Gen Physics q2 Module 3
Gen Physics q2 Module 3
Gen Physics q2 Module 3
√
1. underdamped – the system oscillates with decreasing amplitude
T μ is its linear mass density in
until it become zero v= where T is the tension in N,
Example: a swing pushed just once μ
2. critically damped –It returns to equilibrium without oscillating. It kg/m, and v is the speed in m/s.
returns to equilibrium faster than overdamped. Linear mass density μ is the mass of the string divided by is length.
Example: door closing
3. overdamped – A spring mechanism that closes the door gradually
√ √
while singing 250 N
T = = 215.5 m/s ≈ 216 m/s
collapsing of buildings and other structures during v=
earthquakes μ 5.38 x 10−3 kg/m
√
2. Electromagnetic waves can travel in a vacuum. E
Examples: light, radio waves, microwaves The speed of the longitudinal wave is given by the equation: v=
Waves maybe longitudinal or transverse. ρ
A transverse wave is one in which the medium are Where E is the elastic modulus of the medium in N/m 2 and ρ is its
√
vibrating perpendicularly to the direction of wave propagation. The Y , where Y is the
top of the wave is called crest while the bottom of the wave is called density in kg/m3. Specifically for solids, v=
trough. Crest is the point of maximum upward displacement from ρ
equilibrium position while trough is the point of maximum downward Young’s modulus of the solid and ρ is its density.
√
displacement from equilibrium position. All electromagnetic waves
For fluids (liquids and gases), v=
β , where β is the bulk
are transverse waves.
A longitudinal wave is one in which the particles of the ρ
medium vibrate parallel to the direction of wave propagation. It is modulus of the flud and ρ is its density.
composed of compressions, where particles of the medium are closer Example 4
together, and rarefactions where they are farther apart. Soundwaves A dynamite explodes and it sounds propagates through the sea where
are longitudinal waves. the temperature is 25oC. The sound of the explosion also propagates
through the air at a temperature of 25oC. What will be the difference A special case of interference occurs when two waves of equal
in the time of arrivals between two signal at a station that is 5 km frequency and amplitude but travelling in opposite direction meet.
away? (bulk modulus of seawater = 2.0 x 109 N/m2; density of The result is a standing wave pattern consisting of nodes and
seawater = 10025 kg/m3; molar mass of air = 0.029 kg). antinodes. Nodes are points where the particles of the medium are not
Solution: displaced from their equilibrium position. Antinodes are points
In seawater, where particles experience maximum displacement.
√ √
9 2 The wavelength of sound produced is twice its length ( λ = 2L).
β = 2.0 x 10 N /m
v= The string can also vibrate at other frequencies that are integral
ρ 1025 kg/m
3
multiples of the
3 3 fundamental frequency.
¿ 1.39 x 10 m/s ≈ 1.4 x 10 m/ s
These frequencies are
d 5000 m called harmonic
An so, t = = = 3.59 s
v 1.39 x 103 m/ s frequencies.
In air, v
f N =N
√
, where N =
γRT 2L
v= where R is the universal gas constant equal to 8.314
1,2,3….If N = 1, the
M
J/mol.K, T is the temperature in kelvin, and M is the molar mass in frequency emitted is the
fundamental frequency. It
kg/mol. γ has an approximate value of 1.40 for air and other diatomic
is also called first
gases. It is approximately equal to 1.66 for monatomic gases. harmonic. If N = 2, the frequency is called second harmonic., and so
√
on. All frequencies higher than the fundamental are called overtones.
J Thus, for the vibrating string, the second harmonic is called first
v=¿ 1.39( 8.314 mol . K )(298 K) = 344.6 m/s ≈ 345 overtone, the third is called second overtone and so on.
Example
0.029 kg / mol The fundamental frequency of a string is 200 Hz. Find the first three
m/s overtones.
d 5000 m Solution:
And so, t = = =14.50 s First overtone = second harmonic = 2(200 Hz) = 400 Hz
v 344.6 m/ s
Second overtone = third harmonic = 3(200 Hz) = 600 Hz
Time difference = 14-50 s – 3.59 s = 10.91 s
Third overtone = fourth harmonic = 4(200 Hz) = 800 Hz
Therefore the time of their arrivals differs by 10.91 s ≈ 11 s .
SOUND BASICS
Energy Transmission by Wave Sound is a longitudinal wave created by vibrating objects and
A strong earthquake may cause buildings and other capable of producing a sensation in our auditory system. The audible
infrastructure to collapse. An intense sound may cause deafness, frequency range for humans is from 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. Sounds with
either temporary or permanent. Sunlight makes photosynthesis and frequencies lower than 20 Hz are called infrasounds. Some animals
life possible here on Earth. We feel the force of water waves while such as whales and elephants communicate using infrasounds. Sound
swimming in the beach. All these are pieces of evidence that energy with frequencies higher than 20 000Hz are called ultrasounds.
is indeed carried by waves. Ultrasounds can be used to produced images of soft
Waves transfer energy but not matter. tissues like the liver, spleen, kidney, pancreas, abdomen, pelvis, heart
When a sinusoidal wave passes through a medium, each and fetus.
particle of the medium moves in simple harmonic motion. Speed of Sound
The total energy of the particle is: The speed of sound in a medium like solid, liquid or gas can be
1 2 determined using the following formula for the sound of longitudinal
E= kA wave in the previous lesson. Air is a common medium where sound
2
travel. The speed of sound in air as a function of temperature was
But k =4 π 2 m f 2. Therefore, E = 2 π 2 mf 2 A 2 determined by Isaac Newton and is given by this equation:
The energy of the mechanical wave is proportional of the m
square of its frequency and square of its amplitude. v=331 +(0.6 m/s .℃)T c
Example 6 s
The ratio of the energy of wave A to energy of Wave B is 1: 4. If all The speed of sound in air is 331 m/s at 0 ℃ . For each Celsius degree
other factors are the same, what is the ratio of their amplitudes? rise in temperature, the speed of sound in air increase by 0.6 m/s.
Since all other factors are equal,
E1 A 21 Characteristics of Sound
= 1. pitch - refers to the highness or lowness of a sound. IT depends
E2 A 22 upon the frequency of the vibrating object.
√ √
2. Loudness – It is closely associated with its intensity. Sound
A1 E 1 1 intensity is perceived by the human ear as loudness. Greater intensity
= 1= =
A2 E2 4 2 means louder sound.
Interference The human ear can tolerate a wide range of intensities. The faintest
Interference occurs when two or more waves meet while passing sound that we can hear is called threshold of hearing and has an
through the same medium at the same time. According to the intensity of 10-12 W/m2. The loudest tolerable but painful sound has an
superposition principle, when two or more waves travel intensity of 1 W/m2.. This intensity is called threshold of pain.
simultaneously in the same medium, each wave proceed Intensities of sound are oftentimes compared on logarithmic scale.
independently of the others. The resulting disturbance is the sum of The unit of intensity level in this scale is decibel, abbreviated as dB.
the individual waves. Interference may be totally constructive, totally I
β=10 log , where Io is the threshold of hearing equal to 1 x 10 -
destructive, or partially destructive. Constructive interference Io
happens when tow waves of the same frequency, in phase and 12
W/m2.
travelling in the same direction meet. Total destructive interference 3. Quality or timbre is a property of a tone that distinguishes it from
occurs when two waves of the same amplitude and frequency but are another tone of the same pitch and intensity produced by a different
180o out of phase with each other meet. The waves completely cancel instrument.
each other out and there will be no resultant wave. Partial destructive Hermann Helmholtz found out that the quality of sound is determined
interference happens when the abovementioned waves have different by the number and relative intensities of the harmonics superimposed
amplitudes. The resultant wave has an amplitude equal to the with the fundamental.
difference of the amplitudes of the component waves. Examples:
Standing Waves in String
( )
1. What is the sound intensity level in decibel at the threshold of v
'
hearing? f= f.
Solution: v−v s
I When the source is moving away, the wavelength becomes longer by
β=10 log an amount v s T and the frequency perceived by the observer is:
Io
= 10 log
1 x 10−12 W /m2
1 x 10−12 W /m2
=0 dB f=
'
( v+vv ) f
s
.
4. Beats is the alterations in loudness when twos sounds of slightly Case 3: Source in Motion; Observer in Motion
different frequencies are produced at the same time, a regular rise and When both the source and observer are in motion, the apparent
fall in the loudness. The beat frequency f B is equal to the difference frequency is given by:
between the frequencies of the two sound waves f ∧f ' . v ± vo
f
'
=[ ¿f
f B =f −f ' v±vs
5. Echo is the reflection of sound that maybe reflected from walls, In the numerator, the plus sign is used when the observer is moving
mountains, ground and other barriers. Sound persists in the human toward the source; minus sign if moving away. In the denominator,
ear for about 0.10 s. The human ear can distinguish the echo from the the minus sign is used if the source is moving toward the observer;
original sound only if they arrive at the human ear with a time plus sign if moving away.
difference of at least 0.1 s. Example:
Sonar, an acronym for sound navigation and ranging, is an The frequency of a fire siren is 1750 Hz. (a) What frequency will a
underwater system for detecting and locating objects by means of stationary person hear if the fire truck is moving toward him at 18.0
echoes. Sonar devices emit sounds and measure the time it takes for m/s. (b) What frequency will a person hear if he moves away from
an echo to return. Sonar is used to determine the depth of water and the fire truck at 8.0 m/s? Assume the speed of sound is 340 m/s.
to locate as school of fish, a submarine, or sunken ships. The Solution:
wreckage of Titanic was discovered at a depth of more than 3 600 m a.
( )
using sonar. m
340
( v−vv ) f = 340 m −18.0 m 1750 Hz=1847.8 Hz
Echolocation is the use of sound waves and their corresponding
' s
echoes to navigate. Blind people use echolocation to move around f=
using cues from the sound produced – for example, by taping their s
canes. Bats, dolphins and toothed whales also used echolocation to s s
navigate and find prey.
b.
Doctors use echocardiography or diagnostic cardiac ultrasound to
( )
detect heart problems. A probe called a transducer produces sound m
340 −8.0 m/s
v−v o
( ) s
waves as it passes over a patient’s chest. '
Example: f= f= 1750 Hz=1708.8 H z
In an effort to locate a sunken ship, a sonar generator sends waves in
v 340 m/s
seawater. The echoes reflected by the sunken ship were received after
18.0 s. How deep is the sunken ship? (bulk modulus of seawater = 2.0
x 109 N/m2; density of seawater = 1025 kg/m3.
Activity 1
Solution:
First compute for the velocity of sound in seawater. A. Solve the following problems.
√ √
9 3 1.It takes 365.25 days for the earth to complete one revolution around
β 2.0 x 10 N /m the sun. Calculate the (a) period, (b) frequency, and (c) angular
v s= = = 1396.8 m/s
ρ 1025 kg/m
3 frequency of earth as it revolves around the sun.
To calculate the depth, use half of the time that the echo was reflected 2. A vertical spring has a force constant of 125 N/m. By how much
by the sunken ship. will the spring be compressed if a mass of 0.0525 kg is placed on top
Depth = (1396.8 m/s)(9.0 s ) = 12571 m of it?
Doppler Effect is the apparent change in the pitch (frequency) of the 3. A simple pendulum of length 60.0 cm takes 6 s to make 12
perceived sound due to the motion of the source and/or observer. complete back-and-forth motion.
Doppler Effect case by case: (a) Find its period (b) What will be its period when its length is
increase to 240.0 cm?
f is the frequency of sound fromt he source
'
f is the apparent frequency 4. Compare the apparent frequencies of a 2450 Hz source moving
v is the velocity of sound ∈medium ,usually ∈air away from you at 25 m/s and when you are moving away from the
source at 25 m/s.
v s is the veloctyi of source of sound
v o is the velocity of the observer B. Answer the following briefly.
' 1. What causes periodic motion?
λ is theapparent wavelength 2. What would the world be without waves?
λ is the wabelengthof sound ¿ the source 3. How is sound produce?
( v−vv ) f .
other
f '= o 2. Relate pressure to force, area, fluid density and depth
3. Calculate hydrostatics and atmospheric pressure at any
altitude
Case 2. Source in Motion; Observer at rest
4. Use Pascal’s principle to analyze fluids
The wavelength of sound reaching the observer is 5. Calculate the buoyant force exerted by a fluid on the body.
λ ' =λ−v s T , and the frequency that the observer is the velocity of 6. Solve problems involving fluid dynamics
sound divided by the shortened wavelength.
Pressure is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is pascal (Pa), named after the
Density French scientist Blaise Pascal. One Pascal is equivalent to 1
Fluids mechanics is the study of the properties of fluids. newton/m2. The atmosphere (atm) is a commonly used unit of
Hydrostatics or fluids statics deals with fluids at rest. pressure and it defined as the average air pressure at sea level.
Hydrodynamics of fluids dynamics deals with fluids in motion. Example:
Mass density or simply density is a property of matter defined as the A volunteer weighing 750 N sits on a bed of 150 closely spaced nails.
ratio of its mass (m) to its volume (V). In equation form, Each nail has a cross-sectional area of 0.00025 m 2. Assuming that
m the volunteer occupies the entire space of 150 nails, (a) what pressure
ρ= do the nails exert on the volunteer? (b) If instead the volunteer sits on
V only one nail, how much pressure does the nail exert on him?
Its Si unit is kg/m3, while its cgs unit is g/cm3. Solution:
Density of Solid a. On the bed of nails,
Example:
F1 750 N 4
A 0.854 kg cylinder has a diameter of 13.4 cm and a height of 25.2 P= = 2
=20 000 Pa=2.0 x 10 Pa
cm. What is the density of this cylinder? A 150(0.00025 m )
Solution: b. On one nail,
First, the volume of the cylinder must be determined. F1 750 N
v=π r h
2 P= = 2
=3.0 x 10 6 Pa
A (0.00025 m )
13.4 cm This means that if the volunteer sits on only one nail, the pressure
r= =6.70 cm
2 would be 150 time greater than when he sits on the bed of nails.
v=3.14 ¿
Hydrostatic Pressure
m 0.854 kg 3
ρ= = =240 kg/m Hydrostatic pressure is the force per unit area that a confined liquid
V 3.552 x 10−3 m 3 exerts on all parts of its container or on any part of the object
immersed in it.
Density a Liquid F = w = mg = ( ρV ¿ g
The density of a liquid is usually determined by using a bottle called Since V = Ah,
pycnometer with a known volume capacity. The pycnometer is F = ρAhg
weighed (in terms of mass) twice. (1) when it is empty and (2) when Therefore, the pressure due to the weight of the liquid is
it is filled with the given liquid. The mass of the liquid is the
F ρghA
difference between these two masses. P= = =ρgh
Examples: A A
1. A 235 mL pycnometer has a mass of 500 g when empty and 670 Hydrostatic Paradox
when filled with an unknown liquid. What is the density of the liquid Simon Stevin, a Flemish mathematician, physicist, and engineer,
in kg/m3? discovered the so-called “hydrostatic paradox”, that is, the downward
Solution: pressure of a liquid does not depend on the shape of the container but
Mass of liquid m = 670 g – 500 g = 170 g only on the height of the liquid. Blaise Pascal built an apparatus, now
m known as Pascal vases, demonstrating the paradox.
ρ= =
V Example:
170 g g 1 kg 1000 mL 1L How
3 high should an intravenous bag be for the fluid to just enter the
=0.723 x x x =723 kg /m
235 mL mL 1000 g 1L 0.001 m
3 vein? Assume that the density of the fluid is equal to that of water
and the blood pressure is 20 mm Hg above atmospheric pressure.
Density of Ideal Gas Solution:
The effects of temperature and pressure on the density of liquids are Let us convert 20 mm Hg to pascal
minimal.
The density of an ideal gas law.
PV = nRT
P = (20 mm Hg)
(
1.013 x 105 P
760 mm Hg
=2666 Pa )
m m P 2666 Pa
Since n = , therefore, PV = RT . h= =
M M ρg m
(1000 kg ¿ m3)(9.8 2 ) = 0.27 m
m s
Rearranging the terms, PM = RT
V
Atmospheric Pressure
m
But =ρ. Thus, PM = ρRT .Solving for density, At sea level, the atmospheric pressure is equal to 1.013 x 10 5 Pa or 1.0
V atm. Just as water pressure is cause by the weight of the water,
PM atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight if the air. However, air
ρ= is compressible, and therefore, its density varies with height. The
RT density of air decreases at higher altitude.
Note that R is equal to 8.314 J/mol if the pressure is in Pa, molar Assumptions about the variation of pressure with altitude in Earth’s
mass in kg/mol, and temperature in K. atmosphere:
Example: 1. air is an ideal gas
What is the density of 1 mol of oxygen gas at 0 o C and pressure of 2. the temperature of the air is constant
1.013 x 105 N/m3. One mole of oxygen gas has a mass of 32 g. 3. the variation of the acceleration due to gravity with altitude is
Assume that oxygen follows the ideal gas law. negligible
Solution: 4. density is proportional to pressure.
5 N The variation of pressure with altitude is:
(1.013 x 10 )( 32 g)
PM m2 P= Po e
−0.125 h
ρ= = =1.428 kg/m3
RT J Where P0 is the atmospheric pressure at ground level (equal to 1.013
(8.314 . K )(273 K ) x 105 Pa) and h is the height (or altitude) in kilometers.
mol
PRESSURE Example:
Pressure is defined as the magnetic of the force acting perpendicular Airplanes normally fly at an altitude of 36 000 ft. Find the
per unit area of the surface. atmospheric pressure at this altitude.
Solution:
F1
P= Convert first 36 000 ft to km
A
−4 mA = m B
3.048 x 10 km
h=(36 000 ft)( ) = 10.97 km Therefore, ρ A B A =ρb V B .
1.0 ft
−0.125 h Bernoulli’s Equation
P = Po e = (1.013 x 105 Pa)e−−0.125 (10.97 km) = 25 709 Pa
Bernoulli’s equation relates velocity, pressure and elevation at
points in a line of flow. This can be done using the work-energy
Pascal’s Principle theorem.
It states that any change in pressure in an enclosed fluid at rest is Using the work-energy theorem,
transmitted completely to all parts of the fluid. With this principle Work done due to pressure difference + work done by gravity =
hydraulic press was invented which is used in operating tables, change in kinetic energy
dental chairs, car jacks, and automobile repair stations to raise cars. 1 1
F 1 ∆ x 1−F 2 ∆ x 2 ¿+( mgh1 −mgh 2)= mv22− mv 21
ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE AND BUOYANCY 2 2
Buoyant force is an upward force acting on an object due to fluid Some examples or application of Bernoulli’s equation are blowing air
pressure. over a piece of paper causes the paper to go up, roofs of houses being
Archimedes’ principle states that the magnitude pf buoyant force FB blown off when there is hurricane or tornado and an umbrella being
i=on a submerged object is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced blown inside out by a strong wind.
by the object.
FB = wF
Balloons are filled with light gas for them to float in air. The so- Activity 2
called hot air balloons make use of heated air to make them rise. Hot
air rises because it is less dense than cool air. A. Solve the following problems.
1. An aluminum sphere has a diameter of 15.6 cm. What is its mass?
If the density of the object is equal to the density of the liquid, 2. A plastic container has a mass of 55 g when empty and 175 g when
buoyant force is equal to the weight of the object. The object will filled with alcohol. If the density of alcohol is 0.79 g/mL, what is
float. its volume?
Example: 3. Find the density of air at 0 ℃ and 1.013 x 105 Pa. One mole of air
An aluminum ball of mass 54.0 g and density of 2.70 g/cm 3 is placed may be assumed to be 79 percent nitrogen (M niitrogen = 28.0 g) and
in a beaker filled with water. (a) What is the volume of the ball? (b) 21 percent oxygen (Moxygen = 32.0 g).
What is the volume of water that will spill out of the beaker? (c) 4. what height of water column will exert a pressure of 1.013 x 10 5
What is the buoyant force of the water on the ball? Pa?
Solution: 5. The peak of Mount Everest is 8848 m above sea level. What is the
m 54.0 g atmospheric pressure at the peak of this mountain?
a. V = = =20.0 cm3
ρ 2.70 g /cm3 B. Answer briefly.
b. Since the density of the ball is greater than the density of water, the 1. When will an object float in liquid? When it will sink?
ball will sink. The volume of water that will spill out is equal to that 2. How can the motion of fluids be described?
of the ball, which 20.0 cm3. 3. How does the density of a materiel affect its use?
c. The buoyant force of water on the ball is
FB = ρ F Vg= (1.0 g/
(
cm 3 ¿ ( 20.0 cm3 ) 980
cm
s
2 )
=19600 dynes=0.196 N
2. What percent of volume of ice is submerged in water? Ice has a LESSON 6: HEAT, TEMPERATURE, AND
density of 900 kg/m3. THERMODYNAMICS
Solution
density of ice Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be
Percent of volume submerged = x 100 %
density of water able to:
3
900 kg/m
= 3
x 100 %=90 % 1. Know the Zeroth law of thermodynamics
1000 kg/m 2. Solve problems on thermal expansion, calorimetry and heat
transfer
HYDRODYNAMICS 3. Explain the different thermodynamics processes
Hydrodynamics is the study of fluids in motion.
The blood in our body, the wind, and the water in pipelines are Heat and Temperature
examples of moving fluids. Temperature - is defined as a measure of the average kinetic energy
The following assumptions must be made in studying fluids in of molecules making up an object.
motion: Heat – is the energy in transit from one body to another due to a
1. The fluid is ideal, that is incompressible difference in temperature. It is the measure of total kinetic energy of
(density remains constant) and has no or negligible viscosity or fluid the molecules of a body. TH SI unit of heat is joule (J). A more
friction. common unit of heat is calorie. A calorie is defined as the amount of
2. The flow is steady heat needed to change the temperature of one gram of water from
14.5℃ - 15.5℃ at a pressure of 1 atm.
The flow of an ideal fluid is governed by two equations:
Temperature Scales
1. continuity equation
Ice point is defined as the temperature at which ice melts under a
2. Bernoulli’s equation
pressure of 1.013 x 105 Pa or 1 atm.
Continuity equation is an expression of the conservation of mass.
Steam point is the temperature at which water boils under pressure
of 1.013 x 105 Pa or 1 atm.
Continuity Equation
The triple point of a substance is the temperature and pressure where
The continuity equation is an expression of the conservation of
all its three phases are in equilibrium. The triple point of water is at
mass. The mas of a fluid passing through one section of a pipe at a
273. 16 K (0.01℃ ) and 4.58 mm Hg. Absolute zero is the
given time interval ∆ t must pass through any section of the pipe in
temperature at which all molecules stop moving. It is the lowest
the same time interval.
possible temperature at which no substance can be cooled. This
The continuity equation states that the mass of a fluid passing through
corresponds to 0 K.
section A (mA) is equal to the mass of the fluid passing through
section B(mB). In symbols,
The third law of thermodynamics states that it is impossible to attain
the absolute zero temperature. Thus the Kelvin scale cannot have Specific heat refers to the amount of heat needed to change the
negative temperatures. temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one.
Q Q
Thermal Equilibrium and Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics c= =
The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that two bodies are said
m ∆ t m(T −T o )
to be in thermal equilibrium of they have the same temperature. IT is C is the specific heat, Q is the quantity of heat, and ∆ T is the
formulated in 1931 by a British physicist and astronomer Ralph H change in temperature. The SI unit of specific heat is J/kg.C o or
Fowler. If TA = TB and TA = TC, then TB = TC. In effect, the zeroth law J/kg.K.
of thermodynamics is similar to the transitive law in algebra.
Heat capacity is the amount of heat required to change the
THERMAL EXPANSION temperature of an object by one degree. Thu heat capacity is the
When heat is applied to a material, its molecules do not increase in product of the mass of an object and its specific heat.
size. Rather, they vibrate back and forth over greater distance and Example: The heat capacity of 3.0 kg of water is equal to (3.0 kg)
with greater average speeds. This in turn causes the material to (4186 J/kg.Co) = 12558 J/Co. The heat capacity of 2.0 kg of water is
expand. Thermal expansion I greater in gases and least in solids. 8372 J/Co.
Thermal expansion is an important consideration in constructing
buildings and infrastructure. Seams are placed in concrete highways METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER
and sidewalks to allow froe expansion and prevent cracklings. Heat is transferred whenever there is a difference in temperature.
Expansion gaps are placed between railroad rails and bridge to
prevent damage. 1. Conduction is the transfer of heat by molecular collision due to
Thermal Expansion of Solids temperature difference. During conduction, the average positions of
Three quantities to be considered in the thermal expansion of solids. the molecules of an object do not change. The molecules simply
1. proportional to its original length (L o). when subjected to the same vibrate back and forth within the vicinity of their equilibrium
temperature change, longer rods will have greater change in length position. Conduction is the primary mode of heat transfer for solids.
than shorter rods of the same material.
2. proportional to the change in temperature (∆ T ). A rod subjected Factors affecting the rate of conduction:
to a temperature increase of 40℃ will expand twice than when 1. Temperature difference (∆ T ¿ between bodies or regions. The
subjected to a temperature increase of 20℃ . greater the temperature difference, the greater the rate of heat
transfer. Heat transfer will stop only when the two bodies are in
3. dependent on the material of which the rod is made. An aluminum
rod will expand differently from a copper rod of the same length even thermal equilibrium. Thus, Q is proportional to ∆ T .
if subjected to the same temperature increase. 2. Thickness or length (L) of the conductor. The longer the
conductor, the less heat will flow through in a certain period of time.
Thermal Expansion of Liquids Hence, Q is inversely proportional to L.
Liquids have no definite shape but have definite volume. 3. Time (t). The amount of heat is proportional to the length of time
Volume expansion is measured instead of linear or area expansion. during which conduction takes place. More heat will flow for a
Thermal Expansion of Gases longer period of time. Therefore, Q is proportional to t.
4. Cross-sectional area (A). The greater the cross-sectional area, the
CALORIMETRY greater the amount of heat conducted. Thus, Q is proportional to A.
Calorimetry is the science of measuring the amount
Of heat gained or lost in a chemical reaction. It comes from the Latin Thermal conductivity (k ¿ is a measure of the ability of a material
word calor meaning “heat” and Greek word metron meaning “ to conduct heat.
measure”. Joseph Black, A Scottish physician and chemist is Different materials conduct heat differently. If k is high, the material
considered the father of calorimetry, having discovered heat and
specific heat. He also discovered carbon dioxide.
is a good thermal conductor. If k is low, the material conducts heat
poorly and is called a thermal
insulator. The Si unit of k is J/s.m.Co. It may also be expressed in Open system is one where mass and energy may be added or
W/m.Co. removed from the system. Ex. Plants and animals are open systems
Thermal resistance ( R ) of an insulator is the ratio of its thickness (L) because mass enters them in the form of food and oxygen.
to its thermal conductivity (k ¿ . In symbols, A system is isolated if neither mass nor energy enters or leaves the
system.
L The First Law of Thermodynamics states that when heat is added
R= . The SI unit of thermal resistance is m2.Co.s/J or m2Co/W.
k to a system, some of it remains in the system, increasing its internal
energy, while the rest leaves the system as the system does work.
2. Convection is the primary mechanism of heat transfer for fluids. It Q = ∆ U +W
is the movement of the particles of fluids that transfer heat. This Where Q is the heat added to the system, ∆ U is the change in
movement of fluids is called convection current. internal energy, and W is the work done by the system.
engine is water; for gasoline engine it is gasoline-air mixture.
Convection plays an important role in nature as it causes wind, sea Heat engines follow a pattern of operation:
breeze, and land breeze in coastal areas. 1) heat (QH) is supplied to the engine by an external source called hot
reservoir or heat source
3. Radiation is the heat transfer by electromagnetic waves. 2) part of this heat is used to do work on an object
Electromagnetic waves are waves that can propagate even in a 3) the rest of the heat (Q C) is released at a temperature lower than the
vacuum and travel with a speed of 3 x 108 m/s. input temperature to an external place called the cold reservoir or the
Heat from the sun reaches Earth by radiation. heat sink.
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Types of Heat Engines
Thermodynamics is concerned with heat and its transformation to 1. Internal combustion engine burns the fuel inside the engine. Ex.
mechanical energy. It literally means “moving or evolving heat.” Otto engines and diesel engines
Sadi Carnot is considered as one of the foundress of 2. External combustion engine burns the fuel outside the engine.
thermodynamics. Ex. Steam engines
System is the object or collection of object under study. Efficiency of Heat engines
Surroundings is everything around the system. How much of the input heat is converted to work determines the
Universe constitute the system and the surroundings. efficiency of a heat engine.
A system is considered closed when no mass enters or leaves the
system. Ex. A balloon being heated so that gas inside it expands.
work 1. What are the three methods of heat transfer? Briefly describe each
ε= x 100% method. Give one example of situation involving each or
heat input combination of the three methods of heat transfer.
But W = QH – QC. Therefore,
(
ε = 1−
Qc
QH ) x 100%
The human body is considered as a heat engine with food as the main
source of energy. However only 20 to 30 percent of this energy is
converted to useful work.
Activity 3
Performance Task 1