DESIGN THINKING AND PRODUCT INNOVATION

Design Thinking and Product Innovation

GURUMAHESH

[DESIGN THINKING AND PRODUCT

INNOVATION]
II-I Mechanical

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 DESIGN THINKING AND PRODUCT INNOVATION

(19A99303T) -DESIGN THINKING AND PRODUCT INNOVATION

UNIT I

Science to Engineering: Job of engineers, engineering units and measurement,

elements of engineering analysis, forces and motion, energy, kinematics and
motion, conversion of linear motion to rotary and vice versa, motion
transmission.
Physics to Engineering: Application of Newton laws, Pascal’s law, Bouncy,
Bernoulli’s theorem, Ohm’s law, and electrical induction in engineering
products.

Unit Outcomes:

After completion of this Unit, the student will be able to

 Relate the principles of science to engineering (L2)
 Explain simple mechanics motion and force transmission (L2)
 Identify the laws of physics applied to engineering products (L3)

Introduction to Design Thinking and product innovation

Design is a realization of a concept or idea into a configuration, drawing or a

product. Design thinking is cognitive and practical processes by which design
concepts are developed by designers. Innovation is a new idea or a new
concept. Product development is the creation of a new or different product
that offers new benefits to the end user. This course introduces the design
thinking in product innovation.

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What is Science?

Basically, we can define Science in so many ways, but all definitions will conclude
with the same meaning i.e. Science is about Knowing things. Science always
discovers. People who study Science we call them as scientists or theoretical physicists ,
they always work on how Universe is formed or how it is worked with so many theories,
some of the theories we know String theory, Big bang theory. Science is all about
asking questions themselves for example back in past If Newton would not have asked
himself that “Why apple fallen downwards rather than upwards” Today we would
have missed one of the best theories i.e. Gravitational theory which is a base of so
many theories and inventions. Below figure explains how science works in real life.

Figure 1 How Science Work

Sometimes even Scientists need some type of things that they should work on, for
example Particle accelerator which is used to figure out what happened at the
beginning of the universe. These things are not built by them this is where Engineering
comes into the situation.

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What is engineering?

Engineering is nothing but to create things. Engineering can invent thing and
solve real life problems for example they invented cars for problem of long-distance
travelling. We are enjoying our lives with the machines created by Engineers. Everyone
talks about things that has done by Engineers but only less people talk about the
Science behind Engineering.

Today every country is flying rockets to another plants some countries have their own
space stations, without “Gravitational theory” no country can fly rockets because it is
base of flying things. Here is the figure showing engineering process.

Figure 2 Engineering Process

Job of Engineers:

Engineers create ingenious solutions to societal problems. Engineering is

creative design an analysis that uses energy, materials, motion, and information to serve
human needs in innovative ways. They always express knowledge in the form of
variables, numbers, and units.

Isaac Asimov once said that “Science can amuse and fascinate us all, but it is
engineering that changes the world”. If we are enjoying the modern world it is only
because of engineers and by building the creative products using mathematics, scientific
principles, material properties, and computer methods to design. They can do anything

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including designing and building roads, bridges, cars, planes, space stations, cell phones,
computers, medical equipment.

Engineering has so many classifications and each one has its subtypes, according
to the kind of work they do- administration, construction, consulting, design,
development, teaching, planning, productions, research, sales, service, and test
engineers. Because engineering deals with the world around us, the number of
engineering disciplines is very large, and includes areas. There are so many societies
that represent engineers with different disciplines like ASME (Mechanical Engineers),
IEEE (Electrical Engineers), AICHE (Chemical Engineers), ASTM (Materials and testing
engineers), ASCE (Civil Engineers) and many others.

Home Work Questions:

1. Figure 3 shows a generic car with numbered parts. fill in the correct number
corresponding to the object in each of the blanks.4

Figure 3 Exploded view of Car

2. On a piece of paper draw a conceptual sketch of what happens when you push on
the pedal of a bicycle. Before you begin, think about these questions:

1. What are the key components that connect the pedal to the wheel?
2. Which ones are connected to each other?
3. How does doing something to one of the components affect the others?
4. What do those connections and changes have to do with accomplishing the
task of accelerating the bicycle?

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3. Draw a conceptual sketch of your computer. Identify the keyboard, screen,

power source, and information storage devices using arrows and labels.
4. Draw a conceptual sketch of an incandescent light bulb. Identify all the
components using arrows and numbers
5. Draw a conceptual sketch of a ballpoint pen. Identify all the components with
arrows and labels.
Elements of Engineering Analysis

Many physical problems of interest to engineers are modeled by mathematical analysis.

In this topic you will learn about a few such models. All of those models and the analysis
methods used to construct them will share five key elements. One of them, numerical
value, is familiar to you. Answering a numerical question requires coming up with the
right number. But in engineering that is only one part of answering such a question.
This topic introduces other core elements of engineering analysis: variables,
dimensions, units, and significant figures, as well as a fail-safe method of dealing with
units and dimensions.

The result of an engineering calculation must involve the appropriate variables;

it must be expressed in the appropriate units; it must express the numerical value (with
the appropriate number of digits; or significant figures); and it must be accompanied by
an explicit method so that others can understand and evaluate the merits and defects of
your analysis or solution.

Variables:

Engineers typically seek answers to such questions as, “How hot will this get?”,
“How heavy will it be?”, “What’s the voltage?” Each of these questions involves a
variable, a precisely defined quantity describing an aspect of nature. What an
engineering calculation does is different from what a pure mathematical calculation
might do; the latter usually focuses on the final numerical answer as the end product of
an analysis.

For example, Π=3.1415926 ... is a legitimate answer to the question, “What is the
value of Π?” The question, “How hot?” is answered using the variable “temperature.”
The question “How heavy?” uses the variable “weight.” “What voltage?” uses the
variable “electric potential.”
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For our purposes, variables will almost always be defined in terms of

measurements made with familiar instruments such as thermometers, rulers, and
clocks. Speed, for example, is defined as a ruler-measurement, distance, divided by a
clock-measurement, time.

This makes possible what a great engineer and scientist William Thomson, Lord
Kelvin (1824–1907), described as the essence of scientific and engineering knowledge.

I often say that when you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in
numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you
cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind: it
may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely, in your thoughts, advanced
to the stage of science, whatever the matter may be. But expressing something in
numbers is only the beginning of engineering knowledge. In addition to variables based
on measurements and expressed as numbers, achieving Lord Kelvin’s aspiration
requires a second key element of engineering analysis: units.

Engineering Units

What if you are stopped by the highway patrol on a National highway and get a penalty
ticket saying you were driving at “100”? You would probably guess that the variable
involved is speed. But it would also be of interest to know if the claim was that you were
traveling at 100 miles per hour (mph) or 100 kilometers per hour (kph), knowing that
100 kph is only 62 mph. Units can and do make a difference! Although the
fundamental laws of nature are independent of the system of units we use with
them, in engineering and the sciences a calculated quantity always has two parts:
the numerical value and its associated units, if any.1 Therefore, the result of any
engineering calculation must always be correct in two separate categories: It
must have the correct numerical value, and it must have the correct units.

Units are a way of quantifying the underlying concept of dimensions. Dimensions

are the fundamental quantities we perceive such as mass, length, and time. Units
provide us with a numerical scale whereby we can carry out a measurement of a
quantity in some dimension. On the other hand, units are established quite arbitrarily
and are codified by civil law or cultural custom. How the dimension of length ends up
being measured in units of feet or meters has nothing to do with any physical law. It is

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solely dependent on the creativity and ingenuity of people. Therefore, the basic tenets of
units systems often are grounded in the complex roots of past civilizations and cultures.

SI Unit System:

The SI system (System International d’unite) consists of 7 basic units.

This rationalised system of units was adopted internationally in 1960.

 All unit names are written without capitalization (unless they appear at the
beginning of a sentence), regardless of whether they were derived from proper
names.
 When the unit is to be abbreviated, the abbreviation is capitalized if the unit was
derived from a proper name.
 Unit abbreviations use two letters only when necessary to prevent them from
being confused with other established unit abbreviations2 (e.g., Wb for the
magnetic field unit “weber” to distinguish it from the more common W, the watt
unit of power), or to express prefixes (e.g., kW for kilowatt).
 A unit abbreviation is never pluralized, whereas the unit’s name may be
pluralized. For example, kilograms are abbreviated as kg, and not kgs, newtons
as N and not Ns, and the correct abbreviation of seconds is s, not sec. nor secs.
 Unit name abbreviations are never written with a terminal period unless they
appear at the end of a sentence.
 All other units whose names were not derived from the names of historically
important people are both written and abbreviated with lowercase letters—for
example, meter (m), kilogram (kg), second (s), and so forth.
Unit SI name SI symbol
Length metre M
Mass kilogramme Kg
Time second S
electric current Ampere A
temperature difference Kelvin K
luminous intensity candela Cd
quantity of substance mole Mol
From these basic units useful derived units have been defined.

Unit SI name SI Relationship SI basic units

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symbol
Frequency hertz Hz s-1
speed, velocity m/s
plane angle radian rad m x m-1 = 1
angular velocity rad / s s-1
Acceleration m / s2
angular acceleration rad / s2 s-2
Area m2
Volume m3
mass density kg / m3
specific volume m3 / kg
Force newton N kg x m x s-2
work, energy, heat joule J Nxm m2 x kg x s-2
pressure, stress pascal Pa N / m2 m-1 x kg x s-2
Power watt W J/s m2 x kg x s-3
electric potential volt V W/A m2 x kg x s-3 x
difference, EMF A-1
electric resistance ohm Ω V/A m2 x kg x s-3 x
A-2
electric conductance siemens S A/V m-2 x kg-1 x
s3 x A2
current density A / m2
electric charge coulomb C sxA
Capacitance farad F C/V m-2 x kg-1 x
s4 x A2
magnetic flux weber Wb Vxs m2 x kg x s-2 x
A-1
magnetic flux density tesla T Wb / m2 kg x s-2 x A-1
magnetic field strength A/m
Inductance henry H Wb/ A m2 x kg x s-2 x
A-2
Celsius temperature degree °C K
Celsius

Prefixes can be added to indicate multiples of the basic SI unit.

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Multiplication factor Prefix SI symbol

1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo K
102 hecto H
101 deca Da
10-1 deci D
10-2 centi C
10-3 milli M
10-6 micro µ
10-9 nano N
10-12 pico P

Forces and Motion, Energy:

Force:

“Push or pull” of an object is considered a force. Push and pull come from the
objects interacting with one another. Terms like stretch and squeeze can also be used to
denote force.

Force is an external agent capable of changing the state of rest or motion of a

particular body. It has a magnitude and a direction. The direction towards which the
force is applied is known as the direction of the force, and the application of force is the
point where force is applied.

Common symbols: F→, F

SI unit: Newton
In SI base units: kg·m/s2
Other units: dyne, poundal, pound-force, kip, kilopond
Derivations from other quantities: F=ma
Dimension: LMT-2

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What are the Effects of Force?

In physics, motion is defined as the change in position with respect to time. In simpler
words, motion refers to the movement of a body. Typically, motion can either be
described as:

1. Change in speed
2. Change in direction

The Force has different effects and here are some of them.

 Force can make a body which is at rest to move.

 It can stop a moving body or slow it down.

 It can accelerate the speed of a moving body.

 It can also change the direction of a moving body along with its shape and siz

Formula for Force : The quantity of force is expressed by the vector product of
mass (m) and acceleration (a). The equation or the formula for force can
mathematically be expressed in the form of:

F = ma
Where,

 m = mass
 a = acceleration
It is articulated in Newton (N) or Kgm/s2.
Acceleration a is given by
a= v/t
Where

 v = velocity
 t = time taken
So Force can be articulated as:
F = mv/t
Inertia formula is termed as p = mv which can also be articulated as Momentum.

Therefore, Force can be articulated as the rate of change of momentum.

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F = p/t = dp/dt
Force formulas are beneficial in finding out the force, mass, acceleration, momentum,
velocity in any given problem.

Unit of Force

 In the centimetre gram second system of unit (CGS unit) force is expressed
in dyne.

 In the standard international system of unit (SI unit) it is expressed in Newton

(N).

Types of Force

Force is a physical cause that can change the state of motion or the dimensions of an
object. There are two types of forces based on their applications:

1. Contact Force
2. Non-Contact Force

1. Contact Force:
Forces which act on a body either directly or through a medium are called contact
forces.

Examples of contact forces are:

 Muscular Force

 Mechanical Force

 Frictional Force

We can make use of muscular force of animals like bullocks, horses and camels to get
the activities done. The frictional force is another type of contact force which acts
between a pair of a surface in contact and tends to oppose the motion of one surface
over the other.

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Non-Contact Force
Forces which act through spaces without making direct contact with the body are called
non-contact forces.

Examples of non-contact forces are:

 Gravitational Force

 Electrostatic Force

 Magnetic Force

The force exerted by a magnet on other magnets is called magnetic force. Magnetic force
and electrostatic force act on an object from a distance, that’s the reason they are non-
contact forces. The strength of gravity is an attractive force which is exerted by the
Earth on objects which make them fall to the land. The weight of a body is the force
which is pulled by the earth towards the centre.

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Motion and Energy:

What is Motion?

We can define motion as the change of position of an object with respect to time. A book
falling off a table, water flowing from the tap, rattling windows, etc all exhibit motion.
Even the air that we breathe exhibits motion! Everything in the universe moves. We live
in a universe that is in continual motion. The fundamental particle of a matter that is the
atom is in constant motion too. Every physical process in the universe is composed of
motion of some sort. The motion can either be swift or slow, but motion exists. It is
important that we give due attention to the study of motion because of its importance in
the physical world. Motion is mainly described in terms of the following terms:

 Distance

 Displacement

 Speed

 Time

What is Distance?
Distance is the total movement of an object without any regard to direction. We can
define distance as to how much ground an object has covered despite its starting or
ending point.

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How is Displacement defined?

Displacement is defined as the change in position of an object. It is a vector quantity and

has a direction and magnitude. It is represented as an arrow that points from the
starting position to the final position. For Example- If an object moves from A position
to B, then the object’s position changes. This change in position of an object is known as
Displacement.

Distance and Displacement are used to describe the change in position. Now if
someone asks what the distance between A and B is, we can’t give a definite answer
because it depends on the path taken. It may or may not be the same for all three paths.
But for displacement, we can always give a definite answer as it is a straight line joining
the two points. In other words, displacement is nothing but the shortest distance
between the two points, which in this case is Path 2. Also, it has a particular direction
from A to B, as we can see.

So now that we have a basic idea of both we will try to solve an example: Suppose the
distance between two cities A and B is ‘d’. A person goes from A to B and returns.
Calculate distance travelled and displacement.

Distance travelled = Total path length covered

=d+d

= 2d

Talking about displacement, it is measured as the shortest distance between the initial
and final position. In this case, both are the same and hence, displacement is also zero.

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So for a motion, can displacement be greater than the distance covered? Think about it,
and if not can it be equal?

Types of Motion

We might have noticed that different objects move differently. Some objects move in a
curved path, some in a straight path and a few others in a different way. According to
the nature of the movement, motion is classified into three types as follows:

 Linear Motion

 Rotary Motion

 Oscillatory Motion

Linear Motion

In linear motion, the particles move from one point to another in either a straight line or
a curved path. The linear motion depending on the path of motion is further divided as
follows

 Rectilinear Motion – The path of the motion is a straight line.

 Curvilinear Motion – The path of the motion is curved.

A few examples of linear motion are the motion of the train, football, the motion of a car
on the road, etc.

Rotatory Motion

Rotatory motion is the motion that occurs when a body rotates on its own axis. A few
examples of the rotatory motion are as follows:

 The motion of the earth about its own axis around the sun is an example of
rotary motion.

 While driving a car, the motion of wheels and the steering wheel about its own
axis is an example of rotatory motion.

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Oscillatory Motion

Oscillatory motion is the motion of a body about its mean position. A few examples of
oscillatory motion are

 When a child on a swing is pushed, the swing moves to and fro about its mean
position.

 The pendulum of a clock exhibits oscillatory motion as it moves to and fro about
its mean position.

 The string of the guitar when strummed moves to and fro by its mean position
resulting in an oscillatory motion.

Examples of Motion

Now let us understand motion clearly with the help of a few examples

 Our daily activities like walking, running, closing the door, etc. involve motion.
There is a change of position of the object involved in these activities.

 The flow of air in and out of our lungs is also an example of motion.

 The automobiles that carry passengers from the place of pick up to the
destination possess motion. In this case, the position of passengers is changed
from one place to another.

What is Energy?

We can define energy as the strength to do any kind of physical activity. Thus, they say,

“Energy is the ability to do work”

Physical or chemical resources are processed to generate energy which is further used
to provide light or heat for domestic or industrial purposes. We have also heard people
comparing two persons (A & B) and concluding that A has more energy than B. Thus, we
can conclude that different types of energy which can never be created nor destroyed.
Energy can only be transformed from one form to another.

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Unit of Energy

The SI unit of energy is Joules (J) which is nothing but a term for Newton-meter.

When a certain amount of force (Newton) is applied to an object and it moved a certain
distance (meters), then the energy applied is said to be Joules (newton-meters).
Types of Energy

There are different forms of energy but the distinction between them is not always
clear. As Richard Feynman, a famous physicist once said, “The notions of potential and
kinetic energy depend on a notion of length scale.

For example, one can speak of macroscopic potential and kinetic energy, which do not
include thermal potential and kinetic energy. Also what is called chemical potential
energy is a macroscopic notion, and closer examination shows that it is really the sum of
the potential and kinetic energy on the atomic and subatomic scale. Similar remarks
apply to nuclear “potential” energy and most other forms of energy.”

Kinetic Energy

The energy in motion is known as Kinetic Energy. For example a moving ball, flowing
water, etc.

Kinetic Energy=1/2 m×v2

Where,

m = Mass of the object

v = Velocity of the object

Potential Energy

This is the energy stored in an object and is measured by the amount of work done. For
example, a pen on a table, water in a lake, etc.

Potential Energy=m×g×h
Where,

 m = Mass of the object (in kilograms)

 g = Acceleration due to gravity

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 h = Height in meters

Mechanical Energy

It is the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy that is the energy associated with
the motion & position of an object is known as Mechanical energy. Thus, we can derive
the formula of mechanical energy as –

Mechanical Energy = Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy

Mechanical Energy=(1/2m×v2)+(m×g×h)

Solar Energy

The light and heat from the sun, harnessed using technologies like, solar heating,
photovoltaic, solar thermal energy, solar architecture, and artificial photosynthesis is
known as solar energy. It is the prime source of renewable energy.

Wind Energy

It is one of the various forms of energy. The energy present in the flow of wind, used by
wind turbines is called wind energy. This energy is a major cheap source to produce
electricity. In these phenomena, the kinetic energy of the wind is converted into
mechanical power.

Nuclear Energy

The energy present in the nucleus of an atom is known as nuclear energy. The particles
of an atom are tiny and need the energy to hold themselves. Nuclear energy is that
enormous energy in the bonds of an atom which helps to hold the atom together.
Nuclear energy can be used to make electricity.

Geothermal Energy

The energy or heat present inside the Earth is known as geothermal energy. It is a cheap
& convenient heat and power resource and use of this energy don’t have a side effect
like greenhouse gas emission etc.

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Tidal Energy

Tidal energy or tidal power is a form of hydropower (energy present in water), which
converts the energy present in the tides to produce electricity.

Biomass Energy

Biomass is organic matter obtained from living organisms. The energy produced from
biomass is called biomass energy.

Electrical Energy

The energy caused by moving electric charges is known as electrical energy. Electric
energy is a type of kinetic energy as the electrical charges moves.

Thermal Energy

As the name suggests, thermal energy is the energy obtained from heat. It is a
microscopic, disordered equivalent of mechanical energy.

There may be instances where object posses more than one type of energy. For
example, boiling water, possess both kinetic and potential energy along with heat
energy.
Law of Conservation of Energy

The law of conservation of energy is one of the basic laws in physics. It governs the
microscopic motion of individual atoms in a chemical reaction. The law of conservation
of energy states that “In a closed system, i.e., a system that isolated from its surroundings,
the total energy of the system is conserved.” According to the law, the total energy in a
system is conserved even though the transformation of energy occurs. Energy can
neither be created nor destroyed, it can only be converted from one form to another.

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Types of Energy Examples

Following are the examples of types of energy:

 Kinetic energy: A child swinging on a swing with no negative value irrespective

of the to and fro motion.

 Gravitational energy: The atmosphere of the earth is held due to gravitational

energy.

 Chemical energy: Energy stored in an electrochemical cell.

The understanding and development of energy are crucial for societal development. Our
ability to utilize energy effectively improves the quality of life. It is hard to imagine life
without energy.

Kinematics:

The branch of physics that defines motion with respect to space and time, ignoring the
cause of that motion, is known as kinematics.

What is Velocity?

The meaning of velocity of an object can be defined as the rate of change of

the object’s position with respect to a frame of reference and time. It might sound
complicated but velocity is basically speeding in a specific direction. It is a vector
quantity, which means we need both magnitude (speed) and direction to define velocity.
The SI unit of it is meter per second (ms-1) if there is a change in magnitude or the
direction in the velocity of a body the body is said to be accelerating.
Initial and Final Velocity

Initial velocity describes how fast an object travels when gravity first applies
force on the object. On the other hand, the final velocity is a vector quantity that
measures the speed and direction of a moving body after it has reached its maximum
acceleration.

How to find the final velocity?

Finding the final velocity is simple with a few calculations and basic conceptual
knowledge.

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1. Determine the object’s original velocity by dividing the time it took for the object
to travel a given distance by the total distance. In the equation V = d/t, V is the
velocity, d is the distance and t is the time.
2. Determine the object’s acceleration by dividing the object’s mass by the force
and multiply the answer by the time it took for it to accelerate. For example, if
the object weighs 30 kg and has a force of 15 N applied to it, then the
acceleration would be 4 m/s.
3. Add the quantity obtained from Step 1 and Step 2 to obtain the final velocity. For
example, if you’re initial velocity was 3 m/s and your object acceleration is 4
m/s, your final velocity is 7 m/s (3 + 4 = 7).

Constant Velocity
The motion with constant velocity is the simplest form of motion. We witness constant
motion whenever an object slides over a horizontal, low friction surface (when a puck
slides over a hockey rink.)

The above graph is a graph of displacement versus time for a body moving with
constant velocity. The straight line in the graph can be algebraically represented as
follows:
x=x0+vt In the equation, x0 is the displacement at time t, v is the constant velocity of the
body v=dx/dt.

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Velocity Units

The SI unit of velocity is m/s (ms−1). Other units and dimensions of velocity are given
in the table below.

Unit of velocity
Common symbols v, v, v
SI unit m/s
Other units mph, ft/s
Dimension LT−1

Speed and Velocity

Speed and velocity can be a little confusing for most of us. Well, the difference
between speed and velocity is that speed gives us an idea of how fast an object is
moving whereas velocity not only tells us its speed but also tells us the direction the
body is moving in. We can define speed as a function of distance travelled whereas
velocity is a function of displacement. Instantaneous velocity is the velocity of a body at
any given time. Average velocity is the total displacement by total time and is given

by v = △x/△t where ∆x is the total displacement of the body and ∆t is the time.
Average velocity is always less than or equal to that of average speed; this is because
displacement can never be higher than the distance travelled but the distance travelled
can be higher than that of displacement.
Example of Velocity

To understand the concept of instantaneous velocity and average velocity, let’s take this
example. Jewel goes to school in her dad’s car every morning. Her school is 8 km from
her home and she takes 15 mins to travel, but when she looks at the speedometer on the
dashboard of the car, it shows a different reading all the time. So, now how would she
know her velocity?

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Well, the average velocity of Jewel’s car could be found by:

For convenience, we have considered the car to move in a straight line and we will
convert all the units of time to hours. Therefore 15 mins = 1560 = 0.25 hours.

average velocity, v = △x△t

v = 8km/0.25hrs

v = 32 km/h

Now we see that even though the car may vary its speed, if it covers the same amount of
distance in the same amount of time, every time its average velocity will remain the
same.

Difference between Speed and Velocity

The detailed comparison in tabular format is given below.
Velocity VS Speed
SPEED VELOCITY
Speed is the quantitative measure of Velocity defines the direction of the movement
how quickly something is moving. of the body or the object.
Speed is primarily a scalar quantity Velocity is essentially a vector quantity
It is the rate of change of distance It is the rate of change of displacement
Speed of an object moving can never be Velocity of a moving object can be zero.
negative
Speed is a prime indicator of the rapidity Velocity is the prime indicator of the position as
of the object. well as the rapidity of the object.
It can be defined as the distance covered Velocity can be defined as the displacement of
by an object in unit time. the object in unit time.

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 Displacement (denoted by Δx)

 Initial velocity (v0 )

 Final velocity (denoted by v )
 Time interval (denoted by t )
 Constant acceleration (denoted by a )

Essentially, kinematics equations can derive one or more of these variables if the
others are given. These equations define motion at either constant velocity or at
constant acceleration. Because kinematics equations are only applicable at a constant
acceleration or a constant speed, we cannot use them if either of the two is changing.

Inverse Kinematics:

Inverse Kinematics does the reverse of kinematics and in case we have the end point of
a particular structure, certain angle values would be needed by the joints to achieve that
end point. It is a little difficult and has generally more than one or even infinite
solutions.

There are four basic kinematics equations:

1. v=v0+at
2. Δx=(v+v02)t
3. Δx=v0t+(1/2)at2
4. v2=v o 2+2aΔx

It can be noticed that if any four of the variables are given, we can easily calculate the
fifth variable using kinematic equations.

For example, if it is given that a car is travelling and it accelerates from its resting
position with acceleration of 6.5 m/s2 for a time span of 8 seconds, reaching a final
velocity of 42 m/s, east and a displacement of 120 meters, then the motion of this car is
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fully described. Now, if any one of these information was not provided, we could have
easily calculated it with the help of kinematics equations.

Rotational Kinematics Equations:

Till now, we were looking at Translational or linear kinematics equation which deals
with the motion of a linear moving body. There is another branch of kinematics
equations which deals with the rotational motion of any body. These are, however, just
a corollary of the previous equations with just the variables changed.

 Displacement is replaced by change in angle.

 Initial and final velocities are replaced by initial and final angular velocity.

 Acceleration is replaced by angular

 Time is the only constant.

Rotational Motion( α = Linear Motion( a = constant)

constant)
ω=ω0+αt v=v0+at
=1/2(ω+ω0)t x=12(v0+v)t
=ω0t+1/2αt2 x=v0t+12at2
ω2=ω02+2α v2=v20+2ax

Conversion of linear motion to rotary and vice versa, motion transmission.

A slider-crank mechanism is a typical design which converts rotary motion into
linear motion. It is achieved by connecting a slider and a crank with a rod.

Figure A shows a mechanism utilized as a system that converts the reciprocating

linear motion of an automobile engine into rotary motion.

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The second figure, B, is an example of the mechanism that has the same functions
as the slider-crank in the first figure A in addition to the sliding stroke adjustment
feature for the slider. To add this feature, the sliding stroke adjusting screw is placed on
top of the rotation shaft center of the rotation disk. The sliding stroke can be adjusted
by the adjusting nut located on one end of the sliding stroke adjusting screw.

A and B. The two mechanisms above are examples of slider-crank mechanisms. In

addition, if high-speed rotation or operation for long hours is required, it is necessary to
consider design items related to the reliability matters described here.

1. Rotation balance of rotating body (the entire structures on the disk).

2. Strength of rotating shaft
3. Prevention of adjusting nut-loosening (e.g., double-nut system)
4. Selection of wear-resistant parts for the area subject to wear.

Figure C below illustrates the mechanism with exchangeable rod/slider parts. A U-

shaped hook is installed so that the tip of the rod can be easily connected to the hinge
pin at the hinged end of the crank.

C. Example of a slider-crank mechanism with exchangeable rod/slider parts.

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Application Examples

For simple automation devices or fixtures made compatible with multiple models by
connecting a processing unit to the slider unit, exchanging the slider unit after
preparing a processing unit off-line can minimize the time required for mode switching.

1. The drive mechanism of the squeegee unit for a simple screen printing machine:
When materials are replaced owing to the pot life, or when printing materials are
replaced, it is possible to switch models quickly if you remove the slider parts
with the squeegee integrated and exchange it with the slider parts with its
squeegee position adjusted offline.
2. Simple press mechanism with multi-model compatibility.

Application Challenges

Because of this simple coupling method, where only a U-shaped hook is placed over the
rotating crank, this mechanism is not compatible with the following types of motion:

1. A high-speed rotating crank: The self-weight of the rod may not be sufficient to
follow the motion.
2. A large rotating radius: Motion from the crankshaft to the U-shaped hook will not
be transmitted effectively in some areas.
3. Motion involving unstable speed or oscillation: The U-shaped hook may fall off.

How to Use a Slider-Crank Mechanism

Figure D shows an automation clever mechanism that converts crank rotation into
linear motion and makes the linear motion stroke twice that of the original one.

D. The stroke-doubling mechanism.

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 DESIGN THINKING AND PRODUCT INNOVATION

In this structure, the slider used in the standard slider crank mechanism a toothed gear.
In addition, the slider guide is separated into a fixed rack and a movable rack. The crank
motion on the driving shaft is transmitted to the toothed gear. Then, the stroke of
rolling motion (L) over the fixed rack increases by 100% (2L) when it reaches the gear
top. This stroke (2L) acts on the movable rack installed on the gear top.

More Application Examples

The structure tends to be longer than originally intended if a pneumatic cylinder and a
linear guide are used, or if a structure where ball screws are used for connecting a
motor is adopted. This automation clever mechanism is an effective solution for making
the fixture short and compact:

1. Oscillating motion of a processing machine

2. Reciprocating linear motion mechanism for one-piece flow production fixture
(printing, wiping, and pressuring)
3. Inspection jigs.

Rotary motion can be converted into linear motion by using a screw. This volume
introduces an automation clever mechanism (Fig. E) that allows control of linear motion
in various ways by adopting different types of screw structures. “Threaded” and
“tapped” screws are used as a cam.

E. Linear motion conversion mechanism involving movements in two directions.

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If the handle installed on the right edge is rotated, it causes a linear motion of the slide
block placed on the two tapped screws that are assembled to the opposing two screws.
This structure can also be applied for a double-speed mechanism, where single rotation
of the handle is transformed into a movement of twice the pitch of the rotation.

Even More Application Examples

1. Electric terminal positioning or scanning movement for inspection equipment

2. Adjustment mechanism for edge positioning of jigs compatible with various
products.
3. Double-speed mechanism

Cams

A cam is the typical mechanical component used in the rotary-linear motion conversion
mechanism. Cams are the excellent choice because of the following characteristics:

1. Motion characteristics such as speed, acceleration, and forces can be freely

controlled by the output end to which the cam motion is transmitted
2. When combined with the link mechanism, incorporating a cam into the structure
allows you to design a compact, lightweight, yet highly rigid mechanism in a
simple structure
3. Cams can shorten the overall cycle time as they can overlap and control multiple
movements
4. Highly reliable

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Based on these characteristics, cams are adopted in various applications, including the
terminal press-fitting mechanism of a high-speed terminal press-fitting machine, as well
as the high-speed and complex timing control of an air release valve for an automobile
engine (see photo). In the photo below, displacement of the plate cam is enlarged by the
link mechanism. To ensure the high-speed responses, springs to prevent jumping have
been installed.

Control cam for air release valve in automobile engine.

A cam introduced here as the basics of automation clever mechanisms works as a
supportive element that allows for quick attachment/detachment of fixtures by
transforming the linear motion displacement into forces, rather than converting rotary
motion into linear motion, which was explained earlier as a superior characteristic of
cams used in motion control.

Rotary-linear motion conversion mechanism using a cam.

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Unit-1

PART-B

Physics to Engineering: Application of Newton laws, Pascal’s law, Bouncy,

Bernoulli’s theorem, Ohm’s law, and electrical induction in engineering
products.

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While Newton’s laws of motion may seem obvious to us today, centuries ago they were
considered revolutionary. Sir Issac Newton is considered one of the most influential
scientists of all time. His ideas laid the foundation for modern physics. He built upon his
ideas put forth from the works of previous scientists including Galileo and Aristotle.

These laws of motion help us understand how objects behave when they are standing
still, when moving and when forces act upon them. This article is a description of Sir
Isaac Newton’s Laws of motion and a summary of what they mean.

Brief History of Newton’s Laws

Sir Isaac Newton introduced the three laws of motion in 1687 in his book
entitled “Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. While formulating the three
laws of motion, Newton simplified massive bodies to mathematical points with no size
or rotation. This allowed him to ignore facts such as friction, temperature, air resistance,
material properties, etc., This helped him concentrate solely on phenomena that were
described in terms of mass, length and time. Consequently, the three laws cannot be
used to describe precisely the behaviour of large rigid or deformable objects;
however, in many cases, they provide suitably accurate approximations.
Newton’s laws pertain to the motion of massive bodies in an inertial reference frame,
sometimes called a Newtonian reference frame, although Newton himself never
described such a reference frame. An inertial reference frame can be described as a 3-
dimensional coordinate system that is either stationary or in uniform linear motion. i.e.,
it is not accelerating or rotating. He found that motion within such an inertial reference
frame could be described by three simple laws.

Newton’s First Law of Motion

The first law of motion simply means that things cannot start, stop or change direction
all by themselves. It requires some force from the outside to cause such a change. This
property of massive bodies to resist changes in their state of motion is called inertia.
Newton’s first law is also known as the law of inertia.

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Newton’s First Law of Motion

Newton’s first law of motion states that “A body at rest or uniform motion will continue
to be at rest or uniform motion until and unless a net external force acts on it”. Suppose
a block is kept on the floor, it will remain at rest until we apply some external force to it.
Also, we know that it takes us more effort or force to move a heavy mass. This is directly
related to the property known as Inertia. Hence, the first law of motion is also known as
the law of inertia.

There are two conditions on which the 1st law of motion is dependent:

 Objects at rest: When an object is at rest velocity (v= 0) and acceleration (a = 0)

are zero. Therefore, the object continues to be at rest.

 Objects in motion: When an object is in motion, velocity is not equal to zero (v ≠

0) while acceleration (a = 0) is equal to zero. Therefore, the object will continue
to be in motion with constant velocity and in the same direction.

What is an External Force?

An external force is defined as the change in the mechanical energy that is either the
kinetic energy or the potential energy in an object. These forces are caused by external
agents. Examples of external forces are friction, normal force and air resistance.

Let us Understand First Law of Motion by an Example

Let us take a block on a smooth surface. By smooth, we mean that there is no friction
acting on the surface. The block is at rest, that is, it is not moving.

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Now, let ss examine the forces acting on the block. The only forces acting on the block
are the force of gravity and the normal reaction by the surface. There is no force acting
on it in the horizontal direction. Since the forces in the vertical direction are equal to
each other in magnitude, they cancel each other out, and hence there is no external
force on the block. Since this block is at rest, we can say that it confirms Newton’s first
law of Motion.

Now, if we apply a constant force F on the block in a horizontal direction, it will start
moving with some constant acceleration, in the direction of the applied force.

Thus, the first law of motion is confirmed again.

Note: Newton’s laws are valid only in inertial frames of reference.

Newton’s First Law of Motion Examples in Daily Life

Wearing a seat belt in a car while driving is an example of Newton’s 1st law of motion. If
an accident occurs, or if brakes are applied to the car suddenly, the body will tend to
continue its inertia and move forward, probably proving fatal. To prevent such

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accidents seat belts are used which stops your body moving forward in inertia avoiding
danger.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

“Force is equal to the rate of change of momentum. For a constant mass, force equals
mass times acceleration”.

Newton’s second law of motion pertains to the behaviour of objects for which all
existing forces are not balanced. The second law informs us that the acceleration of an
object depends on two variables – the net force acting on the body and the mass of the
body. The acceleration of the body is directly proportional to force and inversely
proportional to the mass. As a result, when the force acting on a body is increased, the
acceleration increases. Likewise, when the mass of the body is increased, the
acceleration decreases.

Newton’s second law can be formally stated as,

The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to

the magnitude of the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and
inversely proportional to the mass of the object.

This statement is expressed in equation form as,

a = Fnet/m
The above equation is often rearranged to a more familiar form as shown below. The
net force is equated to the product of the mass times the acceleration.

Application of Second Law

The application of the second law of motion can be seen in identifying the amount of
force needed to make an object move or to make it stop. Following are a few examples
that we have listed to help you understand this point:

Kicking a ball

When we kick a ball we exert force in a specific direction, which is the direction in
which it will travel. In addition, the stronger the ball is kicked, the stronger the force we
put on it and the further away it will travel.

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Pushing a cart
It is easier to push an empty cart in a supermarket than it is to push a loaded one. More
mass requires more force to accelerate.

Two people walking

Among the two people walking, if one is heavier than the other then the one weighing
heavier will walk slower because the acceleration of the person weighing lighter is
greater.

Newton’s Third Law Of Motion

Force is a push or pulls acting on an object resulting in its interaction with another
object. Force is a result of an interaction. Force can be classified into two categories:
contact force such as frictional force and non-contact force such as gravitational force.
According to Newton, when two bodies interact, they exerted force on each other and
these forces are known as action and reaction pair which is explained in Newton’s third
law of motion.

Newton’s third law of motion states that

When one body exerts a force on the other body, the first body experiences a force
which is equal in magnitude in the opposite direction of the force which is exerted.
The above statement means that in every interaction, there is a pair of forces
acting on the interacting objects. The magnitudes of the forces are equal and the
direction of the force on the first object is opposite to the direction of the force on the
second object.

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Examples of Interaction Force Pairs

A variety of action-reaction pairs are evident in nature. We have listed a few below and
they are as follows:

 Propulsion of fish through water is an example of action-reaction pair. A fish

makes use of its fins to push water backwards. This push serves to accelerate the
fish forwards. The size of the force on the water equals the size of the force on
the fish; the direction of the force on the water (backwards) is opposite the
direction of the force on the fish (forwards).

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 The flight of the bird is an example of action-reaction pair. The wings of the bird
push the air downwards. The air pushes the air upwards.

 A swimmer pushes against the water, while the water pushes back on the
swimmer.

 Lift is created by helicopters by pushing the air down, thereby creating an

upward reaction force.

 Rock climbers pulling their vertical rope downwards so as to push themselves

upwards.

Pascal’s law

Consider the image given below. The column is filled with water. The ends of each
column A and B have been blocked by a piston. If piston A is pressed, what do you think
will happen to piston B? Piston B is going to rise up. We have just applied Pascal’s law to
our fluid pressure.

So what is Pascal’s law?

“The external static pressure applied on a confined liquid is distributed or transmitted

evenly throughout the liquid in all directions”.

The static pressure acts at right angles to any surface in contact with the fluid.
Pascal also found that the pressure at a point for a static fluid would be same across all
planes passing through that point in that fluid. Pascal’s law is also known as Pascal’s
principle.

F = PA

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Where,

 F is the force applied

 P is the pressure transmitted

 A is the cross sectional area

Example of Pascal’s Law

Let us understand the working principle of Pascal’s law with an example.
A pressure of 2000 Pa is transmitted throughout a liquid column due a force being
applied on a piston. If the piston has an area of 0.1 m2, what is the force applied?
This can be calculated using Pascal’s Law formula.
F = PA
Here,
P = 2000 Pa = N/m2
A = 0.1 m2
Substituting values, we arrive at F = 200 N

Applications of Pascal’s Law

 Hydraulic Lift: The image you saw at the beginning of this article is a simple line
diagram of a hydraulic lift. This is the principle of working of hydraulic lift. It
works based on the principle of equal pressure transmission throughout a fluid
(Pascal’s Law).

 The construction is such that a narrow cylinder (in this case A) is connected to a
wider cylinder (in this case B). They are fitted with airtight pistons on either end.
The inside of the cylinders are filled with an incompressible fluid.

 Pressure applied at piston A is transmitted equally to piston B without

diminishing, on use of an incompressible fluid. Piston B effectively serves as a
platform to lift heavy objects like big machines or vehicles. Few more
applications include a hydraulic jack and hydraulic press and forced
amplification is used in the braking system of most cars.

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Bouncy:

What is Buoyancy?

Buoyancy is the force that causes objects to float. It is the force exerted on an object that
is partly or wholly immersed in a fluid. Buoyancy is caused by the differences in
pressure acting on opposite sides of an object immersed in a static fluid. It is also known
as the buoyant force. Buoyancy is the phenomena due to Buoyant Force.

We can define Buoyancy as:

“The upward force applied by the fluid on the object or the body when an object is
put in or submerged in the fluid”.

Unit:

The unit of buoyant force is the Newton (N).

When a body is in water, it displaces some amount of water owing to its weight. The
amount of displaced water is computed by the object’s density which relates to volume.
The volume of a cricket ball and beach ball can be same their different weight their
density differs. The steel solid block descends in water but the steel ship does not.
Therefore, the quantity of displaced water in the upward direction is elucidated in
terms of Buoyant force. Let’s discuss the buoyancy force and its formulation with
diverse devices grounded on it.

What is Buoyant Force?

When an object is immersed in a liquid it experiences an upward force known

as Buoyant Force. This phenomenon of experiencing an upward force is known
as Buoyancy.

It is as an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an object

immersed in a fluid. As we know, the pressure in a fluid column increases with depth.
Thus, the pressure at the bottom of an object submerged in the fluid is greater than that
at the top. The difference in this pressure results in a net upward force on the object
which we define as buoyancy.

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Force of Buoyancy:

When we submerge an object in a fluid, an upward force is experienced by the object.

This force is applied by the fluid on the object which makes it to, rise up and is called
the Force of Buoyancy. The scale of this force is precisely equal to the amount or
weight of the liquid displaced.

Center of Buoyancy:

The point where the force of Buoyancy is applied or the point on the object where the
force acts are termed as the Center of Buoyancy. It should be illustrated that the force
of buoyancy is a vertical force, and thus, the Center of Buoyancy is the point situated on
the centre of the gravity of the liquid that is being displaced by the object submerged.

Applications of Buoyancy

It is due to buoyancy that human swimmers, fish, ships, and icebergs stay afloat. Some
applications of buoyancy are given in the points below.

Submarine:

A submarine has a large ballast tank, which is used to control its position and depth
from the surface of the sea. A submarine submerges by letting water into the ballast
tank so that its weight becomes greater than the buoyant force.

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Submarine

Hot Air Balloon:

The atmosphere is filled with air that exerts buoyant force on any object. A hot air
balloon rises and floats due to the buoyant force. It descends when the balloon’s weight
is higher than the buoyant force. It becomes stationary when the weight equals the
buoyant force.

Hot Air Balloon

Ship:

A ship floats on the surface of the sea because the volume of water displaced by the ship
is enough to have a weight equal to the weight of the ship. A ship is constructed in a way
so that the shape is hollow, to make the overall density of the ship lesser than the sea

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water. Therefore, the buoyant force acting on the ship is large enough to support its
weight.

Fish:

A certain group of fishes uses Archimedes’ principle to go up and down the water. To go
up to the surface, the fishes will fill its swim bladder (air sacs) with gases (clever isn’t
it?). The gases diffuse from their own body to the bladder and thus making the body
lighter. This enables the fishes to go up

What is Bernoulli’s Principle?

Bernoulli’s principle states that

“The total mechanical energy of the moving fluid comprising the gravitational
potential energy of elevation, the energy associated with the fluid pressure and
the kinetic energy of the fluid motion, remains constant".

Bernoulli’s Principle Formula

Bernoulli’s equation formula is a relation between pressure, kinetic energy, and
gravitational potential energy of a fluid in a container.

The formula for Bernoulli’s principle is given as:

p + 1/2 ρ v2 + ρgh =constant

Where,

 p is the pressure exerted by the fluid

 v is the velocity of the fluid

 ρ is the density of the fluid

 h is the height of the container

Bernoulli’s Equation Derivation

Consider a pipe with varying diameter and height through which an incompressible
fluid is flowing. The relationship between the areas of cross sections A, the flow speed v,

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height from the ground y, and pressure p at two different points 1 and 2 is given in the
figure below.

Assumptions:

 The density of the incompressible fluid remains constant at both the points.

 Energy of the fluid is conserved as there are no viscous forces in the fluid.

 Therefore, the work done on the fluid is given as:

dW = F1dx1 – F2dx2

dW = p1A1dx1 – p2A2dx2

dW = p1dV – p2dV = (p1 – p2)dV

We know that the work done on the fluid was due to conservation of gravitational force
and change in kinetic energy. The change in kinetic energy of the fluid is given as:

dK=1/2m2v22−1/2m1v12=1/2ρdV(v22−v12)

The change in potential energy is given as:

dU = mgy2 – mgy1 = ρdVg(y2 – y1)

Therefore, the energy equation is given as:

dW = dK + dU

(p1 – p2)dV = 1/2ρdV(v22−v12) + ρdVg(y2 – y1)

(p1 – p2) = 1/2ρ(v22−v12) + ρg(y2 – y1)

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 DESIGN THINKING AND PRODUCT INNOVATION

Rearranging the above equation, we get

p1+(1/2)ρv12+ρgy1=p2+(1/2)ρv22+ρgy2

 This is Bernoulli’s equation.

Ohm’s law

What is Ohm’s Law?

Ohm’s Law states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional
to the potential difference applied across its ends, provided the temperature and other
physical conditions remain unchanged. Mathematically it can be represented as,
Potential difference ∝ Current
V∝I
( When the value of V increases the value of I increases simultaneously)

V = IR
Where,

 V is Voltage in volts (V)

 R is Resistance in ohm (Ω)
 I is Current in Ampere (A)

How does Ohm’s Law work?

Ohm’s Law describes the current flow through a resistance when different electric
potentials (voltage) are applied at each end of the resistance. Since we can’t see
electrons, the model or an analogy of electric circuits used to help us understand
circuits better is the water-pipe analogy. Water flowing through pipes is a good
mechanical system that is analogous to an electrical circuit.

Here, the voltage is analogous to water pressure, the current is the amount of
water flowing through the pipe, and the resistance is the size of the pipe. More water
will flow through the pipe (current) when more pressure is applied (voltage) and the
bigger the pipe, (lower the resistance).

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Different Applications of Ohm’s Law

The main applications of Ohm’s law are:

1. To determine the voltage, resistance or current of an electric circuit.

2. Ohm’s law is used to maintain the desired voltage drop across the electronic
components.
3. Ohm’s law is also used in dc ammeter and other dc shunts to divert the current.

Limitations of Ohm’s Law

Following are the limitations of Ohm’s law:

1. Ohm’s law is not applicable for unilateral electrical elements like diodes and
transistors as they allow the current to flow through in one direction only.
2. For non-linear electrical elements with parameters like capacitance, resistance
etc the voltage and current won’t be constant with respect to time making it
difficult to use Ohm’s law.

Analyzing Simple Circuits Using Ohm’s Law

Resistive Circuits are analyzed using the Ohm’s Law. The law is often used to find the
voltage, current or resistances of the circuit. The law relates these three quantities by
the equation V = IR. Ohm’s Law Triangle helps us remember this equation while solving
problems. Here, the three quantities V, I and R are superimposed into a triangle with
voltage at the top and current and resistance below. The magic V I R triangle can be
used to calculate all formulations of Ohm’s law.

The Ohms law Triangle

 If the value of voltage is asked and the values of the current and resistance are
given, then to calculate voltage simply cover V at the top. So, we are left with
the I and R orI X R. So, the equation for Voltage is Current multiplied by
Resistance. Examples of how the magic triangle is employed to determine the
voltage using Ohm’s law is given below.

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In the power triangle, the power (P) will be on the top and current(I) and voltage (V) at
the bottom.

 When the values of current and voltage will be given, the formula for finding
power will be,

P=IxV

 When the values of power and voltage will be given, the formula for finding
current will be,

I = PV

 When the values of power and current will be given, the formula for finding
voltage will be,

V = PI

Ohm’s Law Pie Chart and Ohm’s Law Matrix Table

To better understand the relationship between various parameters, we can take all the
equations used to find the voltage, current, resistance and power, and condense them
into a simple Ohm’s Law pie chart as shown below.

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Like Ohm’s Law Pie Chart shown above, we can condense the individual Ohm’s Law
equations into a simple matrix table as shown below for easy reference when
calculating an unknown value.

Electrical induction in engineering products:

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction consists of two laws. The first law
describes the induction of emf in a conductor and the second law quantifies the emf
produced in the conductor. In the next few sections, let us learn these laws in detail.

Faraday’s First Law of Electromagnetic Induction

The discovery and understanding of electromagnetic induction are based on a long
series of experiments carried out by Faraday and Henry. From the experimental
observations, Faraday arrived at a conclusion that an emf is induced in the coil when the

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magnetic flux across the coil changes with time. With this in mind, Faraday formulated
his first law of electromagnetic induction as,

Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an electromotive

force is induced. If the conductor circuit is closed, a current is induced which is
called induced current.

Mentioned here are a few ways to change the magnetic field intensity in a closed loop:

 By rotating the coil relative to the magnet.

 By moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field.

 By changing the area of a coil placed in the magnetic field.

 By moving a magnet towards or away from the coil.

Faraday’s Second Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s second law of electromagnetic induction states that

The induced emf in a coil is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage.
The flux is the product of the number of turns in the coil and the flux associated with the
coil.

The formula of Faraday’s law is given below:

ε=−N(Δϕ/Δt)

Where,

 ε is the electromotive force

 Φ is the magnetic flux

 N is the number of turns

The negative sign indicates that the direction of the induced emf and change in direction
of magnetic fields have opposite signs.

Additionally, there is another key law known as Lenz’s law that describes
electromagnetic induction as well.

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Applications of Faraday’s Law

Following are the fields where Faraday’s law find applications:

1. Electrical equipment like transformers work on the basis of Faraday’s law.

2. Induction cooker works on the basis of mutual induction which is the principle of
Faraday’s law.
3. By inducing an electromotive force into an electromagnetic flowmeter, the
velocity of the fluids is recorded.

Lenz Law Definition

Lenz’s law states that induced electromotive force with different polarities induces a
current whose magnetic field opposes the change in magnetic flux through the loop in
order to ensure that original flux is maintained through the loop when current flows in
it.

Lenz Law Formula

The Lenz Law is reflected in the formula of Faraday’s law. Here the negative sign is
contributed from Lenz law. The expression is –
Emf=−N(Δϕ/Δt)

Where,
Emf is the induced voltage (also known as electromotive force).
N is the number of loops.
Δϕ Change in magnetic flux.

Δt Change in time.

Lenz Law Applications

Lenz law applications are plenty. Some of them are listed below-

 Eddy current balances

 Metal detectors
 Eddy current dynamometers
 Braking systems on train
 AC generators
 Card readers
 Microphones.

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