MEASUREMENT OF FORCE,

TORQUE AND SPEED

LOAD CELL
A load cell is a force gauge that consists of a transducer that is
used to create an electrical signal whose magnitude is directly
proportional to the force being measured.

Different Types of Load Cells?

There are four common types of these sensors; they are:

– Pneumatic

– Hydraulic

– Strain gauge

– Capacitance

1. Pneumatic Load Cells

Since it is pneumatic, it will deal with air pressure. A pneumatic

load cell consists of an elastic diaphragm which is attached to a
platform surface where the weight will be measured.

There will be an air regulator that will limit the flow of air
pressure to the system and a pressure gauge. Thus, when an
object is placed on a pneumatic load cell it uses pressurized air
or gas to balance out the weight of the object.
The air required to balance out the weight will determine how
heavy the object weights. The pressure gauge can convert the
air pressure reading into an electrical signal.

2. Hydraulic Load Cells

This sensor will work by using fluid, whether water or oil.

These load cells are similar to pneumatic load cells but instead
of air, they use the pressurized liquid.

Hydraulic load cells are consisting of:

– An elastic diaphragm

– A piston with a loading platform on top of the diaphragm

– Oil or water that will be inside the piston

– A bourdon tube pressure gauge

When a load is placed on the loading platform the piston

applies pressure to the liquid contained inside it. The pressure
increase of the liquid is proportional to the applied force or
weight.
After calibrating the pressure, you can accurately measure the
force or weight applied to the hydraulic load cell.
The pressure reading can be read as an analog gauge or it can
be converted into an electric signal from a pressure sensor.
3. Strain Gauge Load Cells

A strain gauge load cell is a transducer that changes in electrical

resistance when under stress or strain.

The electrical resistance is proportional to the stress or strain

placed on the cell making it easy to calibrate into an accurate
measurement.

The electrical resistance from the strain gauge is linear

therefore it can be converted into a force and then a weight if
needed.

A strain gauge load cell is made up of 4 strain gauges in a

“Wheatstone” bridge configuration.
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit that measures
unknown electrical resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge
circuit, one of the legs contains the unknown component.
The “Wheatstone bridge” circuit provides incredibly accurate
measurements. The strain gauges that are in the Wheatstone
bridge are bonded onto a beam which deforms when weight is
applied.

4. Capacitive Load Cells

Capacitive load cells work on the principle of capacitance,

which is the ability of a system to store a charge.

The load cell is made up of two flat plates parallel to each

other. The plates will have a current applied to them and once
the charge is stable it gets stored between the plates.
The amount of charge stored, the capacitance, depends on how
large of a gap between the plates.

When a load is placed on the plate the gap shrinks giving us a

change in the capacitance which can be calculated into a
weight.

The load cell is made up of two flat plates parallel to each

other. The plates will have a current applied to them and once
the charge is stable it gets stored between the plates.
The amount of charge stored, the capacitance, depends on how
large of a gap between the plates.
When a load is placed on the plate the gap shrinks giving us a
change in the capacitance which can be calculated into a
weight.

Load Cell Applications

1. Salt Bag Filling Process

In this application, empty bags are loaded into a machine

where arms will swing down and pick up an empty bag and
place it underneath a funnel.

Above the funnel, there is a fill bin that will dispense salt onto a
conveyor belt with a built-in load cell in order to dispense the
correct amount of salt into the bags.

As the fill bin is dispensing salt, the load cell is giving an analog
input to a PLC which is the current weight on the load cell.
Once the load cell is reading a weight close to the full bag
weight the fill bin will close to a trickle until the correct weight
is determined.

Once the load cell has the full bag weight on it, the conveyor
will start dropping the salt into the funnel and down to the
waiting bag.

The bag will be sealed and removed from the machine so

another empty bag can be loaded.

2. Door Panel Press

Sheets of aluminum will be rolled into a die which will be closed

down onto the aluminum creating a pattern on the door panel.

As the die closes, a load cell is sensing the amount of force

applied on the die and the aluminum.

Once the applied force has reached a predetermined limit the

die will open and the panel will now be removed.

If the applied force is too light or too heavy the panel could be
damaged or not pressed to the correct pattern.

Strain Gauge Load Cells

Strain gauge load cells are the most common. Unlike the
hydraulic and pneumatic designs described below that convert
pressure differentials to measurements, the strain gauge load
cell operates through changes in electrical resistance.
Inside each strain gauge load cell is at least one strain gauge
device. A strain gauge is a thin wire etched in a back-and-forth
 pattern onto a non-conductive substrate material with
connectors at each end of the wire. The strain gauge functions
on the elastic properties of the wire; that is, when a wire is
stretched, its length increases and cross section decreases, and
when compressed, the opposite occurs. In the tension case, the
resistance of the wire will increase, while in the compression
case, the resistance of the wire will decrease.
Strain gauge load cells convert this change in resistance to a
load measurement. Systems using these types of load cells
direct the measured force in a way that causes a deflection
(tension or compression) in the strain gauges. Since these
devices come in a wide variety of shapes and mounting
configurations, the possible load directions (and therefore
measuring applications that use them) are numerous.

Strain Gauge Load Cell Components

Strain gauge load cells consist of:
 A loading platform or system to apply the force,
 One or more strain gauges
 An excitation voltage source
 Output wires to measure a change in voltage caused by
the change in resistance of the strain gauges

Features, Benefits and Disadvantages of Strain Gauge Load

Cells
Strain gauge load cells are the most popular due to their high
accuracy, low price point, and general ease of use. They have a
high frequency response for dynamic loads and are not
sensitive to temperature variations. Because they can fit into a
wide variety of load-mounting configurations, they lend
themselves to almost any industrial application.
Strain gauge load cells are passive transducers meaning they
require an excitation voltage to operate. This can restrict their
 use in areas of limited electrical supply or in areas where
ignition may be an issue.

Hydraulic Load Cells

Hydraulic load cells convert a load to hydraulic pressure. The
measured load is applied to a load platform attached to a
piston. The piston sits in a closed chamber filled with fluid.
When a load is applied, the action of the piston on the
diaphragm pressurizes the liquid. The change in liquid pressure
is directly proportional to the force applied by the load. This
liquid pressure is readable through an attached bourdon tube
pressure gauge.

Hydraulic Load Cell Components

Hydraulic load cells have the following components:
 An elastic diaphragm
 A piston connected to a load platform
 Hydraulic fluid which is usually oil or sometimes water
 Pressure gauge or gauges
 A tube connecting the chamber to the pressure gauge
 Steel housing for the assembly

Features, Benefits and Disadvantages of Hydraulic Load Cells

Because the hydraulic load cell design contains no electrical
components, this type of load cell lends itself to environments
where explosion safety is a concern, or where an outside power
source may be difficult to provide.
On the flip side, hydraulic load cells tend to be more expensive
than other types, making them cost-prohibitive for certain
applications. Hydraulic load cells can typically measure up to
5MN and have an accuracy of about 0.25 to 1.0 percent
of full-scale output. Their resolution is typically about 0.02
percent. Because these load cells are sensitive to ambient
 pressure, the user must reset the readout to zero before each
use.

Pneumatic Load Cells

Pneumatic load cells function similarly to their hydraulic
counterparts in that they convert fluid pressure into a load
measurement. However, the pressurized fluid in a pneumatic
load cell is a type of gas, oftentimes air.
The force to be measured is applied to a loading platform on
one side of a diaphragm, and a pressure supply regulator
introduces a pressurized gas to a chamber on the opposite side
of the diaphragm to balance out the force. A nozzle connected
to a pressure gauge allows some of the pressurized gas to
escape the chamber. The pressure of the gas flowing through
this nozzle is measured. This pressure is proportional to the
force applied.

Pneumatic Load Cell Components

Pneumatic load cells have the following components:
 A loading platform to apply the force
 A steel chamber filled with pressurized gas or air
 An elastic diaphragm connected to the loading platform
that seals the chamber
 An air supply regulator
 Nozzle (bleed valve)
 Pressure gauge

Features, Benefits and Disadvantages of Pneumatic Load Cells

Like their hydraulic counterparts, pneumatic load cells are
explosion resistant and are generally used in applications with
intrinsic safety concerns. The pneumatic load cell is also
tolerant of temperature changes. Finally, this type of load cell is
sensitive to small loads. This makes them practical for systems
requiring real-time accuracy with the lightest of loads, such as
dispensing IV fluids.
 Capacitive Load Cells
Capacitive load cells operate on the ability of a material or
system to store a charge. They consist of two parallel plates
with a gap between them. An electric current is supplied to the
plates until a stable charge forms on each: one with a positive
charge and the other negative. When a load is applied to one of
the plates, the gap narrows causing a stored charge (or
capacitance) between the plates. This charge creates the
output of the load cell, which is then translated to a load
measurement.

Capacitive Load Cell Components

Capacitive load cells consist of:
 A loading platform external to the housing to apply the
force
 An insulated housing containing a free moving and a fixed
plate
 A dielectric material between the plates (which may be
air)
 Electrical wires to the plates
 A rigid rod or connector between the loading platform
and the free moving plate in the housing

Features, Advantages and Disadvantages of Capacitive Load

Cells
Capacitive load cells are highly sensitive and accurate over a
wide range of forces, large and small. They are also rather
simple in design, making them more cost-effective than other
load cell types. Their ability to be hermetically sealed without
compromising their operation makes them a good choice for
food and medical weighing applications where hygiene is an
issue.
Because capacitive load cells operate using an electric charge
they may not be a good choice in flammable environments.
 Also, some dielectric materials are sensitive to temperature,
which can affect the accuracy of the load cell.

Piezoelectric Transducers
Piezoelectric sensors operate based on the piezoelectric effect.
The piezoelectric effect is a natural property of materials such
as quartz crystal and other ceramics.
Piezoelectricity is produced when this polarized crystalline
material is stressed or deformed. The stress then causes a shift
in the orientation of the internal dipoles of the material. It is
similar to di-electricity, which occurs when a charge develops
from a shift of electrons in an insulator. Piezoelectric sensors
can quantify force, pressure, and displacement. Metallic
electrodes bonded to the surface of the material form a
measurable net charge. For proper function, the design must
place these electrodes perpendicular to the applied force.
Both compression and tension forces create this piezoelectric
effect. Compression forces create an opposite polarity to
tension forces. The output voltage is directly proportional to
the applied force.

Piezoelectric Transducer Components

Piezoelectric load cells consist of:
 A loading platform or system to apply the force
 Metallic electrodes bonded to the piezoelectric material
 The piezoelectric material
 Output wires to measure a change in voltage caused by
the change in charge

Features, Benefits and Disadvantages of Piezoelectric

Transducers
A piezoelectric transducer is an active transducer, meaning it
does not require an external power source to generate an
output signal. This characteristic makes this device desirable in
applications where an external power source is inconvenient.
However, its output signal does require amplification as it is
very small.
The piezoelectric effect happens for dynamic forces. Once a
force becomes static, the output of the sensor returns to zero.
Therefore these transducers lend themselves to applications
requiring the measurement of a transient force.
Piezoelectric transducers are more durable than other load
cells, and have a high frequency response.

Torque
Torque is a measure of how much a force acting on an object
causes that object to rotate. The object rotates about an axis,
which we will call the pivot point, and will label 'O'. We will call
the force 'F'. The distance from the pivot point to the point
where the force acts is called the moment arm, and is denoted
by 'r'. Note that this distance, 'r', is also a vector, and points
from the axis of rotation to the point where the force acts.

Torque is defined as Γ=r×F=rFsin(θ)

In other words, torque is the cross product between the

distance vector (the distance from the pivot point to the point
where force is applied) and the force vector, 'a' being the angle
between r and F.

Methods of torque measurement in drive train technology

Torque is an important mechanical quantity in many

applications. Measuring torque precisely, in particular on
rotating parts, places high demands on test bench
manufacturers and users.
 There are two different approaches to determining torque:
the direct and the indirect method.

Direct method
The torque signal is determined through direct torque
measurement in the drive train. Normally, torque flanges are
used for contactless measurement.

The direct method of torque measurement offers many

technological advantages. The flange technology developed by
HBM is characterized by an extremely short design and
enables easy integration of high-quality torque transducers into
test benches. Further advantages include higher measurement
accuracy and the possibility to measure higher rotational speed.

Indirect method
Torque is indirectly determined through measurement of the
electric motor's power at the converter in the drive train.
Torque can be calculated together with a rotational speed
measurement. Modern test and measurement equipment
makes it easy to determine electric power and rotational speed
in electric machines. However, relatively large errors and
thus measurement uncertainties may be caused when
calculating torque, since the power loss and the machine's
operating states are also used in the calculation. Calibration is
also very difficult. The reaction forcemeasurement method is
used for indirect determination of torque. The force applied to
the end of the lever arm is measured using a force transducer.
Torque is determined indirectly through measurement of
certain auxiliaryquantities in the drive train. This includes all
methods involving measurement either of the strain resulting
from shaft torsion on its surface or of the shaft's torsion angle.
In both cases, torque is then calculated using the determined
auxiliary quantity.

Drawbacks of the indirect method

Torque measurement using a force transducer

Determining torque through reaction torque measurement
using a force transducer - e.g. a self-aligning brake -
requires complicated mechanics. Interference effects such as
variations in the self-aligning brake over time or expansion of
the lever arm resulting from temperature variations need to be
taken into account; otherwise they may cause measurement
errors.
Furthermore, this method is not suitable for dynamic
tests because of the large masses involved, since they virtually
act as a "mechanical low pass

Determination via auxiliary quantities

When determining the measurand torque using auxiliary
quantities, for example, strain and torsion angle, it is essential
to allow for individual errors resulting
from diameter and input shaft length tolerances or from a
measurement error in the torsion angle. In addition, errors
resulting from lacking or limited temperature
compensation need to be taken into account when applying
these measurement methods.
Speed

Speed is measured as the ratio of distance to the time in

which the distance was covered. Speed is a scalar quantity as
it has only direction and no magnitude.

The formula of speed is given in the table below:

S= D/T
Where,

 s is the speed in m.s-1

 d is the distance traveled in m
 t is the time taken in s

Types of Speed
There are four types of speed and they are:

 Uniform speed
 Variable speed
 Average speed
 Instantaneous speed
Uniform speed: A object is said to be in uniform speed when
the object covers equal distance in equal time intervals.

Variable speed: A object is said to be in variable speed when

the object covers a different distance at equal intervals of
times.
Average speed: Average speed is defined as the uniform speed
which is given by the ratio of total distance travelled by an
object to the total time taken by the object.

Instantaneous speed: When an object is moving with variable

speed, then the speed of that object at any instant of time is
known as instantaneous speed.

Electrical Tachometer

The tachometer use for measuring the rotational speed or

angular velocity of the machine which is coupled to it. It works
on the principle of relative motion between the magnetic field
and shaft of the coupled device. The relative motion induces
the EMF in the coil which is placed between the constant
magnetic field of the permanent magnet. The develops EMF is
directly proportional to the speed of the shaft.

Mechanical and electrical are the two types of the tachometer.

The mechanical tachometer measures the speed of shaft
regarding revolution per minutes.

The electrical tachometer converts the angular velocity into an

electrical voltage. The electrical tachometer has more
advantages over the mechanical tachometer. Thus it is mostly
used for measuring the rotational speed of the shaft. Depends
on the natures of the induced voltage the electrical tachometer
is categorized into two types.

 AC Tachometer Generator
 DC Tachometer Generator
DC Tachometer Generator
Permanent magnet, armature, commutator, brushes, variable
resistor, and the moving coil voltmeter are the main parts of
the DC tachometer generator. The machine whose speed is to
be measured is coupled with the shaft of the DC tachometer
generator.

The DC tachometer works on the principle that when the

closed conductor moves in the magnetic field, EMF induces in
the conductor. The magnitude of the induces emf depends on
the flux link with the conductor and the speed of the shaft.

The armature of the DC generator revolves between the

constant field of the permanent magnet. The rotation induces
the emf in the coil. The magnitude of the induced emf is
proportional to the shaft speed.

The commutator converts the alternating current of the

armature coil to the direct current with the help of the brushes.
The moving coil voltmeter measures the induced emf. The
polarity of the induces voltage determines the direction of
motion of the shaft. The resistance is connected in series with
the voltmeter for controlling the heavy current of the
armature.

The emf induces in the dc tachometer generator is given as

PN z
E 
60 a

Where, E – generated voltage

Φ – flux per poles in Weber
P- number of poles
N – speed in revolution per minutes
Z – the number of the conductor in armature windings.
a – number of the parallel path in the armature windings.
 E N
E  KN
P z
K  cons tan t  
60 a

Advantages of the DC Generator

The following are the advantages of the DC Tachometer.

 The polarity of the induces voltages indicates the

direction of rotation of the shaft.
 The conventional DC type voltmeter is used for measuring
the induces voltage.
Disadvantages of DC Generator

 The commutator and brushes require the periodic

maintenance.
 The output resistance of the DC tachometer is kept high
as compared to the input resistance. If the large current is
induced in the armature conductor, the constant field of the
permanent magnet will be distorted

AC Tachometer Generator

The DC tachometer generator uses the commutator and

brushes which have many disadvantages. The AC tachometer
generator designs for reducing the problems. The AC
tachometer has stationary armature and rotating magnetic
field. Thus, the commutator and brushes are absent in AC
tachometer generator.

The rotating magnetic field induces the EMF in the stationary

coil of the stator. The amplitude and frequency of the induced
emf are equivalent to the speed of the shaft. Thus, either
amplitude or frequency is used for measuring the angular
velocity.

The below mention circuit is used for measuring the speed of

the rotor by considering the amplitude of the induced voltage.
The induces voltages are rectified and then passes to the
capacitor filter for smoothening the ripples of rectified
voltages.

The stator of the generator consists two windings, i.e., the

reference and quadrature winding. Both the windings are
mounted 90° apart from each other. The rotor of the
tachometer is made with thin aluminium cup, and it is placed
between the field structure.

The rotor is made of the highly inductive material which has

low inertia. The input is provided to the reference winding, and
the output is obtained from the quadrature winding. The
rotation of rotor between the magnetic field induces the
voltage in the sensing winding. The induces voltage is
proportional to the speed of the rotation.

Advantages

 The drag cup Tachogenerator generates the ripple free

output voltage.
 The cost of the generator is also very less.
Disadvantage

The nonlinear relationship obtains between the output voltage

and input speed when the rotor rotates at high speed.