Journal of Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics, 23(1), 143-159.

https:// doi.org/10.25256/PAAL.23.1.8

Contrastive Analysis of the Russian and Korean Classifying

Nouns “Type” and “Kind”*1

Hak Soo Yoo**

Sunmoon University

Raisa Alexandrovna Kulkova

Sangmyung University

Andrea Rakushin Lee

Konkuk University Glocal Campus

Yoo, H. S., Kulkova, R. A., & Lee, A. R. (2019). Contrastive analysis of

the Russian and Korean classifying nouns “type” and “kind.” Journal of
Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics, 23(1), 143-159.

This corpus-based contrastive analysis examines the Russian classifying

nouns, tip (type) and vid (kind) as well as the Korean classifying noun
yu-hyeong and jong-nyu. In the Russian language, the use of the words
tip and vid depends on characteristics and the general contents of the
text. In addition, in strictly special scientific texts dealing with the
systematization of any objects, these words represent different levels of
the classification grid (objects are divided into types and types into
kinds), and in non-scientific texts they can become synonyms (different
types = different kinds of objects). The Korean scientific text classifying
words yu-hyeong and jong-nyu also represent different classification
levels (higher – yu-hyeong, lower – jong-nyu). But in non-scientific
texts, the word jong-nyu is most often used. This suggests the possibility
of changes in the meaning of the Russian words tip and vid depending
on the characteristics of the text, which is not seen in the words yu-
hyeong and jong-nyu in the Korean language, as well as a greater
permeability of scientific-style vocabulary to non-scientific Russian
texts. Understanding how these words are used from a comparative
standpoint can be beneficial for translators and aid in developing
practical curriculum for Korean students studying Russian as a foreign
language.

Keywords: Russian language, Korean language, problems of translation,

lexical-semantic group, comparative study of languages,
classifying nouns

*
This research was supported by a Sunmoon University Research Grant in 2017.
**
First author: Hak Soo Yoo; second author: Raisa Alexandrovna Kulkova;
corresponding author: Andrea Rakushin Lee

Ⓒ 2019 PAAL 1345-8353 143

Hak Soo Yoo, Raisa Alexandrovna Kulkova and Andrea Rakushin Lee

1 Introduction

There is limited scientific research, in both theoretical lexicology and applied

sciences, on Russian abstract nouns (e.g. tip vneshnosti (type of appearance),
vid sporta (kind of sport). At the same time, teaching Russian as a foreign
language urgently requires the study of the rules for the use of these words.
Russian as a foreign language students make similar mistakes during the
course of instruction: Tennis is a favorite Tennis – ljubimyj *tip sporta, Vot
sobaka horoshego *vida (*tipa, *sorta), (Type of sport, here is a good type of
dog (*type, *variety)), V Afrike mnogo *tipov ptic (In Africa, there are many
*types of birds), etc. These are not random but rather systemic errors. They
are “semantically natural” errors, which are “frequent and regular, arising in
speech regardless of the conditions” (Slesarevaja, 2011, p. 11).
Systemic errors in learning foreign languages are interesting to study
since they are an indicator of typological differences that occur between
languages. Many prominent researchers (e.g. Balli, 1955; Bryzgunova, 1963;
Peshkovskij, 2009; Shcherba; 1977, Beloshapkova, 1997) adhere to this point
of view on negative language material. The authors fully recognize that the
analysis of errors of second language learners allows learning "many times
faster and more efficiently than normal texts, to establish significant elements
of the meaning of the word" (Apresjan, 1995, p. 105). In linguistics, it plays
the same role as aphasia in neurophysiology. Shcherba (1977) describes
negative language material as “any speech statement which is not understood
or is understood not at once, or understood hardly, and therefore does not
achieve the objectives” (Shcherba; 1977, p. 39).
In the foreign language learning context, it is critical for learners to be
cognizant of language production errors to help improve proficiency. Korean
students learning Russian as a foreign language and translators can benefit
from examining the typological differences between Korean and Russian,
which includes the classification nouns tip (type) and vid (kind). Analyzing
the common errors, including classification nouns, is much quicker and more
effective than the analysis of general texts.
To prevent systemic errors, comparative studies of the use of lexico-
semantic groups with a similar meaning in different languages are needed. The
motivation for this study is based on observations of Korean students in a
Russian as a foreign language class who frequently made mistakes using the
Russian words tip and vid. Such a large number of mistakes in the use of the
words tip and vid by Korean students calls for an investigation into the question
of why they systematically take place. We put forward a set of hypotheses that
are rooted in the literature as well as practical classroom observations.
1. First hypothesis: It is possible that not all the objects of the
surrounding world can be subjected to the logical procedure of
“classifying” (bringing the conglomerate of objects to an ordered

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hierarchical classification) and, consequently, with some nouns

these words cannot be used.
2. Second hypothesis: In the contexts, where both lexemes are used
and they are not synonymous, they are used as an indication of the
different levels of the classification grid.
3. Third hypothesis: There may be a closed list of idiomatic phrases
with these words. For example, vid otdykha, but tip rosta rakovoj
opuholi (*vid rosta) (a kind of rest, but the type of growth of a
malignant tumor). There is likely something common in the
meaning of the words that are included in phrases only with the
word tip or only with the word vid.
4. Many of the nouns (apart from those included in idiomatic phrases)
can be used with both words: raznye tipy=vidy vulkanov (different
types/kinds of volcanoes), mnogo tipov=vidov oruzhija (many
types/kinds of weapons), raznye tipy=vidy slovarej (different
types/kinds of dictionaries). Hence, the fourth hypothesis is proposed:
The synonymization of words is possible in certain contexts.

2 Theoretical Background

Comparative linguistics is a fairly modern field that is quickly expanding.

Contrastive lexicology studies (Kontrastivnaya leksikologiya i leksikografiya,
2006) in Russian and other languages are becoming more common. The
results of contrastive lexicology studies are important both for relevant
science and practice, especially for those who study foreign languages, most
of all, translators. A concrete method of analysis is the extraction of integral
(general) semes and differential semes, which allows us to determine the
degree of proximity of the values of the studied vocabulary. According to
Kontrastivnaya leksikologiya i leksikografiya (2006), “The more the words
of the integral semes are compared, the closer they are to each other in
meaning, and on the contrary- the more they have differential semes, the less
close in meaning these words are” (p. 31).
At present, synchronic-comparative studies in the field of lexicology
are significantly increasing. Contrastive lexicology focuses on similarities
and differences in two or more languages (Sternin, 2007). The results of these
studies are important both for relevant science and practice, especially for
those who study foreign languages, most of all, translators. In comparative
terms, the study of the vocabulary of the Russian and Korean languages is
gradually gaining momentum (Budnikova 2005; Cho, 2009; Kulkova & Han,
2009; Kulkova & Slepchenko, 2012; Nam, 2012; Shim, 2011; Yim, 2013;
Yoo, 2016; Yoo & Kulkova, 2016). Furthermore, studies have also examined

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vocabulary of various languages from a comparative standpoint (e.g. Cheng,

2018; Koneva, 2014; Shim, 2011).
The focus of our attention - the vocabulary of the Russian language
against the specific background of the Korean language - is the lexico-
semantic group (hereinafter “LSG”) of classifying vocabulary, which in
Russian is very extensive (tip (type), vid (species), rod (genus), sort (variety),
poroda (breed), raznovidnost' (variety), forma (form), kategorija (category),
klass (class), marka (brand), model' (model), modifikacija (modification),
versija (version), variant (variant), etc.). We will focus on the meaning and
use of the words “tip (type)” and “vid (kind).”
The current study is primarily based upon several theoretical propositions
of the classics of linguistics and cultural anthropology. First, French cultural
anthropologist Levi-Strauss (1994), concluded that the structures of human
thinking are fundamentally universal in a comparative study of different cultures
(Mukanov & Chistjakov, 1975). This hypothesis provides the authors with a
conceptual foundation to compare the lexical expression of the same concepts in
different languages. The study relies on the assertion that the in-depth
development of the issues of lexicology and lexicography must be carried out "on
the concrete material of different languages" (Vinogradov, 1977, p. 264). It is the
comparative analysis of the vocabulary of different languages that allows for the
observation of features as the meaning and use of vocabulary that are hidden
from observation while the study is conducted solely on the data of one language.
This investigation is based on the postulate that all aspects and phenomena of
language are “a complex system of interdependencies” (Vinogradov, 1977, p. 3).
Therefore, the words being studied are influenced by a higher level of language -
the context (or even the subject matter of the text as a whole). The authors also
presuppose the fact that if in the meaning of the words with which the word is
used, learners cannot “discern any common semantic feature, that guides one to
unerringly use the word” every time, the phrases should be “set by a list” which
includes idiomatic phrases (Apresjan, 1995, p. 61). This is because “the rules of
lexical compatibility, in any case in the synchronous description of the language,
are largely unmotivated” (Apresjan, 1995, p. 231). In Russian as a foreign
language classes, it is also important for students to be aware of which form they
need to select to determine the correct meaning rather than when they need to use
a particular form (Kibrik, 1992). The study also incorporates a linguistic
presumption: “linguistic concepts of language are complicated because of their
inadequacy, and language is arranged simply” (Kibrik, 1992, p. 25).

3 Methodology

The data used in this comparative corpus analysis is the collection of more
than 1,000 Russian language samples from different styles and genres, both
written and oral. The samples were obtained through: 1) an independent

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collection of examples form scientific and fiction writing and oral informal
conversations of contemporaries and 2) a selection of examples from the
Russian National Corpus site (http://www.ruscorpora.ru). It contains more
than 600 million vocabulary entries. The search option was used to examine
the words tip and vid (tip – 9,302 words and vid – 39,508 words). Examples
specifically relevant to Russian as a Second Language were used (from
within educational, scientific, social, political, and cultural examples). Due to
the large number of samples, this article does not explain the samples in
complete sentences and paragraphs. All of the samples were translated into
Korean for comparative analysis. Vocabulary were extracted and classified
according to the characteristics of the vocabulary. Thus, word combinations
were extracted that are related to the tip (type) and vid (kind) and placed them
in typical contexts for the words instead of using them in the full contexts.
For example, from the sentence, Ja ne soglasen, chto dlja predvidenija
izverzhenija vulkanov nado znat' tol'ko ego vozrast, a tip vulkana jakoby ne
vazhen… (“I do not agree that to predict the eruption of volcanoes it is
necessary to know only its age, and the type of the volcano is supposedly not
important...”) (from oral conversation) we extracted only the phrase "tip
vulkana (type of volcano).” Then we put this phrase into statements typical of
texts about classifications, e.g., Razlichajut neskol'ko tipov vulkana, Ja chital,
chto est' mnogo tipov vulkanov (“There are several types of volcanoes” or “I
read that there are many types of volcanoes”), etc. Next, it was important for
us to present a couple of words to be studied “in the closest contexts, to make
the differences between words more clear” (Slesarevoj, 2011, p. 16).
With this purpose, the possibility of synonymizing the words in the
study in the same context was verified based on a linguistic experiment, and
the conclusions were confirmed through review by native Russian speakers.
For example, Na lekcii rasskazyvali o tom, chto vulkany deljatsja na tipy, a v
tipah vydeljajutsja raznye ih vidy (replacement of one word by another is
impossible). Eshhe v shkole on vyuchil vse tipy=vidy vulkanov (The lecture
explained that volcanoes are divided into types, and types into kinds. Even at
school he learned about all types/kinds of volcanoes) (the equal sign here and
henceforth means synonymization).

4 Results and Discussion

It is important to examine the meaning and functions of the word tip and vid
as well as their definitions. Type (Tip). 1. A form, a kind of something
possessing certain properties, as well as a pattern to which a known group of
objects corresponds. Tipy rel'efov (Types of reliefs). Slavjanskij tip lica
(Slavic type of face). T. avtomobilja (Type of car). 2. The highest subdivision
in the systematics of animals, uniting classes of similar origin” (Ozhegov &
Shvedova, 1998, p. 798). Kind (Vid). 1. The subdivision in the taxonomy,

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which is part of the higher section is of the genus. Vidy rastenij, zhivotnyh
(Types of plants, animals). 2. Variety, type. Vidy obuchenija, sporta (Types of
training, sports)” (Ozhegov & Shvedova, 1998, p. 82).
If these words are disregarded in the systematics of plants and animals
(for the word tip is the second meaning, the word has the kind for the first),
then the remaining definitions for speakers of other languages are
insufficient. Moreover, words are interpreted one by another. The type is this
form, the appearance of something possessing certain properties, as well as a
pattern to which a known group of objects corresponds. These definitions do
not explain why in some cases these words are used as synonyms. For
example, Ravnina – odin iz vidov=tipov zemnogo rel'efa. Est' raznye
tipy=vidy opery (the plain is one of the types/forms of terrestrial relief. There
are different types/kinds of opera).
The words of the LSG under consideration are, for brevity, treated as
classifying words, since they indicate the place of an object in the
classification grid of similar objects and have a common “separate part of the
collection of homogeneous objects.” For example, Futbol – populjarnyj vid
sporta i Kal'dera – redkij tip vulkana, vulkan-proval (Soccer is a popular
kind of sport and caldera is a rare type of volcano), the words tip and vid
indicate that some objects (football, caldera) are a special case with certain
characteristics in the composition of a more general set of homogeneous
objects with common characteristics (sports, volcanoes). We use the word
part not in the sense of part of the whole (as, for example, in the sense that
Karbjurator – chast' mashiny (the carburetor is part of the machine)), but to
mean place in the hierarchical classification.
Classification, in practice, is the result of logical operations on objects
with the aim of ordering them into subordinate groups. To classify means to
distribute into specific groups or categories (Ozhegov & Shvedova, 1998).
The result of the classification is not a simple list, nor an assortment of
groups, but their systemization, which is a holistic representation of
“mutually connected parts” (Ozhegov & Shvedova, 1998, p. 719). The
general definition of classification, therefore, would be formulated as
follows: a human-constructed hierarchical system (complex unity) of
interrelated objects (groups of homogeneous objects) that are in some way
subordinated to each other based on certain criteria (features and
characteristics).
Levels in the classification system can number from two to several
dozen. An example of multi-story, multistage classifications is two
fundamental classifications: systematics of animals and plants.
Such complex classifications in both languages are presented in
scientific works and encyclopedias. A simple, two-story classification, Mne
ne nravitsja avtoritarnyj tip otnoshenij v sem'e, Ja izuchil tol'ko odin vid
oruzhija – holodnoe (I do not like the authoritarian type of relations in the
family, I studied only one type of weapon – cold)) system is widely

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represented in other texts, we call the aggregate of these texts “extra-

scientific.” These include popular science texts, fiction, and others.
To describe the meaning of the classifying vocabulary, we use the
conventions: mega-group ► group ► mini-group. The largest set of objects
based on the most common, fundamental characteristics will be called the
mega-group. For example, a volcano as a mega-group of volcanoes is a
collection of all geological formations with a magma inside. There are
allocated sets of lower level (rank, level) – groups in the mega-group. For
example, vulkany central'nye i linejnye (volcanoes are central and linear).
Groups, in turn, break up into mini-groups: Linejnye vulkany deljatsja na
shhitovye, stratovulkany (Linear volcanoes are divided into shield
volcanoes), etc.
Let us now turn to the question of whether the hypotheses advanced
are confirmed or refuted by the collected data.
The first hypothesis was confirmed: not all words are combined with
the nouns tip and vid because you can only classify what is not binary. In
both languages, words of the binary type svet-t'ma, (light-darkness),
muzhchina-zhenshhina, (male-female), zhizn'-smert' (life-death), are not used
with words tip and vid for example, a man and a woman (*dva vida
cheloveka (two kinds of person)), life and death (dva *vida sostojanija (two
kinds of state)) light and darkness (dva *vida substancii (two kinds of
substance)), etc. In addition, several more words have been found that do not
allow a combination of words and types. These are words like specnaz, or
phrases like policejskij uchastok (police station), pozharnaja stancija (fire
station). In relation to them, only expressions of special forces (police station,
fire station) of a new type are possible. This also applies to the Korean
language (teuk-ssu bu-dae), (gyeong-chal-sseo), (so-bang-seo).
The second hypothesis was supported. In those contexts where both
lexemes are used, the words tip and vid denote different levels of the
classification grid, subordinate to each other. This is confirmed using verbs
with the general meaning of “divide mega groups into groups:” share
(delit'(sja)), subdivide (podrazdeljat'(sja)), divide (razdeljat'(sja)), differ
(razlichat'(sja)), concern (otnosit'(sja)), happen (byvat')1, etc., Vulkany deljat
na dva tipa – dejstvujushhie i potuhshie. V zavisimosti ot formy vulkany
deljatsja na vidy – stratovulkany, kal'dery (Volcanoes are divided into two
types - active and extinct. Depending on the shape of the volcanoes they are
further divided into species - stratovolcanoes, calderas), etc. When learning
Russian as a foreign language, it is important to recognize that in texts where

1
In conversational speech, the verb “to be” is frequent: You ask, what is a sapper
blade? A small blade to carry or carry. It is used as a weapon. There is a large
demolition paddle (on cars carry), but there is a small one (it rushes with itself
behind the belt).

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multistage classifications are described, words of type and kind have different
meanings. In this case, in their meaning there is one common family (“an
individual part of the collection of homogeneous objects”) and additional
families: for the word tip is a “group of objects in a mega group,” and the
word vid is a “mini-group of objects in a group.” For example, in the mega
group of volcanoes (the largest set of all volcanoes), groups (tipy vulkanov
(types of volcanoes)) are distinguished and within those groups are mini-
groups (vidy vulkanov (kinds of volcanoes)). Similarly, this is seen in the
following examples.
1. V sporte (megagruppa) sushhestvujut raznye tipy sporta – komandnyj
sport, individual'nyj sport (gruppy), vnutri tipov sporta vydeljajutsja
vidy sporta – futbol, basketbol i dr. (minigruppy).
2. Sredi vsej sovokupnosti sobytij vydeljajut sobytija bez negativnyh
posledstvij i katastrofy. Poslednie deljatsja na tipy (proizvodstvennye i
bytovye), tipy deljatsja na vidy (pozhary, vzryvy bytovogo gaza i dr.).
3. Vydeljajutsja raznye tipy i vidy rel'efa.
4. On izuchaet razlichnye tipy i vidy slovarej.
5. a) Kazhdyj tip i vid uroka trebuet raznoj podgotovki. (In sports (mega-
group) there are different types of sport - team sports, individual
sports (group) and additional team sports - football, basketball, etc.
(mini-group)
b) Among the whole set of events, accidents stand out with negative
consequences and catastrophes. The latter are divided into types
(industrial and household), these types are divided further (fires,
explosions of domestic gas, etc.).
c) There are different types and kinds of relief.
d) He studies various types and forms of dictionaries.
e) Each type and kind of lesson requires a different preparation.

In Korean, the same phenomenon can be observed in scientific texts:

the type of transport –gyo-tong su-dan yu-hyeong (yuk-ssang gyo-tong su-
dan, su-sang gyo-tong su-dan, hang-gong gyo-tong su-dan deung (modes of
transportation (land transport, water transport, air transport, etc.) and mode of
transport –gyo-tong-su-dan jong-nyu (taek-ssi, beo-seu, gi-cha, bi-haeng-gi
deung).
The third hypothesis was also confirmed. The analysis of various word
combinations with the words tip and vid revealed that in a number of word
combinations, only one word from the pair of nouns is used. For example, in
the collected data, only the word otdykh (rest) and the phrase dorozhno-
transportnoie proicshestviie (road accident) are found in most cases in
combination with a noun: vid otdykha (kind of rest), vidy dorozhno-
transportnykh proicshestvii (kinds of road accidents). Some other words,
however, are combined only with the word tip: tipy materei (types of
mothers), tip rosta rakovoi opukholi (the type of growth of a cancerous

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tumor). Therefore, this study confirms that there are many unmotivated
phrases that can be set by a closed list (idiomatic phrases). The following are
selected combinations of words that support the third hypothesis. Table 1
shows expressions with the word tip and Table 2 shows expressions using the
word vid.

Table 1. Expressions with the Word “Type” (tip)

Tipy yazykov (*Bidy yazykov) Types of languages (*kinds of languages)
Tipy vneshnosti (*Bidy vneshnosti) Types of appearance (*kinds of appearance)

Tipy pejzazha Types of landscapes

Tipy pishhevyh cepej Types of food chains
Tipy harakterov Types of characters
Tipy mirovozzrenija Types of worldview
Tipy veshhestva biosfery Types of matter in the biosphere
Tipy lichnosti, materej, nevest, Types of personality, mothers, brides,
zhenihov,mediatorov, sobstvennikov, grooms, mediators, owners, serial killings,
serijnyh ubijstv, medsester, killerov i dr nurses, killers, etc.
Tipy medicinskih (rabochih) brigad Types of medical (work) teams
Tipy razmnozhenija Types of reproduction
Tipy razvitija rebenka (nasekomyh i Types of child (insects, etc.) development
dr.)
Tipy vosprijatija Types of perception
Tipy narushenija psihicheskogo Types of mental development disorders
razvitija
Tipy rosta rakovoj opuholi Types of cancer growth
Tipy avtomobilej Types of cars
Tipy ob"ektov, processov, sobytij, Types of objects, processes, events, access
dostupa
Tip sklonenija Types of declension
Tip sprjazhenija Types of conjugation
Tipy jazykovyh norm Types of language norms
Tipy izmenenija v buhgalterskom Types of changes in accounting, changes in
uchete, izmenenija balansa balance
Tipy temperamenta, teloslozhenija, Types of temperament, body build, obesity,
ozhirenija, lica, glaz, figury, pohodki face, eyes, figure, gait, etc.
i dr.
Tipy narodov, plemjon tipy narodov, Economic and cultural types of peoples,
plemjon tribes

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Table 2. Word Combinations Using the Word “Kind” (vid)

Vidy nakazanij (*Tipy nakazanij) Kinds of punishment (*types of
punishment)
Vidy Kinds of incentives (*types of
pooshhrenij (*tipy pooshhrenij) incentives)
Vidy premirovanija Kinds of bonuses
Vidy shtrafov, nalogooblozhenija Kinds of fines, taxation
Vidy oplaty truda Kinds of payment
Vidy zanjatosti naselenija Kinds of employment
Vidy obshhestvenno opasnyh Kinds of socially dangerous
posledstvij consequences
Vidy sledstvennyh dejstvij Kinds of investigative actions
Vidy dokazatel'stv v sude Kinds of evidence in court
Vidy otvetstvennosti Kinds of responsibility
Vidy prichinennogo vreda Kinds of harm caused
Vidy pirotehniki Kinds of pyrotechnics
Vidy vozgoranija Kinds of ignition
Vidy nauki Kinds of science
Vidy seksa Kinds of sex
Vidy otdyha Kinds of recreation
Vidy pomoshhi Kinds of assistance
Vidy ubijstv Kinds of murders
Vidy bezopasnosti Kinds of security
Raznye vidy zhivotnyh Kinds of animals
Vidy bombometanija Kinds of bombing
Vidy ognja artillerii, hakerskih Kinds of artillery fire, hacker
(psihologicheskih i dr.), atak i dr (psychological, etc.) attacks, etc.

By analyzing the meaning of nouns, commonalities emerge. A

systematic pattern would be found in the fact that in stable expressions with
the word tip: all nouns are related to the outer or inner world of man. These
are associations of people (people, tribe), human language, personality in its
different hypostases (mother, mediator), and the external characteristics of a
person (person, figure). Only with the word tip there are combined nouns
with the general meaning of the process (reproduction, growth), etc. As for
the word combinations with the noun vid it is interesting that their
significance relates to the sphere of human social activity. These are the
established legal rules (e.g. penalty, punishment, investigative actions,
responsibility, evidence), power relations and their consequences (e.g. attack,
harm), etc.
This study has revealed some generalities encompassing different
languages, with which classifying noun a single word can be combined.
However, it is necessary to admit that the perfect explanation of the use of the
words tip and vid in stable word combinations might still be almost
impossible. This is particularly evident in comparing the word combinations
of classifying nouns, “pomoshh' (help),” “vzaimopomoshh' (mutual

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assistance),” on the one hand, and, “sotrudnichestvo (cooperation),”

“vzaimodejstvie (interaction),” on the other. It would seem that the concepts
of “pomoshh' (help)” and “sotrudnichestvo (cooperation)” are close in
meaning. Both mean a relationship of friendly interaction between peoples;
nevertheless, these words have different compatibility. Sotrudnichestvo
(Cooperation) is combined with both nouns: tipy=vidy sotrudnichestva,
tipy=vidy vzaimodejstvija (types = kinds of cooperation, types = kinds of
interaction), and the words “pomoshh' (help)” and “vzaimopomoshh' (mutual
assistance)” are combined only with the word “vid (kind)”: vidy pomoshhi,
vzaimopomoshhi (*tipy pomoshhi, vzaimopomoshhi) (kinds of assistance,
mutual assistance (*types of assistance, mutual assistance)). Similarly, in
word combinations vidy medicinskoj pomoshhi (ambulatornoe lechenie,
skoraja pomoshh' i dr.) (e.g. kinds of medical care (outpatient treatment,
ambulance), vidy mezhdunarodnoj vzaimopomoshhi (kinds of international
mutual assistance). In another example, the word religija (religion) can be
combined with both words (tipy=vidy religii (types = kinds of religion)), and
the word verovanija (belief), that is very close to the word religija (religion),
is combined only with the word tip: tipy verovanij (types of beliefs).
Similarly, vidy vody (dozhdevaja, mineral'naja i dr.) (kinds of water (rain,
mineral, etc.)), but tipy vodnoj sredy (types of aquatic environment).
Such aberrations lead us to another conclusion. In practical work with a
foreign audience, when instructors are asked questions by students about the
system by which the words tip and vid are combined with other nouns, they
may need to point out a certain list of stable word combinations. In teaching
Russian language to a foreign audience, especially in groups of future
translators, the lists of irregularities should be memorized.
The fourth hypothesis, according to which the ban on the
synonymization of these words and their synonymization depends on the
characteristics and the general contents of the text, was also confirmed. As
stated above, all nouns, except for those included in idiomatic phrases (see
above), can be combined with both words tip and vid. Types of volcanoes are
divided into kinds of volcanoes, types of lessons are divided into kinds of
lessons and so on. This is observed in texts dealing with multistage
classifications. In such texts, these words are not synonymous, because they
denote different levels of the classification grid. But in texts that do not aim
to describe multi-rank classifications, tip and vid lexemes can be
synonymous. Examples: V mire est' mnogo tipov=vidov vulkanov. Izvestno
mnogo tipov=vidov oruzhija. V magazine prodajut raznye tipy=vidy slovarej.
Ja smotrela po televizoru razlichnye tipy=vidy urokov. V ofise est' shablony
mnogih tipov=vidov dokumentov. Est' raznye tipy=vidy druzhby: druzhba-
pokrovitel'stvo, druzhba-pomoshh', diskotechnaja druzhba i tak dalee (There
are many types/kinds of volcanoes in the world. There are many types/kinds
of weapons. The store sells different types/forms of dictionaries. I watched
different types/forms of lessons on the TV. In the office, there are templates

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of many types/kinds of documents. There are different types/kinds of

friendship: friendship-patronage, friendship-help, disco friendship and so on).
Henceforth, it can be concluded that the value of the words tip and vid
varies depending on the characteristics and the general contents of the text. In
strictly scientific texts devoted to classifications, the meaning of these words
is different: where tip denotes the higher level of the classification grid, while
vid is a subset within the grid (examples above). In all other texts, the
meaning of these words coincides and is reduced to the general (integral)
sema,“an individual part of the collection of homogeneous objects:” Posle
vojny v lesu ostalos' mnogo oruzhija raznyh tipov=vidov (After the war,
many weapons of different types/kinds of species remained in the forest). In
other words, the more scientific the classification and the more levels in it,
the clearer the line between the meaning of the words being studied as being
subordinated to each other the tip is wider than the vid. The further the
speaker is from the scientific classification, the less differentially he will use
the words tip and vid. In other words, in the texts of "extra-scientific" work
the use of these words is not assigned to any level of classification, the choice
of a word is not fixed rigidly, and the scope of their meaning begins to
fluctuate, blur, and lose clear boundaries. Beyond a strict, "contractual"
classification, the hierarchy of meanings of these words, their
interdependence and subordination to each other disappears, and the word vid
can be used in the same meaning as the word tip.
A general conclusion can be drawn that the use of these words is text-
oriented. If the text is devoted to the description of strict scientific
classification, then the use of these words is strictly regulated by the
framework of this conditional classification. Since multistage classifications
are necessary only in science, they are created by scientists, and they are the
product of the subjective opinion of their creator, in the words of Sapir, they
are “neat constructions of speculative reason” (Sapir, 1993, p. 135). In the
multistage classifications of three (mega-group, group, and mini-group) or
more levels, both words are used: for the group - a type, for the mini-group -
the kind, and in this case these words are in relations of subordination. In all
other texts (if we exclude idiomatic phrases), in which the author does not set
out to provide any complex classification, the choice of the word is not so
strictly regulated, and the words tip and vid are used as synonyms: tipy=vidy
chrezvychajnyh situacij, tipy=vidy vulkanov, tipy=vidy oshibok uchashhihsja.
(types = types of emergency situations, types = types of volcanoes, types =
types of student errors). For example, Ty sprashivaesh', chto takoe arbalet?
Nu, jeto takoe special'noe oruzhie (vid oruzhija=tip oruzhija) dlja metanija
strel. (You ask, “What is a crossbow?” The reply, “Well, it's a special
weapon (type of weapon = weapon type) for throwing arrows.”). The
conclusions made in this analysis are multifunctional. They are important for
comparative lexicology, for teaching Russian as a foreign language, and for

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Nouns “Type” and “Kind”

translation theory and practice. The observed tendencies can be presented in

textbooks for foreign language learners and in textbooks for translators.
If instructors explain such classification to a Korean audience, then in
teaching one can rely on, on the one hand, the general use of language, and
on the other, subtle and specific differences. The general fact is that the
classifying words in multi-level classifications in both languages are used in
accordance with the same logical law of the hierarchical relationship. They
denote different levels of the classification grid: the word yu-hyeong denotes
the higher level in the hierarchy (in Russian - the type), and the token jong-
nyu - the lower one (in Russian - the kind). The difference is that the word
yu-hyeong is used only in scientific texts. The native speaker of the Korean
language must reconstruct his linguistic consciousness. He or she must
understand that the words tip and vid are freely used both in scientific texts
and in all other texts (extra scientific). At the same time, in the former they
have different values, fixating different levels of the classification grid, and in
texts of a non-scientific nature, they are synonymized (when not included in
the list of idiomatic phrases). There are also interesting differences. For
instance, Russian phrases in areas such as politics and recreation cannot be
translated into the Korean language literally, translating it figuratively is
necessary to achieve an accurate descriptive variant.

5 Conclusion

In summary, it can be stated that classification vocabulary can be used both

in a strictly delineated, logical-hierarchical sense, the boundaries of which are
determined by the hierarchy and the criteria for constructing this hierarchy
(the mega group, the group, the mini-group in the classification grid), and in
a non-strict sense, logically diffuse meaning, the boundaries of which are
undefined (for example, a group is described in the same manner as a mini-
group). In Korean, we do not observe synonymization of the lexemes
designating different levels of classification as different lexemes are assigned
to scientific and non-scientific texts.
Is it possible to interpret the obtained data as demonstrating the
universality of the Russian classifying vocabulary, which the speaker can use
in all text styles and any content, in contrast to Korean vocabulary, which is
assigned to different styles of speech (in scientific and "extra-scientific" texts
different vocabulary is used)? This question may be answered by further
study of other words of this group (rod (genus), raznovidnost' (species), klass
(class), etc.), as well as other LSG. The only conclusion that can immediately
be made with certainty to some degree is that if the unclassifiable vocabulary
in the Russian language is subject to a known law, according to which the
difference in the meaning is due to the difference in compatibility, then to the
words tip and vid this rule only partially applies (pol'zovat'sja kosmetikoj, but
primenjat' metod). Their use (if you do not consider the list of idiomatic

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phrases) depends not so much on the mini-context (word combination) as on

the characteristics and content of the text as a whole. The scientific text on
multistage classifications or the text of any other text and style. It is a
scientific text dealing with multistage classifications or the text of any other
subject.
The results of this study can be especially useful to Korean learners of
the Russian language, and the principles can be applied to the classroom to
help distinguish differences in the Russian and Korean use of the words. The
results confirm the well-known thesis that one of the central questions in
modern semantics remains the issue "about the difference between the lexical
meaning of a word and its compatibility" (Apresjan, 1995, p. 60). Based on
the examined word pairs, we can determine that idiomatic phrases with these
words can be specified by a list, and the meaning of the classifying
vocabulary changes depending on the characteristics of the text (scientific
versus non-scientific). The similarity between the Russian and Korean
languages is that in the framework of multistage classifications, the
classifying vocabulary has different meanings, and these values themselves
are in the relations of subordinates. In addition, the difference between the
languages is that in Russian, unscientific texts use the same vocabulary, and
it can be synonymous. In the Korean language there is a stricter system for
the texts of different characteristics.
From the lexicon we studied, two conclusions can be drawn. First, the
meaning of the classifying vocabulary changes depending on the type of text;
secondly, idiomatic phrases can be specified by a list. The similarity between
the Russian and Korean languages is that in the framework of multistage
classifications, the classifying vocabulary has different meanings, and these
values themselves are in the relations of subordination. In addition, the
difference between the languages is that in Russian, unscientific texts use the
same vocabulary, and it can be synonymous, and in the Korean language
there is a stricter focus on the vocabulary for the texts of different styles.
Another conclusion is that not all words of Russian and Korean can be
combined with classifying words, but the list in both languages is relatively
small. Finally, we can discuss such words in the Korean language, which for
some reason generally push aside classifying vocabulary.

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Hak Soo Yoo, Professor

Department of Russian Language
Sunmoon University
70 Sunmoon-ro 221-gil, Tangjeong-myeon, Asan-si, Chungcheongnam do,
South Korea, 31460
+82-41-530-2450
hsyoo@sunmoon.ac.kr

Raisa Alexandrovna Kulkova, Professor

Department of Russian Language and Literature
Sangmyung University
Cheonan-city, San 98-20, Anseo-dong, South Korea, 31066
+82-41-550-5179
rkoulkova@gmail.com

Andrea Rakushin Lee, Professor

Department of English Language
Konkuk University Glocal Campus

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 Contrastive Analysis of the Russian and Korean Classifying
Nouns “Type” and “Kind”

268 Chungwondaero, Chunju-si, Chungcheongbukdo, South Korea, 27478

+82-43-840-4782
andrea1216@kku.ac.kr

Received: March 31, 2019

Revised: June 17, 2019
Accepted: June 22, 2019

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