine.
Erythropoesis
Erythropoiesis refers specifically to the production of erythrocytes or red
blood cells (RBCs). These are formed through the following sequence of
cell transformations:
The proerythroblast has receptors for the hormone erythropoietin (EPO).
Once EPO receptors are in place, the cell is committed to exclusively
producing RBCs. The erythroblasts then multiply and synthesise
haemoglobin (Hb), which is a red oxygen transport protein. The nucleus
from the erythroblasts is then discarded, giving rise to cells named

reticulocytes. The overall transformation from haemocytoblast to
reticulocytes involves a reduction in cell size, an increase in cell number,
the synthesis of haemoglobin, and the loss of the cell nucleus. These
reticulocytes leave the bone marrow and enter the bloodstream where they
mature into erythrocytes when their endoplasmic reticulum disappears.
Leukopoiesis
Leukopoiesis refers to the production of leukocytes (WBCs). It begins when
some types of haemocytoblasts differentiate into three types of committed
cells:
1. B progenitors, which are destined to become B lymphocytes
2. T progenitors, which become T lymphocytes
3. Granulocyte-macrophage colony-forming units, which become
granulocytes and monocytes
These cells have receptors for colony-stimulating factors (CSFs). Each
CSF stimulates a different WBC type to develop in response to specific
needs. Mature lymphocytes and macrophages secrete several types of
CSFs in response to infections and other immune challenges. The red
bone marrow stores granulocytes and monocytes until they are needed in
the bloodstream. However, circulating leukocytes do not stay in the blood
for very long. Granulocytes circulate for 4-8 hours and then migrate into the
tissues where they live for another 4-5 days. Monocytes travel in the blood
for 10-20 hours, then migrate into the tissues and transform into a variety of
macrophages which can live as long as a few years. Lymphocytes are
responsible for long-tern immunity and can survive from a few weeks to
decades. They are continually recycled from blood to tissue fluid to lymph
and finally back to the blood.
Thrombopoiesis
Thrombopoiesis refers to the production of platelets in the blood, because
platelets used to be called thrombocytes. This starts when a
haemocytoblast develops receptors for the hormone thrombopoietin which
is produced by the liver and kidneys. When these receptors are in place,
the haemocytoblast becomes a committed cell called a megakaryoblast.
This replicates its DNA, producing a large cell called a megakaryocyte,

which breaks up into tiny fragments that enter the bloodstream. About 25-
40% of the platelets are stored in the spleen and released as needed. The
remainder circulate freely in the blood are live for about 10 days.
2.2 Blood Groups

The term “blood group” refers to the entire blood group system comprising
red blood cell (RBC) antigens whose specificity is controlled by a series of
genes which can be allelic or linked very closely on the same chromosome.
Antibodies and antigens
Blood is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets in a
liquid called plasma. Your blood group is identified by antibodies and
antigens in the blood.
Antibodies are proteins found in plasma. They're part of your body's natural
defences. They recognise foreign substances, such as germs, and alert
your immune system, which destroys them.
Antigens are protein molecules found on the surface of red blood cells.
The ABO system
There are four main blood groups defined by the ABO system:
• blood group A – has A antigens on the red blood cells with anti-B
antibodies in the plasma
• blood group B – has B antigens with anti-A antibodies in the plasma
• blood group O – has no antigens, but both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in
the plasma
• blood group AB – has both A and B antigens, but no antibodies

The Rh system
Red blood cells sometimes have another antigen, a protein known as the
RhD antigen. If this is present, your blood group is RhD positive. If it's
absent, your blood group is RhD negative.
This means you can be one of eight blood groups:

• A RhD positive (A+)
• A RhD negative (A-)
• B RhD positive (B+)
• B RhD negative (B-)
• O RhD positive (O+)
• O RhD negative (O-)
• AB RhD positive (AB+)
• AB RhD negative (AB-)

The Blood Group system
At present, 33 blood group systems representing over 300 antigens are

listed by the International Society of Blood Transfusion.

2.3 (1) Cardiac Cycle

Cardiac Cycle
• The Function of the heart is to maintain a constant circulation of the
blood throughout the body.
• The Heart act as pump and its action consist of series of events
known as the cardiac cycle.
• The cardiac cycle describes all the activities of the heart through one
complete heartbeat.
• During each heartbeat, or cardiac cycle, the heart contracts and
relaxes.
• A contraction event (of either the atria or ventricles) is referred to
as systole, and a relaxation event is referred to as diastole.
Action Involuntary
Method Blood is allowed to enter relaxed ventricle chamber from vein

through venous valve. Heart muscle contracts ventricle chamber
and blood is expelled through arterial valve to artery.
Outcome circulation of blood
Duration 0.6–1 second (Humans) / (Average 0.8 sec )
Frequency 60–100 per minute / (Average 72 Per Minute )

{ 0.8 * 72 = 57.6 / 60 sec}
Events of cardiac Cycle:
-Atrial Events
0.1s/Con 0.7 s/Relax
- Ventricular Events
0.3s/Con 0.5s/Relax
• Phases of Cardiac cycle

 Phase 1 - Atrial Contraction
 Phase 2 - Isovolumetric Contraction
 Phase 3 - Rapid Ejection
 Phase 4 - Reduced Ejection
 Phase 5 - Isovolumetric Relaxation
 Phase 6 - Rapid Filling
 Phase 7 - Reduced Filling
• Phase 1 - Atrial Contraction

 This is the first phase of cardiac cycle.
 Represent electrical depolarization of the Atria.
 Atrial depolarization initiates contraction of atrial musculature.
 As the atria contracts the pressure within the atrial chambers
increases, which forces more blood across open atrioventicular
(AV) valves, leading to rapid flow of blood in to the ventricles.
 AV Valves Open
 Semilunar Valves Closed
 After atrial contraction is completed, the atrial pressure begins to
fall causing pressure gradient reversal across the valve.
 This causes the valve to float upward (preposition) before closer.
• Phase 2 - Isovolumetric Atrial Contraction

 This phase of cardiac cycle begins with the ventricular

depolarization.
 This triggers excitation-contraction coupling, myocyte contraction
and a rapid increase in intraventricular pressure.
 All Valve closed
 The AV valve close intraventricular pressure exceeds atrial
pressure.
 Ventricular Contraction also triggers contraction of the papillary
muscles with their chordae tendineae that are attached to the
valve leaflets.
 This tension on the AV valve leaflets prevent them from bulging
back in to the atria.
 Closer of the AV valve results in the first Heart Sound (S1)(Lup).
This sound is normally split (0.04 sec) precedes tricuspid closer.
 During the time period between the closer of the AV valve and the
opening of the aortic and pulmonic valve, ventricular pressure
rises rapidly without a change in ventricular volume (i.e No ejection
occurs).
 Ventricular volume does not change because all valve closed
during this phase. Contraction, therefore, is said to be “isovolumic”
or “isovolumetric”
• Phase 3 - Rapid Ejection

 This phase represents initial, rapid ejection of blood in to the aorta and
pulmonary arteries from the left and right ventricles, respectively
 Ejection begins when the intraventricular pressure exceed the pressure
within the aorta and pulmonary artery, which causes the aortic and
pulmonary valve to open.
 Aortic and pulmonary valve open
 AV Valve remain closed.
 No heart sound are ordinarily noted during ejection because the
opening of healthy valve is silent.
 Left atrial pressure is initially decreases as the arterial base is pulled
downward, expanding the atrial chamber.
 Blood continues to flow in to the atria from their respective venus
inflow tracts and the atrial pressure begin to rise.

• Phase 4 - Reduced Ejection

 Aortic and pulmonary valve open; AV Valve remain closed.
 After beginning of ventricular contraction, ventricular repolarization
occurs.
 Repolarization lead to a decline in ventricular active tension and
pressure generation therefor, the rate of ejection falls.
 Left and right atrial pressure gradually rise due to continued venous
return from the lungs and from systemic circulation, respectively.
• Phase 5 - Isovolumetric Relaxation

 All valve closed.
 When the intraventricular pressure fall sufficiently at the end of phase
4, the aortic and pulmonic valve abruptly closed causing second heart
sound (S2) (dup) and the beginning of isovolumetric relaation.
 Although the ventricular pressure decreases during this phase, volume
do not change because all valve are closed.
 The volume of blood that remains in ventricle is called the end-systolic
volume and is about 50 ml in the left ventricle.
 The difference between end-diastolic volume and end-systolic volume
is about 70 ml and represents strock volume.
• Phase 6 - Rapid Filling

 AV valve open.
 As the ventricles continue to relax at the end of phase 5, the
intraventricular pressures will at some point fall below their respective
atrial pressures.
 When this occurs, the AV valve rapidly open and passive ventricular
filling begins.
 Despite the inflow of blood from the atria, intraventricular pressure
continues to briefly fall because the ventricles are still undergoing
relaxation.
 Once the ventricles are completely relaxed, their pressure will slowly
rises as they fill with blood from atria.
• Phase 7 - Reduced Filling

 AV valve open.
 As the ventricles continue to fill with blood and expand, they become
less compliant and the intraventricular pressure rise.
 the increase in intraventricular pressure reduces the pressure gradient
across the AV valve so that the rate of filling falls late in diastole.
 In normal, resting heart, the ventricles is about 90% filled by the end of
this phase. In other words, about 90% of ventricular filling occurs
before atrial contraction (phase 1) and therefor is passive.
 Aortic and pulmonary atrial pressure continues to fall during this
period.
2.3 (2) Blood Pressure

Blood pressure: The blood pressure is the pressure of the blood within the
arteries. It is produced primarily by the contraction of the heart muscle. It's
measurement is recorded by two numbers. The first (systolic pressure) is
measured after the heart contracts and is highest. The second (diastolic
pressure) is measured before the heart contracts and lowest. A blood
pressure cuff is used to measure the pressure.
Blood pressure is recorded as two numbers and written as a ratio: the top
number, called the systolic pressure, is the pressure as the heart beats.
The bottom number, called the diastolic pressure, is the measurement as
the heart relaxes between beats. According to guidelines announced in
November 2017 by the American Heart Association (AHA), people's blood
pressure measurements fall into the following categories:
• Normal: Less than 120 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) for systolic and
80 mm Hg for diastolic.

2.3 (3) Electrocardiogram / ECG/ EKG

Introduction of ECG
The electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) is a diagnostic tool that is routinely

used to assess the electrical and muscular functions of the heart.
Electrically, the heart can be divided into upper and lower chambers. An
electrical impulse is generated in the upper chambers of the heart that
causes the atria to squeeze and push blood into the ventricles. There is a
short delay to allow the ventricles to fill. The ventricles then contract to
pump blood to the body and the lungs.
Conducting system of the heart: SA means sinoatrial node. AV means

atrioventricular node. RB and LB mean right and left bundle, respectively,
and are the nerves that spread the electric impulse from the AV node into
the ventricles.The heart has its own automatic pacemaker called the
sinaoatrial, or SA node, located in the right atrium. The SA node acts
independently of the brain to generate electricity for the heart to beat.
Electrical currents generated by the heart during the cardiac cycle can be
detected on the surface of the body by the electrodes of an
electrocardiograph. A recording of these currents, called an
electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG),
A standardized system has been developed for the electrode placement for
a routine ECG. Ten electrodes are needed to produce 12 electrical views of
the heart. An electrode lead, or patch, is placed on each arm and leg and
six are placed across the chest wall. The signals received from each
electrode are recorded. The printed view of these recordings is the
electrocardiogram.
represents a sum of all the concurrent action potentials produced by the

heart as detected by the 12 electrodes of the electrocardiograph. A single
cardiac cycle produces a distinctive wave pattern, where peaks and valleys

are indicated by the letters P, Q, R, S, and T. An interpretation of the major

characteristics of the ECG follows:
• The P wave is a small wave that represents the depolarization of the

atria. During this wave, the muscles of the atria are contracting.
• The QRS complex is a rapid down‐up‐down movement. The upward
movement produces a tall peak, indicated by R. The QRS complex
represents the depolarization of the ventricles.
• The T wave represents the repolarization of the ventricles. Electrical
activity generated by the repolarization of the atria is concealed by
the QRS complex.

2.4 Lymphatic system

Introduction
The lymphatic system is part of the immune system. It also maintains fluid
balance and plays a role in absorbing fats and fat-soluble nutrients.
The lymphatic or lymph system involves an extensive network of vessels

that passes through almost all our tissues to allow for the movement of a
fluid called lymph.
Lymphatic system also known as Secondary Circulatory System.
Lymphatic system include

1. Lymph
2. Lymph Capillaries
3. Lymph Vessels

4. Lymph node
5. Organs – Thymus, Spleen
6. Function
1. Lymph :-
- Lymph is a colorless fluid Circulate in Human body.
- Lymph circulates through the body in a similar way to
blood.
- In lymph WBC present (RBC and platelets absent).
- In lymph soluble protein present in less quantity and
insoluble protein present in more Quantity.
- Lymph clotting capacity is less due to absence of
Hemoglobin.
2. Lymph Vessels :-
- Lymph system involves an extensive network of vessels
that passes through almost all our tissues.
- Structure of lymph vessels is thinner than veins.
- In Right side of body lymph Vessels are larger than Left.
3. Lymph Node :-
- There are about 600 lymph nodes in the body.
- Lymph node are present between the network of lymph
Vessels.
- Example of Lymph node is Tonsil, Submandibular lymph
node, thoracic lymph node etc.
- These nodes swell in response to infection, due to a
build-up of lymph fluid, bacteria, or other organisms and
immune system cells.
4. Lymph Capillaries :-
- Lymph Vessels ends with Small Capillaries called Lymph
called Lymph Capillaries.
- Brain, Hair, Nail, Epidermis(Skin) does not have Lymph
Capillaries.

- In small intestine Lymph cell capillaries connecting called

Villii or Lactia that absorb Fat.
5. Lymph Organ :- Spleen, and thymus

Spleen - Present beside the Pancreas
- Also Known as Blood Bank of Body.
- RBC Graveyard.
- Red color Lymph node.
- Largest Capillary of body.
- Macrophage cell present.
6. Functions :- The lymph system has three main functions.
(A) Fluid balance
The lymphatic system helps maintain fluid balance. It returns excess fluid
and proteins from the tissues that cannot be returned through the blood
vessels.
The fluid is found in tissue spaces and cavities, in the tiny spaces
surrounding cells, known as the interstitial spaces. These are reached by
the smallest blood and lymph capillaries.
Around 90 percent of the plasma that reaches tissues from the arterial
blood capillaries is returned by the venous capillaries and back along veins.
The remaining 10 percent is drained back by the lymphatics.
Each day, around 2-3 liters is returned. This fluid includes proteins that are
too large to be transported via the blood vessels.
Loss of the lymphatic system would be fatal within a day. Without the
lymphatic system draining excess fluid, our tissues would swell, blood
volume would be lost and pressure would increase.
(B) Absorption

Most of the fats absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract are taken up in a
part of the gut membrane in the small intestine that is specially adapted by
the lymphatic system.
The lymphatic system has tiny lacteals in this part of the intestine that form
part of the villi. These finger-like protruding structures are produced by the
tiny folds in the absorptive surface of the gut.
Lacteals absorb fats and fat-soluble vitamins to form a milky white fluid
called chyle.
This fluid contains lymph and emulsified fats, or free fatty acids. It delivers
nutrients indirectly when it reaches the venous blood circulation. Blood
capillaries take up other nutrients directly.
(C) The immune system
The lymphatic system produces white blood cells, or lymphocytes that are
crucial in fending off infections.
The third function is to defend the body against unwanted organisms.

Without it, we would die very soon from an infection.
Our bodies are constantly exposed to potentially hazardous micro-

organisms, such as infections.
The body's first line of defense involves: physical barriers, such as the skin
toxic barriers, such as the acidic contents of the stomach "friendly" bacteria
in the body
However, pathogens often do succeed in entering the body despite these

defenses. In this case, the lymphatic system enables our immune system
to respond appropriately.
If the immune system is not able to fight off these micro-organisms, or

pathogens, they can be harmful and even fatal.

A number of different immune cells and special molecules work together to

fight off the unwanted pathogens.
How does the lymphatic system fight infection?

The lymphatic system produces white blood cells, known as lymphocytes.
There are two types of lymphocyte, T cells and B cells. They both travel
through the lymphatic system.
As they reach the lymph nodes, they are filtered and become activated by
contact with viruses, bacteria, foreign particles, and so on in the lymph fluid.
From this stage, the pathogens, or invaders, are known as antigens.
As the lymphocytes become activated, they form antibodies and start to

defend the body. They can also produce antibodies from memory if they
have already encountered the specific pathogen in the past.
Collections of lymph nodes are concentrated in the neck, armpits, and groin.
We become aware of these on one or both sides of the neck when we
develop so-called "swollen glands" in response to an illness.
It is in the lymph nodes that the lymphocytes first encounter the pathogens,
communicate with each other, and set off their defensive response.
Activated lymphocytes then pass further up the lymphatic system so that

they can reach the bloodstream. Now, they are equipped to spread the
immune response throughout the body, through the blood circulation.
The lymphatic system and the action of lymphocytes, of which the body has
trillions, form part of what immunologists call the "adaptive immune
response." These are highly specific and long-lasting responses to
particular pathogens.

2.5 (1) Acid base balance

Introduction
An important property of blood is its degree of acidity or alkalinity. The
acidity or alkalinity of any solution, including blood, is indicated on the pH
scale. The pH scale, ranges from 0 (strongly acidic) to 14 (strongly basic or
alkaline). A pH of 7.0, in the middle of this scale, is neutral. Blood is
normally slightly basic, with a normal pH range of 7.35 to 7.45. Usually the
body maintains the pH of blood close to 7.40.
A doctor evaluates a person's acid-base balance by measuring the pH and

levels of carbon dioxide (an acid) and bicarbonate (a base) in the blood.
Blood acidity increases when the
• Level of acidic compounds in the body rises (through increased

intake or production, or decreased elimination)
• Level of basic (alkaline) compounds in the body falls (through
decreased intake or production, or increased elimination)
Blood alkalinity increases when the level of acid in the body decreases or
when the level of base increases.
Control of Acid-Base Balance

The body's balance between acidity and alkalinity is referred to as acid-
base balance.
The blood's acid-base balance is precisely controlled because even a

minor deviation from the normal range can severely affect many organs.
The body uses different mechanisms to control the blood's acid-base
balance. These mechanisms involve the
• Lungs
• Kidneys
• Buffer systems
Role of the lungs

One mechanism the body uses to control blood pH involves the release of
carbon dioxide from the lungs. Carbon dioxide, which is mildly acidic, is a
waste product of the processing (metabolism) of oxygen and nutrients
(which all cells need) and, as such, is constantly produced by cells. It then
passes from the cells into the blood. The blood carries carbon dioxide to
the lungs, where it is exhaled. As carbon dioxide accumulates in the blood,
the pH of the blood decreases (acidity increases).
The brain regulates the amount of carbon dioxide that is exhaled by

controlling the speed and depth of breathing (ventilation). The amount of
carbon dioxide exhaled, and consequently the pH of the blood, increases
as breathing becomes faster and deeper. By adjusting the speed and depth
of breathing, the brain and lungs are able to regulate the blood pH minute
by minute.
Role of the kidneys

The kidneys are able to affect blood pH by excreting excess acids or bases.
The kidneys have some ability to alter the amount of acid or base that is
excreted, but because the kidneys make these adjustments more slowly
than the lungs do, this compensation generally takes several days.
Buffer systems
Yet another mechanism for controlling blood pH involves the use of
chemical buffer systems, which guard against sudden shifts in acidity and
alkalinity. The pH buffer systems are combinations of the body's own
naturally occurring weak acids and weak bases. These weak acids and
bases exist in pairs that are in balance under normal pH conditions. The pH
buffer systems work chemically to minimize changes in the pH of a solution
by adjusting the proportion of acid and base.
The most important pH buffer system in the blood involves carbonic acid (a
weak acid formed from the carbon dioxide dissolved in blood) and
bicarbonate ions (the corresponding weak base).

2.5 (2) Temperature Regulation in Humans

Introduction
The temperature of the body is regulated by neural feedback mechanisms
which operate primarily through the hypothalmus. The hypothalmus
contains not only the control mechanisms, but also the key temperature
sensors. (Peripheral Thermo receptors Present at Skin and Central Thermo
receptors Present at hypothalamus)
The human body has the remarkable capacity for regulating its core
temperature somewhere between 98°F and 100°F when the ambient
temperature is between approximately 68°F and 130°F according to
Guyton. This presumes a nude body and dry air.
Under control of these mechanisms, sweating begins almost precisely at a

skin temperature of 37°C and increases rapidly as the skin temperature
rises above this value.
The heat production of the body under these conditions remains almost
constant as the skin temperature rises. If the skin temperature drops below
37°C a variety of responses are initiated to conserve the heat in the body
and to increase heat production. These include
• Vasoconstriction to decrease the flow of heat to the skin.

• Cessation of sweating.
• Shivering to increase heat production in the muscles.
• Secretion of norepinephrine, epinephrine, and thyroxine to increase
heat production

The external heat transfer mechanisms

are radiation, conduction and convection and evaporation of perspiration.
The process is far more than the passive operation of these heat transfer
mechanisms, however. The body takes a very active role in temperature
regulation.

The Circulatory System 2. 1 Composition and Function of Blood

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Circulatory System 2. 1 Composition and Function of Blood

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Circulatory System 2. 1 Composition and Function of Blood

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction of Physiology and Biochemistry

[Notes For BBA(HA) 1st sem] Unit 2 – The Circulatory System

2. The Circulatory System

Notes By:- Dr. Sneha Panjabi 7748811405 Page 1

• Leukocytes, or white blood cells, destroy invading microorganisms and

• pH by interacting with acids and bases

Notes By:- Dr. Sneha Panjabi 7748811405 Page 2

1. Plasma, which is a clear extracellular fluid

Formed elements are:

• Erythrocytes, also known as red blood cells (RBCs)

Leukocytes are further classified into two subcategories called granulocytes

Notes By:- Dr. Sneha Panjabi 7748811405 Page 3

Notes By:- Dr. Sneha Panjabi 7748811405 Page 4

Nitrogenous waste :- Being toxic end products of the break down of

Gases :- Some oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by plasma.

Notes By:- Dr. Sneha Panjabi 7748811405 Page 5

Red blood Cells [RBC / Erythrocytes]

1. To pick up oxygen from the lungs and deliver it to tissues elsewhere

Notes By:- Dr. Sneha Panjabi 7748811405 Page 6

White blood Cells [WBC / Leukocytes]

Notes By:- Dr. Sneha Panjabi 7748811405 Page 7

Platelets have the following functions:

1. Secrete vasoconstrictors which constrict blood vessels, causing vascular

Platelet plug formation :- Under normal conditions, platelets do not

Notes By:- Dr. Sneha Panjabi 7748811405 Page 8

from the erythroblasts is then discarded, giving rise to cells named

Notes By:- Dr. Sneha Panjabi 7748811405 Page 10

2.2 Blood Groups

Antibodies and antigens

The ABO system

Notes By:- Dr. Sneha Panjabi 7748811405 Page 11

This means you can be one of eight blood groups:

Notes By:- Dr. Sneha Panjabi 7748811405 Page 12

The Blood Group system

At present, 33 blood group systems representing over 300 antigens are

Notes By:- Dr. Sneha Panjabi 7748811405 Page 13

2.3 (1) Cardiac Cycle

Method Blood is allowed to enter relaxed ventricle chamber from vein

Outcome circulation of blood

Duration 0.6–1 second (Humans) / (Average 0.8 sec )

Frequency 60–100 per minute / (Average 72 Per Minute )

Notes By:- Dr. Sneha Panjabi 7748811405 Page 14

{ 0.8 * 72 = 57.6 / 60 sec}

Events of cardiac Cycle:

0.1s/Con 0.7 s/Relax

• Phases of Cardiac cycle

• Phase 1 - Atrial Contraction

• Phase 2 - Isovolumetric Atrial Contraction

Notes By:- Dr. Sneha Panjabi 7748811405 Page 15

 This phase of cardiac cycle begins with the ventricular

• Phase 3 - Rapid Ejection

Notes By:- Dr. Sneha Panjabi 7748811405 Page 16

• Phase 4 - Reduced Ejection

• Phase 5 - Isovolumetric Relaxation

• Phase 6 - Rapid Filling

• Phase 7 - Reduced Filling

2.3 (2) Blood Pressure

Notes By:- Dr. Sneha Panjabi 7748811405 Page 18

2.3 (3) Electrocardiogram / ECG/ EKG