Computer Networking

Course Content
 Networks: Basic concepts
 Uses of networks in sharing of resources, Backups
 Common types of networks; LAN/WAN/Internet,
Server based networks, client server model
 Network media
 Wireless networks.
 The internet world
 The Computer Network
 A computer network is a group of computers/devices(Nodes)
that use a set of common communication protocols over digital
interconnections for the purpose of sharing resources located on
or provided by the network nodes.
 The nodes of a computer network may include personal
computers, servers, networking hardware, or other specialised or
general-purpose hosts.
 The interconnections between nodes are formed from a broad
spectrum of telecommunication network technologies, based on
physically wired, optical, and wireless technologies.
 A communication protocol is a set of rules for exchanging
information over a network. physically wired, optical, and
wireless
 The Network Diagram
Wired Network PC Firewall The Internet

Fiber Optic Network Cable

Router
Switch

Server Other LANS

Wireless Network
 The Advantages/Uses of Network
Simultaneous Access
 There are moments in any business when several workers
may need to use the same data at the same time.
Shared Peripheral Devices

Personal Communications
 Videoconferencing
 Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP):-VoIP transmits the sound
of voice over a computer network using the Internet Protocol
(IP ) rather than sending the signal over traditional phone
wires
Easier Data Backup
 The Networking Devices(Nodes)

1. NIC Card
2. Repeater
3. Hub
4. Switch
5. Bridge
6. Router
7. Gateway
8. Firewall
 1. Network Interface Card
 NIC is used to physically
connect host devices to the
network media.
 A NIC is a printed circuit board
that fits into the expansion slot
of a bus on a computer
motherboard.
 It can also be a peripheral
device. NICs are sometimes
called network adapters.
 Each NIC is identified by a
unique code called a Media
Access Control (MAC) address.
 This address is used to control
data communication for the host
on the network.
 2. Repeaters
 A repeater is a network device used to
regenerate a signal.
 Repeaters regenerate analog or digital
signals that are distorted by transmission
loss due to attenuation.
 A repeater does not make an intelligent
decision concerning forwarding packets
 Physical Layer
 3. Hubs
 Hubs concentrate on connections.
 In other words, they take a group
of hosts and allow the network to
see them as a single unit. This is
done passively, without any other
effect on the data transmission.
 Active hubs concentrate hosts and
also regenerate signals.
 Physical Layer
 4. Bridges
 Bridges convert network data
formats and perform basic data
transmission management.
 Bridges provide connections
between LANs.
 They also check data to
determine if it should cross the
bridge. This makes each part of
the network more efficient
 Physical and Data link layer
 5. Switches
 Switches add more intelligence to data transfer management.
 They can determine if data should remain on a LAN and
transfer data only to the connection that needs it.
 Another difference between a bridge and switch is that a
switch does not convert data transmission formats
 Data Link Layer
 6. Routers
 Routers have all the capabilities listed
above.
 Routers can regenerate signals,
concentrate multiple connections,
convert data transmission formats, and
manage data transfers.
 They can also connect to a WAN, which
allows them to connect LANs that are
separated by great distances.
 Physical , Data link & Network layer
 7. Gateway
 A gateway is a piece of
networking hardware used in
telecommunications for
telecommunications networks that
allows data to flow from one discrete
network to another.
 Gateways are distinct from routers
or switches in that they communicate
using more than one protocol to
connect a bunch of networks
 8. Firewall
 A firewall is a network device or
software for controlling network
security and access rules.
 Firewalls are inserted in connections
between secure internal networks
and potentially insecure external
networks such as the Internet.
 Firewalls are typically configured to
reject access requests from
unrecognized sources while allowing
actions from recognized ones.
 The vital role firewalls play in network
security grows in parallel with the
constant increase in cyber attacks.
 Network Media
The function of the media is to carry a flow of information through a LAN.

A.Wired Media:- A widely adopted family that uses copper and fiber media in
local area network (LAN) technology are collectively known as Ethernet

1. Copper Cable
a. Coaxial Cables
b. Shielded Twisted Pair(STP)
c. Unshielded Twisted Pair

2. Fibre Optic Cable

B.Wireless Media:- use the atmosphere, or space, as the medium.

Guided media are those that provide a channel from one device to another.
The three Guided (Physical) media commonly used for data transmission are:
1. Twisted-Pair 2. Coaxial 3. Fiber Optics

1. Twisted Pair
•A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires, typically about 1 mm thick.
•The wires are twisted together in a helical form, just like a DNA molecule.
•Twisting is done because two parallel wires constitute a fine antenna.
•When the wires are twisted, the waves from different twists cancel out, so the wire
radiates less effectively.
Why cable is twisted?
• If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same
in both wires
• because they are at different locations relatives to the noise or crosstalk sources.
• This results in a difference at the receiver.
• By twisting the pair, a balance is maintained.
• Types of Twisted-Pair Cable
• 1) Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)
• Twisted pair cabling comes in several varieties, two of which are important for
computer networks.
• Category 3 twisted pairs consist of two insulated wires gently twisted together.
• Most office buildings had one category 3 cable running from a central wiring
closet on each floor into each office.
• Category 5 is the more advanced twisted pairs were introduced.
2) Shielded twisted-pair (STP)
•STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering that encases each pair of
insulated conductors.
•Metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or
crosstalk.
•It is bulkier and more expensive.
Coaxial Cable
• It has better shielding than twisted pairs, so it can span longer distances at higher speeds.
Two kinds of the coaxial cable are widely used.
• One kind is a 50-ohm cable which is commonly used when it is intended for digital
transmission from the start.
• The other kind is a 75-ohm cable which is commonly used for analog transmission and
cable television but is becoming more important with the advent of the Internet over
cable.
• A coaxial cable consists of stiff copper wire as the core surrounded by an insulating
material.
• The insulator is encased by a cylindrical conductor, often as a closely-woven braided
mesh.
• The outer conductor is covered in a protective plastic sheath.
• The construction and shielding of the coaxial cable give it a good combination of high
bandwidth and excellent noise immunity.
• The bandwidth possible depends on the cable quality, length, and signal-to-noise
ratio of the data signal.
• Modern cables have a bandwidth of close to 1 GHz.
Fiber Optics
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.
A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.
The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving
through a core is reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it.
Unguided (Wireless) transmission media
• Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor.
• This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.
1. Radio Transmission
2. Microwave Transmission
3. Infrared
4. Light wave Transmission
Radio Transmission
• Radio waves are easy to generate, can travel long distances, and can penetrate
buildings easily, so they are widely used for communication, both indoors and
outdoors.
• Radio waves also are omnidirectional, meaning that they travel in all directions from
the source, so the transmitter and receiver do not have to be carefully aligned
physically.
• The properties of radio waves are frequency dependent.
• At low frequencies, radio waves pass through obstacles well, but the power falls off
sharply with distance from the source, roughly as 1/r2 in the air.
• At high frequencies, radio waves tend to travel in straight lines and bounce off
obstacles. They are also absorbed by rain.
• At all frequencies, radio waves are subject to interference from motors and other
electrical equipment.
Microwave Transmission
• Since the microwaves travel in a straight line, if the towers are too far apart, the
earth will get in the way. Consequently, repeaters are needed periodically.
• Unlike radio waves at lower frequencies, microwaves do not pass through
buildings well.
• In addition, even though the beam may be well focused at the transmitter,
there is still some divergence in space.
• Above 100 MHz, the waves travel in straight lines and can, therefore, be
narrowly focused.
• Concentrating all the energy into a small beam using a parabolic antenna gives a
much higher signal to noise ratio.
Infrared
• Unguided infrared and milli metre waves are widely used for short-range
communication.
• The remote controls used on televisions, VCRs, and stereos all use infrared
communication.
• They are relatively directional, cheap, and easy to build but have a major
drawback:
1. they do not pass through solid objects (try standing between your remote
control and your television and see if it still works).
2. In general, as we go from long-wave radio toward visible light, the waves
behave more and more like light and less and less like a radio.
3. It means that an infrared system in one room of a building will not interfere
with a similar system in adjacent rooms or buildings.
 Types of Networks
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)
6. Storage-Area Network (SAN)
7. Virtual Private Network (VPN)
8. Client Server Network
9. Peer to Peer Network (P2P)
 1. Personal Area Network
1. Personal Area Network (PAN) is a
computer network used for data
transmission amongst devices
such as computers, telephones,
tablets and personal digital
assistants.
2. Also Known as HAN (Home Area
Network)
3. PANs can be used for
communication amongst the
personal devices themselves
(interpersonal communication), or
for connecting to a higher level
network and the Internet (an uplink)
where one "master" device takes
up the role as internet router.
 2. Local Area Network
 Xerox Corporation worked in
collaboration with DEC and
Intel to create Ethernet, which
is the most pervasive LAN
architecture used today.
 Ethernet has evolved and has
seen significant improvements
in regard to speed and
efficiency.

 An upside of a LAN is fast data transfer with data speed that can reach
up to 10Gbps.
 Other significant LAN technologies are Fiber Distributed Data Interface
(FDDI) and token ring.
 3. Campus Area Network
 Larger than LANs, but smaller
than metropolitan area networks
these types of networks are
typically seen in universities,
large K-12 school districts or
small businesses.
 They can be spread across
several buildings that are fairly
close to each other so users can
share resources
 4. Metropolitan Area Network

1. A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than or equal in size to a WAN.
2. The size range anywhere from 5 to 50km in diameter.
3. MANs are typically owned and managed by a single entity.
4. This could be an ISP or telecommunications company that sells its services
to end-users in that metropolitan area.
5. For all intents and purposes, a MAN has the same characteristics as a WAN
with distance constraints.
 5. Wide Area Network

• A Wide Area Network exist over a large area

• Data travels through telephone or cable lines
• Usually requires a Modem
• The world’s largest Wide Area Network in the Internet
 6. Storage Area Network
 SAN may be referred to as a Sub network or special purpose network.
 Its special purpose is to allow users on a larger network to connect
various data storage devices with clusters of data servers.
 SANs can be accessed in the same fashion as a drive attached to a
server.
 7. Virtual Private Network
 VPN is a private network that can
access public networks remotely. VPN
uses encryption and security protocols
to retain privacy while it accesses
outside resources.
 When employed on a network, VPN
enables an end user to create a virtual
tunnel to a remote location. Typically,
telecommuters use VPN to log in to
their company networks from home.

 Authentication is provided to validate the identities of the two peers.

 Confidentiality provides encryption of the data to keep it private from
prying eyes.
 Integrity is used to ensure that the data sent between the two devices or
sites has not been tampered with.
 8. Client/Server Network
 In a client/server arrangement,
network services are located on a
dedicated computer called a server.
 The server responds to the requests
of clients.
 The server is a central computer that
is continuously available to respond
to requests from clients for file, print,
application, and other services.
 Most network operating systems adopt the form of a client/server
relationship.
 Typically, desktop computers function as clients, and one or more
computers with additional processing power, memory, and specialized
software function as servers.
 9. Peer to Peer Network

 Usually very small networks

 Each workstation has equivalent capabilities and responsibilities
 Does not require a switch or a hub.
 These types of networks do not perform well under heavy data
loads.
 Network Topologies
Network topology defines the structure of the network.
A.Physical topology:- It define the actual layout of the wire or media.
1. Bus
2. Ring
3. Star
4. Tree(Hierarchical)
5. Mesh
B.Logical topology:- It defines how the hosts access the media to send data.
1. Broadcast
2. Token passing
C.Hybrid Topology
 1. Bus Topology
All devices are connected to a central
cable, called bus or backbone. T T
There are terminators at each end of
the bus that stops the signal and
keeps it from traveling backwards.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1.There is no central controller. 1.It is possible that more than one station may attempt
transmission simultaneously (collision or contention).
2.Control resides in each station
2.Difficult reconfiguration and fault isolation.
3.The less interconnecting wire is
required. 3.A fault or break in the bus cable stops all
transmission, even between devices on the same side
4.Ease of installation.
of the problem.
5.Backbone cable can be laid along the
4.The damaged area reflects signals in the direction of
most efficient path, and then connected
origin, creating noise in both directions
to the nodes by drop lines of various
lengths
 2. Ring Topology

• All devices are connected to one another in the shape of

a closed loop.
• Each device is connected directly to two other devices,
one on either side of it.
Advantages:
1.Avoids the collisions that are possible in the bus topology.
2.Each pair of stations has a point-to-point connection.
3.A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
another, until it reaches its destination.
4.Each device incorporates a repeater.
5.Relatively easy to install and reconfigure.
6.Fault isolation is simplified.

Disadvantages:
1.A break in the ring (such as station disabled) can disable the entire
network.
2.Unidirectional traffic.
 3. Star Topology
• All devices are connected to a central hub.
• Nodes communicate across the network by passing data
through the hub or switch.
Advantages:
1. Easy to install and reconfigure.
2. Robustness, if one link fails; only that link is affected. All other
links remain active.
3. Easy fault identification and isolation. As long as the hub is
working, it can be used to monitor link problems and bypass
defective links.
Disadvantages:
1. The devices are not linked to each other.
2. If one device wants to send data to another, it sends it to the
controller, which then relays the data to the other connected
device.
 4. Tree/Hierarchical Topology
Advantages:
1.It allows more devices to be attached to a
single central hub and can therefore increase
the distance a signal can travel between
devices.
2.It allows the network to isolate and prioritize
communications from different computers.

Disadvantages:
1.The devices are not linked to each other.
2.If one device wants to send data to another, it
sends it to the controller, which then relays the
data to the other connected device.
3.The addition of secondary hubs brings two
further advantages.
 6. Mesh Topology
Each host has its connections to all other hosts.
Mesh topology is implemented to provide as much
protection as possible from interruption of service.
1.A nuclear power plant might use a mesh topology
in the networked control systems.
2.Although the Internet has multiple paths to any
one location, it does not adopt the full mesh
topology.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each 1. A large amount of cabling required.
connection can carry its data load, thus eliminating 2. A large amount of I/O ports required.
the traffic problems that can occur when links must 3. Installation and reconfiguration are
be shared by multiple devices. difficult.
2. It is robust, if one link becomes unusable, it does 4. The sheer bulk of the wiring can be
not incapacitate (affect) the entire system. greater than the available space (in the
3. Privacy and Security (every message sent travels walls, ceiling, or floors) can accommodate.
along a dedicated line; only the intended recipient 5. The hardware required to connect each
sees it). link (I/O ports and cables) can be
4. Point-to-point links make fault identification and prohibitively expensive.
fault isolation easy.
 Wireless Networks
Wireless network is a type of
computer network that uses
wireless data connections for
connecting network nodes.
Example
Bluetooth
Wi-Fi
 Bluetooth
 Bluetooth is a short-range
wireless technology standard
used for exchanging data
between fixed and mobile
devices over short distances.
 It is using UHF radio waves in
the ISM bands, from 2.402
GHz to 2.48 GHz.
 The IEEE standardized
Bluetooth as IEEE 802.15.1,
but no longer maintains the
standard.
 Wi-Fi
 Wi-Fi Stands for Wireless Fidelity.
 Wi-Fi, is a Local Area Wireless
technology.
 Wi-Fi networks use radio technologies to
transmit and receive data at high speed.
 It is based on the IEEE 802.11 family of
standards.
 Access point: The access point is a
wireless LAN transceiver or “ base station”
that can connect one or many wireless
devices simultaneously to the internet
 The Internet
The simplest How Information Travel Through the Internet
definition of A page on the Internet—whether it's full of words, images or
the Internet both—doesn't come to you in one shipment. It's translated
into digital information, chopped into 1500 byte pieces called
is that it's a PACKETS, and sent to you like a puzzle that needs to be
network of reassembled. Each part of the packet has a specific
function:
computer Sequence ID
ID’s where the information
networks Header
Provides the
belongs in relation to the rest
of the information
complete
destination
address for the End of Message
packet ID’s the end of the
packet

Data Block
The portion of the overall information
carried by the packet
 The Internet
How Information Travel Through the Internet
When you connect to a Web site through an ISP and start exchanging information,
there isn't a fixed connection between your computer and the Web server computer
hosting the Web site. Instead, information is exchanged using the best possible path
at that particular time. Special computers called routers determine these paths,
avoiding slow links and favoring fast ones.

Your Web
Computer ISP Servers
Routers