Five factors that can affect your weighing

system's accuracy
You can ensure that your weighing system performs accurately by
choosing components suited to your application and taking steps to
control environmental and other forces acting on the system. This article
discusses five factors that can affect the weighing system's accuracy and
provides advice on selecting, installing, and operating the system to
handle these factors.

Weighing to measure dry bulk material quantities and flowrates has

several benefits: Unlike volumetric measurement, weighing can measure a
material quantity without correction factors for the material's bulk
density. Weighing doesn't require contact with the material, making it
suitable for measuring corrosive materials and operating in corrosive
environments. It's also a widely accepted means of quantifying packaged
products for sale.

A weighing system can take any of several forms but typically includes one
or more load cells that support (or suspend) a weigh vessel or platform, a
junction box, and a weight controller. When a load is applied to the weigh
vessel or platform, a portion of the load is transmitted to each load cell.
Each cell sends an electrical signal proportional to the load it senses via a
cable to the junction box. The load cell signals are summed in the junction
box and sent via one larger cable to a weight controller, which converts
the summed signal to a weight reading. This weight reading's accuracy can
be affected by the system components' quality and the system's
installation and operation in your environment.

To help you choose high-quality weighing system components, take

advantage of the expertise of weighing equipment suppliers. An
important part of this selection process is determining how the system
will be installed and what factors can affect its operation once it's up and
running in your process line. Consider how these five factors can affect
your system's weighing accuracy:
 1. Load cell accuracy.
2. Load factors.
3. Environmental forces.
4. Interference with signal transmission.
5. Instrumentation and control.

1. Load cell accuracy

Selecting a top-quality load cell for your weighing system is the first step in
obtaining weighing accuracy. The load cell (also called a load
sensor or transducer) is a piece of machined metal that bends with the
load's mechanical force and converts the mechanical force into an
electrical signal. The bend doesn't exceed the metal's elasticity and is
measured by strain gauges bonded at points on the cell. As long as the
load is applied to the proper spot on the load cell, the strain gauges
provide a proportional electrical signal.

The key specifications for a load cell that will provide accurate weight
information are:

 Nonlinearity: ±0.018 percent of the load cell's rated output.

 Hysteresis: ±0.025 percent of the load cell's rated output.
 Nonrepeatability: ±0.01 percent of the load cell's rated output.
 Creep: ±0.01 percent of the load cell's rated output in 5 minutes.
 Temperature effect on output: ±0.0008 percent of the load per
degree Fahrenheit.
 Temperature effect on zero: ±0.001 percent of the load cell's rated
output per degree Fahrenheit.

Understanding the specifications.  Although every specification won't

necessarily apply to your weighing system installation, it's important to
understand each specification to determine the load cell's combined
accuracy.
Nonlinearity  is the load cell calibration curve's maximum deviation from a
straight line, starting at zero load and ending at the cell's maximum rated
capacity. Nonlinearity measures the cell's weighing error over its entire
operating range. The worst-case nonlinearity specification of ±0.018
percent is seen over the load cell's full range. The smaller the change in
weight on your load cell, the smaller the error resulting from nonlinearity.

Hysteresis  is the difference between two load cell output readings for the
same applied load -- one reading obtained by increasing the load from
zero, the other by decreasing the load from the load cell's maximum rated
capacity. As with nonlinearity, the worst-case ±0.025 percent hysteresis
specification is seen over the load cell's full range, and the error caused by
hysteresis diminishes with small weight changes. In an application such as
batching, where you typically need accurate weight measurements only
during filling, you can ignore the error caused by hysteresis. Hysteresis
error normally falls into a different region on a load cell's calibration curve
than nonlinearity error, as shown in Figure 1. As a result, the specifications
for these two errors are combined on some load cells into an algebraic
sum, called a combined error specification, of ±0.03 percent.

Nonrepeatability  is the maximum difference between load cell output

readings for repeated loadings under identical loading conditions (that is,
either increasing the load from zero or decreasing the load from the load
cell's maximum rated capacity) and environmental conditions. The
nonrepeatability specification is ±0.01 percent over the load cell's full
range. Nonrepeatability can affect the weight measurement in any
weighing application. You can determine the worst-case nonrepeatability
specification by adding the nonrepeatability error to the load cell's
combined error.

Creep  is the change in load cell output over time when a load remains on
the cell for a long time. In a 2- to 3-minute batch or filling cycle, creep isn't
a significant problem. But if you use load cells to monitor inventory in a
storage silo, you need to consider creep effects.
Temperature changes  can cause weighing errors. Most load cells are
temperature-compensated to reduce these errors. But if your weighing
system is subject to large temperature changes during the weighing cycle
-- for example, if an outdoor weigh vessel is exposed to low overnight
temperatures but heats up quickly in the daytime sun -- consider how
temperature can affect the load cell output. If the only significant change
affecting your weighing system is between summer and winter
temperatures, you can recalibrate the load cells once when the season
changes to correct for any temperature-caused errors.

Temperature changes affect load cell output by changing the load cell's
sensitivity, and you must consider this effect unless you perform a new
calibration for each large temperature change. The temperature effect on
the load cell at zero load causes the cell's entire output range to shift. But
if the load cell rezeroes (that is, tares in the net-weight mode) before it
starts the weighing cycle -- such as in a batching application -- you don't
need to be concerned about this temperature effect on zero load.

Considering your load cell's response time.  The load cell's response time
is another factor to consider for some applications. The typical load cell
behaves like a stiff spring that oscillates, so to achieve an accurate weight
reading, the load cell must settle -- that is, stop oscillating -- in less time
than the required weighing period. While load cell response time is
typically not important for a batching application, a high-speed
checkweighing or rotary filling machine requires fast-responding load
cells. Such load cells dampen their own natural oscillating frequency when
a load is applied to them. However, the load cells don't reject vibrations
applied to them from outside sources, such as nearby equipment, so you
still need to isolate the load cells from such vibration sources (covered in
more detail in the later section, "3: Environmental forces").

2. Load factors
Ensure that the load is applied to each load cell in your weighing system
as specified by the manufacturer. An improperly applied load, such as a
twisting load, causes the strain gauges in the cell to experience strain and
send a signal change proportional to the twisting rather than the load's
weight.

For accurate weighing, the load cells alone must support all the weight to
be measured. For example, rigid conduit connections and rigidly mounted
piping on a weigh vessel will support some of the load and prevent the
total load from being transmitted to the load cells. To avoid this problem,
use flexible connections that won't support part of the load. And if you
use bumpers or check rods to keep the weigh vessel from swinging and
swaying, make sure that they don't support any of the load.

Correctly align each load point assembly -- that is, each load cell and its
mounting hardware -- to ensure that the mounting hardware channels the
load directly through the load cell. For example, for compression-
mounting load cells under a hopper, align each load point assembly
directly under the hopper leg to avoid pulling or pushing between
assemblies on the other legs. Each load cell should be level, and all should
be on the same plane to ensure that they share the load equally.

Make sure that the floor or structure under the load cells is strong enough
to bear the weight of the vessel and its contents -- as well as the weight of
other equipment resting on the same floor or structure -- without flexing.
This will ensure that the load point assemblies remain level ±0.5 percent
from zero to full load and prevent unwanted side loads on the load cells
that can impair the weighing system's accuracy.

If your weigh vessel has long spindly legs, the legs can spread apart as
material is loaded into the vessel. This introduces side loads to the load
cells and can cause system binding, which prevents the load cells from
sensing the full load. You can add cross bracing to the legs to strengthen
the structure and preserve your weighing accuracy.

3. Environmental forces
Ensure that only the weight force is transmitted to each load cell. Other
forces, including environmental forces such as wind loading, shock
loading, vibration, large temperature changes, and pressure differentials,
can produce errors in the load cell signal.

Wind loading.  Wind loading can affect an outdoor weighing system or a

low-capacity indoor system. For example, outdoors, a 30-mph crosswind
on a weigh vessel exerts forces on the load cells that have nothing to do
with weight, causing the windward cells to sense a lighter load and the
leeward cells to sense a heavier load. In such a case use higher-capacity
load cells to prevent overloading the leeward cells. Indoors, an active
overhead air conditioning vent can also create inaccurate small-increment
(such as 1-ounce) measurements on a low-capacity weighing system, such
as a small platform scale. You can use a Plexiglas cover over the platform
scale to block or divert the stray air currents.

For accurate weighing, the load cells alone must support all the weight
to be measured.

Shock loading.  Shock loading occurs when heavy material is dumped onto
a weighing system, causing forces greater than the system's rated capacity
and damaging the system. You can use higher-capacity load cells that can
handle this shock loading, but this will degrade the system's resolution
(the smallest increment that the system can weigh). Controlling the
material flow onto the weighing system with a feeder, specially designed
loading chute, or other device can prevent shock-loading damage.

Vibration.  Vibration from process equipment and other sources near the
weighing system can cause the load cells to measure the weight of
material as well as vibration that's transmitted to them, which the cells
sense as mechanical noise. You can reduce or prevent vibration effects by
isolating the weighing system from vibration sources when possible or
using weighing system instrumentation with algorithms that remove
vibration effects.
Large temperature changes.  Whether your weigh vessel is indoors or
outdoors, large temperature changes can cause it to expand or contract.
This causes errors in the weight reading and can damage the load cells. If
your weighing system is exposed to large temperature shifts, install load
cells and mounting hardware that can handle the vessel's expansion and
contraction.

Pressure differentials.  A pressure differential can create weighing errors

by applying unwanted forces to the weighing system. A pressure
differential can occur, for example, when a weigh vessel is installed
between a pressurized plant floor and another floor at ambient pressure.
To minimize weighing errors, calibrate the load cells to the pressurized
floor's constant pressure level. If the pressurization isn't constant, install
the weigh vessel elsewhere.

A pressure differential can create weighing errors by applying unwanted

forces to the weighing system.

Another form of pressure differential is created in an unvented weigh

vessel: When material flows quickly into a closed weigh vessel, it displaces
a volume of air equal to the material volume. If the air can't escape from
the vessel through a vent, the flexible connections that attach the material
inlet and outlet piping to the weigh vessel will expand as the undisplaced
air floods into it, and this expansion will apply side forces to the load cells,
creating weighing errors. To prevent this problem, properly vent your
weigh vessel.

4. Interference with signal transmission

In addition to ensuring that the load cells measure only the desired
weight, it's equally important to ensure that the weight controller
measures only the load cell electrical signal. Radio frequency interference
(RFI), electromechanical interference (EMI), moisture, and temperature can
all interfere with this electrical signal.
RFI and EMI.  Just as vibration is mechanical noise (that is, interference) to
a load cell, RFI and EMI are electrical noise to the load cell signal sent from
the cells to the weight controller. RFI and EMI sources include lightning,
portable two-way radios, large power lines, static electricity, solenoids,
and electromechanical relays. One major step toward preventing these
electric noise sources from affecting your weighing accuracy is to isolate
the load cell low-voltage signal (typically equal to 1 millionth of a penlight
battery's output) in a shielded cable and then route the cable in a conduit
separate from other cables. But be aware that the load cell cable shield
can also be an open door for electrical noise. To prevent the noise from
affecting your load cell function, properly ground the shield by tying it at
only one end to a true ground, which will prevent the shield from forming
a ground loop.

Moisture.  Moisture that enters the weighing system's junction box can
wick itself into the cables to each load cell and reduce the capacitance
between signal lines. This causes the load cell excitation lines (the lines
carrying electrical energy to the cells) to couple with the signal lines (the
lines carrying the cells' signals back to the junction box), creating electrical
noise that can affect the weighing accuracy. To avoid this, use a
waterproof NEMA 4-rated junction box and plug any unused junction box
holes. If moisture is present in your environment, also use load cells that
are hermetically sealed at both the strain gauge area and the cable entry.
The strain gauge area should be welded shut. The cable entry, which is the
most vulnerable to moisture because moisture can wick up through the
cable, should have a welded fitting that includes a glass-to-metal hermetic
header.

Temperature.  A load cell cable conduit that's subject to large temperature

changes or that runs more than 50 feet from the junction box to the
weight controller can be affected by temperature fluctuations, which
cause resistance changes in the cable. This can cause excitation changes,
in turn causing load cell signal changes. To prevent these temperature
problems, use six-wire load cell cable, which allows the weight controller
to make ratiometric readings of the load cell signal that ignore excitation-
change-induced changes.

5. Instrumentation and control

Following the advice in the previous four sections will ensure that your
load cell signal arrives at the weight controller in the cleanest form
possible. But chances are, the signal still won't be absolutely clean. Why
not? Remember that the load cell transmits a signal that represents
mechanical force, and vibration is a mechanical force. Similarly, the weight
controller measures an electrical signal, and RFI and EMI are  electrical
signals. But even if you can't entirely eliminate mechanical and electrical
noise sources, you can select a weight controller that helps clean up less-
than-perfect weight signals and improves weighing accuracy.

How a weight controller cleans up weight signals.  Let's take a look at how
a weight controller can clean up the weight signal from a load cell.
Consider the example of a signal coming from a typical weigh hopper, as
shown in Figure 2a. Theoretically, the weight signal should move smoothly
upward on the Figure 2a plot as material enters the hopper. But in reality,
the signal may roll slowly, caused by the hopper's swinging and swaying or
by material entering the hopper in pulses, such as from an improperly
installed auger. Mechanical vibration, such as from a hopper agitator or
nearby process equipment, or electrical noise, such as from large power
lines nearby, can also cause fast jitter in the signal.

If the signal enters a weight controller equipped with an analog low-pass

filter (typically rated from 5 to 20 hertz), the filter will strip off random
jitter -- thus providing analog averaging -- and yield a signal similar to that
in Figure 2b.

A weight controller equipped with a dual-slope, analog-to-digital converter

can also help digitally average other random signal fluctuations. Once the
controller digitizes the signal, it can average the readings to smooth out
the slow rolling and yield a representative signal like that in Figure 2c.
Such digital averaging is especially useful for averaging from 1 to 250
readings per weighing cycle when the weighing system is set up to take
weight readings at single-unit increments (for example, at 1-pound
increments rather than 5-pound increments on a system with a 200-
pound range). In some applications, you may have to use a weight
controller that also provides built-in proprietary algorithms that
automatically eliminate the effects of signal fluctuations down to 0.25
hertz.

Weight controller requirements.  The weight controller requires several

other features to ensure weight accuracy. The controller should have an
analog-to-digital converter that can be synchronized with a 60-hertz line
frequency to avoid the problem of "60-hertz hum" caused by noise from
60-hertz power lines and equipment. The controller's internal components
should provide proper analog signal shielding to isolate the signal from
stray interference. The controller's analog circuitry should also have high-
grade electrical components to accurately process the load cells' low-
voltage weight signals.

Finally, consider three key weight controller specifications to ensure that

your weighing system is accurate:

 Nonlinearity: ±0.01 percent of span (that is, the weighing system's

selected operating range).
 Temperature effect on zero: ±0.0027 percent of span per degree
Fahrenheit.
 Temperature effect on output: ±0.0027 percent of span per degree
Fahrenheit.

As with a load cell, nonlinearity effects on the weight controller are

negligible for small weight changes. You can also ignore the temperature
effect on zero if the controller tares before starting the weighing cycle.
However, you do need to consider how temperature effects on output can
affect your weighing accuracy.

What accuracy you can expect

Let's compute the worst-case total weighing error for an example
weighing system to see how the system's components affect accuracy.
We'll consider the worst-case total error for only the load cells and weight
controller in a gain-in-weight batching system.

This system weighs 400 pounds of material in a 100-pound weigh hopper,

requiring the load cells to support a total of at least 500 pounds. The
hopper is suspended from three load cells, each with a rated capacity of
200 pounds, yielding a total capacity of 600 pounds. A 20°F temperature
change also occurs between seasonal system calibrations.

In a batching process, we're concerned only with the weighing system

components' specifications for nonlinearity, nonrepeatability, and
temperature effect on output, and nonlinearity error isn't a concern
because batching is a sequence of partial weighments.

As a result, the formula for computing the system's worst-case total error
is:

[(IT)2 + (LN)2 + (LT)2]1/2

where IT is the instrument's (weight controller's) temperature effect on

output (0.000027 x 600 pounds x 20°F), LN is the load cell's
nonrepeatability (0.0001 x 600 pounds), and LT is the load cell's
temperature effect on output (0.000008 x 500 pounds x 20°F). In this
example, the worst-case total error is 0.34 pounds. Remember that this is
a worst-case number; a correctly installed weighing system will yield a
lower error.

A final caution
Achieving this kind of weighing accuracy means considering many factors,
both mechanical and operational, that can affect your weighing system.
Choosing quality components especially suited to your application will go
a long way toward ensuring that your system provides the accuracy you
need. These components typically have impressive worst-case
specifications, and their actual performance is usually better than the
specification. As a general rule, select load cells and a weight controller
with accuracies 10 times better than your desired system accuracy. And
pay close attention to how you install and operate the system to prevent
mechanical forces and electrical noise from reducing your weighing
accuracy.