REVIEW

published: 01 April 2021

doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.622176

Genetics Insight for COVID-19

Susceptibility and Severity: A Review
Ingrid Fricke-Galindo and Ramcés Falfán-Valencia *

HLA Laboratory, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosı´o Villegas, Mexico City, Mexico

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) presents a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations

ranging from an asymptomatic to a severe clinical course. The host genetic background
influence on the susceptibility and outcome of multiples infectious diseases has been
previously reported. Herein, we aimed to describe relevant identified genetic variants and
those potentially related to the inter-individual variability of COVID-19 susceptibility and/or
severity considering the physiopathological pathway of the disease The HLA-A*25:01,
-B*15:27, -B*46:01, -C*01:02, and -C*07:29 alleles have been associated with COVID-19
Edited by: susceptibility; while HLA-A*02:02, -B*15:03, and -C*12:03 have been identified as low-
Xu Yu, risk alleles. Variants in cytokine genes such as IL1B, IL1R1, IL1RN, IL6, IL17A, FCGR2A,
Massachusetts General Hospital and
Harvard Medical School, United States
and TNF could be related to disease susceptibility and cytokine storm, and/or COVID-19
Reviewed by:
complications (e.g., venous thrombosis). Several variants in ACE2 and TMPRSS2
Giuseppe Novelli, affecting the expression of the receptors related to COVID-19 have been associated
University of Rome Tor Vergata, Italy
with the disease susceptibility and risk factors. Finally, two GWAS have identified the loci
Ahmed Rakib,
University of Tennessee Health 3p21.31 (LZTFL1, SLC6A20, CCR9, FYCO1, CXCR6, and XCR1) and 9q34.2 (ABO) with
Science Center (UTHSC), COVID-19 severity. Heterogeneous results in the association of genetic variants with
United States
Talha Bin Emran,
COVID-19 susceptibility and severity were observed. The mechanism of identified risk-
Begum Gulchemonara Trust genes and studies in different populations are still warranted.
University, Bangladesh
Keywords: COVID-19, genetics, ACE2, HLA, SNV, SARS-CoV-2
*Correspondence:
Ramcés Falfán-Valencia
rfalfanv@iner.gob.mx

INTRODUCTION
Specialty section:
This article was submitted to The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a severe respiratory and systemic disease caused by
Viral Immunology, the novel Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The first cases of the
a section of the journal
new disease were reported in Wuhan, Hubei Province of China, and it has spread quickly to the rest
Frontiers in Immunology
of the worldwide population. Until March 3, 2021, countries have reported to the World Health
Received: 29 October 2020 Organization (WHO) a total of 114,428,211 confirmed cases of COVID-19, a cipher that
Accepted: 16 March 2021
unfortunately includes 2,543,755 deaths (1).
Published: 01 April 2021
COVID-19 is a complex disease that presents a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations
Citation:
ranging from an asymptomatic to a severe clinical course (Figure 1). This infection is considered a
Fricke-Galindo I and Falfán-Valencia R
(2021) Genetics Insight for COVID-19
systemic disease involving the cardiovascular, respiratory, gastrointestinal, neurological,
Susceptibility and Severity: A Review. hematopoietic, and immune systems (4–6). The mortality rate reported ranges between 1-7% (7);
Front. Immunol. 12:622176. respiratory failure, septic shock, multiorgan failure, and cardiac arrest are considered the leading
doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.622176 causes of death (8, 9).

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Fricke-Galindo and Falfán-Valencia Genetics Susceptibility and COVID-19

FIGURE 1 | Clinical courses of COVID-19. Data (2) and Clinical management of COVID-19, interim guidance (3). Created with BioRender.com.

Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) is developed by could be due to demographic, cultural, and dietary habit
41.8% of patients with COVID-19, mainly in those with differences, but genetic variations exist worldwide.
comorbidities such as diabetes mellitus, hypertension,
cardiovascular disease, and chronic kidney disease (10). SARS-CoV-2 Protein Interaction and
Myocardial injury (including acute coronary syndrome, Immune Response
myocarditis, heart failure, hypotension, shock, and sepsis) is The knowledge of virus interaction with human proteins and the
strongly associated with death and severe cases of the COVID-19 immune mechanism against the infection is crucial to identifying
(9, 11), and it has been explained by the presence of Angiotensin- target genes to study the susceptibility and severity of COVID-19.
Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2) in myocardial cells and the The SARS-CoV-2 infects alveolar epithelial cells through receptor-
cytokine storm produced after the SARS-CoV-2 infection (12). mediated endocytosis. The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (S) binds to
COVID-19 has also been associated with coagulation the ACE2 receptor, which is expressed in several organs, including
abnormalities (e.g., disseminated intravascular coagulation or the lung, heart, kidney, and intestine (19). Following the receptor
thrombotic microangiopathy) related to a massive release of binding, the virus enters the host cell cytosol through acid-
plasminogen activators as a product of inflammation-induced dependent proteolytic cleavage of the S protein, in which some
endothelial cell injury (13). Other complications of COVID-19, proteases, including Transmembrane Serine Protease 2
such as acute kidney injury, co-infection with another pathogen, (TMPRSS2) and Cathepsin L (CTSL), cleave to S domains to
thromboembolism, and/or multiorgan failure, have been mediate membrane fusion and virus infectivity (20, 21).
reported (3, 9). The innate immune response to SARS-CoV-2 infection
Given the broad spectrum of COVID-19 clinical course and comprises a mechanical barrier including cells of the
complications, identifying risk factors that could predict the pulmonary epithelium and tissue-resident macrophages and
disease’s severity would improve the infected patients’ dendritic cells. Both immune cells express pattern recognition
outcome. In this sense, older age, smoking, hypertension, receptors which can detect Pathogen-Associated Molecular
diabetes mellitus, cardiac disease, chronic lung disease, and Patterns (PAMPs) and Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns
cancer have been associated with COVID-19 severity and (DAMPs) (22), which triggers the activation of cytoplasmic
death (3, 14). Nevertheless, these conditions do not explain the NOD‐Like Receptor family and Pyrin domain-containing 3
total cases of the severity and mortality of COVID-19; therefore, protein (NLRP3) inflammasome pathway (23). The
genetic variations influencing the clinical outcome could be inflammasome activation in macrophages, epithelial cells, and
considered. Also, regional differences in the frequencies of endothelial cells releases pro‐inflammatory cytokines,
some COVID-19 clinical manifestations have been observed. Interleukin (IL)‐1b and IL‐18, which produce neutrophilia and
For instance, fever and dyspnea were more frequent in patients leukopenia, contributing to the pathogenic inflammation
from Wuhan (91.7% and 21.1%, respectively) than in patients responsible for the severity of symptoms of COVID‐19 (24,
from other regions of China (78.1% and 3.80%) (15). 25). Besides, Toll-Like Receptor (TLR)3, TLR7, TLR8, and
Moreover, olfactory disturbance or loss of smell seems to be a TLR9, sensing viral RNA, activate the Nuclear Factor kappa B
common symptom among Europeans (16) and Americans from (NF-kB) pathway and a high number of pro-inflammatory
the United States (17), but not for Asians (18). Such variations cytokines with a significant role in initiating virus-induced

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Fricke-Galindo and Falfán-Valencia Genetics Susceptibility and COVID-19

inflammation (26). The increased secretion of the pro- cells to cause lysis to the infected cells. B cells can be activated
inflammatory cytokines and chemokines IL-6, Interferon- directly by the virus recognition and by the interaction with
gamma (IFN-g), Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 CD4+ T cells. Immunoglobulin (Ig) M antibody can be detected
(MCP-1), and IFN-g-induced Protein 10 (IP-10) attracts at the early stages of infection, while IgG antibodies are then
immune cells, notably monocytes and T lymphocytes, but not produced for lifelong immunity (25).
neutrophils, from the blood into the infected site, explaining the Given the well-known influence of the host genetic background
lymphopenia and the increased neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio in the susceptibility and outcome of multiples infectious diseases,
seen in around 80% of patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection (27). including coronavirus infections (30), we aimed to describe
Commonly, recruited cells scrub the infection in the lung, the relevant identified genetic variants and those potentially related
immune response subsidies, and the patient recovers. to the inter-individual variability of COVID-19 susceptibility and/
Nevertheless, in patients with severe COVID-19, a dysfunctional or severity considering the physiopathological pathway of
immune response occurs, triggering a cytokine storm, in which an the disease.
increase of IL-2, IL-6, IL-7, IL-10, Granulocyte Colony- The clinical outcome variation to life-threatening pathogens
Stimulating Factor (G-CSF), IP-10, MCP-1, Macrophage shows the functional genetic diversity of the immune response,
Inflammatory Protein 1a (MIP-1a) and Tumor Necrosis differences in the pathogen’s interaction with host proteins, and/
Factor-alpha (TNF-a) in plasma blood levels are observed (27, complex gene-gene and gene-environment interactions (28,29).
28). Although the mechanism leading to the cytokine storm Therefore, the genes described for COVID-19 susceptibility and
remains unknown, the interferon signaling pathway’s severity were classified if they were related to the immune
antagonists have been considered (27). Levels of cytokines can system, to the SARS-CoV-2 receptor, or other genes reported
explain some of the COVID-19 complications, such as septic to be associated with the disease susceptibility or its
shock and multiorgan failure due to TNF-a increase; moreover, complications (Figure 2).
cytokine storm is also found in older patients and those with We performed a literature search of relevant articles in
comorbidities, which are considered risk factors for the disease scientific databases (i.e., PubMed, WHO, GenBank, dbSNP,
complication (11, 27). HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee) from July 2020 to
As an antiviral mechanism, antigen-presenting cells are February 2021. The quest includes the following search terms:
involved in presenting antigenic peptides through the Major ‘COVID-19’, ‘genetics’, ‘genomics’, ‘HLA’, ‘disease susceptibility’,
Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) class I and class II ‘ACE2’, ‘disseminated intravascular coagulation’, ‘venous
molecules to CD8+ and CD4+ T cells (29). Both T and B cell thrombosis’. According to the data relevance, articles were
responses against SARS-CoV-2 can be detected in the blood selected, and those studying the SARS-CoV-2 genome and
around 1 week after the onset of COVID-19 symptoms (27). preprints were excluded. Information was analyzed and
CD8+ T cells are activated, start cell division and clonal summarized; thus, the analysis and conclusions of those results
expansion, and develop virus-specific effectors and memory T are reported in the present review.

FIGURE 2 | Biological Pathway of COVID-19 in which different genes could be implicated in the disease’s differential clinical outcome. Created with BioRender.com.

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Fricke-Galindo and Falfán-Valencia Genetics Susceptibility and COVID-19

GENETIC VARIANTS IN THE STUDY Acute Physiology And Chronic Health Evaluation II (APACHE
OF COVID-19 SUSCEPTIBILITY II) were controlled (42). The HLA-DRB1*08 was correlated with
mortality of COVID-19 in the Italian population, and the peptide
AND SEVERITY binding prediction analyses showed that the allele was unable to
bind any of the SARS-CoV-2 peptides with high affinity (43). The
Variants in Genes Related to the
HLA-C*05 allele was also correlated with COVID-19 mortality in
Immune System an ecological study (44).
Human Leukocyte Antigens Gene Complex
Also, in a recent in silico analysis of the binding affinity
The immune system is a complex and effective defense between HLA class I molecules and all SARS-CoV-2 peptides,
mechanism against pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria, the HLA-B*46:01 allele was identified as a vulnerability
mediated by cells and cytokines involved in the innate and biomarker due to low predicting binding sites. In contrast, the
adaptive immune responses (31). Human Leukocyte Antigens HLA-B*15:03 was considered a protector allele for showing the
(HLA) are proteins encoded by the human MHC genes, which most significant capacity to present highly conserved SARS-
are the most highly polymorphic in the human genome. CoV-2 peptides. The HLA-A*25:01 and -C*01:02 alleles were
Individuals display between three and six different HLA alleles also related to a low predicted capacity for SARS-CoV-2 epitope
that present a variable distribution in the worldwide populations. presentations, whereas the highest predicted presentation
The resulting HLA molecules’ variability affects the cellular capacity was observed for HLA-A*02:02 and -C*12:03 alleles
immune response to peptides from human infecting-pathogens (45). In agreement, another study using artificial neural networks
(32, 33). For instance, chronic viral infections can result if CD8+ identified the HLA-B*46:01 and HLA-A*25:01 as weakly binding
or CD4+ T cells have difficulty identifying the HLA class I or II alleles, while HLA-A*02:02 was one of the HLA class I alleles
antigens on the cell surface or lower expression levels of the HLA found to present a strong binding to virus selected peptides (46).
molecules (34). Interestingly, HLA-A*02 alleles, among other class I and II
In patients with COVID-19, differences in the immune alleles, were also identified as functional molecules for
response of patients with mild and severe forms of the disease presenting SARS-CoV-2 peptides in a bioinformatic prediction
have been observed, including IgM and IgG levels (35). Also, a study. In this same last report, an ecological study was also
report considered the impact of the variation of the theoretical performed, and the HLA-DRB1*01 allele was found associated
capacity for binding SARS-CoV-2 peptides to explain the HLA’s with COVID-19 fatality in a Mexican population; and, although
relation with the clinical heterogeneity of the disease (36). the authors have addressed several limitations, the result must be
Therefore, this locus variability could explain differential risk taken with caution (47).
susceptibility among populations considering the role of HLA Nevertheless, other in silico analyses reported a possible
molecules in the modulation of immune response to SARS-CoV- association of HLA-A*02:01 with increased risk for COVID-19
2 to identify risk subjects and the design of personalized and a lower capacity of this allele to present SARS-CoV-2
therapy (37). antigens in comparison to other HLA variants (48). These
One study evaluated the HLA class I and II alleles in 82 Han results seem to be contradictory compared to those previously
individuals from Zhejiang with COVID-19. Authors reported mentioned, in which HLA-A*02 alleles were considered to have
that HLA-C*07:29 and -B*15:27 were found in a higher frequency an adequate predicted capacity of antigens presentation.
among patients with COVID-19 than in previous analyzed Therefore, the association should be taken with caution until
controls, after correction with the Benjamini-Hochberg the results of clinical studies were published.
method. Other alleles also identified in different frequencies Regarding HLA haplotypes, the study of regional frequencies
among compared groups, but with uncorrected tests, include for the most common Italian haplotypes reported that the HLA-
HLA-C*07:29, -C*08:01G, -B*15:27, -B*40:06, -DRB1*04:06, and A*01:01-B*08:01-C*07:01-DRB1*03:01 and HLA-A*02:01-
-DPB1*36:01 alleles, which were found more frequently among B*18:01-C*07:01-DRB1*11:04 were correlated with COVID-19
patients than in controls; and, -DRB1*12:02 and -DPB1*04:01 incidence and mortality, suggesting risk and protection-related
alleles, which were less common among individuals with haplotypes, respectively (49). In an association study performed
COVID-19 than in the control group (38). In the Italian in a Sardinian population, the three-loci haplotype HLA-
population, an investigation comprising 99 subjects found A*30:02-B*14:02-C*08:02 was more common among patients
associated the HLA-DRB1*15:01, -DQB1*06:02, and -B*27:07 with COVID-19 (50).
alleles with COVID-19 susceptibility (39); while an ecological Table 1 shows examples of worldwide populations where the
study strongly suggests a permissive role of HLA-C*01 and B*44 mentioned HLA alleles are frequently found. Nevertheless, it is
towards SARS-CoV-2 infection across Italy (40). Meanwhile, the crucial to consider the results of a recent publication in which the
HLA-A*11:01, -B*51:01, and -C*14:02 alleles were related to the relevance of the HLA alleles’ homozygosity and heterozygosity
worst outcome among a Chinese population sample (41). was observed. The authors evaluated the synthesis of influenza
Regarding the severity of the disease, a study including 72 virus proteins and RNA in lymphocytes from serologically HLA-
Spaniards with COVID-19 reported three HLA alleles associated homozygous or -heterozygous donors after the cells were
with higher mortality (HLA-A*11, -C*01, and -DQB1*04) when exposed to the virus. They found that specific HLA-A and
the scores of Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) and HLA-B-homozygous lymphocytes did not synthesize influenza

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TABLE 1 | HLA alleles associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection susceptibility. central role in cytokine storm with anti-inflammatory and pro-
HLA alleles Populations in which the allele is commonly found a inflammatory effects by promoting T-cell proliferation and B-cell
differentiation, affecting vascular disease’s hormone-like
High-risk properties, lipid metabolism, insulin resistance, mitochondrial
-A*25:01 Colombia Arhuaco.
activity, neuroendocrine system, and neuropsychological
-B*46:01 Chinese populations, Hong Kong Chinese, Malaysia Peninsular
Chinese, Singapore Chinese, Taiwan Han Chinese, Thailand
behavior (55).
Northeast, USA Chinese, Vietnam Hanoi Kinh. High levels of IL-6 can activate the coagulation pathway and
-C*01:02 American Samoa, Australian Kimberly Aborigine, Chinese vascular endothelial cells but inhibit the myocardial function (56).
populations, Colombian populations, Hong Kong Chinese, In severe COVID-19 patients, an increase of IL-6 levels has been
Japanese populations, Malaysia Peninsular Chinese, Mexico
observed and related to the disease’s poor prognosis (57). Several
Chihuahua Tarahumara, Mexico Hidalgo, Mezquital Valley/Otomi,
Mexico Zapotec, New Caledonia, New Zealand populations, gene variants in IL6 (HGNC:6018) with differential cytokine
Papua New Guinea populations, South Korea, Taiwanese expression and with different disorders have been reported. The
populations, USA Asian, USA Hawaii Okinawa, Venezuela Perja rs1800795 (-174C) allele, as well as the promoter variant rs1800796
Mountain Bari, Vietnam Hanoi Kinh, Bolivia/Peru Quechua, Costa (-572C), have been associated with higher IL-6 plasma levels (58,
Rica populations.
59) and with the risk of upper respiratory tract infections (60–62).
Low-risk
-A*02:02 Cameroon Bamileke, Israel populations. Moreover, both IL6 variants have been related to the prognosis of
-B*15:03 Burkina Faso Rimaibe, Guinea Bissau. different disorders such as sepsis (63), coronary heart disease (64),
-C*12:03 Azores Terceira Island, German populations, Greece, Italian and diabetes (65). A third variant (rs1800797) on the IL6 promoter
populations, Lebanon Mixed, Pakistan Burusho, Papua New reported (66), and its role in studying the genetics of COVID-19
Guinea Wanigela Keapara, Poland, Portugal Azores Terceira
Island, Spain populations, Sudan Mixed, China Jingpo Minority,
related-cytokine storm can be considered. In addition, seven
Colombian populations. variants in IL6 (rs140764737, rs142164099, rs2069849,
Mortality/severity rs142759801, rs190436077, rs148171375, rs13306435) and five
-A*11 Myanmar, China, Thailand, Taiwan, Japan, Spain, Mexico, South variants in IL6R (rs2228144, rs2229237, rs2228145, rs28730735,
Korea, Mongolia, France, United Arab Emirates, Iran.
rs143810642) have been predicted to alter the expression and
-B*51:01 Italy North, Japan, China, Oman, Armenia, Greece, China, Saudi
Arabia, Switzerland Lugano, United Arab Emirates, Portugal, USA
interaction of IL6 and IL6R which can be implicated in the
South Dakota Lakota Sioux and North American Native, Germany, pathogenesis of COVID-19 and its complications (67).
Croatia, Serbia, Mexico Sonora Seri and Chihuahua, Romania, Genetic variants in the regulatory regions of other cytokines
China Guizhou Province Miao. genes have also been reported (68). For instance, non-
-C*01 China Wuhan, Japan, India Kerala Hindu Pulaya, Brazil Parana
synonymous variants affecting the final proteins of TGF-b and
Japanese, Scotland Orkney, Thailand Northeast, South Korea,
Norway Sami, Peru Arequipa Mestizo, Vietnam Hanoi, Mongolia IFN-a, as well as variants modifying the transcriptional activity
Oold, Myanmar Mon. of TNF-a, IL-10, and IL-2, have been described (68, 69). Several
-C*05 United Kingdom, England, France, Spain, Wales, Venezuela. of these variants have been previously related to infectious
-C*14:02 Japan Kyoto and Osaka disease susceptibility, cytokine storm, and venous thrombosis.
-DQB1*04 Mexico populations, Norway Sami, Venezuela Zulia Maracaibo
Reported variants in cytokines genes associated with those events
Mixed, Brazil Guarani Nandeva, Papua New Guinea Highland,
Ecuador Amazonia Mixed Ancestry, USA OPTN Hispanic, Russia and their frequencies are shown in Table 2.
Siberia Chukchi, Malaysia Perak Rawa. In an Iranian population, genotypes of IL1B (HGNC:5992)
-DRB1*08 Taiwan, Brazil, Mexico, Chile, Sudan, Peru, Burkina Faso, rs16944 and IL17A (HGNC:5981) rs2275913 were associated
Argentina, India, Japan, Venezuela, Colombia. with severe influenza A/H1N1 and B cases, while the frequencies
a
Representative populations with reported frequencies >0.10 are included. Data from of IL10 (HGNC:5962) rs1800872 and IFNL3 (HGNC:18365)
Allele Frequency Net Database http://www.allelefrequencies.net/ (51). rs8099917 variants were not found different among patients
and controls (70). The TNF (HGNC:11892) rs1800629 variant
virus RNA or protein after virus exposure, suggesting an intrinsic has also been associated with variation in the corresponding
resistance to influenza virus infection in homozygous but not for cytokine and respiratory infections (61, 62).
HLA-heterozygous cells (52). Regarding the risk of venous thrombosis, 18 single-nucleotide
variants in IL1B (HGNC:5992), IL1RN (HGNC:6000), IL1R1
Cytokine Genes (HGNC:5993), and IL1R2 (HGNC:5994), as well as 25
The cytokine storm is a complex process that has been difficult to haplotypes, were evaluated in a case-control study including
define and delimit. However, it refers to an immune system gone patients with deep vein thrombosis and controls. Authors found
awry and an inflammatory response flaring out of control, which associated the IL1B rs1143633, IL1R1 rs3917332, and IL1RN
is associated with infectious and noninfectious diseases with a rs2232354 variants with different risks for venous thrombosis
wide variety of consequences in the organism (53). As has been and an increased thrombotic risk for homozygous carriers of the
mentioned before, the cytokine storm plays a crucial role in IL1RN haplotype 5 GTGTA (rs3181052/rs419598/rs2232354/
severe COVID-19 cases. SARS-CoV-2 produces the activation of rs315952/rs315949) (72).
various immune cells (e.g., macrophages, monocytes, dendritic The Fc-gamma Receptors (FcgR) have been implicated in Fc-
cells), which leads to the secretion of several cytokines, including dependent cytokine release stimulation due to human leucocytes’
the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-6 (54). This cytokine plays a activation to secret various pro-inflammatory cytokines, as

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TABLE 2 | Frequency of allelic variants in cytokine genes associated with individuals for p.His131 genotype was found to be increased in
infectious disease susceptibility and COVID-19 manifestations.
severe pneumonia patients (36.6%) in comparison to household
Cytokine Variants studied Allele frequency reference a Ref contacts who did not develop respiratory illness (13.2%).
gene Another gene reported in this study was the RPA Interacting
Protein (RPAIN, HGNC:28641) and Complement C1q Binding
Infectious diseases
susceptibility
Protein (C1QBP, HGNC:1243) (73).
IL1B rs16944 European A= 0.3499 (70) Also, several in vivo and in vitro studies of influenza virus
g.4490T>C African A= 0.5726 infection with lung damage due to cytokine storm have found a
East Asian A= 0.4692 strong up-regulation on cytokine gene expressions, such as IL6,
South Asian A= 0.6000
IL8 (CXCL8, HGNC:6025), CCL2 (HGNC:10618), CCL5
American A= 0.5500
IL17A rs2275913 European G= 0.6203 (HGNC:10632), CXCL9 (HGNC:7098), and CXCL10
g.4849G>C African G= 0.9508 (HGNC:10637); as well as a differential expression of
East Asian G= 0.5069 inflammasome genes NLRP3 (HGNC:16400) and IL1B
South Asian G= 0.6200 (HGNC:5992), cytokine genes TNF and IFNB1 (HGNC:5434),
American G= 0.7840
and cytokine receptor genes TNFRSF1B (HGNC:11917) and
IL6 rs1800795 European C= 0.4155 (60–62,
g.4880C>G African C= 0.0182 71) IL4R (HGNC:6015) (53). An investigation found inborn errors
East Asian C= 0.0010 of Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3, HGNC:11849)– and interferon
South Asian C= 0.1390 regulatory factor 7 (IRF7, HGNC:6122)–dependent type I IFN
American C= 0.1840 immunity related to life-threatening COVID-19 pneumonia.
TNF rs1800629 European G= 0.8658 (61, 62)
g.4682G>A African G= 0.8805
Although the genetic variants were only found in 3.5% of the
East Asian G= 0.9415 studied patients, the results suggested that other IFN variants
South Asian G= 0.9470 were probably implicated in the COVID-19 severity and the use
American G= 0.9310 of type I IFN as a potential therapeutic strategy in those patients
Venous thrombosis
(76). Likewise, a nested case-control study reported that TLR7
IL1B rs1143633 European C= 0.6660 (72)
g.8890G>A African C= 0.8260
(HGNC:15631) deleterious variants were found in 2.1% of
East Asian C= 0.4613 severely affected males and none of the asymptomatic
South Asian C= 0.7480 participants, and the corresponding functional gene expression
American C= 0.7090 analysis showed a reduction in the TLR7 expression in patients
IL1R1 rs3917332 European A= 0.1938
compared with controls suggesting an impairment in type I and
g.102180064A>T African A= 0.0825
East Asian A= 0.0724 II IFN responses (77).
South Asian A= 0.1350 It is worth mentioning that wide inter-ethnic variability in
American A= 0.1540 cytokine gene variants’ frequencies (IL2, IL6, IL10, TNF, TGFB1,
IL1RN rs2232354 European T= 0.7962 and IFNG) has been reported (68, 78). For instance, significant
g.16866T>G African T= 0.9924
differences in IL2 (HGNC:6001) alleles’ distribution among
East Asian T= 0.9534
South Asian T= 0.7900 Africans, Caucasians, and Asians have been observed.
American T= 0.8310 Meanwhile, high expression alleles of IL6 and IL10
Cytokine storm (HGNC:5962) have been more frequently found in Africans,
IL6 rs1800796 European G= 0.9523 (58, 59) Hispanics, and Asians, than Caucasians. Besides, low expression
g.4481G>C African G= 0.8971
East Asian G= 0.2093
alleles of IFNG (HGNC:5438) have been more common among
South Asian G= 0.6050 Asians than Caucasians (68).
American G= 0.7050
rs1800797 European A= 0.4076 (66)
g.4456A>G African A= 0.0166 Variants in Coding Genes for Human
East Asian A= 0.0010 Receptors of SARS-CoV-2
South Asian A= 0.1340
SARS-CoV-2 presents a high binding affinity to the ACE2
American A= 0.1840
FCGR2A rs1801274 European A= 0.4891 (73) receptor allowing the virus’s entry to the host cell cytosol
g.9541A>G African A= 0.4743 through acid-dependent proteolytic cleavage of the S protein,
East Asian A= 0.7222 with a contribution of the TMPRSS2 and CTSL (21). Besides its
South Asian A= 0.5810 role in SARS-CoV-2 infection, ACE2 acts as a negative regulator
American A= 0.5490
of the renin-angiotensin system and a facilitator of amino acid
a
Data from 1000 genomes project (74). transport. The ACE2 system is a critical protective pathway
against heart failure with reduced and preserved ejection
GM-CSF, IL-6, and IL-8 (75). The rs1801274 Fc fragment of IgG fraction, including myocardial infarction and hypertension,
Receptor IIa (FCGR2A, HGNC:3616) gene was associated with lung disease, and diabetes mellitus. Unfortunately, the function
severe pneumonia in patients with A/H1N1 infection. This of ACE2 is lost following the binding of SARS-CoV-2 (79).
variant produces a change of histidine to arginine at position Increased ACE2 receptor levels and the two proteases have
131 of the amino acid sequence. The frequency of homozygous been associated with identified risk conditions (e.g., increasing

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Fricke-Galindo and Falfán-Valencia Genetics Susceptibility and COVID-19

age, male gender, and smoking) of COVID-19 susceptibility and Variants in Other Genes Related to
clinical outcome (21). Also, genetic variants of ACE2 COVID-19 Susceptibility and Severity
(HGNC:13557) that alter its transcriptional activity have been In addition to immune and SARS-CoV-2 receptors’ genes,
described (e.g., rs2285666, c.439+4G>A) (80, 81). An early study variants in genes coding other proteins related to susceptibility
found higher allele frequencies of variants (e.g., rs143695310) and severity of COVID-19 have been identified. Recently, two
associated with elevated expression of ACE2 among East Asian independent genome-wide association studies (GWAS) had been
populations, which may suggest a higher susceptibility to performed among European populations (Italian and Spanish)
COVID-19 individuals from this region (82). A recent (91) and individuals from the United States and the United
investigation has reported that genetic determinants of the Kingdom (92). In both cases, an association of loci 3p21.31 and
highest expression of ACE2 can be observed in South Asian 9q34.2 with COVID-19 severity were identified. The first study
and East Asian populations, while the lowest expression levels of by Ellinghaus et al. reported the associations of LZTFL1
ACE2 were observed for Africans (83). Likewise, a genetic (HGNC:6741) rs11385942, at locus 3p21.31, and ABO
predisposition for the lowest TMPRSS2 (HGNC:11876) (HGNC:79) rs657152, at locus 9q34.2, with genetic
expression levels was observed for Africans and the highest for susceptibility to COVID-19 (91). Meanwhile, Shelton et al.
East Asians. Moreover, significant differences in TMPRSS2 identified several non-genetic conditions as risk factors for
expression levels among males and females were reported in hospitalization, and the genetic variants LZTFL1 rs13078854
the study (83). and ABO rs9411378 were associated with COVID-19 outcome
Besides, variants with potential impact on the receptor severity and diagnostic, respectively (92). LZTFL1 encodes the
stability have been reported. For instance, three common ubiquitously expressed protein leucine zipper transcription
missense changes in ACE2 (p.Asn720Asp, p.Lys26Arg, and factor-like 1, and it is strongly expressed in human lung cells
p.Gly211Arg) were predicted to interfere with protein structure (91). Nevertheless, none of the publications can explain this
and stabilization, while other two variants (p.Leu351Val and gene’s role in the susceptibility or severity of COVID-19, but
p.Pro389His) has been predicted to interfere with SARS-CoV-2 there are several genes nearby in the 3p21.31 locus that could
spike protein binding (84). Likewise, a study using web-based plausibly be driving the association, including SLC6A20
tools reported several variants in genes that encode proteins (HGNC:30927), CCR9 (HGNC:1610), FYCO1 (HGNC:14673),
related to the SARS-CoV-2 entry into the host cells: the already CXCR6 (HGNC:16647), and XCR1 (HGNC:1625) (92).
mentioned ACE2 and TMPRSS2, as well as TMPRSS11A The role of ABO in COVID-19 susceptibility and clinical
(HGNC:27954), ELANE (HGNC:3309), and CTSL manifestations has been reported in genetic and non-genetic
(HGNC:2537). The authors found 48 variants in these genes studies. Previous reports (93–95) and GWAS (91, 92) have
with possible functional consequences, and some of them were observed a higher risk of COVID-19 infection among
reported to be shared among specific populations (85). individuals with A group than other blood groups and a lower
Nevertheless, the association results of the receptor variants susceptibility for the O group. ABO blood group has been
with COVID-19 susceptibility remain controversial. For previously associated with infection susceptibility of other
instance, Hou et al. found associated ACE2 variants, such as diseases such as influenza, malaria, schistosomiasis, and SARS-
p.Arg514Gly, in the African/African-American populations with CoV. The hypotheses that blood groups can serve as receptors
cardiovascular and pulmonary conditions due to the alteration of and/or co-receptors for bacteria, viruses, and parasites and that
the angiotensinogen-ACE2 interactions. Additionally, the those blood antigens contribute to intracellular uptake, signal
authors identified variants in TMPRSS2 (e.g., p.Val160Met, transduction, or adhesion have been stated (96). Besides, the idea
rs12329760) that could explain the COVID-19 susceptibility that natural antibodies related to blood groups could contribute
and some complication risk factors such as cancer and male to the virus’s innate immune response has been proposed.
gender (86). Meanwhile, a study with multi-scale modeling Nevertheless, the ABO groups’ precise role in the SARS-CoV-2
approaches in combination with sequence and phylogenetic infection mechanism still needs to be demonstrated (92).
analysis evaluated eight relevant variants located at the Wang et al. also performed a GWAS among 332 Chinese
interaction surface of ACE2 (i.e., rs961360700, rs143936283, patients and pedigree analysis. The authors reported the
rs146676783, rs759579097, rs370610075, rs766996587, association with COVID-19 severity of the gene locus located
rs73635825, and rs781255386). These SNPs are rare variants, in TMEM189 (PEDS1, HGNC:16735)–UBE2V1 (HGNC:12494),
except for European (non-Finnish) and African populations, and which is involved in the IL-1 signaling pathway. In the pedigree
none of them would disrupt this receptor’s interaction with analysis, a potential monogenic effect of loss of function variants
SARS-CoV-2 proteins (87). in GOLGA3 (HGNC:4426) and DPP7 (HGNC:14892) was
Finally, the implication of an ACE1 (HGNC:2707) deletion/ suggested when authors looked for rare variants in families
insertion (D/I, intron 16) variant in the ACE2 expression and the where a differential clinical outcome was observed among
COVID-19 clinical course was also proposed at the early stages siblings (41). One more GWAS performed in 2,244 critically ill
of the pandemic (88). Nevertheless, later studies have reported patients with COVID-19 from intensive care units in the United
that this variant could be related to the COVID-19 severity, Kingdom found significant associations in several loci: in a gene
but only if the patients’ hypertension status is considered cluster that encodes antiviral restriction enzyme activators OAS1
(89, 90). (HGNC:8086), OAS2 (HGNC:8087), and OAS3 (HGNC:8088);

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Fricke-Galindo and Falfán-Valencia Genetics Susceptibility and COVID-19

near the gene that encodes tyrosine kinase 2 (TYK2, co-variables adjustment, non-genetic factors, and asymptomatic
HGNC:12440); within the gene that encodes dipeptidyl individuals have great relevance in the association studies
peptidase 9 (DPP9, HGNC:18648); and in the interferon of genetic variants with COVID-19 susceptibility and
receptor gene IFNAR2 (HGNC:5433) (97). clinical outcome.
Patients with critical COVID-19 can present venous Several HLA alleles have been associated with COVID-19
thromboembolism and/or systemic coagulopathies such as susceptibility and severity through various methodologies and in
Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC) (13). This specific populations. In some cases, the HLA allele found related
complication is characterized by the combined occurrence of to the disease is shared between populations. For instance, the
activation of the extrinsic coagulation pathway and decreased HLA-A*11 was reported in the investigations, including a sample
activity of the protein C-protein S and Antithrombin (AT) of Chinese and Spanish populations, but it was not associated
inhibitory pathways, and it can be presented with excessive or with Italian patients. Therefore, the interethnic variability in the
inhibited fibrinolysis (98). DIC’s clinical and laboratory HLA allele frequencies should be taken into account to identify
characteristics in COVID-19 are different from the typical the COVID-19 genetic marker. Moreover, the impact of SARS-
presentation of these conditions, and a timely diagnosis is CoV-2 genome variants in the host alleles associated must be
required to avoid the deterioration of pulmonary oxygen assessed since the efficiency of antigens presentation by HLA
exchange (13). In this sense, a genetic marker that could molecules would be different according to the sites of the virus
predict coagulation complications could help to start mutations (100, 101).
appropriate treatment. For instance, the involvement of Current evidence highlights the relevance of cytokine storm
Mannose-Binding Lectin (MBL) and MBL-associated serine in COVID-19 severity and several complications, including a
protease (MASP)-1/3 in coagulation has been reported, and its fatal outcome. Genetic and non-genetic factors could explain the
deficiency has been considered as a risk factor for DIC during uncontrolled inflammatory response; therefore, the study of
sepsis complication; therefore, genetic variants producing a cytokine genes with adequate co-variables adjustment could
decrease of these proteins or their activity could be positively lead to the identification of genetic markers related to COVID-
related with coagulopathies secondary to COVID-19 (99). 19 outcome and the design and/or selection of personalized
Besides, other genes with risk variants for DIC have been therapy. The cytokine storm’s early control is crucial to
identified. In the anticoagulant pathways, variants in protein C improving COVID-19 patients’ evolution (102).
gene (PROC, HGNC:9451), factor V Leiden (F5, HGNC:3542), According to ACE2 and TMPRSS2 variants, the African
and deficiencies of AT (SERPINC1, HGNC:775) have been populations could have a lower susceptibility to COVID-19
related to an impaired function of the coagulation. While than East and South Asians. Nevertheless, variants in both
variants in the serpin plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 genes have not provided the genetic information regarding
(SERPINE1, HGNC:8583) could impact the encoded protein COVID-19 susceptibility as was expected. The 3p21.31
levels, which is considered one of the main inhibitors of chromosome region and variants in the ABO gene recently
fibrinolysis, and it is related to DIC development. Additionally, identified in two different GWAS including diverse populations
variants in fibrinogen genes that promote the pro-coagulant have been a relevant finding in the genetic study of COVID-19;
pathways leading to microvascular thrombi formation in however, further studies enlightening the role of the proteins
various organs have been described (98). encoded by the identified genes in the COVID-19 and their
association in other populations is still warranted. Information
about the penetrance of the risk alleles is required, and the
inclusion of miRNAs in these studies could complement the
DISCUSSION genetic studies of COVID-19 susceptibility and its severity (103).
The present review provides an overview of different genes Herein we have presented several genetic variants reported to
implicated or related to the susceptibility or severity of COVID- be associated with COVID-19 susceptibility and/or severity and
19. Nevertheless, with the information available to date, not others implicated in the biological pathway of the disease,
everything has been resolved about the genetic involvement in considered relevant to include in subsequent clinical studies.
COVID-19 susceptibility or severity, and new knowledge in the Identifying genetic markers associated with the susceptibility or
field has been continuously generated. Moreover, several consortia clinical outcome of COVID-19 could provide an essential
are dedicated to assessing the genetic determinants of COVID-19 contribution to the knowledge of this disease for the detection of
in the worldwide population (30). susceptible individuals or populations and the design of
The COVID-19 presents a wide variability of clinical therapeutic strategies (i.e., vaccine and pharmacologic treatment).
manifestations, from asymptomatic individuals to critical
patients with fatal outcomes. Therefore the phenotype
characterization probably represents the biggest challenge in AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
COVID-19 genetic association studies of susceptibility and/or
severity; mainly, to accomplish that selected subjects as controls IF-G and RF-V contributed to the manuscript’s design, the figures
had not presented the asymptomatic form of the disease. production, and the writing of the manuscript. All authors
According to the reported studies, the comparison groups, contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Frontiers in Immunology | www.frontiersin.org 8 April 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 622176

Fricke-Galindo and Falfán-Valencia Genetics Susceptibility and COVID-19

FUNDING MÉ XICO EN ATENCIÓ N A LA CONTINGENCIA DEL COVID-

19. The allocated budget supports this work to research (RFV-HLA
IF-G was supported by a Posdoctoral fellowship by the Consejo Nacional Laboratory, protocol number C53-20) from the Instituto Nacional de
de Ciencia y Tecnologı́a ESTANCIAS POSDOCTORALES POR Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosio Villegas (INER).

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converting enzyme polymorphism may explain epidemiological findings in distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY).
COVID-19 infections. Clin Chim Acta (2020) 505:192–3. doi: 10.1016/ The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the
j.cca.2020.03.031 original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original
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