Unit I
Unit I
Unit I
• possible solutions for jamming, tampering, black hole attack, flooding attack.
• Programming Challenges
REFERENCES:
• Feng Zhao, Leonidas Guibas, “Wireless Sensor Networks: an information
processing approach”, Elsevier publication, 2004.
• Charles E. Perkins, “Ad Hoc Networking”, Addison Wesley, 2000.
• I.F. Akyildiz, W. Su, Sankarasubramaniam, E. Cayirci, “Wireless sensor
networks: a survey”, computer networks, Elsevier, 2002, 394 - 422.
OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, the student would be able to:
Know the basics of Ad hoc networks and Wireless Sensor
Networks
Apply this knowledge to identify the suitable routing algorithm
based on the network and user requirement
Apply the knowledge to identify appropriate physical and MAC
layer protocols
Understand the transport layer and security issues possible in Ad
hoc and sensor networks.
Be familiar with the OS used in Wireless Sensor Networks and
build basic modules
Introduction to Networks
Communication
• Sharing Information
• The sharing can be local (or) Remote
• Transmission of information from one point to another
Data Communication
• Exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable (or) wireless
message
Source Destination
Txn. medium
Networks
Network Criteria
• Performance
• Reliability
• Security
We know
• What is NETWORK ?
• Type of Networks
Wired
Wireless
Introduction
Wireless Networking:
– refers to any kind of networking that does not involve cables.
• Wireless telecommunication networks are generally implemented
and administered using a transmission system called radio waves.
• This implementation takes place at the physical level (layer) of the
network structure
Some Mobile Devices
History
Infrastructure
• Referred to as a “hosted” or “managed” wireless network.
• Consists of one or more access points (know as gateways or wireless
routers) being connected to an existed network.
Infrastructureless (ad hoc) network
– Ad hoc is a word that originally comes from Latin and
means “for this” or "for this situation."
– In current American English it is used to describe
something that has been formed or used for a special and
immediate purpose, without previous planning. ... ad hoc
group. ad hoc basis.
A _________ set of rules that governs data
communication.
a) Protocols
b) Standards
c) RFCs
d) Servers
• A _______ is the physical path over which a
message travels.
a) Path
b) Medium
c) Protocol
d) Route
• The first Network was called ________
a) CNNET
b) NSFNET
c) ASAPNET
d) ARPANET
• ARPANET stands for Advanced Research Projects Agency
Networks.
• It was the first network to be implemented which used the
TCP/IP protocol in the year 1969.
• Communication between a computer and a
keyboard involves ______________
transmission.
a) Automatic
b) Half-duplex
c) Full-duplex
d) Simplex
• Communication channel is shared by all the
machines on the network in ________
a) broadcast network
b) unicast network
c) multicast network
• Bluetooth is an example of __________
a) personal area network
b) local area network
c) virtual private network
d) wide area network
• A __________ is a device that forwards
packets between networks by processing the
routing information included in the packet.
a) bridge
b) firewall
c) router
d) hub
• Network congestion occurs _________
a) in case of traffic overloading
b) when a system terminates
c) when connection between two nodes terminates
d) in case of transfer failure
Infrastructure and Ad-hoc Networks
Infrastructure based Network(Access Point based Topology):
Communication takes place only between the wireless nodes and the access
point, but not directly between the wireless nodes.
The access point does not just control medium access, but also acts as a bridge
to other wireless or wired networks.
The design is simpler because most of the network functionality lies within the
access point.
Ad-hoc Networks (Peer to Peer Topology)
• Communication takes place directly with other nodes, so no access point
Controlling medium access is necessary.
• Figure shows two ad-hoc networks with three nodes each. Nodes within
an ad-hoc network can only communicate if they can reach each other
physically, i.e., if they are within each other’s radio range or if other
nodes can forward the message.
• Nodes from the two networks shown in Figure cannot, therefore,
communicate with each other if they are not within the same radio range.
• Emergency Operations
– Search, rescue, crowd control, and commando operations
– Support real-time and fault-tolerant communication paths
Wireless Mesh Networks
• An alternate communication infrastructure for mobile or fixed
nodes/users
• Provides many alternate paths for a data transfer session between
a source and destination
• Advantages of Wireless Mesh Networks
– High data rate
– quick and low cost of deployment
– enhanced services
– high scalability
– easy extendability
– high availability, and
– low cost per bit
Wireless Sensor Networks
• A collection of a large number of sensor nodes that are deployed in a
particular region
• Applications:
– military, health care, home security, and environmental monitoring
• Advantages:
– Higher capacity than cellular networks due to better channel reuse
– Increased flexibility and reliability in routing
– Better coverage and connectivity in holes
Issues in Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
The major issues that affect the design, deployment, and
performance of an ad hoc wireless system are
– Medium access scheme
– Scalability
– Deployment considerations
Medium Access Scheme
The primary responsibility of a Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol in ad
hoc wireless networks is the distributed arbitration for the shared channel for
transmission of packets
The major issues to be considered in designing a MAC protocol :
• Distributed operation
– Adhoc no centralized coordination
– fully distributed involving minimum control overhead
• Synchronization
– Mandatory for TDMA-based systems for txn. And rxn. Slots
– Involves usage of scare resources such as BW and Battery Power
• Hidden terminals
– Can significantly reduce the throughput of a MAC protocol
• Exposed terminals
– To improve the efficiency of the MAC protocol, the exposed nodes should
be allowed to transmit in a controlled fashion without causing collision to
the on-going data transfer
• Access delay -Avg. delay that any packet to get transmitted
The Major Issues of MAC Scheme
• Throughput
– To minimize the occurrence of collision, maximize
channel utilization, and minimize control overhead
• Fairness
– Equal share or weighted share of the bandwidth to all
competing nodes (either node based or flow based)
• Real-time traffic support – Voice, Video and real time data
• Resource reservation
– Such as BW, buffer space, and processing power
• Capability for power control
• Adaptive rate control
• Use of directional antennas
The Major Challenge of Routing Protocol
• The responsibilities of a routing protocol include exchanging the route
information; finding a feasible path to a destination based on criteria
such as hop length, minimum power required, and lifetime of the
wireless link; gathering information about the path breaks; mending the
broken paths expending minimum processing power and bandwidth;
and utilizing minimum bandwidth.
The major challenges that a routing protocol:
• Mobility: result in frequent path break, packet collision, and difficulty
in resource reservation
• Bandwidth constraint: BW is shared by every node
• Error-prone and share channel: high bit error rate
• Location-dependent contention: distributing the network load uniformly
across the network
• Other resource constraint: computing power, battery power, and buffer
storage
The Major Requirement of Routing Protocol
• Minimum route acquisition delay
– The route acquisition delay for a node that does not have a route to a
particular destination node should be as minimal as possible. This delay
may vary with the size of the network and the network load.
• Quick route reconfiguration: to handle path breaks
– In ad hoc wireless networks, due to the random movement of nodes,
transient loops may form in the route thus established. A routing protocol
should detect such transient routing loops and take corrective actions.
• Loop-free routing : to avoid unnecessary wastage of n/w BW
• Distributed routing approach
• Minimum control overhead
– The control packets exchanged for finding a new route and maintaining
existing routes should be kept as minimal as possible
• Scalability
– Scalability is the ability of the routing protocol to scale well (i.e., perform
efficiently) in a network with a large number of nodes
• Provisioning of QoS:
– supporting differentiated classes of services
• Support for time-sensitive traffic
– The routing protocol should be able to support both hard realtime and soft
real-time traffic.
• Security and privacy
– The routing protocol in ad hoc wireless networks must have inbuilt
capability to avoid resource consumption, denial-of- service,
impersonation, and similar attacks possible against an ad hoc wireless
network.
The Major Issues in Multicast Routing Protocols
• Robustness
– recover and reconfigure quickly from link breaks
• Efficiency
– minimum number of transmissions to deliver a data packet to all the group
members
• Minimal Control overhead
• QoS support
– QoS support is essential in multicast routing because, in most cases, the
data transferred in a multicast session is time-sensitive
• Efficient group management
– The process of accepting multicast session members and maintaining the
connectivity among them until the session expires.
• Scalability
– The multicast routing protocol should be able to scale for a network with a
large number of nodes.
• Security
– Authentication of session members and prevention of non-members from
gaining unauthorized information play a major role in military
communications.
Transport Layer Protocols
• Objectives:
– setting up and maintaining end-to-end connections, reliable
end-to-end data delivery, flow control, and congestion control
• QoS framework:
– A frame work for QoS is a complete system that attempts to
provide the promised service
– The QoS modules such as routing protocol, signaling protocol,
and resource management should react promptly according to
changes in the network state
Self-Organization
• An important property that an ad hoc wireless network should
exhibit is organizing and maintaining the network by itself
• Major activities: neighbor discovery, topology organization, and
topology reorganization
• Ad hoc wireless networks should be able to perform self-
organization quickly and efficiently
Security
• The attack against ad hoc wireless networks are classified into
two types: passive and active attacks
• Passive attack: malicious nodes to observe the nature of activities
and to obtain information in the network without disrupting the
operation
• Active attack: disrupt the operation of the network
– Internal attack: nodes belong to the same network
– External attack: nodes outside the network
Major Security Threats
• Denial of service: either consume the network BW or overloading
the system
• Resource consumption
– Energy depletion: by directing unnecessary traffic through
nodes
– Buffer overflow: filling unwanted data, routing table attack
(filling nonexistent destinations)
• Host impersonation: A compromised node can act as another node
and respond control packets to create wrong route entries and
terminate the traffic
• Information disclosure: support useful traffic pattern
• Interference: create wide-spectrum noise
Addressing and Service Discovery
• An address that is globally unique is required for a node to
participate communication
– Auto-configuration of address is required to allocate non
duplicate address to the nodes
– In networks frequent partitioning and merging of network
components require duplicate address detection mechanisms
• Nodes in the network should be able to locate services that other
nodes provide
Energy Management
• Transmission power management:
– RF hardware design ensure minimum power consumption
– Uses variable power MAC protocol
– Load balance in network layer
– Reducing the number of retransmissions at the transport layer
– Application software developed for mobile computers
• Battery energy management: extending the battery life by taking
chemical properties, discharge patterns, and by the selection of a
battery from a set of batteries that is available for redundancy
• Processor power management: CPU can be put into different power
saving modes during low processing load conditions
• Devices power management: can be done by OS by selectively
powering down interface devices that are not used or by putting
devices into different power saving modes
Scalability
• The latency of path-finding involved with a non-demand routing
protocol in a large ad hoc wireless network may be unacceptably
high
• A hierarchical topology-based system and addressing may be
more suitable for large adhoc wireless networks
Deployment Considerations
• The deployment of a commercial ad hoc wireless network has
the following benefits
– Low cost of deployment
– Incremental deployment
– Short deployment time
– Re-configurability
Major Issues for Deployment
• Scenario of deployment
– Military deployment
• Data-centric (e.g. WSN)
• User-centric (soldiers or vehicles carrying with wireless
communication devices)
– Emergency operations deployment
– Commercial wide-area deployment
– Home network deployment
• Required longevity of network: regenerative power source can
be deployed when the connectivity is required for a longer
duration of time
• Area of coverage
Major Issues for Deployment
• Service availability: redundant nodes can be, deployed to against
nodes failure
• Operational integration with other infrastructure: can be
considered for improve the performance or gathering additional
information, or for providing better QoS
• Choice of protocols: the choices of protocols at different layers
of the protocol stack is to be done taking into consideration the
deployment scenario
Ad Hoc Wireless in Internet
• Similar to wireless internet, the ad hoc wireless internet extends
the service of the Internet to the end user over an ad hoc wireless
network
• Some of the applications of the ad hoc wireless Internet are
– wireless mesh networks,
– provisioning of temporary Internet services to major
conference venues,
– sports venues,
– temporary military settlements,
– battlefields, and
– broadband Internet services in rural regions.
The major issues for ad hoc wireless Internet
• Gateways: entry points to the wired Internet
• Gateways perform the following tasks:
– keeping track of the end users,
– bandwidth management,
– load balancing,
– traffic shaping,
– packet filtering,
– bandwidth fairness, and
– address, service, and location discovery.
• Address mobility: This problem is worse here as the nodes operate
over multiple wireless hops. Mobile IP can provide temporary
alternatives
• Routing: major problem in ad hoc wireless Internet, due to the dynamic
topological changes, the presence of gateways, multi-hop relaying, and
the hybrid character of the network.
• Transport layer protocol: specialized transport layer protocol for the
ad hoc wireless network part can be considered where the gateways act
as the intermediate nodes at which the connections are split.
• Bandwidth Constraint:
– Wireless has less bandwidth due to the limited radio band:
– Less data rate and difficult to maintain topology information
– Frequent change of topology causes more overhead of topology
maintenance
– Target: Bandwidth optimization and design topology update
mechanism with less overhead
• Error-prone shared broadcast radio channel:
– Wireless links have time varying characteristics in terms of link
capacity and link-error probability
– Target: Interact with MAC layer to find better-quality link
– Hidden terminal problem causes packet collision
– Target: Find routes through better quality links and find path with
less congestion
• Resource Constraints:
– Limited battery life and limited processing power
– Target: optimally manage these resources
Characteristics of an Ideal Routing Protocol for Ad Hoc
wired network routing protocols cannot be used in ad hoc wireless
networks. Hence ad hoc wireless networks require specialized
routing protocols
• Fully distributed (more fault tolerant than centralized routing)
• Adaptive to frequent topology changes (because of mobility of nodes)
• Minimum connection setup time is desired
• Localized
– global maintenance involves a huge state propagation control
overhead
• Loop free and free from stale routes
• Packet collision must seldom happen
• Converge to optimal route quickly
• Optimally use scarce resource
– Bandwidth, computing power, memory, and battery
• Remote parts of the network must not cause updates in the topology
information maintained by this node
• Provide quality of service and support for time sensitive traffic
• Ad hoc wireless networks are highly dynamic and path breaks are much
more frequent than in wired networks,
• The use of temporal information regarding the lifetime of the wireless
links and the lifetime of the paths selected assumes significance
• Power-aware routing
– Minimize consumption of resource
• Ex: Battery power
– The routing decision based on minimizing the power consumption
either locally or globally in the network
• Table updates are initiated by the destination with the new sequence
number which is always greater than the previous one
• Single link break cause propagation of table update information to the
whole network
– With odd sequence
• The changed node informs neighbors about new shortest path while
receiving the table update message
– With even sequence
• Advantages:
– Route setup process is very fast
– Make the existing wired network protocol apply to ad hoc
network with fewer modifications
• Disadvantages:
– Excessive control overhead during high mobility
– Node must wait for a table update message initiated by the
destination node
• Cause stale routing information at nodes
On-demand Routing Protocol
• Unlike the table-driven routing protocols, on-demand routing
protocols execute the path-finding process and exchange routing
information only when a path is required by a node to
communicate with a destination.
• Dynamic Source Routing Protocol (DSR)
• Ad Hoc On-demand Distance-Vector Routing Protocol (AODV)
• Temporally Ordered Algorithm (TORA)
• Location-Aided Routing (LAR)
• Associativity-Based Routing(ABR)
• Signal Stability-Based Adaptive Routing Protocol (SSA)
• Flow-Oriented Routing Protocol (FORP)
Dynamic source routing protocol
• This is a source-based routing protocol.
The difference between DSR and other on-demand routing
protocols is:
• on-demand protocols periodically exchange the so-called beacon
(hello) packets:
– hello packets are used to inform neighbors about existence of
the node.
• DSR does not use hello packets.
The basic approach of this protocol is as follows:
• during route contraction DSR floods a RouteRequest packets in
the network;
• intermediate nodes forward RouteRequest if it is not redundant;
• destination node replies with RouteReply;
• the RouteReply packet contains the path traversed by
RouteRequest packet;
• the receiver responds only if this is a first RouteRequest (not
duplicate).
The DSR protocol uses the sequence numbers:
• RouteRequest packet carries the path traversed and the sequence
number;
• the sequence numbers are used to prevent loop formation and
nodes check it.
The DSR also uses route cache in each node:
• if node has a route in the cache, this route is used.
Renements of DSR:
• to avoid over-fooding the network, exponential back-o is used
between RouteRequest sending;
• intermediate node is allowed to reply with RouteReply if it has
a route to destination in cache:
• if the link is broken the RouteError is sent to the sender by
node adjacent to a broken link.
Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
• Reactive, source-based
• When node S wants to send a packet to node D, but does not
know a route to D, node S initiates a route discovery
• Source node S floods Route Request (RREQ)
• Each node appends own identifier when forwarding RREQ
• Advantage
– No need to updating the routing tables
– Intermediate nodes are able to utilize the Route Cache
information efficiently to reduce the control overhead
– There are no “hello” messages needed (beacon-less)
• Disadvantage
– The Route Maintenance protocol does not locally repair a
broken link
– There is always a small time delay at the begin of a new
connection
Ad Hoc On-demand Distance Vector Routing Protocol
• AODV routing protocol uses an ondemand approach for finding routes
• (i.e.) a route is established only when it is required by a source node for
transmitting data packets.
• It employs destination sequence numbers to identify the most recent
path
The major differences between AODV and DSR are as follows:
• in DSR a data packet carries the complete path to be traversed;
• in AODV nodes store the next hop information (hop-by-hop routing)
for each data flow.
In an ondemand routing protocol,
• the source node floods the RouteRequest packet in the network when a
route is not available for the desired destination.
• It may obtain multiple routes to different destinations from a single
RouteRequest.
• Advantage
– Establish on demand
– Destination sequences are used to find the latest path to destination
– The connection setup delay is less
• Disadvantage
– Intermediate node can lead to inconsistent route
– Beacon-base
– Heavy control overhead