A BRIEF HISTORY

• A network is a group of connected, communicating devices such as computers and

printers, that use a set of common communication protocols over digital interconnections
for the purpose of sharing resources located on or provided by the network nodes.
• The nodes of a computer network may include personal computers, servers, networking
hardware, or other specialized or general-purpose hosts.
• The interconnections between nodes are formed from a broad spectrum of
telecommunication network technologies, based on physically wired, optical, and wireless
technologies.
• A communication protocol is a set of rules for exchanging information over a network.
physically wired, optical, and wireless
• An internet is two or more networks that can communicate with each other. Composed of
hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks.
• Private individuals as well as various organizations such as government agencies, schools,
research facilities, corporations, and libraries in more than 100 countries use the Internet.
• Millions of people are users. Yet this extraordinary communication system only came into
being in 1969.
 The Network Diagram
Wired Network PC Firewall The Internet

Fiber Optic Network Cable

Router
Switch

Server Other LANS

Wireless Network
The Advantages/Uses of Network
• Simultaneous Access
• There are moments in any business when several workers
may need to use the same data at the same time.
• Shared Peripheral Devices
• Personal Communications
• Videoconferencing
• Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP):-VoIP transmits the
sound of voice over a computer network using the Internet
Protocol (IP ) rather than sending the signal over traditional
phone wires
• Easier Data Backup
The Networking Devices(Nodes)
1. NIC Card
2. Repeater
3. Hub
4. Switch
5. Bridge
6. Router
7. Gateway
8. Firewall
1. Network Interface Card
• NIC is used to physically connect
host devices to the network
media.
• A NIC is a printed circuit board
that fits into the expansion slot of
a bus on a computer motherboard.
• It can also be a peripheral device.
NICs are sometimes called
network adapters.
• Each NIC is identified by a
unique code called a Media
Access Control (MAC) address.
• This address is used to control
data communication for the host
on the network
 2. Repeaters
• A repeater is a network device used
to regenerate a signal.
• Repeaters regenerate analog or
digital signals that are distorted by
transmission loss due to attenuation.
• A repeater does not make an
intelligent decision concerning
forwarding packets
3. Hubs
• Hubs concentrate on connections.
• In other words, they take a group of
hosts and allow the network to see
them as a single unit. This is done
passively, without any other effect on
the data transmission.
• Active hubs concentrate hosts and
also regenerate signals.
4. Bridges
• Bridges convert network
data formats and perform
basic data transmission
management.
• Bridges provide
connections between
LANs.
• They also check data to
determine if it should cross
the bridge. This makes
each part of the network
more efficient.
5. Switches
• Switches add more intelligence to data transfer
management.
• They can determine if data should remain on a LAN
and transfer data only to the connection that needs it.
• Another difference between a bridge and switch is that
a switch does not convert data transmission formats
6. Routers
• Routers have all the capabilities listed above.
• Routers can regenerate signals, concentrate
multiple connections, convert data transmission
formats, and manage data transfers.
• They can also connect to a WAN, which allows
them to connect LANs that are separated by great
distances.
7. Gateway
• A gateway is a piece of
networking hardware used
in telecommunications for
telecommunications
networks that allows data
to flow from one discrete
network to another.
• Gateways are distinct from
routers or switches in that
they communicate using
more than one protocol to
connect a bunch of
networks.
8. Firewall
• A firewall is a network device or software for controlling
network security and access rules.
• Firewalls are inserted in connections between secure
internal networks and potentially insecure external
networks such as the Internet.
• Firewalls are typically configured to reject access requests
from unrecognized sources while allowing actions from
recognized ones.
• The vital role firewalls play in network security grows in
parallel with the constant increase in cyber attacks.
Network Media
• The function of the media is to carry a flow of
information through a LAN.
• Wired Media:- A widely adopted family that uses copper
and fiber media in local area network (LAN) technology
are collectively known as Ethernet
1. Copper Cable
a. Coaxial Cables
b. Shielded Twisted Pair(STP)
c. Unshielded Twisted Pair
2. Fibre Optic Cable
• Wireless Media:- use the atmosphere, or space, as the
medium
 1. Copper Cable
• The most common, easiest,
quickest, and cheapest form of
network media to install.
• The disadvantage of sending
data over copper wire is that
the further the signal travels,
the weaker it becomes.
 a. Coaxial Cable
• It can be run longer distances than Twisted pair
Cables.
• Speed: 10-100Mbps
• Cost: Inexpensive
• Media and connector size: Medium
• Maximum cable length: 500m
b. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
• Speed: 0-100Mbps
• Cost: Moderate
• Media and connector size: Medium to large
• Maximum cable length: 100m
c. Unshielded Twisted Pair
• UTP is a four-pair wire medium used in a variety of
networks.
• Each of the eight copper wires in the UTP cable is covered
by insulating material
• Speed: 10-100-1000 Mbps*
• Cost: Least Expensive
• Media and connector size: Small
• Maximum cable length: 100m * (Depending on the
quality/category of cable)
UTP Implementation
• EIA/TIA specifies an RJ-45 connector for UTP cable.
• The letters RJ stand for registered jack
Fiber Optic Cable
• Glass fiber carrying light pulses, each pulse a bit.
• Based on the Total Internal Reflection of Light.
• High-speed point-to-point transmission 10-100’s
Gbps
• low error rate:
• repeaters spaced far apart
• immune to electromagnetic noise
Communication Protocols
Internet Protocol Suite
• Also called TCP/IP, is the foundation of all modern networking.
• It defines the addressing, identification, and routing specifications
for IPv4 and for IPv6.
• It is the defining set of protocols for the Internet.

IEEE 802
• It is a family of IEEE standards dealing with local area networks
and metropolitan area networks.
• They operate mostly at levels 1 and 2 of the OSI model.

Ethernet
• It is a family of protocols used in wired LANs, described by a set
of standards together called IEEE 802.3
Communication Protocols
Wireless LAN
• It is standardized by IEEE 802.11 and shares many properties with
wired Ethernet.

SONET/SDH
• Synchronous optical networking (SONET) and Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy (SDH) are standardized multiplexing protocols that
transfer multiple digital bit streams over optical Fibre using lasers.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode(ATM)

• It uses asynchronous time-division multiplexing and encodes data
into small, fixed-sized cells.
• Good choice for a network that handle both traditional high-
throughput data traffic, and real-time, low-latency content such as
voice and video.
Types of Networks
• Personal Area Network (PAN)
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Campus Area Network (CAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Storage-Area Network (SAN)
• Virtual Private Network (VPN)
• Client Server Network
• Peer to Peer Network (P2P)
 1. Personal Area Network
• Personal Area Network (PAN) is a
computer network used for data
transmission amongst devices such
as computers, telephones, tablets
and personal digital assistants.
• Also Known as HAN (Home Area
Network)
• PANs can be used for
communication amongst the
personal devices themselves
(interpersonal communication), or
for connecting to a higher level
network and the Internet (an
uplink) where one "master" device
takes up the role as internet
router.
2. Local Area Network
• Xerox Corporation worked in collaboration with DEC and Intel to create
Ethernet, which is the most pervasive LAN architecture used today.
• Ethernet has evolved and has seen significant improvements in regard
to speed and efficiency.
• An upside of a LAN is fast data transfer with data speed that can reach
up to 10Gbps.
• Other significant LAN technologies are Fiber Distributed Data Interface
(FDDI) and token ring.
3. Campus Area Network
• Larger than LANs, but
smaller than
metropolitan area
networks these types of
networks are typically
seen in universities,
large K-12 school
districts or small
businesses.
• They can be spread
across several buildings
that are fairly close to
each other so users can
share resources.
4. Metropolitan Area Network
• A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than or equal in
size to a WAN.
• The size range anywhere from 5 to 50km in diameter.
• MANs are typically owned and managed by a single entity.
• This could be an ISP or telecommunications company that
sells its services to end-users in that metropolitan area.
• For all intents and purposes, a MAN has the same
characteristics as a WAN with distance constraints.
5. Wide Area Network
• A Wide Area Network exist over a large area
• Data travels through telephone or cable lines
• Usually requires a Modem
• The world’s largest Wide Area Network in the
Internet
6. Storage Area Network
• SAN may be referred to as a Sub network or special purpose
network.
• Its special purpose is to allow users on a larger network to
connect various data storage devices with clusters of data servers.
• SANs can be accessed in the same fashion as a drive attached to a
server.
7. Virtual Private Network
• VPN is a private network that can access public networks
remotely. VPN uses encryption and security protocols to
retain privacy while it accesses outside resources.
• When employed on a network, VPN enables an end user to
create a virtual tunnel to a remote location. Typically,
telecommuters use VPN to log in to their company
networks from home.
• Authentication is provided to validate
the identities of the two peers.
• Confidentiality provides encryption of
the data to keep it private from
prying eyes.
• Integrity is used to ensure that the
data sent between the two devices or
sites has not been tampered with.
8. Client/Server Network
• In a client/server arrangement, network services are located on
a dedicated computer called a server.
• The server responds to the requests of clients.
• The server is a central computer that is continuously available
to respond to requests from clients for file, print, application,
and other services.
• Most network operating systems
adopt the form of a client/server
relationship.
• Typically, desktop computers
function as clients, and one or more
computers with additional processing
power, memory, and specialized
software function as servers.
9. Peer to Peer Network
• Usually very small networks
• Each workstation has equivalent capabilities and
responsibilities
• Does not require a switch or a hub.
• These types of networks do not perform well under heavy
data loads.
Network Topologies
• Network topology defines the structure of the network.
• Physical topology:- It define the actual layout of the wire
or media.
• Bus
• Ring
• Star
• Tree(Hierarchical)
• Mesh
• Logical topology:- It defines how the hosts access the
media to send data.
• Broadcast
• Token passing
• Hybrid Topology
 1. Bus Topology
• All devices are connected to a
central cable, called bus or
backbone.
• There are terminators at each
end of the bus that stops the
signal and keeps it from
traveling backwards. Disadvantages:
• It is possible that more than one station
Advantages:
may attempt transmission
• There is no central controller. simultaneously (collision or
• Control resides in each station contention).
• The less interconnecting wire is • Difficult reconfiguration and fault
isolation.
required.
• A fault or break in the bus cable stops
• Ease of installation. all transmission, even between devices
• Backbone cable can be laid along on the same side of the problem.
the most efficient path, and then • The damaged area reflects signals in the
connected to the nodes by drop direction of origin, creating noise in
lines of various lengths both directions
2. Ring Topology
• All devices are connected to one another in the shape of a closed loop.
• Each device is connected directly to two other devices, one on either
side of it.
Advantages:
• Avoids the collisions that are possible in the bus topology.
• Each pair of stations has a point-to-point connection.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to another,
until it reaches its destination.
• Each device incorporates a repeater.
• Relatively easy to install and reconfigure.
• Fault isolation is simplified.

Disadvantages:
• A break in the ring (such as station disabled) can disable the entire
network.
• Unidirectional traffic.
3. Star Topology
• All devices are connected to a central hub.
• Nodes communicate across the network by passing data
through the hub or switch.

Advantages:
1. Easy to install and reconfigure.
2. Robustness, if one link fails; only that link is affected. All other links
remain active.
3. Easy fault identification and isolation. As long as the hub is working,
it can be used to monitor link problems and bypass defective links.

Disadvantages:
1. The devices are not linked to each other.
2. If one device wants to send data to another, it sends it to the
controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device.
4. Tree/Hierarchical Topology
Advantages:
• It allows more devices to be attached to
a single central hub and can therefore
increase the distance a signal can travel
between devices.
• It allows the network to isolate and
prioritize communications from
different computers.

Disadvantages:
• The devices are not linked to each other.
• If one device wants to send data to
another, it sends it to the controller,
which then relays the data to the other
connected device.
• The addition of secondary hubs brings
two further advantages.
 6. Mesh Topology
• Each host has its connections to all other hosts.
• Mesh topology is implemented to provide as
much protection as possible from interruption of
service.
• A nuclear power plant might use a mesh
topology in the networked control systems.
• Although the Internet has multiple paths to any
one location, it does not adopt the full mesh
topology.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that
each connection can carry its data load, thus 1. A large amount of cabling required.
eliminating the traffic problems that can 2. A large amount of I/O ports required.
occur when links must be shared by multiple
devices. 3. Installation and reconfiguration are
2. It is robust, if one link becomes unusable, difficult.
it does not incapacitate (affect) the entire 4. The sheer bulk of the wiring can be
system. greater than the available space (in the walls,
3. Privacy and Security (every message sent ceiling, or floors) can accommodate.
travels along a dedicated line; only the 5. The hardware required to connect each
intended recipient sees it).
link (I/O ports and cables) can be
4. Point-to-point links make fault prohibitively expensive.
identification and fault isolation easy.
Wireless Networks
• Wireless network is a type of computer network that
uses wireless data connections for connecting
network nodes.
• Example
• Bluetooth
• Wi-Fi
Bluetooth
• Bluetooth is a short-range
wireless technology standard
used for exchanging data
between fixed and mobile
devices over short distances.
• It is using UHF radio waves in
the ISM bands, from 2.402
GHz to 2.48 GHz.
• The IEEE standardized
Bluetooth as IEEE 802.15.1,
but no longer maintains the
standard.
Wi-Fi
• Wi-Fi Stands for Wireless Fidelity.
• Wi-Fi, is a Local Area Wireless
technology.
• Wi-Fi networks use radio technologies
to transmit and receive data at high
speed.
• It is based on the IEEE 802.11 family of
standards.
• Access point: The access point is a
wireless LAN transceiver or “ base
station” that can connect one or many
wireless devices simultaneously to the
internet
THE OSI MODEL
• International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body
dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards.
• An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is
the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.
• It was first introduced in the late 1970s
• An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different
systems to communicate regardless of their underlying architecture.
• The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate
communication between different systems without requiring changes to
the logic of the underlying hardware and software.
• The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and
designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and
interoperable.
• The OSI model was intended to be the basis for the creation of the
protocols in the OSI stack
• It is composed of seven ordered layers:
- physical (layer 1), - data link (layer 2),
- network (layer 3), - transport (layer 4),
- session (layer 5), - presentation (layer 6),
- application (layer 7)
Organization of the Layers
• The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three
subgroups.
• Layers 1, 2, and 3—physical, data link, and network—are the
network support layers;
• They deal with the physical aspects of moving data from one device
to another (such as electrical specifications, physical connections,
physical addressing, and transport timing and reliability).
• Layers 5, 6, and 7—session, presentation, and application—can
be thought of as the user support layers;
• They allow interoperability among unrelated
software systems.
• Layer 4, the transport layer, links the two subgroups and
ensures that what the lower layers have transmitted is in a form
that the upper layers can use
• The passing of the data and network information down through the
layers of the sending device and back up through the layers of the
receiving device is made possible by
an interface between each pair of adjacent layers.
• Each interface defines what information and services a layer must
provide for the layer above it.
• As each block of data reaches the next higher layer,
the headers and trailers attached to it at
the corresponding sending layer are removed, and
actions appropriate to that layer are
taken.
• By the time it reaches layer 7, the message is again in
a form appropriate to the application and is made
available to the recipient.
Encapsulation
• A packet at level 7 is encapsulated in the packet at level 6.
The whole packet at level 6 is encapsulated in a packet at
level 5, and so on.
• In other words, the data part of a packet at level N is
carrying the whole packet (data and overhead) from level N
+ 1.
• The concept is called encapsulation because level N is not
aware what part of the encapsulated packet is data and what
part is the header or trailer.
• For level N, the whole packet coming from level N + 1 is
treated as one integral unit.
 Layers in the OSI Model
• Physical Layer
• The physical layer coordinates the functions required to
carry a bit stream over a physical medium.
• It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of
the interface and transmission media
• It is also concerned with the following:
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
• Representation of bits
• Data rate
• Synchronization of bits
• Physical topology
• Line configuration
• Transmission mode
• Data Link Layer
• It transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a
reliable link.
• It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer
(network layer).
• Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:
• Framing
• Physical Addressing
• Flow Controls
• Error Control
• Access Control
• Network Layer
• It is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a
packet, possibly across multiple networks (links).
• Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of the
packet between two systems on the same network (link), the
network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point
of origin to its final destination
• If two systems are connected to the same link, there is
usually no need for a network layer.
• If the two systems are attached to different networks (links)
with connecting devices between the networks (links), there
is often a need for the network layer to accomplish source-
to-destination delivery.
• Other responsibilities of the network layer include the
following:
• Logical Addressing
• Routing
• Transport Layer
• It is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire
message.
• A process is an application program running on the host.
• Whereas the network layer oversees source-to-destination
delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize any
relationship between those packets.
• It treats each one independently, as though each piece belonged to
a separate message.
• The transport layer, ensures that the whole message arrives intact
and in order, overseeing both error control and flow control at the
source-to-destination level.
• Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:
• Service-point addressing
• Segmentation and reassembly
• Connection control
• Flow control
• Error control
• Session Layer
• The services provided by the first four layers are not
sufficient for some processes.
• The session layer is the network dialog controller. It
establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction
between communicating systems. Specific responsibilities
of the session layer include the following:
• Dialog control
• Synchronization
• Presentation Layer
• It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between two systems.
• Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include
the following:
• Translation
• Encryption
• Compression
• Application Layer
• The application layer enables the user, whether human or
software, to access the network.
• It provides user interfaces and support for services such as
electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared
database management, and other types of distributed
information services.
• Specific services provided by the application layer include
the following:
• Network virtual terminal
• File transfer, access, and management (FTAM).
• E-mail services
• Directory services