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LESSON ONE: BRIEF HISTORY OF JAVA

•Developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems.
• Introduced in 1995.
• It is one the fastest growing programming technologies of all time.

The Java Virtual Machine

The designers of Java chose to use a combination of compilation and interpretation.
Programs written in Java are compiled into machine language, but it is a machine
language for a computer that doesn’t really exist. This so-called “virtual” computer is
known as the Java virtual machine. The machine language for the Java virtual machine is
called Java bytecode. There is no reason why Java bytecode could not be used as the
machine language of a real computer, rather than a virtual computer.

However, one of the main selling points of Java is that it can actually be used on any
computer. All that the computer needs is an interpreter for Java bytecode. Such an
interpreter simulates the Java virtual machine in the same way that Virtual PC simulates
a PC computer.

Of course, a different Java bytecode interpreter is needed for each type of computer,
but once a computer has a Java bytecode interpreter; it can run any Java bytecode
program. And the same Java bytecode program can be run on any computer that has
such an interpreter.

This is one of the essential features of Java: the same compiled program can be run on
many different types of computers.

Java Interpreter for

Mac OS

Java Java Interpreter for

Java
Compiler Bytecode
Program Mac OS
Program

Java Interpreter for

Mac OS

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Object-Oriented Programming

Object-oriented programming enables you to think of program elements as

objects. In the case of a window object, you don't need to know the details of
how it works, nor do you need to know about the window's private data fields.
You need to know only how to call the various functions (called methods in Java)
that make the window operate.

What's going on under the hood is none of your business. (And, if you casually try
to make it your business, plan to face an amused mechanic who will have to
straighten out your mess!)

But OOP is a lot more than just a way to hide the details of a program. To learn
about OOP, you need to understand three main concepts that are the backbone
of OOP. These concepts, which are covered in the following sections, are:
encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism.

Consider this example:

If you want to print a document, in Procedural programming, we are concerned with the steps
involved for printing. In OOP, we are only concerned with how to communicate with a printer that
performs the printing job for us. All we want to know is the printer’s interface.

Encapsulation
One major difference between conventional structured programming and object-
oriented programming is a handy thing called encapsulation. Encapsulation
enables you to hide, inside the object, both the data fields and the methods that
act on that data. (In fact, data fields and methods are the two main elements of
an object in the Java programming language.)

After you do this, you can control access to the data, forcing programs to retrieve
or modify data only through the object's interface. In strict object-oriented

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design, an object's data is always private to the object. Other parts of a program
should never have direct access to that data.

How does this data-hiding differ from a structured-programming approach? After

all, you can always hide data inside functions, just by making that data local to the
function. A problem arises, however, when you want to make the data of one
function available to other functions. The way to do this in a structured program
is to make the data global to the program, which gives any function access to it.

It seems that you could use another level of scope -one that would make your
data global to the functions that need it- but still prevent other functions from
gaining access. Encapsulation does just that. In an object, the encapsulated data
members are global to the object's methods, yet they are local to the object. They
are not global variables.

Classes as Data Types

An object is just an instance of a data type. For example, when you declare a
variable of type int, you're creating an instance of the int data type. A class is like
a data type in that it is the blueprint upon which an object is based. When you
need a new object in a program, you create a class, which is a kind of template for
the object. Then, in your program, you create an instance of the class. This
instance is called an object.

Classes are really nothing more than user-defined data types. As with any data
type, you can have as many instances of the class as you want. For example, you
can have more than one window in a Windows application, each with its own
contents.

For example, think again about the integer data type (int). It's absurd to think that
a program can have only one integer. You can declare many integers, just about
all you want. The same is true of classes. We will look at relevant examples later.

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After you define a new class, you can create many instances of the class. Each
instance (called an object) normally has full access to the class's methods and gets
its own copy of the data members.

Inheritance

Inheritance enables you to create a class that is similar to a previously defined

class, but one that still has some of its own properties. Consider a car-simulation
program.

Suppose that you have a class for a regular car, but now you want to create a car
that has a high-speed passing gear. In a traditional program, you might have to
modify the existing code extensively and might introduce bugs into code that
worked fine before your changes.

To avoid these hassles, you use the object-oriented approach: Create a new class
by inheritance. This new class inherits all the data and methods from the tested
base class. (You can control the level of inheritance with the public, private, and
protected keywords. You'll see how all this works with Java "Classes.") Now, you
only need to worry about testing the new code you added to the derived class.

NOTE: The designers of OOP languages didn't pick the word "inheritance" out of
a hat. Think of how human children inherit many of their characteristics from
their parents. But the children also have characteristics that are uniquely their
own. In object-oriented programming, you can think of a base class as a parent
and a derived class as a child.

Polymorphism

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The last major feature of object-oriented programming is polymorphism. By using

polymorphism, you can create new objects that perform the same functions as
the base object but which perform one or more of these functions in a different
way.

For example, you may have a shape object that draws a circle on the screen. By
using polymorphism, you can create a shape object that draws a rectangle
instead. You do this by creating a new version of the method that draws the
shape on the screen. Both the old circle-drawing and the new rectangle-drawing
method have the same name (such as DrawShape()) but accomplish the drawing
in a different way.

Example: Encapsulation, Inheritance, and Polymorphism

Although you won't actually start using Java classes until later in this book, this is
a good time to look at OOP concepts in a general way. As an example, you'll
extend the car metaphor you read earlier this chapter.

In that section I described a car as an object having several characteristics

(direction, position, and speed) and several means (steering wheel, gas pedal, and
brakes) to act on those characteristics.

In terms of constructing a class for a car object, you can think of direction,
position, and speed as the class's data fields and the steering wheel, gas pedal,
and brakes as representing the class's methods.

The first step in creating an object is to define its class. For now, you'll use
pseudo-code to create a Car class.

Consider the code below

class Car{
data direction;
data position;
data speed;
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Steer();
method PressGasPedal();
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In this base car class, a car is defined by its direction (which way its pointed),
position (where it's located), and speed. These three data fields can be
manipulated by the three methods Steer(), PressGasPedal(), and
PressBrake(). The Steer() method changes the car's direction, whereas
the PressGasPedal() and PressBrake() change the car's speed.

The car's position is affected by all three methods, as well as by the direction and
speed settings.

The data fields and methods are all encapsulated inside the class. Moreover, the
data fields are private to the class, meaning that they cannot be directly accessed
from outside of the class.

Only the class's three methods can access the data fields. In short, Listing 4.1 not
only shows what a class might look like, it also shows how encapsulation works.

Now, suppose you want to create a new car that has a special passing gear. To do
this, you can use OOP inheritance to derive a new class from the Car base class.

class PassingCar extends Car

method Pass();

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You may be surprised to see how small this new class is. It's small because it
implicitly inherits all the data fields and methods from the Car base class. That is,
not only does the PassingCar class have a method called Pass(), but it also
has the direction, position, and speed data fields, as well as the Steer(),
PressGasPedal(), and PressBrake() methods.

The PassingCar class can use all these data fields and methods exactly as if they
were explicitly defined. This is an example of inheritance.

The last OOP concept that you'll apply to the car classes is polymorphism.
Suppose that you now decide that you want a new kind of car that has all the
characteristics of a PassingCar, except that its passing gear is twice as fast as
PassingCar's.

class FastCar extendsPassingCar {

method Pass();

The FastCar class looks exactly like the original PassingCar class. However,
rather than just inheriting the Pass() method, it defines its own version. This
new version makes the car move twice as fast as PassingCar's Pass()
method does (the code that actually implements each method is not shown). In
this way, the FastCar class implements the same functionality as the
PassingCar() class, but it implements that functionality a little differently.

Because the FastCar class inherits from PassingCar, which

itself inherits from Car, a FastCar also inherits all the
data fields and methods of the Car class. There are ways
that you can control how inheritance works (using the
public, protected, and private keywords), but you won't get
into that until much later.
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LESSON TWO: VARIABLES

If constants are program values that cannot be changed throughout the execution
of a program, what are variables? Variables are values that can change as much as
needed during the execution of a program.

Because of a variable's changing nature, there's no such thing as a hard-coded

variable. That is, hardcoded values in a program are always constants (or, more
accurately, literals).

Why do programs need variables?

tax = 12 * SALESTAX;

In this line, the word tax is a variable. So, one reason you need variables in a
program is to hold the results of a calculation. In this case, you can think of the
word tax as a kind of digital bucket into which the program dumps the result of its
sales tax calculation.

When you need the value stored in tax, you can just reach in and take it out-
figuratively speaking, of course. As an example, to determine the total cost of a
$12.00 purchase, plus the sales tax, you might write a line like this:

total = 12 + tax;

In this line, the word total is yet another variable. After the computer performs
the requested calculation, the variable total will contain the sum of 12 and
whatever value is stored in tax.

For example, if the value 0.72 is stored in tax, after the calculation, total would be
equal to 12.72.

Do you see another place where a variable is necessary? How about the hard-
coded value 12? Such a hard-coded value makes a program pretty useless
because every person that comes into your store to buy something isn't going to

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spend exactly $12.00. Because the amount of each customer's purchase will
change, the value used in your sales tax calculation must change, too.

That means you need another variable. How about creating a variable named
purchase? With such a variable, you can rewrite the calculations like this:
tax = purchase * SALESTAX;

total = purchase + tax;

Now you can see how valuable variables can be. Every value in the preceding lines
is represented by a variable. (Although you're using SALESTAX as a symbolic
constant, because of Java's current lack of true constants, it's really a variable,
too.)

Please refer to part one of this lecture notes to digest data types.

Declaration of a Variable

Consider the following example:

public class example {

public static void main ( String[] args )

int states = 50; // a declaration of a variable

System.out.println(“The variable states contains: ” +

states);

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• A declaration of a variable is where the program allocates memory for the

variable.

 The declaration in the example program requested a 32 bit section of

memory which will use primitive data type int and will be named states.
 A variable cannot be used in a program unless it has been declared.
 A variable can be declared only once in a particular section of code.

Syntax of Variable Declaration

• The first way to declare a variable: This specifies its data type, and reserves
memory for it. It assigns zero to primitive types and null to objects.

• The second way to declare a variable: This specifies its data type, reserves
memory for it, and puts an initial value into that memory. The initial value must
be of the correct data type.
dataType variableName;

dataType variableName = initialValue;

• The first way to declare two variables: all of the same data type, reserves
memory for each.

• The second way to declare two variables: both of the same data type, reserves
memory, and puts an initial value in each variable.

dataType variableNameOne, variableNameTwo;

dataType variableNameI = initialValueI, VariableNameII =

initialValueI,

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Names of Variables

The following are the rules for assigning variables name:

• Use only the characters 'a' through 'z', 'A' through 'Z', '0' through '9', character
'_', and character '$'.
• A name cannot contain the space character.
• Do not start with a digit.
• A name can be of any reasonable length.
• Upper and lower case count as different characters. I.e., Java is case sensitive. So
SUM and Sum are different names.
• A name cannot be a reserved word (keyword).
• A name must not already be in use in this block of the program.

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LESSON THREE: CONTROL FLOW

Loops
Computer programs can have cycles within them. Much of the usefulness of
modern computer software comes from doing things in cycles.

In programming, cycles are called loops. When a program has a loop in it, some
statements are done over and over until a predetermined condition is met.

The while Statement

Consider the program below:

import java.io.*;

// Example of a while loop

public class CSC411loop {

public static void main (String[] args ) {

int count = 1; // start count out at one

while ( count <= 3 ) { // loop while count is <= 3

System.out.println ( "count is:" + count );

count++; // add one to count

System.out.println( "Done with the loop" );

How the while loop above works:

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1. The variable count is assigned a 1.

2. The condition (count <= 3) is evaluated as true.

3. Because the condition is true, the block statement following the

while is executed.

• The current value of count is written out: count is 1

• count is incremented by one, to 2.

4. The condition (count <= 3) is evaluated as true.

5. Because the condition is true, the block statement following the

while is executed.

• The current value of count is written out. count is 2

• count is incremented by one, to 3.

6. The condition (count <= 3) is evaluated as true.

7. Because the condition is true, the block statement following the

while is executed.

• The current value of count is written out: count is 3

• count is incremented by one, to 4.

8. The condition (count <= 3) is evaluated as false.

9. Because the condition is false, the block statement following

the while is SKIPPED.

10. The statement after the entire while-structure is executed.

• System.out.println( "Done with the loop" );

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Syntax of the while Statement

while (condition) {

one or more statements

• The condition is a Boolean expression; i.e., something that evaluates to true or

false.

• The condition can be complicated, with relational operators and logical

operators.

• The statements are called the loop body

Semantics of the while Statement

while(condition) {

one or more statements

Statement after the loop

When the condition is true, the loop body is executed. When the condition is
false, the loop body is skipped, and the statement after the loop is executed.
Once execution has passed to the statement after the loop, the while statement

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is finished. If the condition is false the very first time it is evaluated, the loop
body will not be executed at all.

There are three things to consider when your program has a loop:

1. The initial values must be set up correctly.

2. The condition in the while statement must be correct.

3. The change in variable(s) must be done correctly.

Consider another example below:

int count = 1; // count is initialized

while (count <= 3) { // count is tested

System.out.println( "count is:" + count );

count = count + 1; // count is changed

Be very careful with boundary Conditions. Scrutinize the two examples below
placed side by side. Their outputs are shown right after.

int count = 1; int count = 1;

while (count <= 3) { while (count < 3) {

System.out.println( "count is:" + System.out.println( "count is:"

count ); +count );

count = count + 1;} count = count + 1;}

The above loop will be executed 3 times. The This loop will be executed 2 times. The
output is: output is:
count is: 1 count is: 1
count is: 2 count is: 2
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count is: 3
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Consider yet another example. Here for some reasons best known to us, we want
a program that can count downwards by 3. We can implement the program like
below:

int count = 9; // count is initialized

while ( count >= 0 ) { // count is tested

System.out.println( "count is:" + count );

count = count - 3; // count is changed by 3

System.out.println( "Done counting by three’s." );

This loop will be executed 4 times. The output is:

count is: 6

count is: 4

count is: 2

count is: 0

Done counting by two’s.

Exercise: Draw a flowchart for the program implemented above.

A more robust implementation of the while loop is given in the next page. Please
study the codes very well and then try to run it off head!

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Program to Add up User-entered Integers

import java.io.*;

public class addNumbers {

public static void main (String[] args ) throws IOException {

InputStreamReader inStream = new InputStreamReader(System.in ) ;

BufferedReader userin = new BufferedReader( inStream );

String inputData;

int num; // total numbers of integers

int value; // data entered by the user

int sum = 0; // initialize the sum

// get the total number

System.out.println( "Enter how many integers :" );

inputData = userin.readLine();

num = Integer.parseInt( inputData );

// get the first value

System.out.println( "Enter first integer :" );

inputData = userin.readLine();

value = Integer.parseInt( inputData );

while ( num != 0 ) {

sum = sum + value; //add value to sum

//get the next value from the user

System.out.println( "Enter next integer (enter 0 to quit):" );

inputData = userin.readLine();

value = Integer.parseInt( inputData );

num = num –1; // refresh the counter

}
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System.out.println( "Sum of the integers: " + sum );
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Sentinel Controlled Loops

The loops we talked about so far are called counting loops. Loops are controlled
by a counter.

The disadvantage of the previous program is that users have to count the number
of integers to be added.

The idea of a sentinel controlled loop is that there is a special value (the
"sentinel") that is used to say when the loop is done.

PROBLEM:Write a program that will sum up each integer the user enters. In the
program, use a special value “the sentinel” to tell the program that the loop is
done

NOTE: The implementation to this problem was done in class if you guys can
remember. Revise.

For Statement
Java (and several other languages) has a for statement which combines the three
aspects of a loop into one statement. In general, it looks like this:
for ( initialize ; test ; change )

loopBody ;

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The initialize, test, and change are statements or expressions that (usually)
perform the named action. The loopBody can be a single statement or a block
statement. Example:
// initialize test change
for ( count = 0; count < 10; count++ )
{
System.out.print (count + " ");
}

The piece of code above can be implemented with the while loop as done below
count = 0; // initialize

while ( count < 10 ) { // test

System.out.print( count + " ");

count++; // change
}

switch Statement
• A choice is made between options based on the value in code.

• To execute this fragment, look down the list of cases to match the value in code.

• The statement between the matching case and the next break is executed. All
other cases are skipped. If there is no match, the default case is chosen.

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Rules of switch statement

Only one case will be selected per execution of the switch statement.

• The value of integerExpression determines which case is selected.

• integerExpression must evaluate to an int type.

• Each label must be an integer literal (like 0, 23), but not an expression or
variable.

• There can be any number of statements in the statementList.

 Each time the switch statement is executed, the following happens:

1. The integerExpression is evaluated.

2. The labels after each case are inspected one by one, starting with the
first.

3. The body of the first label that matches has its statementList executed.

4. The statements execute until the break statement is encountered or the

end of the switch.

5. Now the entire switch statement is complete.

• If no case label matches the value of integerExpression, then the default case is
picked, and its statements execute.

• If a break statement is not present, all cases below the selected case will also be
executed.

Consider the example on the next page

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double discount;

char code = 'B' ;

I seriously suggest you switch ( code ) {

learn the syntax and
case 'A':
semantics of all the
control structures you discount = 0.0;
can lay your hand on. If break;
you can get case 'B':
comprehensive materials
discount = 0.1;
(and for those who are
lazy), please have a break;
glance of part one of this case 'C':
material. discount = 0.2;

break;

default:

discount = 0.3;

do Statement
The do statement is similar to the while statement with an important difference:
the do statement performs a test after each execution of the loop body. Here is a
counting loop that prints integers from 0 to 9 in the next page:

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All loops must do three things:

1. The loop must be initialized correctly.

2. The ending condition must be tested correctly.

3. The body of the loop must change the condition that is tested.

The do loop must do all three, but the ending condition test is done after the loop
body has been executed.

int count = 0; // initialize count to 0

do {
System.out.println( count ); // loop body: includes code to
count++; // change the count
}
while ( count < 10 ); // test if the loop body should be
//executed again.

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LESSON FOUR: OBJECTS AND CLASSES IN JAVA

All data in Java falls into one of two categories: primitive data and objects. There
are only eight primitive data types. Any data type you create will be an object.

• An object is a structured block of data. An object may use many bytes of

memory.

• The data type of an object is its class.

• Many classes are already defined in the Java Development Kit.

• A programmer can create new classes to meet the particular needs of a

program.

Objects
• Many programs are written to model problems of the real world.

• It is convenient to have "software objects" that are similar to "real world

objects." This makes the program and its computation easier to think about.

• Object-oriented programming solves a problem by creating objects that solve

the problem.

 A group of objects with similar properties and behaviours is described by a

class.

• Class is a pattern for an object.

• A class contains fields and methods that define the behaviour of the object.

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• A class is a description of a kind of object.

• A programmer may define a class using Java, or may use predefined classes that
come in class libraries such as the JDK.

In object-oriented programming, programmers use a programming language

(such as Java) to describe the program as various objects. When the program is
running, the objects are created, and they start "doing things" by running their
methods.

• The methods do not run in any order. For an application, the first method to
run is the method named main. There should be only one method named main
in an application.

• In a small application, main might do by itself all the computation that needs
to be done. In a larger application, main will create objects and use their
methods. objects. It describes an object’s behaviour and state.

• It does not create any objects.

• When a programmer wants to create an object the new operator is used with
the name of the class.

• Creating an object is called instantiation.

Consider the instantiation for the object below:

class stringTester {

public static void main ( String[] args ) {

String str1; //str1 is a variable that refers to an object,

//but the object does not exist yet.

int len; //len is a primitive variable of type int

str1 = new String("I am from NIgeria"); //create an object of

type //String

len = str1.length(); // invoke the object's method length()

System.out.println("The string " + strl + “ is ”+ len + "

characters long");

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When it is executed (as the program is running), the line

str1 = new String("I am from Nigeria");

creates an object by following the description in class String. The class String is
defined in the package java.lang that comes with the Java system.

The computer system finds a chunk of memory for the object, lays out this
memory according to the plan (the definition of String), and puts data and
methods into it.

The data in this String object will be the characters "I am a Nigerian" and the
methods will be all of the methods that the String class has. One of these
methods is length().

The variable str1 is used to refer to a string object. In other words, str1 gives the
object a name, like a variable.

A variable that can refer to an object does not always have an object to refer to.

• In our program the variable str1 refers to an object only after the new operator
creates one.

• Before the new operator did its work, str1 was a "place holder" that did not
actually refer to any object.

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• After the new operator creates the object, str1 is used to refer to the object.

Using a Reference to an Object

• Once the object has been created (with the new operator), the variable str1
refers to that object.

• That object has several methods, one of them is the length() method.

• A String object's length() method counts the characters in the string, and
returns that amount.

Invoking an Object’s Method

An object consists of both variables and methods. Both of these are called
"members" of the object. Java uses "dot notation" for both:
referenceToAnObject.memberOfObject

To invoke the length() method of the object named str1 the following is used:
len = str1.length();

Remember that all method names will have "()" at their end. The above method
evaluates to an integer, 15, which is assigned to the int variable len.

• An object is a section of memory (with variables and methods), and a class is a

description of objects.

• The new operator calls a class’ constructor method.

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• A constructor has the same name as the class.

str1 = new String("I am Nigerian");

• new creates a new object of type String. It is followed by the name of a

constructor. The constructor String() is part of the definition for the class String.

• Constructors often are used with values (called parameters) that are to be
stored in the data part of the object that is created. In the above program, the
characters I am a Nigerian are stored in the data section of the new object.

• Constructors do not return anything.

Object Reference

String str; // name for a future object

str = new String( "Dog" );

1. An object is created using the constructor. The Java system keeps track of
how to find the object.
2. The way to find the object is stored in the variable str.

An object reference is information on how to find a particular object. The object is

a chunk of main memory; a reference to the object is a way to get to that chunk
of memory.

The variable str does not actually contain the object, but contains information
about where the object is located.

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Objects are created while a program is running. Each object has a unique object
reference, which is used to find it.

When an object reference is assigned to a variable, that variable says how to find
that object.

Examples

Study the examples below, the explanations are contained inside the codes as
comments.

public class CSC411String {

public static void main ( String[] args ) {

String str;

str = new String("Computer"); // create the 1st object referenced by str

System.out.println(str); // follow the reference in str to the 1stobject,

// get data and print it.

str = new String("Library"); // create the 2nd object referenced by str

System.out.println(str); // follow the reference in str to the 2nd object,

// get data and print it.

public class CSC411String2 {

public static void main ( String[] args ) {

String strA; // reference to the first object

String strB; // reference to the second object

strA = new String( "Dog" ); // create the first object and save its reference.

System.out.println( strA ); // follow reference to first object and println its data.
OOP Using JAVA NEILS B. JOEL
strB = new String( "Cat" ); // create the second object and Save its reference.
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LESSON FIVE: CLASSES

Define a Class: Class definitions look like this:
class ClassName {

Descriptions of the variables, methods and the

constructors that initialize a new object.

Often programmers separate the definition into three sections:

class ClassName {

// Description of the variables.

// Description of the constructors.

// Description of the methods.

Separation into sections is done for convenience; it is not a rule of the language.

Consider the example below:

class HelloObject {

// method definition

void speak() {

System.out.println("Hello from an object!");

class HelloTester {

public static void main ( String[] args ) {

NEILS B. JOEL
OOP Using JAVA HelloObject anObject = new HelloObject();
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The definition of class HelloObject only defines a method for the class. When the
main() method starts, it constructs a HelloObject and then invokes its speak()
method.

Objects of this class have no instance variables. The class does have a constructor.
Save the file as HelloTester.java because the file name must match the name of
the class that contains the main() method.

When you run this program it will write this out:

Hello from an object!

Method Definition

Method definitions look like this:

returnType methodName( parameterList ) {

// Java statements

return returnValue;

The returnType is the type of value that the method hands back to the caller of
the method.

Your methods can return values just as do methods from library classes. The
return statement is used by a method to hand back a value to the caller.

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void

If you want a method that does something, but does not hand a value back to the
caller, use a return type of void and do not use a return statement.

The method will automatically return to the caller after it executes. Here is the
method from the example program:
// method definition

void speak() {

System.out.println("Hello from an object!");

Now let us look at the examples above with a more detailed explanation.

class HelloObject { // The class definition is used to make the object

void speak() { //A speak() method is included in the object.

System.out.println("Hello from an object!"); //The speak() method

// of the object prints on the screen.

// The method returns to the caller.

class HelloTester {

public static void main ( String[] args ) { //Main starts running.

HelloObject anObject = new HelloObject(); //HelloObject

// is created.

anObject.speak(); //The object's speak()

// method is called.

} //The entire program is finished.

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} JAVA NEILS B. JOEL
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Constructors
You will need to include a constructor in the class definition when you need to
pass some data to the object being instantiated.

Default Constructor

There is no constructor described in the class definition of HelloObject. This is OK.

All classes have a constructor even if one is not included explicitly in the class
definition. A default constructor will be supplied automatically.

So far, the speak method of the HelloObject class always prints the same string to
the monitor.

If different objects of the HelloObject class are to print different things, then each
instance will have its own unique data, which will have to be initialized. This calls
for a constructor.

Constructor Definition Syntax

className( parameterList ) {

Statements usually using the variables of the

class and the parameters in the parameterList.

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No return type is listed before the className. There is no return statement in the
body of the constructor. The constructor must have the same name as the class.
The parameterList is a list of values and their types that will be handed to the
constructorwhen it is asked to construct a new object.

Parameter lists look like this (the same as parameter lists for methods):

TypeName1 parameterName1,

TypeName2 parameterName2, ...

It is OK to have an empty parameter list. A class often has several constructors

with different parameters defined for each constructor.

A constructor returns a reference to the object it constructs. You do not use a

return statement for this to happen. Usually the programmer will save the
reference in a variable.

Coding a Constructor

Below is an example of how to implement a constructor:

public class HelloObject {

String greeting;

HelloObject( String st ) {

greeting = st;

void speak() {

System.out.println( greeting );

OOP Using}JAVA NEILS B. JOEL

}
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The constructor will initialize the variable greeting with data that is supplied when
the constructor is used.

The private Visibility Modifier

When a member of a class is declared private, it can be used only by the methods
of that class. Not all objects can “see” all private variables.

Here is a checking account class definition with each of its variables declared to be
private. Only the methods of a CheckingAccount object can "see" the values in
accountNumber, accountHolder, and balance

public class CheckingAccount {

//data-declarations

private String accountNumber;

private String accountHolder;

private int balance;

//constructors

CheckingAccount( String accNumber, String holder, int start ) {

accountNumber = accNumber ;

accountHolder = holder ;

balance = start ;

// methods

int currentBalance() {

return balance ;

void processDeposit( int amount ) {

OOP Using JAVA balance

NEILS B.=JOEL
balance + amount;

}
 }

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Accesser Methods

A class with private data controls access to that data by using an accesser ethods.
An accesser method is a method which uses the private data of its class and is
visible to other classes. Some accessr methods alter data; others return a value
but don't alter data.

public class CheckingAccount {

private String accountNumber;

private String accountHolder;

private int balance;

// . . . .

class CheckingAccountTester {

public static void main( String[] args ) {

CheckingAccount bobsAccount = new CheckingAccount( "999", "Bob",100 );

System.out.println( bobsAccount.currentBalance() );

bobsAccount.processDeposit( 200 );

System.out.println( bobsAccount.currentBalance() );

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Private Methods

A private method is one that can be used only by the other methods of an object.
Parts of a program outside of the object cannot directly invoke (use) a private
method of the object.

Example:

public class CheckingAccount {

// data-declarations

private String accountNumber;

private String accountHolder;

private int balance;

private int useCount = 0;

void processDeposit( int amount ) {

incrementUse();

balance = balance + amount ;

void processCheck( int amount ) {

int charge;

incrementUse();

if ( balance < 100000 )

// …

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The public Visibility Modifier

The private visibility modifier keeps outsiders from looking in. However, the
access methods are intended for outsiders, and have to be visible to outsiders in
order to be useful.

The public access modifier permits a method or variable of an object to be

accessed by code outside of the object. The public visibility modifier is used for all
access methods and constructors in a class definition. Most variables are made
private.

Example:

class CheckingAccount {

private String accountNumber;

private String accountHolder;

private int balance;

private int useCount = 0;

public CheckingAccount( String accNumber, String holder, int start ) {

/*.

. . .*/ }

public int currentBalance() { /*. . . .*/ }

public void processDeposit( int amount ) { /*. . . .*/ }

public void processCheck( int amount ) { /*. . . .*/ }

public void display() { /*. . . . */}

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 P a g e | 38

Package Visibility
If you do not specify public or private for a variable or a method, then it will have
package visibility.

Default visibility allows a variable or method to be seen within all methods of a

class or other classes that are part of the same package. A package is a group of
related classes.

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LESSON SIX: PARAMETERS

Look at the code below carefully.
public class CheckingAccount {

// . . . .

private int balance;

// . . . .

void processDeposit( int amount ) {

balance = balance + amount ;

The parameter amount is used by a caller to send a value to the method. This is
usually called passing a value to the method.

public class CheckingAccountTester {

public static void main( String[] args ) {

CheckingAccount bobsAccount = new

CheckingAccount( "999", "Bob",

100 );

bobsAccount.processDeposit( 200 );

// . . . .

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 P a g e | 40

When the statement bobsAccount.processDeposit( 200 ); is executed, the

parameter amount of the object's method will hold the value 200. This value is
added to the object's instance variable in the statement.

balance = balance + amount ;

Then the method will exit and control will return to main(). The state of the
object referred to by bobsAccount will be changed.

Formal and Actual Parameters

formal parameter --- the identifier used in a method to stand for the value that is
passed into the method by a caller.

For example, amount is a formal parameter of processDeposit

actual parameter --- the actual value that is passed into the method by a caller.

For example, the 200 used when processDeposit is called is an actual parameter.

When a method is called, the formal parameter is temporarily "bound" to the

actual parameter. The method can then use a name to stand for the actual value
that the caller wanted to be used.

Parameters are seen by their own methods only.

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Scope
The scope of a formal parameter (a local variable) is the section of code that can
"see" (can use) the parameter. The scope of a formal parameter is the body of its
method.

Statements of a method can see the object's instance variables and the object's
other methods. They cannot see the parameters (and local variables) of other
methods.

public class CheckingAccount {

// . . . .

private int balance;

// . . . .

void processDeposit( int amount ) {

// scope of amount starts here

balance = balance + amount ;

} // scope of amount ends here

void processCheck( int amount ) {

// scope of amount starts here

int charge;

if ( balance < 100000 )

charge = 15;

else

charge = 0;

balance = balance - amount - charge ;

} // scope of amount ends here

}
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LESSON SEVEN: ARRAYS

An array is an object that can be used to store a list of values. It is made out of a
contiguous block of memory that is divided into a number of "slots." Each slot can
hold a value, and all of the values are of the same type.

Indices always start at zero, and count up by one's until the last slot of the array.
If there are N slots in an array, the indices will be 0 through N-1.

Every slot of an array holds a value of the same type. A slot of an array that
contains a numeric type (such as int) can be used anywhere a numeric variable
can be used.

Array Declaration

type[] arrayName = new type[ length ];

This tells the compiler that arrayName will be used as the name of an array
containing type, and constructs an array object containing length number of slots.

An array is an object, and like any other object in Java is constructed out of main
storage as the program is running. type[ length] names the type of data in each
slot and the number of slots. Once an array has been constructed, the number of
slots it has does not change.

Consider the example in the next page>

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public class arrayEg1 {

public static void main ( String[] args ) {

int[] stuff = new int[5];

stuff[0] = 23;

stuff[1] = 38;

stuff[2] = 7*2;

System.out.println("stuff[0] has " + stuff[0] );

System.out.println("stuff[1] has " + stuff[1] );

System.out.println("stuff[2] has " + stuff[2] );

System.out.println("stuff[3] has " + stuff[3] );

The output of the above program is:

stuff[0] has 23

stuff[1] has 38

stuff[2] has 14

stuff[3] has 0}

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You may alternatively, decide to use a variable as your array index. During the
course of programming, you will find this concept particularly helpful.

Consider yet another example below:

public class arrayEg2 {

public static void main ( String[] args ) {

double[] val = new double[4]; //an array of double

val[0] = 0.12;

val[1] = 1.43;

val[2] = 2.98;

int j = 3;

System.out.println( val[ j ] );

System.out.println( val[ j-1 ] );

j = j-2;

System.out.println( val[ j ] );

Now try to write down the output by yourself!!

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Initializer List
You can declare, construct, and initialize the array all in one statement:

int[] data = {23, 38, 14, -3, 0, 14, 9, 103, 0, -56 };

This declares an array of int which will be named data, constructs an int array of
10 slots (indexed 0..9), and puts the designated values into the slots. The first
value in the initializer list corresponds to index 0, the second value corresponds
to index 1, and so on.

Two Dimensional Array

An array with a single subscript is called a one dimensional array. The slots of the
array can be thought of as lined up one after the other in a line. Two dimensional
arrays, three dimensional arrays, and higher dimensional arrays also exist.

The slots of an array are often called elements. In a one dimensional array, the
elements are accessed using a single index. In a two dimensional array, the
elements are accessed using two indices.

Length of an Array
An array is an object. An array object has a member length that is the number of
elements it has.

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Look at the example on the next page.

import java.io.* ;

import java.lang.reflect.Array;

public class inputArray {

public static void main ( String[] args ) throws IOException {

int[] array = new int[5];

int data;

BufferedReader inData = new BufferedReader (

new InputStreamReader( System.in ) );

// input the data

for ( int index=0; index < array.length; index++ ) {

System.out.println( "enter an integer: " );

data = Integer.parseInt( inData.readLine() );

array[ index ] = data ;

// write out the data

for ( int index=0; index < Array.getLength(array); index++ ) {

System.out.println( "array[ " + index + " ] = " +

array[ index ] );

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Vector Class
The Vector class builds upon the capabilities of arrays. A Vector object contains
an array of object references plus many methods for managing that array.

You can keep adding elements to it no matter what the original size of the vector
is. The size of the Vector will increase automatically and no information will be
lost. The elements of a Vector are object references, not primitive data.

Using a Vector is slightly slower than using an array. The elements of a Vector are
references to Object. This means that often you will need to use type casting with
the data from a Vector.

Constructors of Vector Objects

It is best to illustrate this with a code. Consider the declarations made below:
Vector myVector; //myVector is a reference to a future vector
object

Vector myVector = new Vector(); //myVector is a reference to a

Vector object.

//The Java system picks the initial capacity.

Vector myVector = new Vector(15); //myVector is a reference to

a //Vector object with an
//initial capacity of 15
//elements.

Vector myVector = new Vector(15, 5); /*myVector is a reference

to a Vector object with an
initial capacity of 15
elements*/

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Capacity and Size

The capacity is the number of slots available. The size is the number of slots that
have data in them. Slots 0 up through size-1 have data in them. You cannot skip
slots; before slot N gets data, slots, 0, 1, 2, ... N-1 must be filled with data.

To add an element to a vector, you use the keyword:

Vector name.addElement(data)

To remove an element to a vector, you use the keyword:

Vector name.removeElementAt(index)

Please study the example below and understand the methods for vector objects

import java.util.* ;

class VectorEg {

public static void main ( String[] args) {

Vector names = new Vector( 10 );

names.addElement( "Amy" );

names.addElement( "Bob" );

names.addElement( "Chris" );

names.addElement( "Deb" );

names.removeElementAt(2);

for ( int j=0; j < names.size(); j++ )

System.out.println( j + ": " + names.elementAt(j) );

}
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ASSIGNMENT PAGE:

WARNING!!: This page contains an individual assignment. Perform the

assignment and summit before Friday (8th February, 2016, 12:00 noon).

QUESTION:

OOP Using JAVA NEILS B. JOEL