The Hydrogen Economy

George W. Crabtree, Mildred S. Dresselhaus, and Michelle V. Buchanan

Citation: Physics Today 57, 12, 39 (2004); doi: 10.1063/1.1878333

View online: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1878333
View Table of Contents: https://physicstoday.scitation.org/toc/pto/57/12
Published by the American Institute of Physics

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The Hydrogen Economy
leases energy explosively in heat en-
If the fuel cell is to become the modern steam engine, basic gines or quietly in fuel cells to produce
research must provide breakthroughs in understanding, water as its only byproduct. Hydrogen
materials, and design to make a hydrogen-based energy is abundant and generously distrib-
uted throughout the world without re-
system a vibrant and competitive force. gard for national boundaries; using it
to create a hydrogen economy—a fu-
George W. Crabtree, Mildred S. Dresselhaus, ture energy system based on hydrogen
and Michelle V. Buchanan and electricity—only requires technol-
ogy, not political access.
Although in many ways hydrogen
is an attractive replacement for fossil
ince the industrial revolution began in the 18th cen- fuels, it does not occur in nature as the fuel H2. Rather, it
S tury, fossil fuels in the form of coal, oil, and natural gas
have powered the technology and transportation networks
occurs in chemical compounds like water or hydrocarbons
that must be chemically transformed to yield H2. Hydro-
that drive society. But continuing to power the world from gen, like electricity, is a carrier of energy, and like elec-
fossil fuels threatens our energy supply and puts enor- tricity, it must be produced from a natural resource. At
mous strains on the environment. The world’s demand for present, most of the world’s hydrogen is produced from
energy is projected to double by 2050 in response to popu- natural gas by a process called steam reforming. However,
lation growth and the industrialization of developing coun- producing hydrogen from fossil fuels would rob the hydro-
tries.1 The supply of fossil fuels is limited, with restrictive gen economy of much of its raison d’être: Steam reforming
shortages of oil and gas projected to occur within our life- does not reduce the use of fossil fuels but rather shifts
times (see the article by Paul Weisz in PHYSICS TODAY, them from end use to an earlier production step; and it still
July 2004, page 47). Global oil and gas reserves are con- releases carbon to the environment in the form of CO2.
centrated in a few regions of the world, while demand is Thus, to achieve the benefits of the hydrogen economy, we
growing everywhere; as a result, a secure supply is in- must ultimately produce hydrogen from non-fossil re-
creasingly difficult to assure. Moreover, the use of fossil sources, such as water, using a renewable energy source.
fuels puts our own health at risk through the chemical and Figure 1 depicts the hydrogen economy as a network
particulate pollution it creates. Carbon dioxide and other composed of three functional steps: production, storage,
greenhouse gas emissions that are associated with global and use. There are basic technical means to achieve each
warming threaten the stability of Earth’s climate. of these steps, but none of them can yet compete with fos-
sil fuels in cost, performance, or reliability. Even when
A replacement for fossil fuels will not appear
using the cheapest production method—steam reforming
overnight. Extensive R&D is required before alternative
of methane—hydrogen is still four times the cost of gaso-
sources can supply energy in quantities and at costs com-
line for the equivalent amount of energy. And production
petitive with fossil fuels, and making those alternative from methane does not reduce fossil fuel use or CO2 emis-
sources available commercially will itself require develop- sion. Hydrogen can be stored in pressurized gas contain-
ing the proper economic infrastructure. Each of those steps ers or as a liquid in cryogenic containers, but not in den-
takes time, but greater global investment in R&D will sities that would allow for practical applications—driving
most likely hasten the pace of economic change. Although a car up to 500 kilometers on a single tank, for example.
it is impossible to predict when the fossil fuel supply will Hydrogen can be converted to electricity in fuel cells, but
fall short of demand or when global warming will become the production cost of prototype fuel cells remains high:
acute, the present trend of yearly increases in fossil fuel $3000 per kilowatt of power produced for prototype fuel
use shortens our window of opportunity for a managed cells (mass production could reduce this cost by a factor of
transition to alternative energy sources. 10 or more), compared with $30 per kilowatt for gasoline
engines.
Hydrogen as energy carrier The gap between the present state of the art in hy-
One promising alternative to fossil fuels is hydrogen2,3 (see drogen production, storage, and use and that needed for a
the article by Joan Ogden, PHYSICS TODAY, April 2002, competitive hydrogen economy is too wide to bridge in in-
page 69). Through its reaction with oxygen, hydrogen re- cremental advances. It will take fundamental break-
throughs of the kind that come only from basic research.
George Crabtree is a physicist in the materials science division
at Argonne National Laboratory in Illinois. Mildred Dresselhaus Beyond reforming
is a professor in the department of physics and the department The US Department of Energy estimates that by 2040 cars
of electrical engineering and computer science at the Massa- and light trucks powered by fuel cells will require about
chusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge. Michelle 150 megatons per year of hydrogen.3 The US currently pro-
Buchanan is a chemist in the chemical sciences division at Oak duces about 9 megatons per year, almost all of it by re-
Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee. forming natural gas. The challenge is to find inexpensive

© 2004 American Institute of Physics, S-0031-9228-0412-010-3 December 2004 Physics Today 39

 Figure 1. The hydrogen econ-
omy as a network of primary
Biological and Solar energy sources linked to multi-
bio-inspired Wind Automotive
Hydro
ple end uses through hydrogen
fuel cells
as an energy carrier. Hydrogen
Nuclear/solar H2O adds flexibility to energy pro-
thermochemical duction and use by linking nat-
Consumer
cycles electronics urally with fossil, nuclear, re-
H2 Gas or H2 newable, and electrical energy
hydride
forms: Any of those energy
storage
sources can be used to make
Fossil fuel
reforming Stationary
hydrogen.
+ electricity/heat
Carbon capture generation

Production Storage Use 900°C (see the article by Gail

Marcus and Alan Levin,
PHYSICS TODAY, April 2002,
and efficient routes to create hydrogen in sufficient quanti- page 54). More than 100 types of chemical cycles have been
ties from non-fossil natural resources. The most promising proposed, including systems based on zinc–oxygen operat-
route is splitting water, which is a natural carrier of hydro- ing at 1500°C, sulfur–iodine at 850°C, calcium–bromine at
gen. It takes energy to split the water molecule and release 750°C, and copper–chlorine at 550°C. At high temperatures,
hydrogen, but that energy is later recovered during oxida- thermochemical cycles must deal with the tradeoff between
tion to produce water. To eliminate fossil fuels from this favorable reaction kinetics and aggressive chemical corro-
cycle, the energy to split water must come from non-carbon sion of containment vessels. Separating the reaction prod-
sources, such as the electron–hole pairs excited in a semi- ucts at high temperature is a second challenge: Unsepa-
conductor by solar radiation, the heat from a nuclear reac- rated mixtures of gases recombine if allowed to cool. But
tor or solar collector, or an electric voltage generated by re- identifying effective membrane materials that selectively
newable sources such as hydropower or wind. pass hydrogen, oxygen, water, hydrogen sulfate, or hydro-
The direct solar conversion of sunlight to H2 is one of gen iodide, for example, at high temperature remains a
the most fascinating developments in water splitting.4 Es- problem. Dramatic improvements in catalysis could lower
tablished technology splits water in two steps: conversion the operating temperature of thermochemical cycles, and
of solar radiation to electricity in photovoltaic cells fol- thus reduce the need for high-temperature materials, with-
lowed by electrolysis of water in a separate cell. It is well out losing efficiency. Molecular-level challenges, with which
known that the photovoltaic conversion occurs with an ef- researchers are fast making progress using nanoscale de-
ficiency up to 32% when expensive single-crystal semicon- sign, include accelerating the kinetics of reactions through
ductors are used in multi-junction stacks, or about 3% with catalysis, separating the products at high temperature, and
much cheaper organic semiconductors; remarkably, the directing products to the next reaction step.
cost of delivered electricity is about the same in both cases. Bio-inspired processes offer stunning opportunities to
Advanced electrolyzers split water with 80% efficiency. approach the hydrogen production problem anew.6 The
The two processes, however, can be combined in a sin- natural world began forming its own hydrogen economy
gle nanoscale process: Photon absorption creates a local 3 billion years ago, when it developed photosynthesis to con-
electron–hole pair that electrochemically splits a neighbor- vert CO2, water, and sunlight into hydrogen and oxygen.
ing water molecule. The efficiency of this integrated photo- Plants use hydrogen to manufacture the carbohydrates in
chemical process can be much higher, in principle, than the their leaves and stalks, and emit oxygen to the atmosphere
for animals to breathe. Single-cell organisms such as algae
two sequential processes; it has now reached 8–12% in the
and many microbes produce hydrogen efficiently at ambi-
laboratory4 and has prospects for much greater gains as re-
ent temperatures by molecular-level processes. These nat-
searchers learn to better control the nanoscale excitation
ural mechanisms for producing hydrogen involve elaborate
and photochemistry. The technical challenge is finding ro-
protein structures that have only recently been partially
bust semiconductor materials that satisfy the competing re-
solved. For billions of years, for instance, plants have used
quirements of nature. The Sun’s photons are primarily in a catalyst based on manganese–oxygen clusters to split
the visible, a wavelength that requires semiconductors with water efficiently at room temperature, a process that frees
small bandgaps—below 1.7 eV—for efficient absorption. protons and electrons. Likewise, bacteria use iron and
Oxide semiconductors like titanium dioxide that are robust nickel clusters as the active elements both for combining
in aqueous environments have wide bandgaps, as high as protons and electrons into H2 and splitting H2 into protons
3.0 eV, and thus require higher-energy photons for excita- and electrons (see figure 2). The hope is that researchers
tion. The use of dye-sensitized photocells that accumulate can capitalize on nature’s efficient manufacturing
energy from multiple low-energy photons to inject higher- processes by fully understanding molecular structures and
energy electrons into the semiconductor is a promising di- functions and then imitating them using artificial materi-
rection for matching the solar spectrum. Alternatively, oxide als in such applications as fuel-cell anodes and cathodes.
semiconductors can be doped with impurities that reduce
their bandgap energies to overlap better with the solar spec- Storing hydrogen
trum. In both cases, new strategies for nanostructured hy- Storing hydrogen in a high-energy-density form that flex-
brid materials are needed to more efficiently use solar en- ibly links its production and eventual use is a key element
ergy to split water. of the hydrogen economy. Unlike electricity, which must be
Water can be split in thermochemical cycles operating produced and used at the same rate, stored hydrogen can
at elevated temperatures to facilitate the reaction kinetics.5 be stockpiled for much later use, or used as ballast to
Heat sources include solar collectors operating up to 3000°C bridge the differing temporal cycles of energy production
or nuclear reactors designed to operate between 500°C and and consumption.

40 December 2004 Physics Today http://www.physicstoday.org

 The traditional storage options are conceptually sim- compounds, such as metallic magnesium nitrogen hydride
ple—cylinders of liquid and high-pressure gas. Industrial (Mg2NH4) and ionic sodium borohydride (Na+(BH4)–), con-
facilities and laboratories are already accustomed to han- tain high volumetric hydrogen densities but require tem-
dling hydrogen both ways. These options are viable for the peratures of 300°C or more at 1 bar to release their H2.
stationary consumption of hydrogen in large plants that Compounds with low-temperature capture and release be-
can accommodate large weights and volumes. Storage as havior, such as lanthanum nickel hydride (LaNi5H6), have
liquid H2 imposes severe energy costs because up to 40% low hydrogen-mass fractions and are thus heavy to carry.
of its energy content can be lost to liquefaction. Hydrogen absorption on surfaces is a potential route
For transportation use, the on-board storage of hy- to fast cycling, but has been explored relatively little ex-
drogen is a far more difficult challenge. Both weight and cept for carbon substrates. Hydrogen can be adsorbed in
volume are at a premium, and sufficient fuel must be molecular or atomic form on suitable surfaces, using pres-
stored to make it practical to drive distances comparable sure, temperature, or electrochemical potential to control
to gas-powered cars.3 Figure 3 illustrates the challenge by its surface structure and bonding strength. A major chal-
showing the gravimetric and volumetric energy densities lenge is controlling the bonding and kinetics of multiple
of fuels, including the container and apparatus needed for layers of hydrogen. The first layer is bonded by van der
fuel handling. For hydrogen, that added weight is a major Waals or chemical forces specific to the substrate; the sec-
fraction of the total. For on-vehicle use, hydrogen need ond layer sees primarily the first layer and therefore bonds
store only about half of the energy that gasoline provides with very different strength. The single-layer properties of
because the efficiency of fuel cells can be greater by a fac- adsorbed hydrogen on carbon can be predicted rather ac-
tor of two or more than that of internal combustion en- curately and are indicated by the solid curve in figure 4;
gines. Even so, the energy densities of the most advanced the behavior of multiple layers is much less well under-
batteries and of liquid and gaseous hydrogen pale in com- stood. But experience with carbon suggests that multiple
parison to gasoline. layers are needed for effective storage capacity. One route
Meeting the volume restrictions in cars or trucks, for for overcoming the single-layer limitation is to adsorb hy-
instance, requires using hydrogen stored at densities drogen on both sides of a substrate layer, arranged with
higher than its liquid density. Figure 4 shows the volume others in nanoscale stacks that allow access to both sides.
density of hydrogen stored in several compounds and in Nanostructured materials offer a host of promising
some liquid hydrocarbons.7 All of those compounds store routes for storing hydrogen at high capacity in compounds
hydrogen at higher density than the liquid or the com- that have fast recycling. Large surface areas can be coated
pressed gas at 10 000 psi (
700 bar), shown as points on with catalysts to assist in the dissociation of gaseous H2,
the right-hand vertical axis for comparison. The most ef- and the small volume of individual nanoparticles produces
fective storage media are located in the upper-right quad- short diffusion paths to the material’s interior. The
rant of the figure, where hydrogen is combined with light strength of the chemical bonds with hydrogen can be weak-
elements like lithium, nitrogen, and carbon. The materi- ened with additives7 such as titanium dioxide in sodium
als in that part of the plot have the highest mass fraction aluminum hydride (NaAlH4). The capture and release
and volume density of hydrogen. Hydrocarbons like cycle is a complex process that involves molecular dissoci-
methanol and octane are notable as high-volume-density ation, diffusion, chemical bonding, and van der Waals at-
hydrogen storage compounds as well as high-energy- traction. Each of the steps can be optimized in a specific
density fuels, and cycles that allow the fossil fuels to re- nanoscale environment that includes appropriate cata-
lease and recapture their hydrogen are already in use in lysts, defects, and impurity atoms. By integrating the
stationary chemical processing plants.7 steps into an interactive nanoscale architecture where hy-
The two challenges for on-vehicle hydrogen storage drogen molecules or atoms are treated in one environment
and use are capacity and cycling performance under the ac-
cessible on-board conditions of 0–100°C and 1–10 bars. To
achieve high storage capacity at low weight requires strong 2H2O 4H+ + 4e–
chemical bonds between hydrogen and light-atom host ma-
terials in stable compounds, such as lithium borohydride
Mn
(LiBH4). But to achieve fast cycling at accessible conditions O
requires weak chemical bonds, fast kinetics, and short dif- O Mn
O
fusion lengths, as might be found in surface adsorption. Mn O O
Mn
Thus, the high-capacity and fast-recycling requirements Mn O Mn O
are somewhat in conflict. Many bulk hydrogen-storage O Mn
Mn
O O
cubane

Figure 2. Nature has developed remarkably simple and

efficient methods to split water and transform H2 into its com- H2
e–
ponent protons and electrons. The basic constituent of the cat-
alyst that splits water during photosynthesis is cubane (top)— S
clusters of manganese and oxygen. Researchers are only S S– [4Fe4S]
beginning to understand cubane’s oxidation states using crys- OC Fe Fe
tallography and spectroscopy (see J.-Z. Wu et al., ref. 6). Bac- CN
d+
NC C CO H d+
teria use the iron-based cluster (bottom, circled) to catalyze H O
the transformation of two protons and two electrons into H2.
The roles of this enzyme’s complicated structural and elec-
tronic forms in the catalytic process can be imitated in the H+
laboratory. The hope is to create synthetic versions of these 2H+ + 2e– E H2
natural catalysts (see F. Gloaguen et al. and J. Alper, ref. 6).

http://www.physicstoday.org December 2004 Physics Today 41

VOLUMETRIC ENERGY DENSITY (MJ/L) 30 Figure 3. The energy densities of hydrogen
fuels stored in various phases and materials are
Gasoline
plotted, with the mass of the container and ap-
paratus needed for filling and dispensing the
fuel factored in. Gasoline significantly outper-
forms lithium-ion batteries and hydrogen in
20
gaseous, liquid, or compound forms. The pro-
posed DOE goal refers to the energy density
that the US Department of Energy envisions as
Compressed gas H2 needed for viable hydrogen-powered trans-
portation in 2015.
10 Proposed DOE goal
Liquid H2

Chemical hydrides hours of operation than batteries at the same

Batteries volume and weight. Although the cost per kilo-
0 watt is high for these small units, the unit cost
0 10 20 30 40 can soon be within an acceptable consumer
GRAVIMETRIC ENERGY DENSITY (MJ/kg) range. Electronics applications may be the
first to widely reach the consumer market, es-
tablish public visibility, and advance the
for dissociation, for example, and handed off to the next learning curve for hydrogen technology.
environment for diffusion, nanoscience engineers could The large homogeneous transportation market offers
simultaneously optimize all the desired properties. enormous potential for hydrogen fuel cells to dramatically
Another approach is to use three-dimensional solids with reduce fossil fuel use, lower harmful emissions, and im-
open structures, such as metal–organic frameworks8 in prove energy efficiency. Fuel cells can be used not only in
which hydrogen molecules or atoms can be adsorbed on cars, trucks, and buses, but also can replace the diesel elec-
internal surfaces. The metal atoms that form the vertices tric generators in locomotives and power all-electric ships.8
of such structures can be catalysts or dopants that facili- Europe already has a demonstration fleet of 30 fuel-cell
tate the capture and release cycle. Designed nanoscale buses running regular routes in 10 cities, and Japan is
architectures offer unexplored options for effectively con- poised to offer fuel-cell cars for sale.
trolling reactivity and bonding to meet the desired stor- A host of fundamental performance problems remain to
age requirements. be solved before hydrogen in fuel cells can compete with
gasoline.10 The heart of the fuel cell is the ionic conducting
Realizing the promise membrane that transmits protons or oxygen ions between
A major attraction of hydrogen as a fuel is its natural com- electrodes while electrons go through an external load to do
patibility with fuel cells. The higher efficiency of fuel their electrical work, as shown in figure 5. Each of the half
cells—currently 60% compared to 22% for gasoline or 45% reactions at work in that circuit requires catalysts inter-
for diesel internal combustion engines—would dramati- acting with electrons, ions, and gases traveling in different
cally improve the efficiency of future energy use. Coupling media. Designing nanoscale architectures for these triple
fuel cells to electric motors, which are more than 90% ef- percolation networks that effectively coordinate the inter-
ficient, converts the chemical energy of hydrogen to me- action of reactants with nanostructured catalysts is a major
chanical work without heat as an intermediary. This at- opportunity for improving fuel-cell performance. The trick
tractive new approach for energy conversion could replace is to get intimate contact of the three phases that coexist in
many traditional heat engines. The broad reach of that ef- the cell—the incoming hydrogen or incoming oxygen gas
ficiency advantage is a strong driver for deploying hydro- phase, an electrolytic proton-conducting phase, and a metal-
gen fuel cells widely. lic phase in which electrons flow into or from the external
Although fuel cells are more efficient, there are also circuit (see PHYSICS TODAY, July 2001, page 22).
good reasons for burning hydrogen in heat engines for trans- A primary factor limiting proton-exchange-membrane
portation. Jet engines and internal combustion engines can (PEM) fuel-cell performance is the slow kinetics of the oxy-
be rather easily modified to run on hydrogen instead of hy- gen reduction reaction at the cathode. Even with the best
drocarbons. Internal combustion engines run as much as platinum-based catalysts, the sluggish reaction reduces
25% more efficiently on hydrogen compared to gasoline and the voltage output of the fuel cell from the ideal 1.23 V to
produce no carbon emissions. The US and Russia have test- 0.8 V or less when practical currents are drawn. This volt-
flown commercial airliners with jet engines modified to burn age reduction is known as the oxygen overpotential. The
hydrogen.9 Similarly, BMW, Ford, and Mazda are road- causes of the slow kinetics, and solutions for speeding up
testing cars powered by hydrogen internal combustion en- the reaction, are hidden in the complex reaction pathways
gines that achieve a range of 300 kilometers, and networks and intermediate steps of the oxygen reduction reaction.
of hydrogen filling stations are being implemented in some It is now becoming possible to understand this reaction at
areas of the US, Europe, and Japan. Such cars and filling the atomic level using sophisticated surface-structure and
stations could provide an early start and a transitional spectroscopy tools such as vibrational spectroscopies, scan-
bridge to hydrogen fuel-cell transportation. ning probe microscopy, x-ray diffraction and spectroscopy,
The versatility of fuel cells makes them workable in and transmission electron microscopy.11,12 In situ electro-
nearly any application where electricity is useful. Station- chemical probes, operating under reaction or near reaction
ary plants providing 200 kilowatts of neighborhood elec- conditions, reveal the energetics, kinetics, and intermedi-
trical power are practical and operating efficiently. Such ates of the reaction pathway and their relation to the sur-
plants can connect to the electrical grid to share power but face structure and composition of the reactants and cata-
are independent of the grid in case of failure. Fuel-cell lysts. These powerful new experimental probes, combined
power for consumer electronics like laptop computers, cell with equally powerful and impressive computational
phones, digital cameras, and audio players provide more quantum chemistry using density functional theory,13 are

42 December 2004 Physics Today http://www.physicstoday.org

opening a new chapter in atomic-level understanding of The public acceptance of hydrogen depends not only
the catalytic process. The role of such key features as the on its practical and commercial appeal, but also on its
atomic configuration of catalysts and their supports, and record of safety in widespread use. The special flamma-
the electronic structure of surface-reconstructed atoms bility, buoyancy, and permeability of hydrogen present
and adsorbed intermediate species, is within reach of fun- challenges to its safe use that are different from, but not
damental understanding. These emerging and incisive ex- necessarily more difficult than, those of other energy car-
perimental and theoretical tools make the field of riers. Researchers are exploring a variety of issues: hy-
nanoscale electrocatalysis ripe for rapid and comprehen- drodynamics of hydrogen–air mixtures, the combustion of
sive growth. The research is highly interdisciplinary, in- hydrogen in the presence of other gases, and the embrit-
corporating forefront elements of chemistry, physics, and tlement of materials by exposure to hydrogen, for exam-
materials science. ple. Key to public acceptance of hydrogen is the develop-
Beyond the oxygen reduction reaction, fuel cells provide ment of safety standards and practices that are widely
many other challenges. The dominant membrane for PEM known and routinely used—like those for self-service gaso-
fuel cells is perfluorosulfonic acid (PFSA), a polymer built line stations or plug-in electrical appliances. The techni-
around a C–F backbone with side chains containing sulfonic cal and educational components of this aspect of the hy-
acid groups (SO⊗3 ) (for example, Nafion). Beside its high cost, drogen economy need careful attention.
this membrane must incorporate mobile water molecules Technical progress will come in two forms. Incremen-
into its structure to enable proton conduction. That restricts tal advances of present technology provide low-risk com-
its operating temperature to below the boiling point of mercial entry into the hydrogen economy. Those advances
water. At this low temperature—typically around 80°C— include improving the yield of natural-gas reforming to
expensive catalysts like platinum are required to make the lower cost and raise efficiency; improving the strength of
electrochemical reactions sufficiently active, but even trace container materials for high-pressure storage of hydrogen
amounts of carbon monoxide in the hydrogen fuel stream gas; and tuning the design of internal combustion engines
can poison the catalysts. A higher operating temperature to burn hydrogen. To significantly increase the energy sup-
would expand the range of suitable catalysts and reduce ply and security, and to decrease carbon emission and air
their susceptibility to poisoning. Promising research direc- pollutants, however, the hydrogen economy must go well
tions for alternative proton-conducting membranes that op- beyond incremental advances. Hydrogen must replace fos-
erate at 100–200°C include sulfonating C–H polymers sil fuels through efficient production using solar radiation,
rather than C–F polymers, and using inorganic polymer thermochemical cycles, or bio-inspired catalysts to split
composites and acid–base polymer blends.14 water. Hydrogen must be stored and released in portable
Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) require O⊗2 transport solid-state media, and fuel cells that convert hydrogen to
membranes, which usually consist of perovskite materials electrical power and heat must be put into widespread use.
containing specially designed defect structures that be- Achieving these technological milestones while satisfy-
come sufficiently conductive only above 800°C. The high ing the market discipline of competitive cost, performance,
temperature restricts the construction
materials that can be used in SOFCs
and limits their use to special environ-
HYDROGEN VOLUME DENSITY (kg H2 m–3)

~
ments like stationary power stations or Mg2NH4
perhaps large refrigerated trucks where 150
adequate thermal insulation and safety 5 g cm–3 MgH2 1 g cm–3 0.5 g cm–3
can be ensured. Finding new materials LiBH4
that conduct O⊗2 at lower temperatures LaNi5H6 NaBH4
C H CH4 (liq)
would significantly expand the range of C2H5OH 8 18
applications and reduce the cost of 100 FeTiH1.7 NH3 C H
LiAlH4 2 6
SOFCs. KBH4 CH3OH C3H8
NaAlH4 Liquid
Outlook hydrogen
The hydrogen economy has enormous
societal and technical appeal as a po- 50 H absorbed on graphite monolayer
tential solution to the fundamental en- Gaseous
ergy concerns of abundant supply and hydrogen
minimal environmental impact. The ul- (700 bar)
timate success of a hydrogen economy
depends on how the market reacts: Does 0
~

emerging hydrogen technology provide 0 5 10 15 20 25 100

more value than today’s fossil fuels? Al- HYDROGEN MASS DENSITY (mass %)
though the market will ultimately drive
the hydrogen economy, government Figure 4. The storage density of hydrogen in compressed gas, liquid, ad-
plays a key role in the move from fossil- sorbed monolayer, and selected chemical compounds is plotted as a func-
fuel to hydrogen technology. The invest- tion of the hydrogen mass fraction. All compounds here except the
ments in R&D are large, the outcome for graphite monolayer store hydrogen at greater than its liquid density at
specific, promising approaches is uncer- atmospheric pressure; green data points on the right-hand side indicate
tain, and the payoff is often beyond the liquid and gaseous H2 densities. The straight lines indicate the total density
market’s time horizon. Thus, early gov- of the storage medium, including hydrogen and host atoms. Of the inor-
ernment investments in establishing ganic materials (plotted as triangles), the compounds shown in boxes
goals, providing research support, and all form the alanate structure, composed of a tetrahedral, methanelike
sharing risk are necessary to prime the AlH4– or BH4– anion and a metal cation. Those compounds are among the
emergence of a vibrant, market-driven most promising hydrogen-storage fuel-cell materials. (Adapted from
hydrogen economy. L. Schlapbach and A. Zuttel, ref. 7.)

http://www.physicstoday.org December 2004 Physics Today 43

Figure 5. In a proton-exchange-membrane fuel cell, hy-
drogen and oxygen react electrochemically. At the anode, Load
hydrogen molecules dissociate, the atoms are ionized, and
electrons are directed to an external circuit; protons are e–
handed off to the ion-exchange membrane and pass
through to the cathode. There, oxygen combines with pro-
tons from the ion-exchange membrane and electrons from Anode Cathode
the external circuit to form water or steam. The energy
conversion efficiency of the process can be 60% or higher.
+
+
+
H2 + O2
and reliability requires tech-
nical breakthroughs that Proton
come only from basic re- exchange
search. The interaction of hy- membrane
drogen with materials encom-
passes many fundamental
+ H2O
questions that can now be ex- +
plored much more thoroughly + +
than ever before using so-
phisticated atomic-level scan-
ning probes, in situ structural H2O2H⊕ ⊕ 2e⊗ 2H⊕ ⊕ 2e⊗ ⊕ 1 O2 OH2O
and spectroscopic tools at 2
x-ray, neutron, and electron
scattering facilities, and pow-
Three-phase percolation networks
erful theory and modeling
using teraflop computers.
The hope is to solve mysteries
that Nature has long kept hidden, such as the molecular pact is a fascinating challenge and opportunity for basic sci-
basis of catalysis and the mechanism that allows plants ence, spanning chemistry, physics, biology, and materials.
to split water at room temperature using sunlight.
Nanoscience provides not only new approaches to basic References
questions about the interaction of hydrogen with materi- 1. M. I. Hoffert et al., Nature 395, 891 (1998); Energy Informa-
als, but also the power to synthesize materials with tion Administration, International Energy Outlook 2004, rep.
custom-designed architectures. This combination of no. DOE/EIA-0484 (2004), available at http://www.eia.
nanoscale analysis and synthesis promises to create new doe.gov/oiaf/ieo.
2. J. A. Turner, Science 285, 687 (1999); Special Report: Toward
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44 December 2004 Physics Today http://www.physicstoday.org